Towards a New World OrderTowards a New World Order

The Atlantic Charter

It was negotiated between Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill on board of a war ship moored at Argentia (Placentia Bay-Canada).

The Joint Declaration was signed on August 14 1941 It defined the vision that the two powers had for

the future of international relations

The Atlantic Charter

At this stage the US had not joined the war yet USA and UK were still hoping to have also the URSS as

part of the agreement A great deal of the ideas included in the Charter were

part of an ideology of Anglo-American internationalism that assumed British and American cooperation as crucial for the cause of international security

The Atlantic Charter

It was assumed at the time that UK and USA would have played an equal role in any post war international organization that would be based on the principles of the Atlantic Charter

No signed version ever existed. The document went through several drafts and the final version was telegraphed to London and Washington

The Atlantic Charter: Key points

The President of the United States of America and the Prime Minister, Mr. Churchill, representing His Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom, being met together, deem it right to make known certain common principles in the national policies of their respective countries on which they base their hopes for a better future for the world.

The Atlantic Charter: Key points

The President of the United States of America and the Prime Minister, Mr. Churchill, representing His Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom, being met together, deem it right to make known certain common principles in the national policies of their respective countries on which they base their hopes for a better future for the world.

The Atlantic Charter

First, their countries seek no aggrandizement, territorial or other;

Second, they desire to see no territorial changes that do not accord with the freely expressed wishes of the peoples concerned;

Third, they respect the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live; and they wish to see sovereign rights and self government restored to those who have been forcibly deprived of them;

The Atlantic Charter Fourth, they will endeavour, with due respect for their

existing obligations, to further the enjoyment by all States, great or small, victor or vanquished, of access, on equal terms, to the trade and to the raw materials of the world which are needed for their economic prosperity;

Fifth, they desire to bring about the fullest collaboration between all nations in the economic field with the object of securing, for all, improved labour standards, economic advancement and social security;

The Atlantic Charter

Sixth, after the final destruction of the Nazi tyranny, they hope to see established a peace which will afford to all nations the means of dwelling in safety within their own boundaries, and which will afford assurance that all the men in all the lands may live out their lives in freedom from fear and want;

Seventh, such a peace should enable all men to traverse the high seas and oceans without hindrance;

The Atlantic Charter Eighth, they believe that all of the nations of the world, for

realistic as well as spiritual reasons must come to the abandonment of the use of force. Since no future peace can be maintained if land, sea or air armaments continue to be employed by nations which threaten, or may threaten, aggression outside of their frontiers, they believe, pending the establishment of a wider and permanent system of general security, that the disarmament of such nations is essential. They will likewise aid and encourage all other practicable measures which will lighten for peace-loving peoples the crushing burden of armaments.

Signed by: Franklin D. Roosevelt & Winston S. Churchill

The Atlantic CharterAt the subsequent inter-allied meeting held in London on September 24, 1941 the following governments declared their adhesion to the common principles of policy set forth in the Atlantic Charter:

Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Greece, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, USSR and Yugoslavia

Representatives of Charles De Gaulle's Free France attended too

Impact on international relations

The Axis Powers interpreted these move as a potential alliance against them.

In Japan the signing of the Atlantic Charter rallied support for the militarists wing of the Japanese government, who called for a more aggressive attitude against the US and Britain

Impact on international relationsThe main resistance came from those allies that had empires

and which resisted self-determination

Initially it seems that Roosevelt and Churchill had agree that the third point of the Charter was not applicable to Africa and Asia

With an incumbent war that could only be won with the support of the Dominions and colonies Roosevelt decided to put some pressure on Britain but to postpone the issue of self-determination of the colonies to the end of the war

In a September 1941 Churchill declared that the Charter was only meant to apply to states under German occupation, and not to the peoples who formed part of the British Empire

Impact on international relations

in 1942 Gandhi wrote to F.D. Roosevelt saying:

"I venture to think that the Allied declaration that the Allies are fighting to make the world safe for the freedom of the individual and for democracy sounds hollow so long as India and for that matter Africa are exploited by Great Britain...”

USA attitudeThe initial USA attitude under the Roosevelt administration

was mainly shaped by its neutrality

During the first and second administrations of Franklin D. Roosevelt 4 acts were passed (1935, 1936, 01/1937, 05/1937)

They were founded on the widespread belief that:

the United States had been drawn into World War I to protect the relationships and loans of manufacturers and bankers

the USA could stay out of what was perceived as another inevitable European conflict

USA attitude

1941 was a turning point

Germany started losing the political momentum

Became apparent the limitations of the German European vision

become clear

The central role of USA financial support

The presence of financial restriction in Europe

The presence of legal and political restrictions in the USA

USA attitude

To untangle this intricate political balance F.D. Roosevelt in the Neutrality Act of May 1937 inserted

a provision that allowed trade with the European belligerents on a cash-and-carry basis

FDR thought that the Neutrality acts were contrary to American interests, which he believed were with the Anglo-French alliance

Lend and Lease-ActMarch 11 1941: after a long debate under F.D. Roosevelt

pressure the American Senate approved the Lend and Lease-Act Possibility to sell, lease or rent: weapons, ammunitions,

food and whatever other good necessary in order to ensure the defence of countries relevant for USA strategic interests

