Topic 17

Leadership Skills

Enhancing Learning From Experience

Creating opportunities to get feedback: Use an “open door” policy, solicit feedback, and use tests and surveys.Taking a 10 percent stretch: Consciously and voluntarily extend your behavior beyond your comfort zone in small but significant increments.Learning from Others: Remember that you can learn leadership from a variety of people, by asking questions and observing everyday situations.

Enhancing Learning From Experience

Keeping a journal: A leadership journal helps you to process your experiences and provides record of events and ideas.

Having a developmental plan: A systematic approach will help you make choices about activities, seminars, etc., consistent with you own goals.

Communication

The systems view of communication depicts a process of :Intention-Expression-Reception-Interpretation-Feedback. Specific practices to improve communication include the following:

(a) Know what your purpose is;(b) Choose an appropriate context and medium;(c) Send clear signals;(d) Actively ensure others understand the message.

Listening

An integral part of good communication, listening is considered separately for emphasis. Active listening skills include:

(a) Demonstrate the nonverbal signals associated with active listening;

(b) Actively interpret the sender’s message;(c) Be aware of the sender’s nonverbal

behavior;(d) Avoid becoming defensive.

Assertiveness

Assertiveness is a skill where one is able to stand up for one’s own rights but also recognize the rights of others. In dealing with conflict, assertiveness is distinct from acquiescence (giving in) and aggression (attacking to hurt others and/or protect oneself).

Abilene Paradox

The Abilene Paradox describes a “groupthink” type of situation where assertiveness is needed. To behave more assertively , one should:

(a) Speak for what you need;(b) Learn to say No;(c) Monitor your inner dialogue for

counterproductive self-talk;(d) Be persistent.

Giving Constructive Feedback to Others

(a) Make it helpful;

(b) Be specific;

(c) Be descriptive;

(d) Be timely;

(e) Be flexible;

(f) Give positive as well as negative feedback;

(g) Avoid blame or embarrassment.

Guidelines for Effective Stress Management

Stress is the process by which one appraises and responds to challenging or threatening events. Stressors are the factors in individuals, tasks, organizations, or the environment which threaten or challenge. The leader’s role can be stressful, and leaders can increase their followers’ stress level or take action to help them cope. An individual’s optimal level of stress can facilitate performance, while excessive stress reduces job performance and affects physical and emotional well-being.

Guidelines for Effective Stress Management

To prevent excessive stress, the following guidelines are recommended:

(a) Monitor your own and your followers’ stress levels;(b) Identify what is causing the stress;(c) Practice a healthy lifestyle;(d) Learn how to relax;(e) Develop supportive relationships;(f) Keep things in perspective;

Use the A-B-C model – analyze the sequence of Triggering Event – Internal Thinking – Feelings and behavior.

Building Technical Competence

Technical competence is the knowledge and expertise a person brings to bear to successfully complete a task. Followers need technical competence because it often determines performance (and the appraisal of performance), gives expert power, and may bring the follower into the leader’s in-group. Leaders need technical competence because it relates to managerial advancement, helps in training followers, reduces role ambiguity and conflict in the group, and stimulates follower problem-solving, thus increasing motivation and organizational climate.

Building Technical Competence

Determining how the Job Contributes to the Overall Mission: Look at what knowledge and behaviors are most related to job and organizational success and evaluate current level of skill.Becoming an Expert in the Job: To gain expertise, enroll in formal education and training, observe human behavior, ask questions, and seek opportunities to teach others.Seeking Opportunities to Broaden Experiences: Suggestions include performing the tasks of other positions in the work group, visiting other parts of the organization, working on team projects, and performing voluntary activities.

Building Effective Relationships with Superiors

Important for less conflict, greater support, more satisfaction, higher ratings, and because the success of followers and leaders is interdependent:

Understanding the Superior’s World: Know the superior’s personal and organizational goals, recognize their strengths and weaknesses, and keep then informed.Adapting to the Superior’s Style: Clarify expectations, initiate discussion, and be honest and dependable.

Building Effective Relationships with Peers

Workers are typically interdependent and must often “influence without authority.”

Recognizing Common Interests and Goals:Acknowledging shared aspirations, expectations, and values can be facilitated by forging informal communication links and socializing with people outside the work context.Understanding Peers’ Tasks, Problems, and Rewards: One can learn others’ tasks by helping with problems, and can better understand positive and negative behaviors by considering reinforcing factors.Practicing a Theory Y Attitude: Assuming the best on others helps bring out the best and encourages them to look at you in the same light.

