Town Planing 2

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Islamic architecture encompasses a wide range of both secular and religious styles from the foundation of Islam to the present day. What today is known as

Islamic architecture owes its origin to similar structures already existing in Roman,Byzantine and Persian lands which the uslims con!uered in the "th and #th

centuries.$%&$'& (urther east, it was also influenced by )hinese and Indian architecture as Islam spread to *outheast +sia. he principal Islamic architectural types

are- the os!ue, the omb, the Palace and the (ort. (rom these four types, the ocabulary of Islamic architecture is deried and used for other buildings such

as public baths, fountains and domestic architecture.$/&$0&

any of the buildings which are mentioned in this article are listed as World 1eritage *ites. *ome of them, like the)itadel of +leppo, hae suffered significant

damage in the ongoing *yrian )iil War .$2&

Contents

$hide&

• %Influences

• ')haracteristics

o '.%+ssimilation of earlier traditions

o '.'Paradise 3arden

o './)ourtyard 4*ehan5

o '.01ypostyle hall

o '.26aulting

'.2.%7iaphragm arches and barrel aults in 8mayyad architecture

'.2.'Islamic West

'.2./Islamic 9ast

'.2.07omes

o '.:u!arnas

o '.";rnaments

o '.#+rchitectural forms

o '.as ?r

• 09arly history

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Islamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Islamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-Krautheimer-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-Krautheimer-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-Krautheimer-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tombhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tombhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tombhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palacehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palacehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palacehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_bathshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_bathshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fountainshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fountainshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fountainshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-Cop149-3https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heritage_Sitehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heritage_Sitehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heritage_Sitehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citadel_of_Aleppohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citadel_of_Aleppohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Civil_Warhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Civil_Warhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-unesco_20.2F6.2F13-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-unesco_20.2F6.2F13-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Influenceshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Characteristicshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Assimilation_of_earlier_traditionshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Paradise_Gardenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Courtyard_.28Sehan.29https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Hypostyle_hallhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Vaultinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Diaphragm_arches_and_barrel_vaults_in_Umayyad_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Islamic_Westhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Islamic_Easthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Domeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Muqarnashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Ornamentshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Architectural_formshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Specific_architectural_elementshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Towns_and_citieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Urban_and_nomadic_life_according_to_Ibn_Khaldunhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Experiments_with_the_hellenistic_Ideal_cityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Transformation_of_conquered_townshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Urban_morphology_of_the_Medinahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Frontier_fortresses_and_townshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Misr.2C_Ribathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Qa.E1.B9.A3rhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Qa.E1.B9.A3rhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Qa.E1.B9.A3rhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Early_historyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-Krautheimer-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tombhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palacehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_bathshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fountainshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-Cop149-3https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heritage_Sitehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citadel_of_Aleppohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Civil_Warhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-unesco_20.2F6.2F13-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Influenceshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Characteristicshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Assimilation_of_earlier_traditionshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Paradise_Gardenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Courtyard_.28Sehan.29https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Hypostyle_hallhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Vaultinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Diaphragm_arches_and_barrel_vaults_in_Umayyad_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Islamic_Westhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Islamic_Easthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Domeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Muqarnashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Ornamentshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Architectural_formshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Specific_architectural_elementshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Towns_and_citieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Urban_and_nomadic_life_according_to_Ibn_Khaldunhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Experiments_with_the_hellenistic_Ideal_cityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Transformation_of_conquered_townshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Urban_morphology_of_the_Medinahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Frontier_fortresses_and_townshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Misr.2C_Ribathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Qa.E1.B9.A3rhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Early_historyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Islam


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• 2Regional styles

o 2.%Persian architecture

o 2.';ttoman architecture

o 2./urkistan 4imurid5 architecture

o 2.0Indo@Islamic architecture

o 2.2*ino@Islamic architecture

o 2.:Indonesian@alaysian architecture

o 2."*ahelian@Islamic architecture

o 2.#*omali@Islamic architecture

o 2.asr +mra, and =hirbat al@afDar5 sered the caliphs as liing

!uarters, reception halls, and baths, and were decorated to promote an image of royal luxury.

he horseshoe arch became a popular feature in Islamic structures. *ome suggest the uslims ac!uired this from the 6isigoths in *pain$


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he 1agia *ophia in Istanbul also influenced Islamic architecture. When the ;ttomans captured the city from the Byzantines, they conerted the basilica to

amos!ue 4now a museum5 and incorporated Byzantine architectural elements into their own work 4e.g. domes5. he 1agia *ophia also sered as a model for

many ;ttoman mos!ues such as the *hehzade os!ue, the *uleiman os!ue, and the RFstem Pasha os!ue. 7omes are a maDor structural feature of Islamic

architecture. he dome first appeared in Islamic architecture in :


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•

7ome of the mihrab 4


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he transition process between late +nti!uity, or post@classical, and Islamic architecture is exemplified by archaeologic findings in Gorth *yria and Palestine,

theBilad al@*ham of the 8mayyad and +bbasid dynasties. In this region, late anti!ue, or )hristian, architectural traditions merged with the pre@Islamic +rabian

heritage of the con!uerors. Recent research on the history of Islamic art and architecture has reised a number of colonialistic ideas. *pecifically, the following

!uestions are currently subDect to renewed discussions in the light of recent findings and new concepts of cultural history-

%. he existence of a linear deelopment within the Islamic architectureJ

'. the existence of an inter@ and intracultural hierarchy of stylesJ

/. !uestions of cultural authenticity and its delineation.$'0&

)ompared to earlier research, the assimilation and transformation of pre@existing architectural traditions is inestigated under the aspect of mutual intra@ and

intercultural exchange of ideas, technologies and styles as well as artists, architects, and materials. In the area of art and architecture, the Rise of Islam is seen as

a continuous transformation process leading from late +nti!uity to the Islamic period. 9arly research into the area regarded the early Islamic architecture merely as

a break with the past, from which apparently rose a distorted and less expressie form of art,$'2& or a degenerate imitation of the post@classical architectural forms.$':&odern concepts tend to regard the transition between the cultures rather as a selectie process of informed appropriation and transformation. he 8mayyads

played a crucial role in this process of transforming and thereby enriching the existing architectural traditions, or, in a more general sense, of the isual culture of

the nascent Islamic society.$'"&

Paradise Garden$edit&

+fif@+bad 3arden, *hiraz

Main article: Islamic Gardens

3ardens and water hae for many centuries played an essential role in Islamic culture, and are often compared to the garden of Paradise. he comparisonoriginates from the +chaemenid 9mpire. In his dialogue E;economicusE, Kenophon has*ocrates relate the story of the *partan general ysander s isit to the

Persian prince )yrus the Hounger , who shows the 3reek his EParadise at *ardisE.$'#& he classical form of the Persian Paradise garden, or the Charbagh,

comprises a rectangular irrigated space with eleated pathways, which diide the garden into four sections of e!ual s ize-

;ne of the hallmarks of Persian gardens is the four@part garden laid out with axial paths that intersect at the gardens centre. his highly structured geometrical

scheme, called the chahar bagh, became a powerful metaphor for the organization and domestication of the landscape, itself a symbol of political territory.$'


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he 3reat os!ue of =airouan, with a large courtyard 4sehan5 surrounded by arcades, =airouan, unisia.

he traditional Islamic courtyard, a sehan 4 +rabic- LMN5, is found in secular and religious structures.

