U T T E R W 0 R T H I N E M A N N

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Tourism Management, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 3-8, 1995 Elsevier Science Ltd

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T o w a r d s a m o r e des irable form of e co tour i sm

Mark B Orams Department of Geographical Sciences and Planning, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4007, Australia

This paper reviews a variety of the definitions which have been given to the term 'ecotourism', and presents them as a continuum where, at one pole, all tourism can be viewed as ecotourism and, at the other, no tourism can be viewed as ecotourism. Examples of ecotourism definitions are then classified according to their position along this continuum. As a result of this classification it is suggested that it is desirable to implement management strategies which attempt to shift the 'ecotourist experience' from simple enjoyment and satisfaction through stages of greater understanding, attitude change and finally more environmentally responsible behaviour. A model which displays this shift is offered and a series of indicators which can be used to measure the transition are suggested.

The term ecotourism has received much attention in recent years. There is considerable debate over what the term means, and what it should mean. Profes- sional associations have been formed and codes of ecotourism ethics and standards produced. 1'2 This paper reviews some of these definitions and discus- sions and builds on this debate. It takes a subjective s tandpoint and argues that tourism operat ions, which are based on the natural environment and which claim the positive connotations associated with the prefix ' eco ' , should strive to be more than just that. It is suggested that ecotourism operat ions should use educat ion-based management strategies to p rompt their customers to adopt more environ- mentally sensitive attitudes and, more importantly, change to more environmental ly sound behaviour. A conceptual f ramework, which outlines the transi- tion that ecotourism should strive to make, is out- lined and indicators which can be used to measure progress towards that more desirable state are offered.

O r i g i n s o f t h e t e r m e c o t o u r i s m

The argument for the integration of tourism with conservation was first made widespread by

Budowski 3 in 1976 in an article entitled 'Tour ism and conservation: conflict, coexistence or sym- biosis'. However , the use of the term 'ecotourism' can be traced only as far back as the late 1980s. 4'5 Its invention is, in part , the result of the increased recognition of, and reaction to, the negative impacts being caused by mass tourism to natural areas:

Originating in a world wide reaction against mass tourism, the idea of nature-based tourism, which was protective of nature as well as enjoying it, has come to fruition in the last five years. 6

The concept of ecotourism is probably equally due to the widespread and growing interest in the natural environment and a corresponding recognition of the importance of conserving natural environmental quality. The idea of visiting and experiencing high- quality natural environments and also protecting them from harmful impacts is now an acceptable and marketable one. As a result, a suitable term which evokes the positive images associated with the term 'eco ' , for example, in ecology, ecosystem, ecosphere and eco-sensitive, with the activity of tourism has been combined to create a name that expresses a concept which has become popular.

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Low Human Responsibility

Pole

I All tourism is ecotourism

High Human Responsibility

Pole

Passive, Active Ecotourism seek to contribution impossible minimise to protect damage resources

Figure 1 The continuum of ecotourism paradigms

Note: derived from Miller and Kaae 8

Defining the term ecotourism Visiting areas for the purpose of observing and experiencing elements of natural environment is not new. Safaris to wild places in Africa to view wildlife were popular amongst explorers and adventurers from Western Europe during the last century. Re- creational activities such as hiking, climbing, cross- country skiing, fishing, canoeing and boating are all based on natural environmental features and were popular long before the term ecotourism ever ex- isted. The activities which fall under the category of ecotourism, therefore, are not new. Rather, it is a new term which has arrived because nature-based recreation and tourism has become increasingly fre- quent and, to a lesser degree, as a reaction against more traditional forms of mass tourism. 6'7

There are a wide variety of names which refer to tourism which has, as its primary purpose, an in- teraction with nature, and which has, as an integral part of that interaction, a desire to minimize or eliminate negative impacts. 6 Because of this wide variety of terms and the increasingly widespread adoption of ecotourism as the generic label to de- scribe this kind of tourism, there is a need to define the term more accurately. However, when one re- views the various definitions that have been given to the term ecotourism, it becomes apparent that there are a wide variety of meanings attributed to this label.

