TOliAL OF 10 PAGES ONLY MAY BE XEROXED
126
CENTRE FOR NEWFOUNDLAND STUDIES TOliAL OF 10 PAGES ONLY MAY BE XEROXED (Withoui Author's Permission,
Transcript of TOliAL OF 10 PAGES ONLY MAY BE XEROXED
CENTRE FOR NEWFOUNDLAND STUDIES
TOliAL OF 10 PAGES ONLY MAY BE XEROXED
(Withoui Author's Permission,
IL0r1
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.• + Natio~al Li~ra~ of can~da _ ,CollectIons Development Branch.
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Canadian Theses '0';
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, Biblioth~ue nalionale dl:J Canada , '-, Direction du develo!)pement de~ collections , ' '
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~ ' . '" " ,' ~ ~ . , LA Tl+~E A ETE ' MICROFliJ\"EE~tELLE QUE·
NOUS' L'AVONS>RECUE . . /'" . ' . . ........ .... , "
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A Study, (yf Helping Beqavitrr Between' French
I'; . Engli~h. Indlvi.du'alS in C~nada
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AI'ain Coupal. B.A.
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. , ' -A, ~hesiE:l 8ubmi,tte'd in
of the, req,ui remen t;s Master - of
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pa~tial fulf~ll~erit for ' a degree of ' '\ ~c(eri?e' \ .
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. " Depa r t men tof " Psy cho logy
' ~emori~l Uni~e~siti ' of~e~foundland April 1982
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the
Two e~peri~ents 'were ' conducted. ' In th.e flrstexperimen,t t!',wo ' \ ,/'
experimenters, on~ ' Frenc~ and one En~lish, ~a~dp~ly ' sele~t~d , . '
., ' subjec--t~ f .rom the ,streets of 2 '.cities and , 8 towns in New
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Bi"uns~ick : and Quebec. ' Threehund red and , e'(g~ty':"'fourpeop Ie
,were selee ted. " I
They were . ~ ~ ..
asked questions . '.,, ' ' about :- their
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language usage ' " and about " the.ir.pla·c~ of residen~e: ' The
dep.~~ndentmeasure of helpin~ ~~a:sth .e willingness of the
p~ople to ~pend ' 15 to 20 ' minures a~Bwe~ing th~ ~uestion?;
' Subjec,tB , wei'e -adults, ma'Ies or females, by - 'themselves, )
ge'tti:-ng out of a ,e.ar. To ' be included: as subj ec ts they had
to l)sp~~k , eith~r ' F~ench , or Engli~h m~st
live lri ihe loc~le in which ~ the interview
3) rave the same home
Pften: " at h~~~' . 2) . , .. \.)~'
was . c ondu'c t:e~d;: an'd ,
loeat'ioll' The second ~xperim.~nt "had · the same independent
va'r iab les . but used 'a : non':',rea c t i vi
lost ' lett,er, .
technique. , ' To ' 're'p resent ~ ,
cultura\l . identtty, , .
letters bearing ei r:her French or Engli"sh adresses , where lost
in the \
same ,. areas the in terviews t ,ook 'place. The -were
' ~esulti of the , liv~ .:in t e rvle,ws ~ .... . '
were not as antic ipa ted,
i.e." " there was neither i'ngroup .- favo,rit,ism nor 'equal level .~
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of . help for both expe riin.en ters. The English e~pe r .ben t e 1;'
.also obt~ined s'ignifieantly ,.!p.ore help ' ', from ,
the Eng/Ush
.: popu ht ion" than French popv:la ti·on. " The' Erench ./, ' . . "
'f rOll) . the .' , • . ' ' .. . •. , I ' experimen·t.er · received' 'significantly ,less help ~ overall ' and
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for . ' him' there were no signif'icant differ .ences" between the
POP~latiOU; . pmber . of ~osSible . explana tions a<e · pr~pos.d 'for I thes e
,Sine e ,a'niy
. results. .' The . first '· ones , ·are methoaolo.gical. :
one ~~perim:ne . ~~ each CU:~ tural iden,t :ty . '~~8 ' us .ed . the personality effects . were weakly . controlled. Th'e.