%. When within a residence or other secular building is a priate courtyard and walled garden. It is used for- the aesthetics of plants, water, architectural

elements, and natural lightJ for cooler space with fountains and shade, and source of breezes into the structure, during summer heatJ and a protected

and proscribed place where the women of the house need not be coered in the hiDab clothing traditionally necessary in public.

'. + sehanOcourtyard is in within almost eery mos!ue in Islamic architecture. he courtyards are open to the sky and surrounded on all sides by

structures with halls and rooms, and often a shaded semi@open arcade. *ehans usually feature a centrally positioned ritual cleansing pool under an

open domed pailion called a howz . + mos!ue courtyard is used for performing ablutions, and a patio for rest or gathering.

Hypostyle hall$edit& + 1ypostyle, i.e., an open hall supported by columns combined with a reception hall set at right angle to the main hall, is considered to be deried from

architectural traditions of +chaemenid period Persian assembly halls 4"apadana" 5. his type of building originated from the Roman@style basilica with an adDacent

courtyard surrounded by colonnades, like raDans (orum in Rome. he Roman type of building has deeloped out of the 3reek agora. In Islamic architecture, the

hypostyle hall is the main feature of the hypostyle mos!ue. ;ne of the earliest hypostyle mos!ues is the arikhaneh os!ue, dating back to the #th century.$'/&

Vaultin$edit&In Islamic buildings, aulting follows two distinct architectural styles- Whilst 8mayyad architecture continues *yrian traditions of the :th and "th century, 9astern

Islamic architecture was mainly influenced by *asanian styles and forms.

!iaphram arches and "arrel #aults in $mayyad architecture$edit&

>usair +mra

In their aulting structures, 8mayyad period buildings show a mixture of ancient Roman and Persian architectural traditions.7iaphragm arches with lintelled

ceilings made of wood or stone beams, or, alternatiely, with barrel aults, were known in theeant since the classical and Gabatean period. hey were mainly

used to coer houses and cisterns. he architectural form of coering diaphragm arches with barrel aults, howeer, was likely newly introduced from Iranian

architecture, as similar aulting was not known in Bilad al@*ham before the arrial of the 8mayyads. 1oweer, this form was well known in Iran from

early Parthian times, as exemplified in the Parthian buildings of +ur . he earliest known example for barrel aults resting on diaphragm arches from 8mayyad

architecture is known from >asr 1arane in *yria. 7uring the early period, the diaphragm arches are built from coarsely cut limestone slabs, without using

supporting falsework, which were connected bygypsum mortar . ater@period aults were erected using pre@formed lateral ribs modelled from gypsum, which

sered as a temporal formwork to guide and center the ault. hese ribs, which were left in the structure afterwards, do not carry any load. he ribs were cast in

adance on strips of cloth, the impression of which can still be seen in the ribs today. *imilar structures are known from *asanian architecture, for example from

the palace of (iruzabad. 8mayyad@period aults of this type were found in +mman )itadel and in >asr +mra.$/%&

Islamic West$edit&

he double@arched system of arcades of the os!ueQ)athedral of )rdoba is generally considered to be deried from Roman a!ueducts like the nearby a!ueduct

of os ilagros. )olumns are connected by horseshoe arches, and support pillars of brickwork, which are in turn interconnected by semicircular arches supporting

the flat timberwork ceiling.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosque_of_Uqbahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosque_of_Uqbahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosque_of_Uqbahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_(architecture)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_(architecture)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kairouanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kairouanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kairouanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courtyardhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courtyardhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courtyardhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hijabhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hijabhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hijabhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howzhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howzhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howzhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islamic_architecture&action=edit&section=6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypostylehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypostylehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypostylehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenidshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenidshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilicahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilicahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilicahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonnadehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonnadehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonnadehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trajan's_Forumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agorahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarikhaneh_Templehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarikhaneh_Templehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-Hoag_p7_9-23https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-Hoag_p7_9-23https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islamic_architecture&action=edit&section=7https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vault_(architecture)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vault_(architecture)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanian_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanian_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islamic_architecture&action=edit&section=8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diaphragm_archhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levanthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levanthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabataeanshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabataeanshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabataeanshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilad_al-Shamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilad_al-Shamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilad_al-Shamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthian_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthian_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assurhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assurhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assurhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falseworkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falseworkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falseworkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gypsumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortar_(masonry)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortar_(masonry)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortar_(masonry)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanian_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanian_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanian_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firuzabad,_Farshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firuzabad,_Farshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amman_Citadelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amman_Citadelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amman_Citadelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qasr_Amrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qasr_Amrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-31https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islamic_architecture&action=edit&section=9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_(architecture)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_(architecture)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosque%E2%80%93Cathedral_of_C%C3%B3rdobahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosque%E2%80%93Cathedral_of_C%C3%B3rdobahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqueduct_(bridge)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acueducto_de_los_Milagroshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acueducto_de_los_Milagroshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acueducto_de_los_Milagroshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horseshoe_archhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horseshoe_archhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horseshoe_archhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brickworkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brickworkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brickworkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosque_of_Uqbahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_(architecture)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kairouanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courtyardhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hijabhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howzhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islamic_architecture&action=edit&section=6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypostylehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenidshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilicahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonnadehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trajan's_Forumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agorahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarikhaneh_Templehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-Hoag_p7_9-23https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islamic_architecture&action=edit&section=7https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vault_(architecture)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanian_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islamic_architecture&action=edit&section=8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diaphragm_archhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levanthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabataeanshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilad_al-Shamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthian_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assurhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falseworkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gypsumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortar_(masonry)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanian_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firuzabad,_Farshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amman_Citadelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qasr_Amrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-31https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islamic_architecture&action=edit&section=9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_(architecture)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosque%E2%80%93Cathedral_of_C%C3%B3rdobahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqueduct_(bridge)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acueducto_de_los_Milagroshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acueducto_de_los_Milagroshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horseshoe_archhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brickwork