Setting GoalsGoals and action plans are vital for people at work together:

Goals Should be Specific and Observable: God goals are specific, not general; focus on observable behavior; and should be time-limited.Goals Should be Attainable But Challenging: Good goals are difficult but realistic.Goals Require Commitment: For goals to be meaningful, they must have followers’ acceptance and commitment. Participation in goal setting increases acceptance and satisfaction; it may increase commitment and performance, but not above the level f a goal assigned by a competent leader.Goals require Feedback: Goals can best affect behavior if regular, performance-based feedback is provided.

Punishment (Discipline)

Punishment is defined as the administration of an aversive stimulus or withdrawal of a positive stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior. Although controversial, punishment is sometimes needed above and beyond the other motivational approaches in order to control follower behavior.

Myths Surrounding the Use of Punishment

Common beliefs about punishment which research has not found to be true include:

(a) Punishment causes undesirable side effects;(b) it is unethical and inhumane;(c) it only temporarily suppresses behavior;(d) it enhances group cohesiveness

Punishment

Punishment, Satisfaction, and Performance: Contingent punishment is often correlated with contingent reward behavior; together, these may decrease role ambiguity and increase satisfaction. Punishment generally reduces absenteeism and turnover but has no consistent relationship with performance.Administering Punishment: Leaders making internal attributions about poor performance are more likely to use punishment; leaders should be aware of the fundamental attribution error and make decisions about punishment carefully. Effective punishment focuses on the act, not the person; it should be consistent across behaviors and leaders; and it depends on good two-way communication between leader and follower.

The Hot Stove Rule

Following are McGregor’s ideas about characteristics of effective punishment, drawing upon the hot stove analogy:

It’s swift:The association between the behavior (touching the stove) and the consequence (the burn) is undeniable, and the reaction is immediate. Therefore, leaders should establish clear rules and policies so subordinates know the consequences for misbehavior. Furthermore, leaders must act quickly and not “look the other way” when negative behavior occurs.

The Hot Stove Rule (cont.)

It’s relatively intense with the first offense. A hot stove does burn you. Similarly, leaders should ensure that punishment is felt. On the other hand, leaders should avoid overacting the first time or else there is not “room” to increase the severity of punishment for subsequent offenses.It’s impersonal. The stove has nothing against people and doesn’t lose its temper. Leaders should stay calm, be objective, and maintain credibility so the subordinate focuses on his or her behavior, not the leader’s.

The Hot Stove Rule (cont.)It emphasizes the behavior, not the person. The stove-toucher’s behavior is punished. Likewise, the subordinate’s specific acts are the target of punishment, not the person. In administering punishment, leaders should emphasize the behavior was wrong, but the person is okay and still a valued member of the organization.It’s consistent. The stove burns every time. Favoritism or selective punishment will cause serious morale problems.It offers an alternative. The person can move away from or avoid the stove. Leaders should present subordinates with acceptable alternative behaviors to those being punished.

The Hot Stove Rule (cont.)While the hot stove rule may be a helpful analogy for guiding use of punishment, it has limitations like all analogies. Most importantly, a stove doesn’t think, but leaders must. Or example, leaders must do their homework before deciding whether to punish someone, or what the level of punishment should be. Leaders should not assume an account they heard reflects exactly what happened, how it happened, who it happened to or with, or why it happened. Leaders should only act after they have gathered all the relevant information. That should include talking directly to the person involved and hearing that person’s side.

Conducting Meetings

Meetings are a necessary but costly reality of organizational life. Seven helpful tips for organizing and running good meetings are:

(a) Ensure a meeting is necessary; (b) List objectives and develop an agenda; Distribute in advance; (c) Provide support materials well ahead of meeting; (d) Pick a convenient time and place; (e) Stay with the agenda; (f) Manage participation of group members; (g) Record minutes for a future record of the meeting.

Delegating

Passing responsibility and authority from the leader to a follower for completing tasks or engaging in activities; leaders who delegate skillfully have more satisfied and higher performing groups.

Why Delegating is Important

It frees time for other activities.Facilitates follower development in problem solving, decision making, etc.Strengthens the organization by increasing motivation, satisfaction, development, and innovation.

Common Reasons for Avoiding Delegation

It takes too much time- does cost in the short term but saves in the long term if a recurring taskIs risky- some loss of control, but requires leader to set expectations, provide training, and monitor statusJob will not be done as well- again a cost in the short term, but necessary for developmentTask is a desirable one- important to convey trustOthers are already too busy- requires reviewing tasks and priorities

Principles of Effective Delegation

Decide what to delegate based on analysis of activities and time spentDecide whom to delegate to based on matching opportunities with individual needs, skills, and goalsMake the assignment in clear and specific terms for someone who has never done it beforeAssign an objective (what to do), not a procedure (how to do it)Allow autonomy but monitor performanceFive authority to do the job; then give credit if things go well, not blame if they go wrong

Managing Conflict

Conflict is a fact of organizational life, and negotiation and resolving conflict are important leadership skills

What is conflict? Conflict occurs when two parties have incompatible interests or goals. Conflict is more difficult with bigger issues, when people are personally invested in the problem, when hidden agendas exist, if it is a win-lose or zero sum situation, or if parties see the conflict as unresolvable.

