Towards A Migration System between Turkey and Russia: Changing Migration Patterns and Profiles

Towards A Migration System between Turkey and Russia: Changing Migration Patterns and Profiles

Ayşem Biriz KARAÇAYMigration Research Center at Koç University (MiReKoc)

[email protected]

April 22, 2013

St. Petersburg

Towards A Migration System between Turkey and Russia: Changing Migration Patterns and Profiles

theoratical overviewmigration system theory

macro structure / analytical partshistory of Turkish emigration since 1960sthe nature, characteristics, and patterns of migration to & from Russia

micro & meso structures / empirical evidencesmigration histories of project-tied migrants the role of intermediaries

concluding remarks

There have been numerous studies

conducted on the Turkish emigration but

no consistent research has been carried out on the migration flows including project-tied migration from Turkey to the former communist countries of the neighboring regions and vica-versa

no use of migration system theory in the research on Turkish emigration to

different destination regions.

Application of the migration system theory is not arbitrary, but is rather merely

functional!! migration system theory (Kritz, Lim and Zlotnik, 1992)

analyses international migration as a dynamic process linking origin country, destination country & migrants themselves

focuses on how to relate the macro, micro and meso-level variables to the larger context of international migration

takes feedback and adjustment effects into account

migration system is a set of countries that have close historical, cultural, or economic linkages and linked by flows and counter-flows of people, goods, services, and information which

tend to facilitate further exchange, including migration between the places

A Migration System

Source: Kritz & Zlotnik 1992: 3

Migration flows from TR have become a part of 4

migration systems firstly heavily involved in post-war European immigrationguest workers mostly in Germany, France and Holland (early 1960s)family reunification and marriage migration (after 1973 Crises)clandestine migration and asylum seeking (mid 1980s / military coupe in TR) second generation /integration-assimilation/multi-culturalism, return migration circular movements/floating population (late 1980s and early 1990s)

secondly annexing to Australian immigrationpermanent migration

then linking to project-tied migration to the oil-rich countries of MENA project-tied migrants mostly in Libya, Iraq, Saudi Arabia

strict rules & regulations / no family reunification & no marriage migration

finally, connecting to migration flows of the formerly communist countries of Eastern Europe and Central and Northern Asia

project-tied migrants, professionals and investors with small & medium size capital floating population

Turkish migrant stock abroad in mid-1980s, mid-1990s and mid 2000s

Receiving Country

1985 1995 2005 2008 2009

(x1000) % (x1000) % (x1000) % (x1000) % (x1000) %

Total Europe 1984,6 84 2841,3 85,9 2714,3 82,1 2734,9 80,9 3052,1 81

MENA Countries 200 8,5 127 3,8 105 3,2 110,7 3,2 162,6 4,3

Australia 35 1,5 45 1,4 60 1,8 67,1 1,9 71 1,8

CIS 0 0 50 1,4 75 2,3 77,3 2,2 107,1 2,9

Other Countries 140 5,9 245 7,4 350 10,6 390,1 11,5 386,7 10,2

Total 2359,6 100 3308,3 100 3304,3 100 3380,1 100 3765,1 100

Source: Figures are cmpilied by Icduygu (2010) from various sources of Eurostat and OECD

Number of Workers Sent Abroad by the Turkish Employment Office (TEO), 2000–2011

Source: Figures are cmpilied by Icduygu (2010) from various sources of Eurostat and OECD

Receiving Country 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

European Union Countries

2 264 2 685 3 912 4 299 2 783 1 710 1 330 8 249 1 861 1 637 1 323 1619

Other European Countries

83 219 135 237 406 176 32 2 337 3 204 1 766 78 46

The ME Countries 2 507 5 156 8 057 10 189 9 774 24 798 39 823 23 263 25 257 32 546 33 993 28 331