Miller and Kaae 8 views this diverse number of definitions and connotations associated with the term ecotourism as a continuum (see Figure 1). This continuum of ecotourism paradigms is bounded by polar extremes. At one pole is the view that all tourism (including ecotourism) has negative impacts/ influences on the natural world. Ecotourism is, in this view, impossible because any kind of tourism will have a negative effect. At the other extreme, humans are viewed as living organisms whose be- haviour is natural and who have no obligation or responsibilities to consider other living things. As a result of this paradigm, people are literally unable to behave unnaturally or 'un-ecotouristically'. There is,

therefore, no difference between the 'natural en- vironment ' and the 'human made environment ' and all tourism is ecotourism.

These two positions represent extreme and un- realistic views• In reality, definitions of ecotourism can be considered as lying in a position somewhere within a range that lies inside these polar extremes (see Figure 1). Ecotourism definitions can, however, be classified according to their tendency to be consis- tent with a high - or a low - level of human responsibility. For example, definitions that pro- mote the idea that ecotourism should be active and contribute to the improvement of the natural en- vironment lie toward the high level of human re- sponsibility pole on the continuum. Toward the low level of responsibil i ty pole are more passive approaches. These are definitions that argue that ecotourists must simply be unobtrusive and seek to minimize their damage to the natural environment.

Examples of definitions of ecotourism can be considered in terms of a position along this con- tinuum. Ceballos-Lascurain, 9 who was probably the first person explicitly to use the term ecotourism, 4 defines ecotourism as:

• . . travelling to relatively undisturbed or uncon- taminated areas with the specific objective of study- ing, admiring, and enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and animals, as well as any existing cultural manifestations (both past and present) found in these areas . . .

This definition lies toward the low responsibility pole and can be classified as a passive position. Additional definitions which also take a passive position in terms of the continuum include those by Zell, 1° who views ecotourism as tourism which is 'ecologically responsible', Muloin, 11 who sees eco- tourism as ' tourism which is environmentally sensi- tive' and Figgis, ~2 who states that ecotourism should avoid 'damage or deterioration of the environment ' .

D e f i n i t i o n s such as those by V a l e n t i n e , 6 R ichardsonf The Canadian Environmental Advis- ory Council 13 and Ziffer 14 fall into the 'active' cate-

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gory and can be located toward the high responsibil- ity pole on the continuum (refer to Figure 1). Valentine 6 proposes that ecotourism is, or should be,

restricted to that kind of tourism which is: (a) based upon relatively undisturbed natural areas, (b) non-damaging, non-degrading (c) a direct contributor to the continued protection and management of the protected areas used, (d) subject to an adequate and appropriate manage- ment regime.

It is, therefore, a definition which, under part (c), requires that ecotourists take an active and responsi- ble role and contribute to the quality of the natural environment. Ziffer 14 takes a similar 'active' posi- tion:

The ecotourist practices a non-consumptive use of wildlife and natural resources and contributes to the visited area through labour or financial means aimed at directly benefiting the conservation of the s i t e . . .

A number of ecotourism definitions are general in nature and fall closer to a central or passive position on the continuum. For example, the United States Ecotourism Society's 15 definition states that ecotour- ism is:

• . . responsible travel that conserves the environ- ment and sustains the well-being of local people.

Further examples of these types of definitions in- clude those by Young 16 and the Ecotourism Associa- tion of Australia. 17

This plethora of definitions does little to clarify what is meant by the use of the term ecotourism; however, this problem is probably best summarized by Miller and Kaae 8 who state:

Of course, the merits or deficiencies of ecotourism (or any of its surrogates) are not to be found in any label per se, but in the quality and intensity of specific environmental and social impacts of human activity in an ecological system.