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•

Roman a!ueduct of os ilagros

•

+rcades of the os!ueQ)athedral of )rdoba

•

+rcades of the +lDaferSaof Taragoza

In later@period additions to the os!ue of )rdoba, the basic architectural design was changed- 1orseshoe arches were now used for the upper row of arcades,

which is now supported by fie@pass arches. In sections which now supported domes, additional supporting structures were needed to bear the thrust of the

cupolas. he architects soled this problem by the construction of intersecting three@ or fie@pass arches. he three domes spanning the aults aboe

the mihrabwall are constructed as ribbed aults. Rather than meeting in the center of the dome, the ribs intersect one another off@center, forming an eight@pointedstar in the center which is superseded by a pendentie dome.$/'&

he ribbed aults of the mos!ue@cathedral of )rdoba sered as models for later mos!ue buildings in the Islamic West of al@+ndaluz and the aghreb. +t around

%AAA +7, the Mezquita de Bab al Mardum 4today- os!ue of )risto de la uz5 in oledo was constructed with a similar, eight@ribbed dome. *imilar domes are also

seen in the mos!ue building of the +lDaferSa of Taragoza. he architectural form of the ribbed dome was further deeloped in the aghreb- he central dome of the

3reat os!ue of lemcen, a masterpiece of the +lmoraids built in %A#', has twele slender ribs, the shell between the ribs is filled with filigree stucco work. $/'&

Islamic East$edit&

Because of its long history of building and re@building, spanning the time from the +bbasids to the >aDar dynasty, and its excellent state of conseration, the Cameh

os!ue of Isfahan proides an oeriew oer the experiments Islamic architects conducted with complicated aulting structures.$//&

he system of s!uinches, which is a construction filling in the upper angles of a s!uare room so as to form a base to receie an octagonal or spherical dome, was

already known in *asanian architecture.$/0& he spherical triangles of the s!uinches were split up into further subdiisions or systems of niches, resulting in a

complex interplay of supporting structures forming an ornamental spatial pattern which hides the weight of the structure.

he Enon@radial rib aultE, an architectural form of ribbed aults with a superimposed spherical dome, is the characteristic architectural ault form of the Islamic

9ast. (rom its beginnings in the Cameh os!ue of Isfahan, this form of ault was used in a se!uence of important buildings up to the period

of *afaid architecture. Its main characteristics are-$//&

%. (our intersecting ribs, at times redoubled and intersected to form an eight@pointed starJ

'. the omission of a transition zone between the ault and the supporting structureJ

/. a central dome or roof lantern on top of the ribbed ault.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aljafer%C3%ADahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aljafer%C3%ADahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aljafer%C3%ADahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrusthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrusthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrusthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihrabhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihrabhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pendentivehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pendentivehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pendentivehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-Giese-Vogeli-32https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andaluzhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andaluzhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andaluzhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maghrebhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maghrebhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maghrebhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosque_of_Cristo_de_la_Luzhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosque_of_Cristo_de_la_Luzhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosque_of_Cristo_de_la_Luzhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toledo,_Spainhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toledo,_Spainhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toledo,_Spainhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aljafer%C3%ADahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aljafer%C3%ADahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aljafer%C3%ADahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaragozahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaragozahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaragozahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlemcenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlemcenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlemcenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almoravidshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almoravidshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almoravidshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-Giese-Vogeli-32https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islamic_architecture&action=edit&section=10https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasidshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasidshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasidshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qajar_dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qajar_dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qajar_dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jameh_Mosque_of_Isfahanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jameh_Mosque_of_Isfahanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jameh_Mosque_of_Isfahanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jameh_Mosque_of_Isfahanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-Giese-Vogeli_P66_88-33https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-Giese-Vogeli_P66_88-33https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squinchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octagonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octagonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octagonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanian_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanian_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanian_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-34https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherical_trigonometryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherical_trigonometryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherical_trigonometryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safavid_dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safavid_dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-Giese-Vogeli_P66_88-33https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-Giese-Vogeli_P66_88-33https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roof_lanternhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roof_lanternhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roof_lanternhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aljafer%C3%ADahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrusthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihrabhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pendentivehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-Giese-Vogeli-32https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andaluzhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maghrebhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosque_of_Cristo_de_la_Luzhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toledo,_Spainhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aljafer%C3%ADahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaragozahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlemcenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almoravidshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-Giese-Vogeli-32https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islamic_architecture&action=edit&section=10https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasidshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qajar_dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jameh_Mosque_of_Isfahanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jameh_Mosque_of_Isfahanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-Giese-Vogeli_P66_88-33https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squinchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octagonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanian_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-34https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherical_trigonometryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safavid_dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-Giese-Vogeli_P66_88-33https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roof_lantern


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While intersecting pairs of ribs from the main decoratie feature of *elDuk architecture, the ribs were hidden behind additional architectural elements in later

periods, as exemplified in the dome of the omb of +hmed *anDar in er, until they finally disappeared completely behind the double shell of a stucco dome, as

seen in the dome of UlV >pX in Isfahan.$//&

•

7ome of the (ire temple of 1arpak in +byaneh

•

Gon@radial rib ault in the Cameh os!ue of Isfahan

•

7ome of the tomb of +hmed *anDar in er

•

8pper dome of UlV >pX, Isfahan

!omes$edit&Based on the model of pre@existing Byzantine domes, the ;ttoman +rchitecture deeloped a specific form of monumental, representatie building- Wide central

domes with huge diameters were erected on top of a centre@plan building. 7espite their enormous weight, the domes appear irtually weightless. *ome of the

most elaborate domed buildings hae been constructed by the ;ttoman architect imar *inan.