Managing Conflict

Is Conflict Always Bad? Conflict may stimulate innovation and productivity but can also negatively influence organizational climate and turnover.Conflict Resolution Strategies: Five approaches are described based on two independent dimensions – seeking to satisfy the other party’s concerns (cooperativeness) or one’s own concerns (assertiveness): Avoidance (low, low, on the two dimensions, respectively), Accommodation (high,low), Competition (low, high), Compromise (moderate, moderate) and Collaboration (high, high).There are relative advantages and disadvantages to each approach, and situations where each is appropriate.

Five General Approaches to Managing Conflict

1. Competition- reflects a desire to achieve one’s own ends at the expense of someone else. This is domination, also known as a win-lose orientation.2. Accommodation- reflects a mirror-image of competition, entirely giving in to someone else’s concerns without making any effort to achieve one’s own ends. This is a tactic if appeasement.

Five General Approaches to Managing Conflict

3. Sharing- is an approach that represents a compromise between domination and appeasement. Both parties give up something; yet both parties get something. Both parties are moderately, but incompletely, satisfied.4. Collaboration- reflects an effort to fully satisfy both parties. This is a problem-solving approach that requires the integration of each party’s concerns.

Five General Approaches to Managing Conflict

5. Avoidance- involves indifference to the concerns of both parties. It reflects a withdrawal from or neglect of any party’s interests.

Negotiation

Leaders can use negotiation to help resolve conflicts between others. Some useful suggestions include:

Take the time to prepare for the sessionSeparate people from problemsFocus on people’s basic interests, not just their initial positionsSeek win-win outcomes

Problem Solving

Identifying Problems or Opportunities for Improvement- The focus needs to be on defining the real underlying problem and not just a symptom of the problem and on defining the problem so as not to predetermine the solution. The Pareto Principle states that about 80% of the problems in a system come from about 20% of the causes.

Problem SolvingAnalyzing the Causes- Cause-and-effect (fishbone) diagrams and force field analysis are graphic tools that can help identify and prioritize problems to address.Developing Alternative Solutions- The Nominal Group Technique is an idea generation technique similar to brainstorming where group members write down ideas to be posted and shared with the group

Problem Solving

Selecting and Implementing the Best Solution- Focus here is to find the best, not the first or easiest solution.Assessing the Impact of the Solution- The importance of measurable criteria is emphasized in evaluating effects.

Providing Online Leadership

Challenges of Online LeadershipCommunication

Choosing the right words, structure, tone, and style for digital communications.

Performance managementDefining, facilitating, and encouraging performance.

TrustCreating a culture where trust among all participants is expected, encouraged, and required,

Empowering Employees

EmpowermentInvolves increasing the decision-making discretion of workers such that teams can make key operating decisions in develop budgets, scheduling workloads, controlling inventories, and solving quality problems.

Why empower employees?Quicker responses problems and faster decisions.

Addresses the problem of increased spans of control in relieving managers to work on other problems.

Cross-Cultural Leadership

Universal Elements of Effective Leadership

VisionForesightProviding encouragementTrustworthinessDynamismPositivenessProactiveness

Gender Differences and Leadership

Research FindingsMales and females use different styles:

Women tend to adopt a more democratic or participative style unless in a male-dominated job.

Women tend to use transformational leadership.

Men tend to use transactional leadership.

Leadership Can Be Irrelevant

Substitutes for LeadershipFollower characteristics

Experience, training, professional orientation, or the need for independence

Job characteristicsRoutine, unambiguous, and satisfying jobs

Organization characteristicsExplicit formalized goals, rigid rules and procedures, or cohesive work groups

Substitutes, Neutralizers, and Enhancers

Substitute for leadership suggests that there are factors in the work environment that can take the place of the behavior of the leaderNeutralizer of leadership suggests that there are work environment factors that prevent leaders from acting as they wish or which neutralize the effects of certain acts of leadership

Substitutes, Neutralizers, and Enhancers

Enhancer of leadership suggests that there are attributes of employees, tasks, and organizations that amplify a leader’s impact on the employees

Leadership Skills Sections (Hughes)

CreativityDiagnosing Performance ProblemsTeam BuildingCoaching/MentoringCredibility

New Breed of Leaders

Mgmt Consultant Jack Carew – “Caring about people is essential to good leadership”Rockefeller MaximWayne Calloway (former PepsiCo CEO) – “Secret to any leader’s success – the 3 P’s…

People, People, People