ECOTOURISM:

POLICY IMPLICATIONS FOR THE CARIBBEAN

Oumatie MarajhDepartment of Park and Recreation Resources/Urban Studies

Michigan State University (MSU)East Lansing, Michigan USA 48824

Paper presented at the 18th Annual Conference of theCaribbean Studies Association

Kingston and Ocho Rios, JamaicaMay 24-29, 1993

INTRODUCTION

The term 'eco' seems destined to be a prefix for a large range of industry,

products and behavior in the decade of the nineties as there is a renewed and

increasing interest in global environmental awareness. One year after the United

Nations conference on the Environment and Development in Brazil, many nations are

increasing their investments into a range of environmental activities, from an increased

emphasis on environmental education in school curricula to the "green labelling"

frenzy of numerous industries, including even the petroleum industry. The tourism

industry is no exception, and the sudden flurry of ecotourism activities and

development in Latin America and the Caribbean has earned Costa Rica the

reputation of being one of the forerunners of ecotourism development, while Belize,

Dominica and the Virgin Islands are all quite actively involved in this process. Here in

the Caribbean the third annual ecotourism conference of the Caribbean Tourism

Organization was recently held in the Cayman Islands as evidence of the increasing

importance attached to ecotourism.

How does ecotourism fit into the general area of tourism? It is my view in this

paper that ecotourism should not be seen as some new phenomenon, but rather as a

subset within the field of tourism, recreation and leisure, and therefore is subject to

some of the same impacts as any other tourism enterprise. What this means is that

from a marketing perspective, ecotourism has suddenly acquired great popularity and

demand from the industrialized regions of the world where the majority of world

travelers reside. It is important that ecotourism be viewed as a part of the leisure

industry at the global level, mainly because most of the impetus for this new type of

2

travel comes from the more developed and affluent societies that created mass

tourism more than 30 years ago. Just as industrialization in Europe and North

America brought in the era of mass tourism, both by the influence on the leisure

patterns of individuals, allowing them more vacation time and disposable income, and

by the improved technology that made it affordable to travel, so too are certain

changes in the industrialized nations now influencing ecotourism. In its simplest terms

ecotourism is driven by the desire to preserve natural areas (conservation), while at

the same time making it available to increasing numbers of individuals for a variety of

leisure, recreation and educational experiences. The impetus for this style of travel is

derived from a growing sense of environmental awareness and appreciation in the

more industrialized world, but its impacts are being felt in the lesser developed world

as these areas are the location of some of the best unexplored natural resource areas

in the world. The improved technology of the media, which can now reach some of

the most remote regions and bring it to the attention of the rest of the world has also

spurred the desire to visit these places. The Caribbean region's ties to North America

and Europe made it easy to develop mass tourism in the past and its wealth of natural

resources will also be significant in its ecotourism potential.

This paper will provide a framework for discussion of ecotourism

development, and attempt to raise some of the questions that may need to be

addressed as ecotourism is embraced as an alternative strategy. Through this

process perhaps policy makers can arrive at a better understanding of appropriate

management policies for managing this industry in the Caribbean region.

3

DEFINING ECOTOURISM AND THE ECOTOURIST

The dilemma of ecotourism as a concept lies not only in the apparent inability to

construct a precise definition of what is meant by the term, but also in the almost

impossible expectations that are being used as the criteria for the ecotourist and

ecotourism development. Ecotourism, like a chameleon, assumes different meanings

depending upon the context in which it is being used. Variations such as "soft"

"'alternate" "sustainable" "green" "progressive" and "nature" all appear in the literature,

each with some promise of alleviating the devastating effects of mass tourism and

promoting a more environmentally and culturally sensitive approach. An even more

radical view expressed by one author, aware of the inequalities that could result from

this type of development is ecocolonialism (Cater,1992). The large variation in

definitions for the term ecotourism is one of the first problems encountered in this field.

Some merely describe, some try to promote a special type of travel, others are

concerned with conservation or development issues. The following examples will

illustrate some of these difficulties in defining ecotourism.

"Tourism based principally upon natural and archaeological/historical resources"(Kusler, 1991).

"The convergence of two trends- travel and conservation- nature tourism that contributesto conservation" (Boo, 1991).

"Tourism that involves travelling to relatively undisturbed or uncontaminated naturalareas with the specific object of admiring, studying and enjoying the scenery and its wildplants and animals, as well as any existing cultural features (both past and present)"(Ceballos in Kusler, 1991).

4

" Characterized by travelers who seek to intimately visit natural or cultural destinationswhich are relatively unaltered by development, and who consciously strive to have theirvisit not negatively impact natural or cultural systems" (Harvey, 1991).

"A planned approach by a host country or region designed to achieve societal objectivesbeyond (but including) those of the tourist" (Ziffer, 1989).