CIS 7 145 8 019 14 178 16 330 22 433 28 663 36 898 36 019 19 543 17 264 14 307 18 235

Australia, Canada, USA 51 116 185 93 78 94 59 278 53 97 27 21

Israel 1 322 3 917 347 422 130 417 602 254 115 541 401 50

Other 273 130 107 2 581 4 594 4 497 2 635 4 868 7 619 5 628 4 718 5 526

Total 13 645 20 242 26 921 34 151 40 198 60 355 81 379 75 268 57 652 59 479 54 847 53 828

Migration System btwn TR & RF

Initiation period (1917-1990) 1984 Natural Gas Treaty

Transition period (1991-2000) dissolution of the Soviet Union (social & cultural traumas) 1998 economic crises in RF 1999 earthquakes & 2001 economic crises in TR

Consolidation period (2001-onward) reactive migration policy management in RF liberalisation in the migration policy in RF economic recovery in the construction sector both in RF& TR

Initiation period (1917-1980): Early Years of theRepublics Close cooperation and military support during the Turkish War of Independence

An act against Western Imperialism 1925 Friendship and Neutrality Agreement & 1927 Trade Agreement with Turkey A branch of Ruskombank in Ankara

Turkey inspired by the Soviet centrally-planned state economy Statist economic measures were taken with the advise of the Russian experts The First Five-Year Plan prepared in 1932-1933 and ratified in January 1934 The first long-term Credit: Kayseri and Nazilli Textile Plants

Worsening relations between the Soviet Union & Turkey with the offer of co-sovernity at the Straits & renewal of the Montreaux Convention signed in 1936

Turkey became a member of NATO in 1952 & moved from statist economic policies towards economic liberalisation

Initiation period (1917-1980): Cold War Politics

Tension is high btwn the Super Powers & their alliesBUT

Credits rejected by the USA but received from the Soviet Union: in 1957 / Çayırova Glass Factory

Credits rejected by the USA but received from the Soviet Union: in 1967, 1972 & 1979 /Iskenderun Iron & Steel Factory; Aliağa Oil Rafinery; Atrvin PlateFactory; Orhaneli Thermal Power Plant

There are political disputes/increasing tensions between Turkey and the Soviet Union during the Cold War,

BUT the economic relations btwn them enhanced & improved

the cooperation which would lead to the first migratory flows between Turkey & Soviet Union

Initiation period (1917-1980): Cold War Politics

The economic relations led to the first initiatives in the 1970s

entrepreneurs and retired bureaucrats who were aware of the Soviet closed economy, bureaucracy and

specific needs that might be supplied by Turkey

Güntekin Köksal, one of the foremost industrialists, PET Consulting in Moscow in1974, (would be a holding in 1990s)

Ertan Balin with BASTAŞ Barite Company in Moscow, in1978 BASTAŞ, exporting barite (a mineral used in oil industry)

Initiation period (1980-1990): Towards the End of the Cold War -1984 Natural Gas Agreement

changing dynamics in the Turkish foreign policy the economic liberalization policies in 1980's the credit facilities provided by the Turkish Eximbank established with the aim of

strengthening the competitiveness of Turkish companies abroad the opening of the Sarp border gate between Turkey and Russia

increasing attention of Turkish contractors to foreign markets

completion of large scale infrastructural projects in oil-exporting countries and unfavourable conditions in the MENA countries and in the region overall and

Soviet search for new gas-import conutries through Barter Agreements(1981 Gas for Pipe Agreement with Federal Republic of Germany) led to

1984 Natural Gas Agreement between Turkey and the USSR

Initiation period (1980-1990)

1984 Natural Gas Agreement between Turkey and the USSR(Barter Agreement)

According to this agreementSome portion of the payment for Soviet natural gas was covered

by Turkish construction services in USSR

the expansion of trade has been almost on barter terms with one party exporting goods (natural gas),

while the other balances the trade by contracting services (construction) (% 35)

With this agreementTurkish businessmen and project-tied migrants entered to the Soviet Union

It is the core impetus leading to new directions/patterns in the migration system

btwn Turkey and Soviet Union/Russia

The Agreement strated to be implemented in 1988

Projects completed by the Turkish Construction Companies, (1988-91)