. ... . . . r . · . . - "
(expe ~~men ters "migh~ . al·So~:a;e "applte~i; ' d \.~~er 'en ~ially, ' the
sa~~liig pr~cedrire. . ',-:
A second regsQn i~ i c~l~uralone~ ' It
~ouid 'be that· ~th pop~ladons 'percelve'd' theE';.gl:Lsh as . a
" higher status ·p .~rson. ' urban~~influe·~ced . . ~~el ' of '
help dif'ferentially, , th'~Frenc,h ~opu.lati~n was more helpful ' " ,
:, in - cities, ' , .the " English ' population in town!l- For' ~,qually
in .: ha~d to ,· I .
ut'banized popula t ~o~.s
explain. ./
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,The /io~t
, () sigpifiC}lnt' t'esul ts. \ . f.
. . this particu,l 'ar
letter tec!tn'ique
This w-as probably
pa t ter:~
\ failed
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beause \ '\ \ .
to ' provide .
the control
over ' the cultural : .identity of the' subje~ts ' ~,ci:s weak. The
diffi6ulty \ 6f .arriving ~t a' s~rict d~fiilition , \ ~f~~'ri1tUraL identity af' o/,;,ding , ;epreaenta'ive . me,,~~\, ,'. Of each
,:l:de-ntit'y , '(French or Engiish) are propo'sed for ' the'\ equivocal . . r . . ' ~ \ . :
res.ults. .. " "
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Adt,nowl'edgemen t s
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"-, I would I'ike to thank the peo'ple who 'have h 'elped me ' tt!l I
) . . ·complete t his work.. ' my . ' a d vis 0 r , Dr • A. . S. Ross ~hos'e
. patience was . ·t~,;~t~~:': a .nd " .apprecia~ed during all ~~e B'- tages ~~
th 'le ' " th~sis, a 'lso the other members of the comm~tte.e, Mr· '.M. ;
GJ:'ant a'ndDr .,, ' ,T • . Hannah ,f or thei}/ tl'elpf 'ul \, commen ts.
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I :wQuld like to · thank · Gowe~ Bradshaw, for his time and
efforts, wh1 as ~y\ ~~, s tant in ' t~ 'e f iei~,' ~a~e ' .~ t ' ~OSS"i bl '~ · ~ .
f 'or m,e , to complet~ 'tfe . .e'3.periment as originally Pla~ned" ~
, Mi. Rai'~Y' D:od.e, '. ,ystem .mana.er:··wfloi .rth.GO"oumt' puht
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' .e'l· p j~.eice.r got . me , out oJa f:ix ', ma~y tiines; t would
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procably be still ' sitting · in front of ~ a · 'dead-: ' ,t.erminill •• ~ " \
... ' '
Finally 1 - would :like ' ,to thank the ·staffo.f .. the Memorial.
Hbr~'r;, : - esp~c'i~,l1y ' ,the libra~i.ans ,"who: ans .wered ' , I, ," . " • " -~
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TABLE OF, CONTENTS
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Intrqduction.. ... • ••• Al t ruiBm and , he Iping behavior'- •• ,Cultural '" identi,ty" r ,e1atea conc,ep ,ts,
.. ' et'hnic:1ty,
" ·1 a n g u,s g e. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • .. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • C,ultutal iden,t~ty 'a~d altruiB~1 he~p-ing behavior ••• U r ban spa c e, s i z e "a,n d pop u'1 a t ion den 8 i t Y • • • • • . , •••• ' • C:L t i ' e s "a n d he l p i , n g be h a v i 0 r •••• ' , ' • ' .' . ' •••• ' • .' ; •••••• 'Cities' and cultllral iden~ity and ,helping behavior. Overvlew, ••• " ~. ' . · .: , ••••• ,1>, . ~· ......... ' . " • •• . •••••
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Exper imen tone. ' Experiment , two. Expe'ritIJEmt one. E~perim,ent, two.
Metho'd •• .. ' ~ .-. . . . . . ,Method. _, ••••• ,.
.'lbesults • .., ', I .' • ..' , ",
'Results." , ", •• ' ••••
.... . ... · . .... ' . . . ,\,; · ~ . .. .. ~ .