When the ;ttomans had con!uered )onstantinople, they found a ariety of Byzantine )hristian churches, the largest and most prominent amongst them was

the1agia *ophia. he brickwork@and@mortar ribs and the spherical shell of the central dome of the 1agia *ophia were built simultaneously, as a self@supporting

structure without any wooden centring.$/2& In the early Byzantine church of 1agia Irene, the ribs of the dome ault are fully integrated into the shell, similar to

Western Roman domes, and thus are not isible from within the building.$/:& In the dome of the 1agia *ophia, the ribs and shell of the dome unite in a central

medallion at the apex of the dome, the upper ends of the ribs being integrated into the shell- *hell and ribs form one single structural entity. In later Byzantine

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seljuk_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seljuk_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seljuk_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomb_of_Ahmed_Sanjarhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomb_of_Ahmed_Sanjarhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mervhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mervhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%80l%C4%AB_Q%C4%81p%C5%ABhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%80l%C4%AB_Q%C4%81p%C5%ABhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%80l%C4%AB_Q%C4%81p%C5%ABhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-Giese-Vogeli_P66_88-33https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-Giese-Vogeli_P66_88-33https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abyanehhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abyanehhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islamic_architecture&action=edit&section=11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimar_Sinanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimar_Sinanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimar_Sinanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istanbulhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istanbulhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istanbulhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagia_Sophiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centringhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centringhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centringhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-35https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-35https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagia_Irenehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagia_Irenehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagia_Irenehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-36https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-36https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seljuk_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomb_of_Ahmed_Sanjarhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mervhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%80l%C4%AB_Q%C4%81p%C5%ABhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-Giese-Vogeli_P66_88-33https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abyanehhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islamic_architecture&action=edit&section=11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimar_Sinanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istanbulhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagia_Sophiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centringhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-35https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagia_Irenehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-36


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buildings, like the =alenderhane os!ue, the 9ski Imaret os!ue 4formerly the onastery of )hrist Pantepoptes5 or the Pantokrator onastery 4today- Teyrek

os!ue5, the central medallion of the apex and the ribs of the dome became separate structural elements- he ribs are more pronounced and connect to the

central medallion, which also stands out more pronouncedly, so that the entire construction gies the impression as if ribs and medallion are separate from, and

underpin, the proper shell of the dome.$/"&

imar *inan soled the structural issues of the 1agia *ophia dome by constructing a system of centrally symmetric pillars with flanking semi@domes, as

exemplified by the design of the *Fleymaniye os!ue 4four pillars with two flanking shield walls and two semi@domes, %22AQ%22"5, the RFstem Pasha

os!ue 4eight pillars with four diagonal semi@domes, %2:%Q%2:/5, and the *elimiye os!ue in 9dirne 4eight pillars with four diagonal semi@domes, %2:"Y#Q

%2"0Y25. In the history of architecture, the structure of the *elimiye os!ue has no precedent. +ll elements of the building subordinate to its great dome.$/#&$/


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•

7esign of a mu!arnas !uarter ault from theopkapZ *croll

• u!arnas in the necropolis of *hah@i@Tinda, *amar!and

•

u!arnas in the +lhambra

'rnaments$edit&Main articles: Islamic interlace patterns, Islamic gemetric patterns and !rabesque

+s a common feature, Islamic architecture makes use of specific ornamental forms, including mathematically complicated, elaborate geometric and interlace

patterns, floral motifs like the arabes!ue, and elaborate calligraphic inscriptions, which sere to decorate a building, specify the intention of the building by the

selection of the textual program of the inscriptions. (or example, the calligraphic inscriptions adorning the 7ome of the Rock include !uotations from the >uran

4e.g., >uran %urn, has played a ital role in the deelopment of the +rabic language, and by extension, calligraphy in the +rabic alphabet. Proerbs and

complete passages from the >uran are still actie sources for Islamic calligraphy. )ontemporary artists in the Islamic world draw on the heritage of calligraphy to

use calligraphic inscriptions or abstractions in their work.

•

3eometrical tile ornament 4TelliD5, Ben Houssef adrasa, aroc

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topkap%C4%B1_Scrollhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah-i-Zindahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah-i-Zindahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah-i-Zindahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alhambrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islamic_architecture&action=edit&section=13https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_interlace_patternshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_interlace_patternshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_geometric_patternshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_geometric_patternshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabesquehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabesquehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_geometric_patternshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_geometric_patternshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_geometric_patternshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_interlace_patternshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_interlace_patternshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_interlace_patternshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_interlace_patternshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabesquehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabesquehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabesquehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_calligraphyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_calligraphyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dome_of_the_Rockhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dome_of_the_Rockhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-41https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-41https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iconhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iconhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iconhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_arthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_arthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_arthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aniconism_in_Islamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aniconism_in_Islamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haramhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haramhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haramhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spoken_wordhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spoken_wordhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_bookhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_bookhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_bookhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qur'%C4%81nhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qur'%C4%81nhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qur'%C4%81nhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_alphabethttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_alphabethttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_alphabethttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proverbhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proverbhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proverbhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zellijhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zellijhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zellijhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topkap%C4%B1_Scrollhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah-i-Zindahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alhambrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islamic_architecture&action=edit&section=13https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_interlace_patternshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_geometric_patternshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabesquehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_geometric_patternshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_interlace_patternshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_interlace_patternshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabesquehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_calligraphyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dome_of_the_Rockhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-41https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iconhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_arthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aniconism_in_Islamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haramhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spoken_wordhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_bookhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_bookhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qur'%C4%81nhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_alphabethttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proverbhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zellij


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•

+rabes!ues and floral decoration in the +lDaferSa of )rdoba

•

)alligraphic inscription on the dome of theelana mausoleum

•

7ome of the *hah os!ue in Isfahan with calligraphic inscription

Architectural forms$edit&

he interior of the ez!uita in)rdoba, *pain.

any forms of Islamic architecture hae eoled in different regions of the Islamic world. Gotable Islamic architectural types include the early +bbasid buildings, @

ype mos!ues, and the central@dome mos!ues of +natolia. he oil@wealth of the 'Ath century droe a great deal of mos!ue construction using designs from

leading modern architects.