In summary, this review of the variety of ecotourism definitions shows that, at a minimum, ecotourism is tourism which is based on the natural environment and seeks to minimize its negative impact on that environment. However, many definitions argue that ecotourists should attempt to do more than simply minimize impacts. They should also contribute to the health and quality of the natural attractions which they visit. It may be that one of the challenges for the ecotourism industry is to assist in moving ecotourists from a minimal 'passive' position to a more 'active' contribution to the sustainability of 'eco-attractions'.

Problems associated with ecotourism Ecotourism is big business. It can provide foreign exchange and economic reward for the preservation

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of natural systems and wildlife. But ecotourism also threatens to destroy the resources on which it de- pends. Tour boats dump garbage in the waters off Antarctica, shutterbugs harass wildlife in National Parks, hordes of us trample fragile areas. This frenzied activity threatens the viability of natural systems. At times we seem to be loving nature to death. ~s

This statement typifies the concerns of many regard- ing the increasing number of tourists who are visiting natural areas and who are having a detrimental impact on those areas. Others, such as Wight 13 caution that the ecotourism label is being utilized to take advantage of a 'greening' of the economic marketplace and to 'eco-sell' tourism and travel. In some cases ecotourism may well be nothing more than a new marketing gimmick which dresses up existing tourism attractions in an attempt to increase market share.

There is no question that 'green' sells. Almost any terms prefixed with the term 'eco' will increase interest and sales. Thus, in the last few years there has been a proliferation of advertisements in the travel field with references such as ecotour, ecot- ravel, ecovacation, ecologically sensitive adven- tures, eco(ad)ventures, ecocruise, ecosafari, ecoex- pedition and, of course, ecotourism. 13

Despite many countries and agencies looking to- wards ecotourism as an answer to both economic and conservation objectives 19 many remain uncon- vinced that such ventures are a panacea that both protects the environment and supports economic activity. Considerable debate exists over whether eco-tourism can be sustainable and what manage- ment regimes/strategies can be employed to mini- mize the negative impacts which are associated with anthropogenic influences on natural ecosystems.

The objectives of ecotourism management strategies At a basic level, the overall goal of management strategies designed to control interaction between tourists and the natural environment is twofold: first, to protect the environment from detrimental impacts and, second, to provide for and promote enjoyable tourist experiences. However, it was sug- gested earlier that an objective of ecotourism experi- ences should be to attempt to move the visitor experience beyond mere enjoyment to incorporate learning and to facilitate attitude and behaviour change. Additionally, it is argued that ecotourism management regimes should attempt to move eco- tourists from a passive role, where their recreation is simply based on the natural environment, to a more active role where their activities actually contribute to the health and viability of those environments. The success of a management regime can, therefore,

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1. Effect on the Ecotourist

Enjoyment satisfaction

increasing success of strategy Behaviour lifestyle change

2. Effect on Natural Environment

I Figure 2

Passive Minimise disturbance to environ.

increasing success of strategy

Objectives of ecotourism management strategies

Active Actions

~, that contribute • to the health

of environ.

be measured in terms of its effectiveness in moving the ecotourist experience towards these desired objectives (see Figure 2).

It is recognized that this view is somewhat idealis- tic. However , the relative youth of the ecotourism industry (or at least the relatively recent recognition of its existence and importance) and the apparent struggle to agree on a definition for it, suggests that a f ramework which allows ecotourism operations to be measured is needed. This kind of model can help clarify the place of various ecotourism operat ions within the wider ecotourism field.

Using indicators to measure progress toward objectives In order to measure the success of management strategies in achieving a shift towards the aforemen- tioned objectives a number of indicators need to be selected. These outcome indicators are shown in Figure 3.