Discu8sion~ • ',' " ......... •• ,·e· .;'. "
/ " References; • . ( .... . ' . " . ·
" Appe'ndices , ~ -/ . ',/
Pi lot,.. for" ;x~~men tone. ','1" ... ' ...
Data recording form. Pag~one (English) .. Data recording' for.m. Page one (French) . ... Da.ta ~e'cording ,fo'rm. Pag 'e two .......... .
· ·
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A. B. C. ,D. E,. F., ' G.
Sequence' of location·s.~' ••••••••.• .••• ~ ••• Bl.ock diagram f 'or the province ,of Quebec ••••
. ...... . ' ,'Brock diagram ,~or ;the 'province ' of N,ew ' B'r~nswick ••
H. ' :I. 'J ~ ,
. S a iii pIe . IF r en c'h ~ ~ t t e r • ' .. ..... ' • ~ ••• ~ • :. •••• ' ••••••• ' ~ •••• Ratio 'tiale. for ' 'the ,selec,t 'ion 'of the loutions ••• : ••• Expl'anation of 10g-iin,e~r tnodel; conditionnfRg,' , .' marginal- and " partial ,' association. • .' •••••••••
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1 4
14 17, 20 25 29
'32
34 41 44 66'
68
87 '
'94 95 96 97 98 99
100 101 1)2
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.Tal;>le ' 1. The qu'e 'stions ask-eel to. the subJects ... ..... ~ . ' •• '. 3~ ' · \ '. . , "
Table 2 ·, · variabl\. . na~es and symbols ~S',:d in ' t 'he . . ~ ' " ' ' .
'A' a" lYSis\ •••••• ~ . ........... : ~ ••• ~. ~ •• ' ~' .. ~' . ... I , '
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Tab ie , 3' , co'tit i ng e~\c'y table',' s how,i ~ g:' the · p ere en Uge ' . . ' . ;1 - ., ' "
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; J peop~e asked for ea-ch lev!'!l of. 'the four
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r' . of peo'p .le \ h·~lping and the total· number'. 0'£
. " independent ' variables {live inter.views) .... 4? , " " " . \ . .' , . .
Table 4 T,~t ~~~., ' ~i~nifi' ca,nt interactio~~ ' ,(i'~' c~~tingency table . four) wit~ four independe~t v..atiables a .nd · o .ne~' .depend·ent one.,. " 49 · '
I • • \ I , . • i' " . TableS Test . . two. COr\,:t :ingency table with three ,
i ndep en den:t va~,ia b 1 e,s (p r ovin ~ e va r i!'1 bie colI a p sed) • ~ ••• \.' • • • •••• '. • •••• ~ . '. ' ••••••.•• ".' . • • . S 2 . ' ' \ "; . ,
Table 6 T:es~ three a ,). A'nalysis oQ the' d~t-a for the' · Fren.ch Eloxp.erimen \ er alone. ·.--f'C"O'tnngency .. '. table with 3, inde\ endent ' v~riatM.es) •• ~ " ... ~ ••• . 55' :
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Table 7 :Test fhree .b) •. An'alysis perfo1:lmed 'on the ' data for the ' English experiment"er alone. ·(3 independen,t var :r'ables) •••••• i .... ' ~ ~ ...... ;. ,
Ta·ble 8 ~estf ·our 'a\, . ~na .i ~'~i~ · f~r -the \Fre~'Ch " "
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pppula.tiOn alone. (3 in-d~pe'ndent variables) ..... It ••• : ••• \ , ' •••••••• ~ .' ~ ••••• ' ••••••• '
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Ta,ble ~ Test four h)'. , .Analys!i.B for the English . .. ' . .. . I
popula t ion 'a 'lone ....... ~ .. , ' •• ; ••••• : ••••••••••• 1., ! ' . ' , " \ \ . '
, Table :10 .-Test Fives) ' • . :knalysiS \ for ,Q~ebe ,c alone ... , I . • . \ .: ' .
. table iI ' "Test five b) ~ Analysis for New , Br,unBwfc~. ·f a 10 n e. • •• ~ • • • e , ' • ~ • • • , ,: • • . ' .. , • • • • • • • • ~ • • • ~ . ' ,... . ' • • .