!rab-plan or h#pst#le mos!ues are the earliest type of mos!ues, pioneered under the 8mayyad 7ynasty. hese mos!ues are s!uare or rectangular in plan with

an enclosed courtyard and a coered prayer hall. 1istorically, because of the warm editerranean and iddle 9astern climates, the courtyard sered to

accommodate the large number of worshippers during (riday prayers. ost early hypostyle mos!ues hae flat roofs on top of prayer halls, necessitating the use of

numerouscolumns and supports.$0'& ;ne of the most notable hypostyle mos!ues is the ez!uita in )rdoba, *pain, as the building is supported by oer #2A

columns.$0/& (re!uently, hypostyle mos!ues hae outer arcades so that isitors can enDoy some shade. +rab@plan mos!ues were constructed mostly under the

8mayyad and +bbasid dynastiesJ subse!uently, howeer, the simplicity of the +rab plan limited the opportunities for further deelopment, and as a result, these

mos!ues gradually fell out of popularity.$0'&

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aljafer%C3%ADahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aljafer%C3%ADahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mevlana_Museumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah_Mosquehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah_Mosquehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah_Mosquehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islamic_architecture&action=edit&section=14https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezquitahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezquitahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spainhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spainhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_worldhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_worldhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_worldhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatoliahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatoliahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad_Dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad_Dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columnhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Support_(structure)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Support_(structure)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-Masdjid1-42https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezquitahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezquitahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezquitahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spainhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spainhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spainhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-mit-handout-43https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-mit-handout-43https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-mit-handout-43https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_(architecture)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_(architecture)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_(architecture)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-Masdjid1-42https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-Masdjid1-42https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aljafer%C3%ADahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mevlana_Museumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah_Mosquehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islamic_architecture&action=edit&section=14https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezquitahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spainhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_worldhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatoliahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad_Dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columnhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Support_(structure)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-Masdjid1-42https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezquitahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spainhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-mit-handout-43https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_(architecture)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-Masdjid1-42


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he ;ttomans introduced central dme msques in the %2th century and hae a large dome centered oer the prayer hall. In addition to haing one large dome at

the center, there are often smaller domes that exist off@center oer the prayer hall or throughout the rest of the mos!ue, where prayer is not performed. $00& his style

was heaily influenced by the Byzantine religious architecture with its use of large central domes. $0'&

Specific architectural elements$edit&

Plan iew of Bab al@Bar!iyya along +yyubid Wall. ocated close to one of )airos main modern traffic arteries, al@+zhar *treet, the (atimid@era Bab al@Bar!iyya fortified gate was constructed with

interlocking olumes that surrounded the entrant in such a way as to proide greater security and control than typical city wall gates. aser scan data from an +ga =han

(oundationY)y+rk research partnership.

Islamic architecture may be identified with the following design elements, which were inherited from the first mos!ue buildings 4originally a feature of the asDid al@

Gabawi5.

• inarets or towers 4these were originally used as torch@lit watchtowers, as seen in the 3reat os!ue of 7amascusJ hence the deriation of the word

from the +rabic nur , meaning ElightE5. he minaret of the 3reat os!ue of =airouan inunisia is considered as the oldest suriing minaret in the world. $02& It

has the shape of a s!uare massie tower of three superimposed sections.$02&

• + four @iwan plan, with three subordinate halls and one principal one that faces toward ecca

• ihrab or prayer niche on an inside wall indicating the direction to ecca.

• 7omes and )upolas. In *outh 9ast +sia 4Indonesia and alaysia5, these are ery recent additions.

• Pishta! is the formal gateway to the iwan, usually the main prayer hall of a mos!ue, a aulted hall or space, walled on three sides, with one end

entirely openJ a Persian term for a portal proDecting from the facade of a building, usually decorated with calligraphy bands, glazed tilework, and geometric

designs.$0:&$0"&

• Iwans to intermediate between different pailions.

Towns and cities$edit&$r"an and nomadic life accordin to I"n haldun$edit&7uring its history, the society of the pre@modern Islamic world was dominated by two important social contexts, nomadic life and 8rbanism. he historian and

politician Ibn =haldun thoroughly discusses both concepts in his book u!addimah. +ccording to him, the way of life and culture of the rural bedouin nomads and

the townspeople are opposed in a central social conflict. Ibn =haldun explains the rise and fall of ciilizations by his concept of +sabiyyah 4Ebond of cohesionE, or

Efamily loyaltyE5, as exemplified by the rule of the caliphs. Bedouins, being the nomadic inhabitants of the steppe and the desert, are interconnected by strong

bonds of asabiyyah and firm religious beliefs. hese bonds tend to slacken in urban communities oer some generations. In parallel, by losing their asabiyyah, the

townspeople also lose the power to defend themseles, and fall ictims to more aggressie tribes which may destroy the city and set up a new ruling dynasty,

which oer time is subDect to the same weakening of power again.$0#&

Eperiments *ith the hellenistic Ideal city$edit&he anti!ue concept of the architecture of a 3reek polis or Roman ciitas is based on a structure of main and smaller roads running through the entire city, and

diiding it into !uarters. he streets are oriented towards public buildings like a palace, temple, or a public s!uare. wo main roads, 4cardo and decumanus5 cross

each other at right angles in the center of the city. + few cities were founded during the early Islamic 8mayyad )aliphate, the outlines of which were based on the

+ncient Roman concept of the Ideal city. +n example of a c ity planned according to 1ellenistic concepts was excaated at +nDar in ebanon.$0


13/22

+ransformation of con&uered to*ns$edit&ore often than founding new cities, the new Islamic rulers took oer existing towns, and transformed them according to the needs of the new Islamic society. his

process of transformation proed to be decisie for the deelopment of the traditional Islamic city, or edina.$2A& he principle of arranging buildings is known as

Ehorizontal spreadE. Residencies and public buildings as well as priate housing tend to be laid out separately, and are not directly related to each other

architectonically. +rchaeological excaations at the city of Cerash, the 3erasa of +nti!uity, hae reealed how the 8mayyads hae transformed the city plan.$2%&

$r"an morpholoy of the %edina$edit&he architecture of the EorientalE@Islamic town is based on cultural and sociological concepts which differ from those of 9uropean cities. In both cultures, a

distinction is made between the areas used by the rulers and their goernment and administration, public places of eeryday common life, and the areas of priate

life. Whilst the structures and concepts of 9uropean towns originated from a sociological struggle to gain basic rights of freedom Q or town priileges Q from

political or religious authorities during the iddle +ges, an Islamic town or city is fundamentally influenced by the preseration of the unity of secular and religious

life throughout time.$2'&

he fundamental principle of the Islamic society is the ummah, or ummat al-Islami#ah 4 +rabic- [\]^_` []5, the community of uslims of whom each indiidual is

e!ually submitted to +llah under the common law of sharia, which also subDected the respectie ruler, at least nominally. In +bbasid times, some cities like

theRound city of Baghdad were constructed from scratch, set up to a plan which focused on the caliphs residence, located in the ery centre of the city, with main

roads leading radially from the city gates to the central palace, diiding indiidual tribal sections with no interconnection, and separated from each other by radial

walls. 1oweer, these efforts were of short duration only, and the original plan soon disappeared and gae way to succeeding buildings and architectural

structures.