Source: TMB, 2010

Number of workers sent to USSR by Turkish Employment Office (TEO) is 1989: 932 & 1990: 1243

Year Company Project City

1988 ENKA Petrovsky Passage Moscow

1989 ENKA Hospital (1000 bed) Moscow

1989 MİR Hospital (300 bed) Krasnador

1989 MİR House Moscow

1990 ENKA Hospital Moscow


1990 PET Polyclinic Siberia

1990 PET Health Center Siberia


1991 ENKA Business Center Moscow

1991 MİR Business Center Baku

1991 TEKFEN Medical Drug Store Orenburg

Petrovsky Passage after the Renovation

Transition period (1991-2000)

First half of the transition period the collapse of the USSR led to nationalism, ethnic & religious-based conflicts,

minority discrimination and civil wars, created a totally new migration situation and produced mass repatriation of Russian-speaking populations flows of refugees, forced migrants, and displaced people from areas of

armed conflict and brain drain to the USA, Germany & Israel

Second half of the transition period the development of genuine labor market relations, the moderation of minority

policies, and the official recognition of the freedom of exit and entrance resulted in shuttle trade and short-term labor migration

emerged as a means of survival in the post-Soviet economic crises, and led to substantially lower social tension and a higher standard of living,

-irregular short-term migrants are mostly from the CIS countries & -labour migrants are mostly from China, N. Korea, and TR.


First half of the transition period

Turkish construction companies, as the main source of the flows of professionals and project-tied migrants from Turkey to the region, rapidly gained experience and sophistication by focusing initially on low-technology projects in difficult locations in the post-Soviet countries.

Two results: involvement of the Turkish businessmen not only in the Russian construction market, but also

in different sectors such as tourism, textile, and food in Russia.

investment of Turkish entrepreneurs with small or medium-sized capital & taking the risk of establishing gift shops, cafes, restaurants, bakeries or slaughterhouses in the newly emerging Russian market economy. Nejat İnan Textile Company in Moscow

Cengiz Aşkın A Hairdresser in Moscow


Second half of the transition period

spread of the construction companies (mostly graduates of METU) and project-tied migrants to different locations in Russia & in Post Soviet Countries

Projects of the Turkish Construction Companies in 1997

City Projects Companies DistrictsMoscow 35 19 Central FD

Solnechnogorsk 1 1 Central FD

Ekaterinburg 5 2 Urals FD

Hantimansisky 13 3 Urals FD

Kogolym 3 1 Urals FD

Novi Urengoy 1 1 Urals FD

Novozadovskaya 2 1 Urals FD

Perm 3 2 Urals FD

Salekhard 1 1 Urals FD

Tumen 1 1 Urals FD

Sochi 4 2 Southern FD

Stavrapol 1 1 Southern FD

Volgagrad 1 1 Southern FD

Ufa 1 1 Volga FD

Total 72 37

Number of workers sent to RF by TEO and number and value of the Turkish construction projects in RF, 1989-1999

Years # of Project-tied Workers # of Projects $ Million

1989 932

1990 1243

1989-94 76849 97 4209

1995 35792 33 1055

1996 20460 91 1674

1997 13195 124 717

1998 7426 56 1126

1999 2215 80 732

Source: Turkish Employment Office (TEO) and Moscow Office of the Commercial Counsellor.


Second half of the transition period

war in Chechnya, 1998 Russian financial and economic crises, growing difficulties in residence registration, existing administrative obstacles, and increasingly xenophobic attitudes in Russian society and the earthquakes of 1999 in TR the 2001 financial crisis in TR

negatively affected the businesses of Turkish companies in the region and ongoing migration flows from TR to RF slowed in the late 1990s

Consalidation period (2001-onwards)

First half of the consolidation period migration-control policies (2001-2005)

attempts of the Putin administration were primarily oriented toward the strengthening of law enforcement aspects of migration policies concentrated mostly on refugees and forced migrants, and illegal migrants with the aim of limiting the numbers coming in.