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, ' Table . 12 I Contingencytable of results f~! the five , . / variables showi,ng t ·he · percentage of people
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·64
, I helping for each 'le'vel ()f t 'he ' independent
/' ya r ~ a b Ie's (loB t' 1 e,tt: e r.s) •• ~!. :.' . . . .. t, ••• ' , ' • • . • \0 • 67
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I, Popula'ti 'o 14 Provinces
15 PopuHti'o' New ' BruT}s
1~ Popu ~att' o , New , Bruns
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by ' mother tongue 'for ' Ca~;~da a~d )' - 1976. C·ensus •••••••••••• .••••••
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D.d.ion~m.kin. ";0\.", of '.1trui.t1c , b e h ~ v 1 0 ~ -'J '. • • ~ ~ . ' ~ • • • .'. • • • • • • •.••• ~ • . ' ••• " • . .. : .. ' ." .
' ~elpitlg 8S a ,functi,on of .co.mmunit-y siz~ ·. ¥ ~ 'nd " .. -Il~pgua~e .... ' ,~ ~ •• '. ~'. ~ •• ': ' .' • "~. ' " • , •. •.• ~ • , •• ' .-.'
. , P.ercentage of help received ' by " theEngliah exper:Cmenter 'in 'dtiea and · t .owns r in ' each "
../ . ' ,' " , p-r:.Qvince' ••••• , , ............... , ~ ••• '., • ,," •. ~ •••• , ••
, , · .1 , ,'
P erc.en t ·ag.e 'of each p.opu la t iori ·h.e .lpi-ng c :iHea and towns in Quebec •••• ' •• , ~; •.•• ~
'.~ '. .' . , . ..'
in:
, Percent:age ,.o£eac.h experimenter ~'.
popula tio~ h"e :lping' ~ea 'ch' \. , . . .
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, / " , Introdu{tion'. ·C '. ! " . ~' . ' .
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' .,'
dismis s led as a 's oeia1 ,/ .
I , 1
,, // , 4 ' ,
fbl~qmber" of y .. ~s ,had", boon
force with which to : contend, 'we have' 'f ' ' • I
a. resurg,efce of ,the" e.xprE!ssfon ' of
ethnic / '
feelings at the Bubnation,al levefin many coun,tri,es. ~ " ,
"T'he, d E!s ire
,2 to remain in" some sen~~ , a ,part of' an 'ascriptivE!
still , ~ar/L, of mOd,~r. ,m~.'" cult're" (P~ter.'~. 1979~ p. ' 4). We haVe an example of.. this phenomenon herein
~~O\lP , is
,I
!III
Cana,<li:r, where fhe's lit between French and En'g-lish i"s said
by, some, to threa ten
.. , "Can'ada and it
protracte,d state of
.. ' I
he exis,t ence oJ; the c,?unt ry.
\
const i tut'ional system i's
c.'ri ,8 i s ll the Pepin-Robar~~ Task
in ' a'
Eorce on
C.anad ia nuni ty concluded . in19 7 9 · .(T·he 'Task Forc'e on , Can,adian
Unity. A , ",fut ~e together: Observations and .' .
,' r,~commenJat'i~~9~/ 1979, ' Cited , in:La~:r" 1979, irt ' prefa'ce)~ This is on,/Y one of th·'; 1ates t in a long ' list o'f repor ts on
.' / ', '
. the c o~nf 1'i c t tha t l1a be en pIa g u,in,g ' the c oun try ;s ince b e ,f ore
its fo.uudation, : ~ ,
, , I • , j .. : '. ,
' This conflict results from ·the , 'antagonism , e~istil1:g .. . I 7
between ~he two i f6unding 'llat,ions·t·he French and the'English. ,
popu la t ions, • >
,the'
. ~ . two cu]..tur,a1 ,groups s ,tillexi'st and ' retain 'enough of, their
·or.iginal identity 'and dist 'inc'tivene'ss to ,keep i:he- debat,e
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of this continuing' ant,agpni'sm" is' \- ' " .
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language of s~h,ooling, ia;'g~ag@ ~ '- .
,alive. A cru~ 1 fea(ur~" o . r • uri '" '
1 !...__. . . . .. ~ , , ': the figliit 'over language use, • 1-. ~ .
,>: of ,co~municat, ion , etc.