+ncient 9uropean concepts of architecture and administration of cities, like the ancient 3reek polis or the Roman ciitas, usually proide a system of broader main

streets and narrower byroads which run through the entire city and interconnect tangentially as to allow for free passage between different !uarters. ain streetsare usually oriented towards dominating public buildings like the palace, a temple or church, or any other central, public place. his concept does not apply to the

layout of an Islamic edina- edieal traellers and modern Western isitors alike tend to be impressed by the absence of any traditional 9uropean city structure

or plan. 1oweer, what impresses Western isitors as a sometimes EdisorderlyE structure results in fact from different sociological and cultural ideas about urban

morphology-

In a medina, palaces and residences as well as public places like mos!ue@madrasa@hospital complexes and priate liing spaces rather coexist alongside each

other. he buildings tend to be more inwardly oriented, and are separated from the surrounding EoutsideE either by walls or by the hierarchical ordering of the

streets, or both. *treets tend to lead from public main roads to cul@de@sac byroads and onwards into more priate plots, and then end there. here are no, or ery

few, internal connections between different !uarters of the city. In order to moe from one !uarter to the next, one has to go back to the main road again. $2'&

Within a city !uarter, byroads lead towards indiidual building complexes or clusters of houses. he indiidual house is fre!uently also oriented towards an

inner atrium, and enclosed by walls, which mostly are unadorned, unlike 9uropean outward@oriented, representatie facades. hus, the spatial structure of a

medina essentially reflects the ancient nomadic tradition of liing in a family group or tribe, held together by asabiyya, strictly separated from the EoutsideE. In

general, the morphology of an Islamic medina is granting Q or denying Q access according to the basic concept of hierarchical degrees of priacy. he inhabitants

moe from public space to the liing !uarters of their tribe, and onwards to their family home. Within a family house, there are again to be found common and

separate spaces, the latter, and most priate, usually resered for women and children. In the end, only the family heads hae free and unlimited access to all

rooms and areas of ther priate home, as opposed to the more 9uropean concept of interconnecting different spaces for free and easy access. he hierarchy of

priacy thus guides and structurizes the entire social life in a medina, from the caliph down to his most humble subDect, from the town to the house.$2/&

•

edina !uarter of (ez, orocco

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islamic_architecture&action=edit&section=19https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medina_quarterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medina_quarterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medina_quarterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-50https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-50https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerashhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerashhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-51https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-51https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islamic_architecture&action=edit&section=20https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orientalismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orientalismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orientalismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Townhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Townhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Townhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Town_privilegeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Town_privilegeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ageshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-Wirth-52https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-Wirth-52https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ummahhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ummahhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ummahhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allahhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shariahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shariahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shariahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasid_dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasid_dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasid_dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round_city_of_Baghdadhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round_city_of_Baghdadhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civitashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civitashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medina_quarterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medina_quarterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medina_quarterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_morphologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_morphologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_morphologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madrasahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madrasahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dar_al-Shifahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dar_al-Shifahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-Wirth-52https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-Wirth-52https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atrium_(architecture)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atrium_(architecture)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atrium_(architecture)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facadehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facadehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facadehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-Bianca-53https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-Bianca-53https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medina_quarterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medina_quarterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fez,_Moroccohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fez,_Moroccohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islamic_architecture&action=edit&section=19https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medina_quarterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-50https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerashhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-51https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islamic_architecture&action=edit&section=20https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orientalismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Townhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Town_privilegeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ageshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-Wirth-52https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ummahhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allahhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shariahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasid_dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round_city_of_Baghdadhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civitashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medina_quarterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_morphologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_morphologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madrasahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dar_al-Shifahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-Wirth-52https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atrium_(architecture)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facadehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-Bianca-53https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medina_quarterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fez,_Morocco


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•

(igure@ground diagram of +lgiers

•

(igure@ground diagram of a 9uropean town 4%#%asr al@1allabat

9ntrance courtyard of >asr al@1allabat

%isr- .i"at$edit&

In the frontier area of the +rabic expansion, military forts 4%isr , Pl. +rabic- ], ams ?r5, or .i"at 4 +rabic- ribt ?, fortress5 were founded. he structure and

function of a misr is similar to an ancient Roman )olonia.$20& ike a frontier colony, the fortress sered as a base for further con!uests. +rabian military forts of this

type were fre!uently built in the icinity of an older town from +nti!uity or from Byzantine times. hey fre!uently were of s!uare format. $22&

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figure-ground_diagramhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figure-ground_diagramhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algiershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algiershttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islamic_architecture&action=edit&section=21https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islamic_architecture&action=edit&section=22https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spread_of_Islamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spread_of_Islamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spread_of_Islamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonia_(Roman)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonia_(Roman)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonia_(Roman)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-54https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-54https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-55https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figure-ground_diagramhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algiershttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islamic_architecture&action=edit&section=21https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islamic_architecture&action=edit&section=22https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spread_of_Islamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonia_(Roman)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-54https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-55


15/22

Rather than maintaining their original purpose to sere as a military base, many ams $%r deeloped into urbane and administratie centers. In particular, this

happened in the case of the Ira!i cities of =ufa and Basra, which became known as"al-mis $r%n" 4Ethe $two& fortsE5, but a lso with (ustat and =airouan in Gorth +frica.

/as 0r $edit&

>as ?r 4 +rabic- j, qas $r J Pl. +rabic- j, qus $&r 5 also means E4frontier5 fort. (ortresses from ate +nti!uity often continued to be in use, whilst their function

changed during time. *ome qus $&r were already used as )astra during Roman times, and were part of the fortifications of the Gorth +frican imes. +lready during

the +ncient Roman times, castra did not only sere as fortifications, but also as markets and meeting points for the tribes liing beyond the border.

*maller qus $&r are found in modern Cordan, and include >asr +l@1allabat 4located 2A km east of +mman5, >asr Bushir 4%2 km north of aDDun5, the castle of

7aganiya 402 km north of aan5 and ;druh 4'' km east of Wadi usa5. +fter theimes +rabicus was abandoned by the Roman 9mpire, many of the castra

continued to be in use.$2:& his continuity was subDect to archaeological inestigations in the fort of >asr al@1allabat, which at different times sered as a Roman

castrum, )hristian cenobitic monastery, and finally as an 8mayyad >asr .$2"& >asr +l@=haranah is one of the earliest known 7esert castles, its architectural form

clearly demonstrates the influence of *asanian architecture.