At the most fundamental level the success of any management regime can be measured in terms of its impact on tourist satisfaction and enjoyment . A good management regime will rank highly on this indicator. However , more complex educational and behavioural objectives may be achieved if the man- agement strategies are particularly effective. The

intermediate steps which assist in this transition from enjoyment to behaviour change are, initially, the facilitation of education and learning and, subse- quently, the changing of attitudes and beliefs to those that are more environmental ly and ecological- ly sound. These four indicators , s a t i s fac t ion- e n j o y m e n t , e d u c a t i o n - l e a r n i n g , a t t i t u d e - b e l i e f change and behaviour-l ifestyle change, can be used to measure the effectiveness of a management strategy in achieving the transition illustrated in Figure 2.

It is also important to assess both the direct and indirect, short- and long-term effects of tourist use on the natural environment (the second objective). These impacts can occur in many ways and differ widely depending on the environment on which the ecotourism is based. Nevertheless, the second set of indicators shown in Figure 3 are suitably broad categories under which progress towards desirable ecotourism can be measured. More specifically, these indicators can assist in measuring the transition f rom a passive position, where the ecotourist seeks to minimize detr imental impacts on the natural environment , to an active position where the eco- tourism actually contributes to the health and viabil- ity of the environment. These three indicators, to minimize disturbance, to improve habitat protection and to contribute comprehensively to the long-term

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TOURIST

Satisfaction Enjoyment

Education - Learning

Attitude - Belief Change

Behaviour - L i f e s t y l e Change

NATURAL ENVIRON.

m

Minimise Disturbance

Improve - Habitat Protection

Long Term Health & Viability

Figure 3 Outcome indicators

health and viability of the natural environment re- present suitable measures of the desired transition outlined in Figure 2.

Collecting data to test hypotheses from each out- come indicators for tourists is not difficult. Accepted social science information-gathering techniques such as questionnaires and intercept interviews can be used to gather data on tourist enjoyment and satis- faction. Similarly, the level of learning, the degree of attitude change and tourists' intention to change behaviour can be questioned. These data can be collected using a before-and-after type research strategy where the data collected before the ecotour- ism experience are compared with the data collected after to allow assessment of the effect of the ecotour- ism experience. Alternatively, a control-experiment situation can be tested where similar groups are exposed to different management strategies or ex- periences. The results are then compared and differ- ences in indicators analysed.

In order to test for behaviour change a follow-up interview or questionnaire needs to be conducted. It is well recognized that intentions to change be- haviour do not necessarily result in actual behaviour change. 2° The follow-up should at tempt to gather information on whether the desired behaviour change actually occurred.

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Collecting data which allow the testing of hypoth- eses pertaining to tourist impact on the natural environment is far more difficult. Each environment on which the ecotourism is based will be different and, therefore, indicators selected to monitor pro- gress toward the desired state will need to be chosen carefully. However , for each setting, decisions should be made on what types and levels of change in the natural ecosystem are acceptable. Second, what critical indicators should be used to monitor this change should be determined and, third, what human actions are appropriate and inappropriate for that setting need to be decided. Various techniques can be used to make these decisions. For example, if adequate scientific knowledge is available for the resource, the most important indicators may already be known. In reality, however, this is seldom the case. Processes such as those developed for environ- mental and strategic planning (including public par- ticipation) can be used or an 'expert ' panel can be employed to arrive at a consensus on the indicators. In this way hypotheses can be developed which allow testing of the level of disturbance to the natural environment.

Assessing whether tourists' actions improve habi- tat quality/protection is less difficult. If tourists provide financial support and/or labour which direct- ly assists in the maintenance, protection or improve- ment of the natural resource they are visiting they are meeting this objective. The more desirable state occurs when a comprehensive and ongoing program- me exists where tourists can not only contribute during their visit but are able to continue to support and contribute finance, labour, expertise to the resources on a long-term basis. Measurement of these indicators involves assessing the management regimes in place for specific ecotourism programmes to establish whether they facilitate this kind of tourist involvement.