I'
' But , intergroup relations" as p~rtray 'ed.i~ ~the' medis may , . ' .
;create " an ", 'impre'ssion of ,~reateP ' 'negativity than reall~:"; , i
exists. EVen though ' thi<s repor,ting may fac :tuallyreqec t' I ,
'. o ' , .i,n dif~0ereni: spheres of national activit'l.~s, " " , , t ,he, events
. ~ .' ' .'
, , , ,\' (politi~s, fan confrontation at sporting " ~ven' ts, conttoversy'
over, t ,he ,' us e ,,' I , . ." • .11 of t~e " ,French' language ,in aviation tr,affic
...... 'iI.o . --- J . "
, contro,1 in ' '197-5":76, ,etc.) , it re~,ains B ,parrol'B.l view", (Media
r~p 'ort!ng,~,' wi'th , 1tB_ 'emph~Bis an the ' !1egativ~, D Side ,of, ,events ' , ,
• 8S mor~ newswo'rthy, is " partly repbnsib1e : fot. this image. ,) If I 0 ! . • 0 0
. ! .
to , an ap:pre c fllt '! on " of the s t ' te of we timit ourBelv~B , "
.r !'
aff'airs between 'the two ' groups at a generill lAd, wether \.\ : ' ! ' \
or " no't we have :jlgrasped, the esserlt'ial ' features of , their ',} 1 • ' " • ' : ' V " .1
" I ' ', re18. 't 'ion~ ' 'is op~n t 'o ' ques'tf.on. I~keles and L,Vi~,S~nJl ' ,(\l'lJ.~~..( ,,/"
, "
I,
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advise us tq st,uPy ' behavior of individuals ~cross , n 'ational
character ' instead of ,re-Iying ,only on global 'asseBs~~n~' 'of
~esp,ective ~ttltudea . towards ' I ,.
e,Eich other. Contact ' b; etwee~ It\ " Pf ' . . '.
individual's r ,f the , culturAl groups may reveal , a ,differe,nt, ..
more POBi~iV~ rel~tion!hip. . :,
" . , For example this testimony ' from a French Quebecer
. tr ,aveHin~)~ the .,ater.n prov~ces: ,
,Les gens [le.s , Anglai'sl. di rig ea le1'l t 'plu't-at }eur ",
hostili,te , cori'tre " Ie ' Canada ' ft~aniaiB da'ne i SOIl
ensembl~ et non pas , contie mol en tant I'un d 'e ' / " .. '
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ses repr~seiltant8. · "'(M,ontreal ' Star, O~tob~r 6,
.' 197,6. ~ Cite;a ' bYBeriault~, l.n7,'y~ 159). ,7
~ h.ere ~ i8, 'then, the p08sihil,ity pf a , '. di'S~rep~y assessement' , of ·· the .. relations ' . be~ween (cultural ·' )OU!?B
in the
depe~ding .. onu th~ 'P'/tic~~a,~ level
f cY'cus • " '
which , we ' ~hoose at to
'.- '
.' -. ". -' ~-- , 'conf HC-t ' :wiH Si~ce ' any iesdlutiori of th~
,'1 ~
. , :: ,~
:recur,ri~ ' • '. '"' . ~ I •
. i . , be , ,at the ' ,politics,l '" level , arid invo,lve the ' two
tI . ' _ . - \ I
cu.1tural g+,oups :,as 's' whole it may n'ot be deem'e'd, ' importan'tt''o, u . ~ . )~' • . ' _ . ' ', .. I - , ,/ ' , ," . •.• ,.' .
know hc;>w indi~ic!ua"1S ' ~ irite'ract ' on a peTsona?~leveL' ' Most :, " . " .
approa'che,s " to this c?~s~ culturai problem have undJ~rplayed . \ ' . . ,. .... ~ ,. ' . . _. . ;a . : , : , . J • •
th,e ,_ importance of the be~avior of individuals 'of 'th,e two
maj~r c~ltu~al~roups when th~yactually meet : ea~~ " other • . .- i ' ••
II ',. We~ wa'n t 'to ' raise the qU"es tion of ' whe'th~r 'or n'ot interac tions '-" .. \ 0 , , " . . ' .