+ccording to a hypothesis deeloped by Cean *auaget, the umayyad qus $&r played a role in the systematic agricultural colonisation of the uninhabited frontier

areas, and, as such, continue the colonisation strategy of earlier )hristian monks and the 3hassanids.$2#& he 8mayyads, howeer, increasingly oriented their

political strategy towards a model of )lient politics, of mutual interdependence and support.$2


16/22

he 8mayyad )aliphate 4::%Q"2A5 combined elements of Byzantine architectureand *assanid architecture, but 8mayyad architecture introduced new

combinations of these western and eastern styles.$:A& he horseshoe arch appears for the first time in 8mayyad architecture, later to eole to its most adanced

form in al@+ndalus.$:%&8mayyad architecture is distinguished by the extent and ariety of decoration, including mosaics, wall painting, sculpture and cared reliefs

with Islamic motifs.$:'&he 8mayyads introduced a transept that diided the prayer room along its shorter axis.$:/& hey also added the mihrab to mos!ue design.$:/& he mos!ue in edina built by al@Walid I had the first mihrab, a niche on the !ibla wall, which seems to hae represented the place where the Prophet stood

when leading prayer. his almost immediately became a standard feature of all mos!ues.$:/&

he +bbasid architecture of the +bbasid )aliphate 4"2AQ%2%/5 was strongly influenced by *assanid architecture, and later by )entral +sian styles. he +bbasid

mos!ues all followed the courtyard plan. he earliest was the mos!ue that al@ansur built in Baghdad. since destroyed. he 3reat os!ue of *amarra built by al@

utawakkil was '2: by %/< metres 4#0A by 02: ft5. + flat wooden roof was supported by columns. he mos!ue was decorated with marble panels and glass

mosaics.$:0&he prayer hall of the +bu 7ulaf mos!ue at *amarra had arcades on rectangular brick piers running at right angles to the!ibla wall. Both of the *amarra

mos!ues hae spiral minarets, the only examples in Ira!.$:0& + mos!ue at Balkh in what is now +fghanistan was about 'A by 'A metres 4:: by :: ft5 s!uare, with

three rows of three s!uare bays, supporting nine aulted domes.$:2&

)onstruction of the 3reat os!ue at )rdoba 4now a cathedral known as the ez!uita5 beginning in "#2 )9 marks the beginning of oorish architecture in

theIberian peninsula and Gorth +frica 4see oors5. he mos!ue is noted for its striking interior arches. oorish architecture reached its peak with the construction

of the +lhambra, the magnificent palaceYfortress of 3ranada, with its open and breezy interior spaces adorned in red, blue, and gold. he walls are decorated with

stylized foliage motifs, +rabic inscriptions, and arabes!ue design work, with walls coered in glazed tile. heir other, smaller, surials such as the Bab ardum

inoledo, or the caliphal city of edina +zahara. oorish architecture has its roots deeply established in the +rab tradition of architecture and design established

during the era of the first )aliphate of the 8mayyads in the eant circa ::A+7 with its capital 7amascus haing ery well presered examples of

fine +rab Islamicdesign and geometrics, including the carmen, which is the typical 7amascene house, opening on the inside with a fountain as the houses centre

piece.

(atimid architecture in 9gypt followed ulunid techni!ues and used similar materials, but also deeloped those of their own. In )airo, their first congregationalmos!ue was al@+zhar mos!ue 4Ethe splendidE5 founded along with the city 4


17/22

$:#& *elDu! architecture synthesized arious styles, both Iranian and *yrian, sometimes rendering precise attributions difficult. +nother important architectural trend to

arise in the *elDuk era is the deelopment of mausolea including the tomb tower such as the 3unbad@i@!abus 4circa %AA:@"5 4showcasing a Toroastrian motif5 and

the domed s!uare, an example of which is the tomb of the *amanids in the city of Bukhara 4circa


18/22

he standard plan of ;ttoman architecture was inspired in part by the example of 1agia *ophia in )onstantinopleYIstanbul,Ilkhanid works like ;lDeitu omb and

earlier *elDuk and +natolian Beylik monumental buildings and their own original innoations. he most famous of ;ttoman architects was 4and remains5 imar

*inan, who lied for approximately one hundred years and designed seeral hundreds of buildings, of which two of the most important are *Fleymaniye os!ue in

Istanbul and *elimiye os!ue in 9dirne. +pprentices of *inan later built the famous Blue os!ue in Istanbul and the aD ahal in India.

he most numerous and largest of mos!ues exist in urkey, which obtained influence from Byzantine, Persian and *yrian@ +rab designs. urkish architects

implemented their own style of cupola domes.$""& (or almost 2AA years Byzantine architecture such as the church of 1agia *ophia sered as models for many of

the ;ttoman mos!ues such as the *hehzade os!ue, the *uleiman os!ue, and the RFstem Pasha os!ue.

he ;ttomans mastered the techni!ue of building ast inner spaces confined by seemingly weightless yet massie domes, and achieing perfect harmony

between inner and outer spaces, as well as light and shadow. Islamic religious architecture which until then consisted of simple buildings with extensie

decorations, was transformed by the ;ttomans through a dynamic architectural ocabulary of aults, domes, semidomes and columns. he mos!ue was

transformed from being a cramped and dark chamber with arabes!ue@coered walls into a sanctuary of esthetic and technical balance, refined elegance and a hint

of heaenly transcendence.

+ur1istan (+imurid) architecture$edit&

Registan is the ensemble of threemadrasas, in *amarkand, modern day8zbekistan.

imurid architecture is the pinnacle of Islamic art in )entral +sia. *pectacular and stately edifices erected by imur and his

successors in *amarkand and 1erat helped to disseminate the influence of the Ilkhanid school of art in India, thus giing rise to the celebrated ughal school of

architecture. imurid architecture started with the sanctuary of +hmed Hasawi in present@day =azakhstan and culminated in imurs mausoleum 3ur@e

+mir in *amarkand. he style is largely deried from Persian architecture. +xial symmetry is a characteristic of all maDor imurid structures, notably the *hah@i@

Tinda in *amarkand and the mos!ue of 3owhar *had in ashhad. 7ouble domes of arious shapes abound, and the outsides are perfused with brilliant colors.

Indo2Islamic architecture$edit&Main articles: Mughal architecture and Ind-Islamic architecture

See als: Indian architecture, 'akistani architecture, and Bangladeshi architecture

aD ahal in +gra, India.