While these definitions all illustrate the significance of the environment/development

interface, it is easy to see that Ceballos does not make any mention of the destruction

that may occur as a result of this activity and Harvey may have described concepts that

are unrealistic and impossible to maintain. Ecotourists( if it is possible at all to separate

them from regular tourists), by the very nature of their activities cannot ensure that

natural areas remain undisturbed, uncontaminated or relatively unaltered by

development. Both Boo and Kustler have attempted a much broader interpretation of

the phenomenon of ecotourism but these may be too generalized to be very useful.

Ziffer's definition is probably the most useful as it allows greater flexibility in defining the

limits that each society can seek for itself and some of the strategies that can make a

planned approach a more manageable proposition. She advocates an approach that

establishes and maintains sites with the participation of local residents, appropriate

marketing, enforcing regulations and using the proceeds of the enterprise to fund the

area's land management as well as community development (Ziffer, 1989).

If ecotourism is to be viewed as an alternative form of tourism in the Caribbean,

then several key questions need to be addressed. Most of the literature seems to

suggest that alternative tourism is a response to the recognition of the problems of mass

or conventional tourism, and the alternative is to be small-scale, developed locally and

be based on local culture and nature, and be targeted mainly towards a wealthy, highly

5

educated group (Jarviluoma, 1992). While these criteria do encompass the parameters

of ecotourism it is not very different from some of the regular existing tourism policies of

the Caribbean, e.g. Trinidad & Tobago. Problems of keeping development small-scale

when there is an increasing demand for the resources have yet to solved by most

countries. Those countries with an infrastructure for tourism well in place may not have

those options, added to the fact that the wealth and location of natural resources are

unevenly distributed within the Caribbean. For example, Guyana has possibly the

greatest potential for ecotourism in the English-speaking Caribbean, in terms of

undeveloped natural areas, but the least developed infrastructure to support it. At the

worst this form of development spreads tourism to previously unexplored, unspoilt areas

that become destroyed in the process (Jarviluoma, 1992). At best this puts issues of

environmental and resource management back on the agenda of all the stakeholders

involved in the tourism industry.

The concept of sustainability in ecotourism has been examined with reference to

Belize by Cater (1992). She identifies the criteria for sustainable tourism as:

(i) Meet the needs of the host population in terms of improved living standards inboth the short-term and long-term.

(ii) Satisfy the demands of a growing number of tourists and continue to attractthem in order to meet this first aim.

(iii) Safeguard the natural environment in order to achieve both of the precedingaims.

Ecotourism has become big business in Belize, with its vast array of rainforests,

coral reefs and Mayan archaeological sites. The small-scale family run nature of the

6

industry has diminished in the wake of increasing demands of international tourists, the

numbers of tourists and the deterioration of the environment itself. Foreign ownership of

land is restricted only in terms of size of the holdings, but it has been enough to

produce foreign ownership of 90% of all coastal development and escalated land prices

out of reach of Belize nationals (Cater, 1992). The assumptions of sustainable

development are therefore are quite difficult to meet, and so too is the assumption that

ecotourists are automatically more sensitive to the environment than any other tourist.

Who is the ecotourist? According to Ziffer (1989) they are mainly people from

industrialized countries drawn by the natural endowment of an area, they spend about

US $1.7 billion dollars each year in "less developed" countries and the average cost of

their trip is US$ 3,000. In one of the few studies done on the profile of the ecotourist,

Fennell & Smale (1992) did a survey of Canadian ecotourists in Costa Rica. Their study

showed the majority to be between 60-69 years old (average 54.0) with 55% being

males. The average annual income level of this group was CAN $70,000 and almost

two thirds held at least a university bachelor's degree. They travelled as a tour group

and spent between CAN $1,500 and $3,000 during their two week stay in Costa Rica.

The authors concluded from the study that the "typical" Canadian ecotourist is an older,

well-educated affluent individual who likes to travel in tour groups. If this profile can be

generalized to travelers from other countries, it may well fit the criteria for an alternative

type of tourist. By extension this may also mean the educated, better informed

ecotourist will expect a higher degree of local expertise and site specific information with

regard to knowledge of indigenous flora and fauna or other ecological information.

7

WHO ARE THE PARTICIPANTS IN ECOTOURISM?