The USA navy wouldn't have escorted those shipsThe Lend and lease Act implied the perception of

Germany as the main threat to international peace and to USA strategic interests

FDR defined it the “Arsenal of Democracy”

Lend & Lease Act

Lend & Lease Actthe U.S.A provided $50,1 billion $50,1 billion in military aid (equivalent to

760 billion current value)

$31.4 billion went to Britain,

$11.3 billion to the Soviet Union,

$3.2 billion to France,

$1.6 billion to China

The remaining 2.6 were distributed among other allied

Canada operated a similar program of aid to Britain,

Lend & Lease ActPart of the U.S. expenditures was covered through reverse

lend-lease.

Equipment lost or destroyed in battle was considered a common loss.

After the termination of the program, large quantities of lend-lease goods were sold to Great Britain (10 cents on the dollar) to be paid off over 60 years at 2 percent interest.

The last British payment on the loan was made on December 29, 2006.

In 1972 the United States accepted an offer by the Soviet Union to pay $722 million in installments to settle its indebtedness.

In general, a large portion of the U.S. Lend-Lease aid was cancelled

The USSR

Awareness of European hostility

Crisis of the temporary alliance with Germany due to

– the pro-Nazi shift of Romania

– awareness of German threat

June 22 1941 Barbarossa operation

Nazi invasion of the USSR & the Lend and Lease-Act

Conflicting views

– from ideological antithesis

– to strategic collaboration

A turning point was the German aggression (Barbarossa operation)

Cairo ConferenceCairo ConferenceNovember 22 – 26 1943

Outlined the Allied position against Japan during World War II and made decisions about postwar Asia.

The meeting was attended by Franklin D.Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Chiang Kai-shek of the Republic of China.

Soviet leader Joseph Stalin did not attend the conference because his meeting with Chiang could have caused friction between the Soviet Union and Japan

Cairo ConferenceCairo ConferenceNovember 22 – 26 1943

The Cairo Declaration, jointly released by the United States, the Republic of China and Great Britain on December 1, 1943, pledged:

to continue the war against Japan to eject the Japanese forces from all the territories it had

conquered, including the Chinese territories, Korea, and the Pacific Islands

Tehran ConferenceTehran ConferenceNovember 28 – December 1, 1943

It was the first allied conference with Stalin attending, together with Churchill and Roosevelt

The discussion focused on the possibility of opening a new front in the War

Participants signed a protocol that acknowledged the independence of Iran

Tehran ConferenceTehran Conference Decision was taken to support Yugoslavian partisans Pressure were exerted in order to have an active

involvement of Turkey beside the allied Forces And USSR support to Turkey in case of its intervention in

WW2 The USSR declared its readiness to declare war to Japan

after the end of the conflict in Europe It was also decided to establish a strategic coordination

between military personnel of the allied forces

Tehran ConferenceTehran ConferenceNovember 28 – December 1, 1943

It was the first allied conference with Stalin attending, together with Churchill and Roosevelt

The discussion focused on the possibility of opening a new front in the War

Participants signed a protocol that acknowledged the independence of Iran

Tehran ConferenceTehran Conference

GB & USA promised to Stalin to send their troops through Western Europe by spring 1944

Roosvelt suggested that the future United Nations would be dominated by "four policemen" (the United States, Britain, China, and Soviet Union) who "would have the power to deal immediately with any threat to the peace and any sudden emergency which requires action."

On Stalin insistence, post-war Polish post-war borders were agreed to be along the rivers Oder and Neisse and the Curzon line

Curzon line

Yalta Conference: Yalta Conference: February 4-11 1945February 4-11 1945

Yalta Conference: Yalta Conference: February 4-11, 1945February 4-11, 1945 The meeting was intended mainly to discuss the re-establishment

of the nations of war-torn Europe

Main issues:

Agreement on the priority of the unconditional surrender of Nazi Germany. After the war, Germany and Berlin would be split into four occupied zones.

Stalin agreed that France might have a fourth occupation zone in Germany and in Austria but it would have to be formed out of the American and British zones.

Germany would undergo demilitarization and de-nazification.

German reparations were partly to be in the form of forced labour

The forced labour was to be used to repair damage Germany inflicted on its victims

Yalta ConferenceYalta Conference Creation of a reparation council which would be located in the

Soviet Union.

The status of Poland was discussed. It was agreed to reorganize the communist Provisional Government of the Republic of Poland that had been installed by the Soviet Union "on a broader democratic basis."

The Polish eastern border would follow the Curzon Line, and Poland would receive territorial compensation in the West from Germany.

Churchill pushed for free elections in Poland. The British leader pointed out that the UK "could never be content with any solution that did not leave Poland a free and independent state". Stalin pledged to permit free elections in Poland, but forestalled ever implementing this promise.

Yalta ConferenceYalta Conference Citizens of the Soviet Union and of Yugoslavia were to be

handed over to their respective countries, regardless of their consent.

Roosevelt obtained a commitment by Stalin to participate in the UN.