Second half of the consolidation period open door policies (2005-onward)

in 2005 the Putin administration adopted new acts with the aim of general liberalization of migration policy, increase of permanent migration, improvement in migration statistics, the expansion of the legal space for temporary migration, and limited legalization of irregular migrants

Consolidation period (2001-onwards)

Migration flows from Turkey to RF

Turkish migrants in Russia mostly residing in Russia’s two migrant-magnet cities Moscow & St. Petersburg have already established their own distinctive Features with different profiles! project-tied migrants professionals and small and medium-sized investors seasonal agricultureal workers (?)

Various investments: Efes Pilsen, Yapı Kredi Bank, Boyner,

Foundations and research centers & business councils: RUTID, RTIB, RUTAM, RDKD

Business Councils of Foreign Economic Board (DEİK) in Russia

Number of workers sent to RF by TEO and number and value of the Turkish construction projects in RF, 2000-2011

Years# of Project-tied

Workers # of Projects $ Million

2000 2199 75 181

2001 4190 31 165

2002 10160 19 343

2003 10816 38 428

2004 13281 40 1033

2005 19540 70 746

2006 24142 56 2292

2007 23118 59 3605

2008 15696 78 3387

2009 9482

2010 7720

2011 9266

Source: Turkish Employment Office (TEO) and Moscow Office of the Commercial Counsellor.

Russia:

Population is 141 750 000 in 2010 close 8-9 million migrants in 2010

close to 100 000 migrants from Turkey

Moscow:

close to 12 million population close to 1.8 million regular migrants

in 2010

Consolidation period (2001-onwards)

Migration flows from RF to Turkey

a decline in the shuttle trade during the consolidation period, an increasing migration flow towards the Aegean and Mediterranean cities in Turkey (mostly women migrants are crossing the borders for the seasonal work, especially inthe tourism sector)

-Shuttle traders-Circular migrants who works in various sectors -Inter-marriage migration/retirement migration-Tourists

Who are the project-tied migrants in the construction sector in Moscow?

were btwn 23-50 years old with an average of 33,mostly from urban backgrounds and fairly well-educated and skilled workershalf of them were single and the married project-tied migrants did not think about the family reunification.

“My contract will be finished in one year, so I have to move to another construction field, maybe in another city or in another country. In Russia, people have a very different culture and way of life. Religion is different, the language is very difficult.

I don’t want to bring my family here. They will be very isolated.” (Ali)

Project-tied migrants in MOSCOW: micro level analysis

Project-tied migrants in MOSCOW: micro level analysisWhy to go to Russia?

to get receive the entirety of their salaries at the end of the month,

to pay for children’s education and pay debts, negative working conditions in Turkey, the fame of the company and the prestige provided

by working with this company .

“Education is more than important; I have to work toprovide a better life for my children, and this is possible when they get a good education” (Hüseyin)

“My father worked in this company, he was in Libya, Iraq, and, you know, this company gave us an identity. For me, this identity is more than a logo, it is not only a brand. So how can I explain; we are like a family.” (Kemal)

Project-tied migrants in MOSCOW: micro level analysisWhat about their earnings?

salaries ranges btwn USD 1,000-1,500 / salary advance ranges btwn USD 75-100

most Turkish construction companies in Russia transfer the project-tied workers’ salaries to the workers’ shared bank accounts in Turkey

most of the migrant workers interviewed share their bank accounts with either their father, wife or mother.

migrants, holding shared accounts with their close relatives, leave their wages in Turkey and have their relatives manage these savings

“in the early 1990s, the payments were made to our own bank accounts in Russia. But some of the workers spent it in a very short period of time without taking their families into consideration. Some families broke up because of this salary mismanagement. So the company authorities took this situation into consideration and from then on they paid to our shared accounts in Turkey.” (Ömer)

Project-tied migrants in MOSCOW: micro level analysisHow to go to RF?

the first project that brought Turkish project-tied workers to Moscow with theimplementation of the 1984 Natural Gas Agreement was the restoration and renovation of Petrovsky Passage,

a historic architectural landmark in Moscow.

the first-comers had arrived in Kiev Train Station in Moscow after a three-day train trip, in October 1988. in the later stages of project-tied flows to RF, migrant workers used the 3-4 day bus services which mainly departed from Istanbul (Has Turizm) to different regions of RF.

today, the project-tied migrants transferred with airplane -- mostly cheap charter flights –and then arrive at the construction field, after a bus or train trip in RF.