Apart from the dilemma of definitions and the expectations created by this form

of tourism development, the practical use of the concept of ecotourism also presents

another area of difficulty. Motivations attached to the concept of ecotourism are as

diverse as the number of definitions. Scientists from developing countries are using

the concept as a means of conserving biodiversity (Boo,1990). For policy-makers in

some countries this is to be used as a strategy for rural development while reducing

national debt (Whelan,1991). Ecotourism entrepreneurs are attempting to capture

their portion of expanding worldwide revenues (Farrell & Runyan,1991) which have

increased from $83.3 billion in 1979 to $208.7 billion in 1989 and represent about 7

percent of world trade (Waters,1990). Others believe that especially for poor rural

people in close proximity to fragile ecosystems which provide their subsistence, this

type of development raises issues of - poverty, power, and social justice intertwined with

issues of environmental preservation, resource control and accessibility (Axinn, 1991;

Adams, 1990; O'Riordan, 1988; Redclift, 1987). In the formulation of any type of well

integrated management policies for ecotourism there are several participants affecting

this process. These include governments, scientists, tour operators (both at the

international and local level), funding agencies, travellers and local inhabitants.

Governments

Governments play a major role in formulating and implementing policies in

any industry, including tourism. There is little evidence to show that governments in the

Caribbean have pursued sustainability options in their tourism policies. Remedies are

8

usually sought long after the problems are identified. Plagued with increasing foreign

debts, rising unemployment and the desire to be reelected to power every five years, the

major thrusts in tourism policies have been to provide incentives to woo private and

foreign investors, and pursue short-term economic benefits of tourism. They do have

the power to control conditions of investments, access to land, protection of natural

resources and to intervene in any developmental processes through legislation. For

example the tourism policy of Trinidad & Tobago specifically encourages the promotion

of tourism to the wealthier market segment of travellers, and takes note of the problems

experienced by other islands, but their generous tax incentives are the same as any

other island in order to compete for investment. Their recent change in the laws

allowing any foreign investors to acquire and develop property in Tobago places some

of the responsibility for management on groups that are not particularly noted for their

long-term concerns, especially as they enjoy ten years of tax-free rebates for their initial

investments. Most of the pressures to conform to increasingly stricter environmental

standards are coming from outside the region, especially from funding agencies with the

power to encourage or demand certain concessions in return for financial investments.

Scientists

This group of individuals are perhaps the most vociferous in their desire for

conservation strategies to be incorporated in ecotourism. Concepts such as carrying

capacities, specifying the limits to acceptable growth and concern for the protection of

flora and fauna make them vital part of any policy decisions. They are the ones most

likely to do research and collect data that are essential in the monitoring of changes

9

after policy implementation.

Tour Operators

The role of the tour operators, especially international operators, is

essentially a marketing function, as they are the ones with links to the leisure markets in

the developed regions and they are usually well-connected to the airline and hotel

industry in these countries. Wight (1993) shows evidence of a growing partnership

between conservation groups and marketers that is leading to more responsible

marketing practices, especially in North America and Canada. Not every tour operator

is a responsible one however, they can range from balance to ecoexploitatation to

neglect. The concept of "eco-sell" to exploit a growing consumer demand for "green"'

products is just as lucrative, if not more, than the harsher demands of a more ethics-

based orientation. While the pressure to conform to standards may be focussed on

international operators, locally based operators will be also be impacted. They too will

be in contact with a new type of consumer and the degree to which they can adapt to

these changes will determine their success.

Funding Agencies

Perhaps the most influential lobbying and monitoring of eco-development

will come from this group. As foreign debts escalate and more loans are sought at the

national levels, funding agencies are well-placed to encourage governments to comply

with stronger environmental policies and management as part of their lending strategies.

Institutions like the World Bank now have an environmental division within their system,

10

and they also are in a good position to apply the lessons learned from their experience

with other environmental development projects. The role of non-governmental

organizations (NGO'S) and international conservation groups are also key factors in the

encouragement of new forms of partnerships with nations, communities and the

international community.

Travellers

Travellers provide the demand side of the tourism industry, and as long as they

are interested, motivated and can afford to visit a site, the travel market is successful. It

is difficult to separate an ecotourist from any other tourists, especially in small islands in

the Caribbean. It is also impossible to say when and if a regular traveller make take

advantage of an available tour even if he may not be at all concerned about the

environment. The view that ecotourists are somehow more sensitive about the

environment, or that some strict code of ethics be enforced on someone during their

leisure time is a weak one at best. It is safer to enforce strict controls and legislation as

protection and have restricted use of areas instead of leaving it to the whims of the

tourist.

Local Inhabitants

While there is much talk about integrated planning that involves participants at

the local level, there is little evidence that this is done on a wide scale. The few projects

that have been successful have been small-scale and involved high levels of local

participation. There is much talk about the importance of the education of the tourist

11

(Butler,1991) and the code of ethics with which ecotourists should comply. Educating

the visitors may be less important than educating the local people about the long-term

impacts of ecotourism. They represent the supply side of the tourism industry and long

after the tourists have stopped coming local inhabitants need to survive in these areas.

RECOMMENDATIONS AND QUESTIONS ABOUT ECOTOURISM POLICY

In view of the above remarks what are some of the key areas of policy that need

to be examined? The first question should be, is the option of ecotourism a viable one?