+nother distinctie sub@style is Indo@Islamic architecture in the Indian *ubcontinent, a fusion of +rab, )entral +sian and Persian elements with the local arieties of

the Indian *ubcontinent, including 1indu architecture. he most famous examples of ughal architecture are the series of imperial mausolea, which started with

the piotal omb of 1umayun, but is best known for the aD ahal, completed in %:0# by emperor *hah Cahan in memory of his wife umtaz ahal who died while

giing birth to their %0th child. he aD ahal is completely symmetrical except for *hah Cahans sarcophagus, which is placed off center in the crypt room below

the main floor. his symmetry extended to the building of an entire mirror mos!ue in black marble to complement the ecca@facing mos!ue place to the west of

the main structure. + famous example of thecharbagh style of ughal garden is the *halimar 3ardens in ahore, where the domeless omb of Cahangir is also

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagia_Sophiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagia_Sophiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinoplehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istanbulhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istanbulhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istanbulhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilkhanidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilkhanidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oljeituhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oljeituhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oljeituhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seljuks_of_Rumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seljuks_of_Rumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seljuks_of_Rumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimar_Sinanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimar_Sinanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimar_Sinanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BCleymaniye_Mosquehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BCleymaniye_Mosquehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selimiye_Mosque_(Edirne)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selimiye_Mosque_(Edirne)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selimiye_Mosque_(Edirne)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edirnehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edirnehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edirnehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultan_Ahmed_Mosquehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultan_Ahmed_Mosquehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultan_Ahmed_Mosquehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkeyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkeyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkeyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syriahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syriahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syriahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cupolahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cupolahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-B-I-77https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-B-I-77https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-B-I-77https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vault_(architecture)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vault_(architecture)https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islamic_architecture&action=edit&section=28https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Registanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Registanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madrasahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madrasahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarkandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarkandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzbekistanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzbekistanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzbekistanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_arthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_arthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_arthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Asiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Asiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timurhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timurhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timurhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timurid_Dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timurid_Dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timurid_Dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timurid_Dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarkandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarkandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarkandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilkhanidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilkhanidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilkhanidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_schoolhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Khoja_Ahmed_Yasavihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Khoja_Ahmed_Yasavihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gur-e_Amirhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gur-e_Amirhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gur-e_Amirhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gur-e_Amirhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarkandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarkandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarkandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axial_symmetryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axial_symmetryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axial_symmetryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah-i-Zindahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah-i-Zindahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah-i-Zindahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah-i-Zindahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarkandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarkandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gowhar_Shadhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gowhar_Shadhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mashhadhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mashhadhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mashhadhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islamic_architecture&action=edit&section=29https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Islamic_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Islamic_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistani_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistani_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladeshi_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladeshi_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Subcontinenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Subcontinenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mausoleumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mausoleumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mausoleumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomb_of_Humayunhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomb_of_Humayunhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomb_of_Humayunhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taj_Mahalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taj_Mahalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mumtaz_Mahalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mumtaz_Mahalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mumtaz_Mahalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarcophagushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarcophagushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarcophagushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charbaghhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shalimar_Gardens_(Lahore)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lahorehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lahorehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomb_of_Jahangirhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomb_of_Jahangirhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomb_of_Jahangirhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagia_Sophiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinoplehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istanbulhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilkhanidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oljeituhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seljuks_of_Rumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimar_Sinanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimar_Sinanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BCleymaniye_Mosquehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selimiye_Mosque_(Edirne)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edirnehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultan_Ahmed_Mosquehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkeyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syriahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cupolahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture#cite_note-B-I-77https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vault_(architecture)https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islamic_architecture&action=edit&section=28https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Registanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madrasahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarkandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzbekistanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_arthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Asiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timurhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timurid_Dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timurid_Dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarkandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilkhanidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_schoolhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Khoja_Ahmed_Yasavihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gur-e_Amirhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gur-e_Amirhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarkandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axial_symmetryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah-i-Zindahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah-i-Zindahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarkandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gowhar_Shadhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mashhadhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islamic_architecture&action=edit&section=29https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Islamic_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistani_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladeshi_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Subcontinenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mausoleumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomb_of_Humayunhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taj_Mahalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mumtaz_Mahalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarcophagushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charbaghhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shalimar_Gardens_(Lahore)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lahorehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomb_of_Jahangir


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located.Bibi =a a!bara in +urangabad which was commissioned by sixth ughal 9mperor +urangzeb in memory of his wife. heRed (ort in 7elhi and +gra

(ort are huge castle@like fortified palaces, and the abandoned city of (atehpur *ikri, ': miles 40' km5 west of +gra, was built for +kbar in the late %:th century.$#A&

Sino2Islamic architecture$edit&Main article: Chinese msques

1ui people who hae also migrated to the south such as this 7arunaman os!ue, locating in )hiang Rai proince, hailand shows a great mixture between )hinese and Islamic architecture.

he 3reat os!ue of Kian, )hina

he first )hinese mos!ue was established in the "th century during the ang 7ynasty inKian. he 3reat os!ue of Kian, whose current buildings date from

the ing 7ynasty, does not replicate many of the features often associated with t raditional mos!ues. Instead, it follows traditional )hinese architecture. *ome

)hinese mos!ues in parts of western )hina were more likely to incorporate minarets and domes while eastern )hinese mos!ues were more likely to look

like pagodas.$#%&

+n important lathan feature in )hinese architecture is its emphasis on symmetry, which connotes a sense of grandeurJ this applies to eerything

from palaces to mos!ues. ;ne notable exception is in the design of gardens, which tends to be as asymmetrical as possible. ike )hinese scroll paintings, the

principle underlying the gardens composition is to create enduring flowJ to let the patron wander and enDoy the garden without prescription, as in nature herself.

)hinese buildings may be built with either red or grey bricks, but wooden structures are the most commonJ these are more capable of withstanding earth!uakes,

but are ulnerable to fire. he roof of a typical )hinese building is curedJ there are strict classifications of gable types, comparable with the classical orders of

9uropean columns.

ost mos!ues hae certain aspects in common with each other howeer as with other regions )hinese Islamic architecture reflects the local architecture in its

style. )hina is renowned for its beautiful mos!ues, which resemble temples. 1oweer, in western )hina the mos!ues resemble those of the +rab World, with tall,

slender minarets, cury arches and dome shaped roofs. In northwest )hina where the )hinese 1ui hae built their mos!ues, there is a combination of eastern and

western styles. he mos!ues hae flared Buddhist style roofs set in walled courtyards entered through archways with miniature domes and minarets.$#'&

Indonesian2%alaysian architecture$edit&Main articles: !rchitecture ) Indnesia and Msques in Indnesia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibi_Ka_Maqbarahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibi_Ka_Maqbarahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangabad,_Maharashtrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangabad,_Maharashtrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_Emperorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_Emperorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_Emperorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangzebhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Forthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agra_Forthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agra_Forthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agra_Forthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agra_Forthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatehpur_Sikrihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatehpur

Town Planing 2

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