Living conditions

actual buildings being constructed or renovated which provide workers with accommodation, consisting of rooms with approximately 4-8 beds at the construction site.

some of the companies are able to rent guesthouses or small hotels for their workers.

accommodations generally provide proper sanitary conditions, and workers have access to

hot water or bathing facilities.

Turkish companies provide decent living conditions for their workers.



Who are the other foreign workers in the construction field?

Initiation period: Turkish construction companies prefer to employ mostly Turkish workers in the field to avoid possible communication problems & cultural incompatibility.

Transition period: Increasing costs of the Turkish Migrant workers were balanced with the overqualified Russian workers. Bribery and stealing, theft, communication/language were the main problems in the field.

“a woman who is a space engineer worked with us in the field not as a secretary but as a driver of a the big construction maschine.” (Orhan)

Consolidation period:Because of the internationally competitive construction market in Russia, today many companies prefer foreign workers who will be employed without going through a complicated employment procedure of Russia and/or are able to speak one of the dialects of the Turkish language.

As a result, at the construction sites of the Turkish companies today, one can easily meet a Tajik, Uzbek, or Kyrgyz worker.


Future plans in Moscow

most of the project-tied migrants do not plan to go back to Turkey permanently. for many, migration for a work is a long term life strategy. the main intention of these migrants is to continue to circulate with different projects

to various countries.

The answer to the question of other possible destinations apart from Russia came as different company names with different job opportunities.

In other words, project-tied workers are not tending to go to a specific country itself

but preferring to circulate with companies providing themselves

economic prosperity and job security.

How to hire project-tied migrants?

Construction Companies: mostly used their own human resources as their major source of worker supply for theirongoing and forthcoming projects.

are also cooperating with legal intermediary/subcontracting firms mostly initiated by their former workers.

legal intermediary firms are the major protagonists in job placement of project-tied migrants from Turkey

Project-tied migrants in MOSCOW: meso level analysis

but, the costly, unclear and long administrative and bureaucratic procedure to recruit project-tied migrants from abroad to Russia makes some companies/subcontracting agencies to recruit workers illegally

they may*transfer the workers with tourist visa to the field,*failed to provide the promised salaries and conditions, *forced them to work for long hours,*left them with substandard onsite living and unsafe working conditions,*confiscated migrants’ passports and forced them to work without wages

“One of my friends was deceived by an illegal subcontractor, and he came to Russia on a tourist visa; then the subcontractor took his passport. He said that at the construction site he slept on the basement floor of the house that they were building and ate only macaroni for two weeks.” (Reşat)

Project-tied migrants in MOSCOW: meso level analysis

Concluding Remarks

since the early 1990s, new migration patterns have been experienced throughout the post-Soviet geographies.

the internalization process of Turkish constructors, the changing dynamics of the Turkish and Soviet foreign policy and economy has widened the direction of the migration flows btwn TR& RF introducing new migrant worker profiles in the post-Soviet geographies,

project-tied migrants, businessmen, professionals, small and medium-sized investors, seasonal agricultural workers have joined to the migration flows

-Shuttle traders -Circular migrants who works in various sectors

-Inter-marriage migration/retirement migration -Tourists

Concluding Remarks

YES!

much more work remains to be done, and

the analysis should be extended to other cases of different migrant categories/profiles through which some comparative studies could be conducted.

YES WE CAN!!!!!

Thank you.........

Towards A Migration System between Turkey and Russia: Changing Migration Patterns and Profiles

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