C o n c l u s i o n

This paper argues that ecotourism should strive to achieve objectives which result in better ecotourists and a better natural environment. It is recognized that what is seen as 'better ' , or a more desirable form of ecotourism, is very subjective and possibly contentious. Nevertheless, the wide variety of de- finitions of the term 'ecotourism' implies that the debate over what ecotourism is, and what it should be, continues. An analysis and presentation of these diverse definitions as a continuum allows the de- velopment of an argument that ecotourists should be encouraged, through the management strategy of the ecotourism operation, to become active contri- butors to the health and viability of the natural environment. This argument is not a new one; however, the means by which one can measure the desirability of an ecotourism operation in achieving

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this more desirable state will assist in the comparison of one ecotourism operation against another. Addi- tionally it can provide a basis whereby the success of a new management strategy can be tested.

A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s

I wish to thank Associate Professor Greg Hill of the Department of Geographical Sciences and Planning, The University of Queensland for his assistance and advice in preparing this paper. I also wish to thank the referee for his/her helpful comments in the review of this paper. Financial support was provided by a University of Queensland post graduate re- search scholarship.

R e f e r e n c e s

1Ecotourism Association of Australia 'Guidelines for ecotourists' in Richardson, T Ecotourism and Nature Based Travel Ecotour- ism Association of Australia (1993) 39-40 2Ecotourism Society The Ecotourism Society Document Ecotour- ism Society, USA (1992) 3Budowski, G 'Tourism and conservation: conflict, coexistence or symbiosis' Environmental Conservation 1976 3 27-31 aCommonwealth Department of Tourism National Ecotourism Strategy Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra 1994) Richardson, J Ecotourism and Nature Based Holidays Simon and

Schuster, Australia (1993) 6Valentine, P S 'Ecotourism and nature conservation: a definition with some recent developments in Micronesia' in Ecotourism Incorporating the Global Classroom. International Conference

Papers (1992) 4-9 7Moore, S and Carter, R W 'Ecotourism in the 21st century' in Ecotourism Incorporating the Global Classroom. International Conference Papers (1992) 140-146 8Miller, M L and Kaae, B C 'Coastal and marine ecotourism: a formula for sustainable development?' Trends 1993 30 35-41 9Ceballos-Lascurain, H 'Estudio de prefactibilidad socioeconomi- ca del turismo ecologico y anteproyecto arquitectonico y ubranis- tico del centro de turismo ecologico de sian ka'an, quintana roo', study for SEDUE, Mexico (1988) l°Zell, L 'Ecotourism of the future - the vicarious experience' in Ecotourism Incorporating the Global Classroom. International Conference Papers (1992) 30-35 11Muloin, S 'Wilderness access for persons with a disability: a discussion' in Ecotourism Incorporating the Global Classroom. International Conference Papers (1992) 20-25 lZFiggis, P 'Eco-tourism: special interest or major direction?' Habitat Australia 1993 (February) 8-11 13Wight, P 'Ecotourism: ethics or eco-sell?' J Travel Research 1993 31 (3) 3-9 14Ziffer, K Ecotourism, an Uneasy Alliance Working Paper No 1, Conservation International, Washington, DC (1989) ~SBlangy, S and Wood, M E 'Developing and implementing ecotourism guidelines for wildlands and neighbouring communi- ties' The Ecotourism Society Document USA (1992) ~6young, M 'Ecotourism - profitable conservation?' in Proceed- ings o f Ecotourism Business in the Pacific Conference, University of Auckland, Auckland (1992) ~7Ecotourism Association of Australia ~Ecotourism associations' in Richardson, J Ecotourism and Nature Based Travel Ecotourism Association of Australia (1993) 49 ~8Berle, P A A 'Two faces of ecotourism' Audubon 1990 92 6 19Boo, E Ecotourism: The Potentials and Pitfalls World Wildlife Fund, Washington DC (1990) 2°Gudgion, T J and Thomas, M P 'Changing environmentally relevant behaviour' Environmental Education and Information 1991 10 101-112

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