Stalin requested that all of the 16 Soviet Socialist Republics would be granted UN membership. This was taken into consideration, but 14 republics were denied.

Stalin agreed to enter the fight against the Empire of Japan within 90 days after the defeat of Germany.

Nazi war criminals were to be hunted down and brought to justice.

Bretton Woods Conference Bretton Woods Conference (July 1-22, 1944)(July 1-22, 1944)

It represented another crucial step toward the creation of a new World order

It set up the economic foundations of the capitalist world

The United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference (better known as Bretton Woods conference from the name of the location in the New Hampshire) gathered 730 delegates from 45 nations

Bretton Woods Conference Bretton Woods Conference (July 1-22, 1944)(July 1-22, 1944)

Main outcome were: The Bretton Wood system created to manage

exchange rates The International Bank for Reconstruction and

Development (now World Bank) The International Monetary Fund (IMF), in charge of

regulating monetary and financial policies

Bretton Woods ConferenceBretton Woods Conference

the Bretton Woods System defined the rules that were expected to regulate commercial and financial relations among the main economic powers in the planet

It was the first case in world history of a complete and detailed negotiation of the monetary order that was to be established in order to handle economic relations between independent states

Bretton Woods ConferenceBretton Woods Conference Main innovative features were:

The obligation for member states to adopt monetary policies that maintained the exchange rate within a given value (+ or – 1) taking gold as the main reference

The ability of the IMF to fix temporarily gaps in the balance of payments

This system collapsed only in1971 when the US suspended the convertibility of the US $ into gold

Bretton Woods Bretton Woods was made possible by:

The trauma of the 1929 Great DepressionCordell Hull doctrine of “economic security” developed by the US Secretary of State in order to affirm the centrality of Free TradeThe belief in the regulatory rule of the StateThe rise of the US as an hegemonic powerThe devastation of the war in Europe & AsiaAtlantic Charter

Cordell Hull doctrine Cordell Hull doctrine of “economic security”Was developed by the US Secretary of State in order to affirm the centrality of Free Trade

In 1934, the Congress passed the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act, to increase exports

Implicit in the legislation was an understanding that the health of the U.S. economy could not be divorced from that of the world at large.

With the Trade Agreements Program( TAP) the US tried to fight high tariffs and accelerate the path toward trade liberalisation

The assumption was that free trade was the basic

prerequisite to build lasting peace

Previous systems

In the 19th and 20th C there was already the notion of gold as a good to be used in order to regulate monetary policies

However it was an informal rule

the gold standard was mainly aimed at supporting currencies whose value was decided on the basis of a fixed relation with gold

This was intended to reduce the risks in international exchanges

However imbalances were to be rectified by the market assuming that: A country in deficit would have experienced a

reduction of its gold reserve and, consequently of its monetary stock

The fall of the demand would have reduced importations and the deriving decrease of prices would have given new force to exportations

Thus balance would have been re-established

The British Pound was the monetary reference of this system

The Bretton Woods system tried to keep the advantages of the Gold Standard but wanted to eliminate its disadvantages

Instead of leaving it to the free flow of the financial market it attempted to introduce strict regulations for the immediate and effective regulation of monetary unbalances

Bretton Woods established also:

The political and economic subalternity of the less industrialised countries

Their being dependent on the economic and political decision of the West

Indirectly it also affirmed the USSR as an alternative political and economic model

The International Monetary Fund (IMF)

It was officially established on December 27, 1945 It was conceived as a guarantor of the rules of

functioning of international finance IMF assent was defined compulsory for the approval

of whatsoever change in exchange rates IMF acts as a consulting body for monetary policies

of the states

The International Monetary Fund (IMF)

Member states concur to the creation of the IMF common reserve of gold and hard currencies

In case of deficit member states can draw from this fund according to their proportional contribution

Debts were to be regulated in a given period (between18 months and 5 years)

Comintern (1919-1943)Comintern (1919-1943) Was born from the 2nd International founded by Lenin Marked the split between reformist and revolutionary

wings of the socialist movement WW1 represented a major watershed for this debate

Comintern (1919-1943)Comintern (1919-1943)

Strongly Marxist

Under the total control of the USSR

It aimed at the violent subversion of the capitalist system

Ambiguous relations with colonised territories and their nationalist elites

COMINTERNCOMINTERN: Last congress in 1935

Suggested the creation of Popular Fronts anti-fascist Abandoned the theory of the violent subversion of

capitalism as main goal of the COMINTERN As a consequence Lev Trotsky created the 4th

International

COMINTERNCOMINTERN: Last congress

At the outbreak of WW2 the Comintern declared a pacifist and non interventionist standing

Meaning of pacifism in the Comintern language was anticapitalist

Stalin disbanded it on May 15 1943

COMINFORMCOMINFORM Was created in 1947 by the Communist parties of

the USSR, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, France, Italy, Poland Romania, Hungary, Yugoslavia

Its aim was to link the activities of the Communist Parties in the World

Its major crisis culminated with the expulsion of Yugoslavia in 1948

Was closed in 1956 It was in part a reaction to the Marshall Plan