The presence of a successful market demand for nature oriented travel does not mean

that every island would be an instant success. The small size and fragile nature of

some islands may well need very strict guidelines for no type of development at all,

especially if there are no natural barriers to access. In a large country like Guyana,

strict zoning much like is done in National parks within the United States may be a

possibility.

The best policies can be totally useless unless they are strictly enforced. For

example, poaching, pollution and unrestricted use of the coral reef in Tobago has

caused almost irreparable damage in spite of strict legislation. Many environments are

destroyed by the tourist activities themselves and lack of proper enforcement

procedures even when people are caught

The importance of linkages with the international and local community and

between members within the Caribbean in terms of sharing knowledge and expertise

should be stressed. Several of these partnerships are proving to be very successful

where they are tried, and although the Caribbean does not have a good history of

12

regional cooperation, tourism in one arena in which they have shown some success.

CONCLUSION

Ecotourism may well have become the new buzz-word of the nineties and

it is certainly having an impact on how regions redefine their roles in the leisure travel

market. There is however no evidence to date on any largely successful enterprises in

ecotourism, as they have goals that are almost impossible to achieve. While there is

sufficient evidence to show that concern for the environment is having an impact on the

leisure industry, we must be careful not to throw out the"'baby with the bathwater" by

rejecting all other forms of tourism and using ecotourism as a panacea to correct all the

mistakes of the past. Conventional forms of tourism may still be a popular form of

recreation and leisure travel for many. Not every island is equipped with the resources

for ecotourism and it is still too nebulous of an investment for any region with scarce

resources., The Caribbean may well use this trend and debate to upgrade and improve

the overall quality of the travel experience to the region as leisure markets will continue

to be profitable for a high quality product in terms of services.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adams, W. M. (1990). Green development: Environment and sustainability in the third

world. London & New York: Routledge.

Axinn, G. H. (1991). Sustainable development reconsidered. Development, 1, 120-123.

Boo, E.(1990)..Ecotourism: The potentials and pitfalls (Vols.1 & 2). Washington, D.C.:

World Wildlife Fund-U.S.

Budowski, G. (1976). Tourism and environmental conservation: Conflict, coexistence, or

symbiosis. Environmental Conservation, 3 (1), 27-31.

Butler, R. W. (1991). Tourism, environment and sustainable development. Environmental

Conservation 18(3), 201-209.

-- (1989). Tourism and tourism research. In: Jackson, E. L. and Burton, T. L. (Ed).

Understanding leisure and recreation: Mapping the past, charting the future. State

College, PA: Venture Publishing, Inc.

Caribbean Tourism Organization (CTO). (1992). Statistical news: Quarterly review of

Caribbean tourism trends. Barbados: West Indies.

Cater, E. (1992). Sustainable Tourism in Belize. Geographysical Magazine March, 16-20.

The Economist Intelligence Unit.(1988). Trinidad and Tobago. International Tourism

Quarterly. (National Report No. 148).

13

14

Fennell, D. A. & Smale, B.J. A. (1992). Ecotourism and Natural Resource Protection:

Implications of an Alternative Form of Tourism for Host Nations. Tourism Recreation

Research (17) 1, 21 -24.

Fridgen, J. (1992). Surviving the crisis in mass tourism, moving towards sustainable

tourism. Unpublished paper presented at the Cultural Tourism and Regional Development

Congress, Leeuwarden, The Netherlands, November 7-8, 1991. Revised March 1992.

Inskeep, E. (1991). Tourism planning—An integrated and sustainable development

approach. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

Jarviluoma, J. (1992). Alternative Tourism and the Evolution of Tourist Areas. Tourism

Management 4 118-120.

Kusler, J.A. (Ed.) (1991). Ecotourism and resource conservation. (Vols. 1 & 2) A

collection of papers from the First International Symposium on Ecotourism (April 17-19,

1989, Merida, Mexico) and the Second International Symposium on Ecotourism and Resource

Conservation (November 27-December 2, 1990, Miami Beach, Florida). Berne, NY:

Association of Wetland Managers, Ecotourism and Resource Conservation Project.

Lillywhite, M. and Lillywhite, L. (1991).Low impact tourism: Coupling natural/cultural

resource conservation, economic development and the tourism industry. In Kusler, J.A. (Ed.)

Ecotourism and resource conservation. (Vols. 1 & 2) A collection of papers from the First

International Symposium on Ecotourism (April 17-19, 1989, Merida, Mexico) and the Second

International Symposium on Ecotourism and Resource Conservation (November 27-December

2, 1990, Miami Beach, Florida). Berne, NY: Association of Wetland Managers, Ecotourism

and Resource Conservation Project.