" ,
e ' . ' ~
at ' the individual level ar'e sitp.ply ' ,~ ' echoing whatever the
. na t ional ~ ' , ethos happens " to
test~~ony ,~o , ' th~ , '
be. Or,
" tremendous / .
are indiv'idu'al,
varieties , .
I
of
. '\nt,er~e~sonal ' b .ehaviors .. out o,f which lore may. ha,ve' falsely 0 , ~ t,
fis6i~neda ~i~piisti~ ~nd ' pe~ha~s unr~~listtc - ~~tio~al '
image • , ,
In : this , thesis 'this , -~oint of view will be -exp;!.ored ,
'hi , foc~sing on a f{eld .' ~f psy~hol?gy which has been
~ . ' '
e~ten'sively - researched :., , ', :
aJtr~ismiheiplng • , ,- '. I ,
1>eha.vior.
exten's·i:v,.e ' pre'vious ,~esearch , w'h.i~h· e:ids ts is an ,adv. antage . in .,. .
. tha't ' "1 t '~'ermit~ tbe ' selec tion' and specif,lca tion of . the
,:, features' pf a ' behavior,al . ~v.ent , best ' s 'ui ted , . " ~ .... :: \ ",
o to ' explore ' the
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, Altruism and Helping Behavior. , '
\ ~
Th'e concep'ts 'of altruism ,and help,i,ng are ' .iel'~' ted ~
in
tha't helping beh~vior , ,'i~ .a subset, of th, e , gh~e r al class of ,.
beh~vi~r~ ' called "al truis ,t i c:' ~ . , 'Of , three • " r.
recent ' books,
Bar-Tal , (1'976), ' wis·p e . (1978), and Rushton (1980) all agree
,on amini,m'U~ " defi~itioJ1 of al tru i stic beh-avior ' a~ "behavior . .' ,
app"a ren t ly carri'ed out ' in ' order ' fo benefit another." ," -'
(R u s h ton ~ , 19 8 0, ' p. 7) ~ . \.~
\ " I
Of the, ' three, '" Wispe (1978) would make the most
, "
altruism, ~ when compared ,to
" helpi,!i'g:/ "Altr'uism r~fe,rrs ,to '·self-"sacrificial , behavior ' in " ~' . . . ~
the grand !Ilanner; ·. helping rese~;.ch'has ,investiga'ted ,those ,
bits of , eV,ery ' ""day behavio"r by which social bonds " ar.e
reinforced" Bar-Tal ' (1976) equates all , ' ,-v~luntary b'ehav~or that is car.ried out to ' bene'fit .. s 'nothe:rj:
, , I
wit,heut ' ant~c:i.pation of ext,e:,najewar'dS 'and , is performed , t
:, .;-~
fer 'its own 'end with altruism-.: Si ilar ' behavf.or ,from / "a '" . . .'~! ' .
recipient,: who tries to rec'iprpc.e' e' the previ,o,usly r~ ,ceived i~.
" hel~ and , the b~havioi ef , ~ 4harmdoer who ' tr~es to compens~te
h is vic tim" "( P:' 7) is ',ca lled res t itu tien. Toge t her they
come under the heading of "prosoc'ial. ' behav'io~. , Rushton , " " \
(li80) ,holds a middle ground. Insk ead of dichot6m~zing the , . ' \
concepts he sees them as faliing .. along
helping/ , aiding at One ' end and altruism, \. ', ~
a continuum, with
blhavior UiD,;hlCh
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the outcome is maximized · for anoth"er, even ' at the exp~se ' o'f
the se·lf" · (p~ .- 8) at pie other end.
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We~ill first present a brief overview\ of the theor-ies
concerning the ·root·s - of altruism - to Be~-\he theoretical "
, I', "
: ba.c~grou·nd for ·.helping oel1av .. i9r. "-" .
, \
Many ca·.uses of altruism have been posited ~ . They can . I
g~~eraliy _ b~ Jivided int~ biological, sociocultural,. and ' Xhe
. _psycho·logical. For Wispe (19.78) it '. is part of human nature
and its genetic make-up. t
Hoffman (1981) ~lso ~ropo~e~ that - ' . .
altr~ism is part of · human nature.
"from ' ' ~iolo 'gy and psychology~ ••• for the gcquisition of
altrulstic •• '. structures in' · humans."
respons ... es, . empathy. A different or.der · of .' biological
explanation would lie i>ne ."b~i . (1 ~80~; who p'ostulates
an internal reward system, for-~'lt:ruistic ~c;:ts "activated by '
prior conditioni~g ' or evolutionarr p~aparation releasing " , ~
/
./ ·-moo~-contro lling . substances in the' _ brain I
o'r 'perhaps T ~ ...... '\ elsewhere ' in the b.OdY: ;' · (p .8-7) •
Altruism "c'l:,eatel;!, for the . behavioral
scientist" : (Wispe 19·78, .· .p. 304) '. Ame~ican psyc~ology has
been influenced 'by reinf0I:cement · th.eories · of behavior~- which
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, ~. '. ~, 6, are based \ on the notion that actions a're posed ,by an
organis,m 'pulled' by the variable probabtlity of positive ,or
"
negative r.inforce~~nt ' (see The
'. notion ' that an organism would act against "i ts own individual /
self-in,terest, i <
that it Il\ight act for 'the benefit o'f another , " " ~ ' " ,/; . : I'" "
without ,poB!t~ve ,r~~ards for itself and eyen ~he possl~ility .'. " ' . . ' f • i . . ' . . ~ I{ • \ t •
,, ~f ', harm dO,es , .n'ot fit 'naturally into ,t ,his. , pa~adigm. ' Cohen , , -':
(1978) argues that tne altr,uistic pa'~adox ' is ' resolv~d at the . . ~ . . , . ,/ . ,
cultural level n9t a't the biological. ' 'Campbell ' (197.8) , is in
/ag~eement." wi.th Cohen's (1978) vi~w ' statirig thai "s~lf
, 9upp.ort'ed by indoctrination rather \
than counter to \ , ~
genetically transmitted dispos ~ ti~ns" , (po 41).
A related view is one by , " those who take a social -:.z.,.
" , /, . nnbig .. . ~pppr~,chto altruism'. They would argue that
alt , uism is learned :like any other ~ehavior ' acquired . . .. ~
~h'r o~gho"ut "the de~e'lopmentJ of man. Bar-Tal " (916) "and ,
Rushtb'n (1980) fo~example ' review evidence pertinent to ' thfs
, poili. ' Both conclude tha.t ','parents , are vitally tmportan' t
ag ,EmtS 0/ -socialhation [!cir aH1:uia1)1 ' in p.'articul'al;]
their "c,hii"dren.," '(Ru"shton,1980, p~ )32) • . ' .. ,
l"h
for
" . ,, " ,_ II> , .(';:':; At, the psycholo~ical le~el, Krebs ,(1,918) argues that
the influence ' of thepeison 8Ild the', milieu, iir inter'a-ctio 'n, ' " ,
ar,e fundamental. ,
Furth~rmore personal variables "' should " ~6t
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be limfted to _... . . -r' "
the most ·superf.icia1 but should · .iWUls-t'igate
' the meaning , Of·th~.,:ct8, , tile 'i~'plicit r'~ieS-?f , COOt ' uct a~d' the IIn'ormative structure of , sociai , expec tat·;lons · . .. hat guide
'. , s ·~tial be,havior" (p. 147).· Kr~bs . out lines an": .ap~ ~~t''o' .
solve the problemcatledCOg,Litive dev'~;oP~l ··or
structural" ass'oeiated wi'th Piaget (1960) .and·. Kph~erg
. . '
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•
\' Cogl1ft'ive .;levelopmental · ·thepr; ·· tre'atseoncepts . 'l ike' altrui'sm as ' products . 'and . to·oIs of reasoning. -:,~,.
\ The ' .idea cif :a1 ~ruism exists pecauae i; . s ·Y~izE!:s--:'-,· , :';., . ·\a . set , ' of social phenome.na •.. People s -!-de,a about .-! .. !-I<.~,:.. altrbism e~6iv~ with ~ogniti~~ development. ~ _ ( p. - ! 5 '2,,) • . '. ....
. / '
, ~.
His .pa r t ieula r focus ·i s 01' , the, ,II'sign:i fic an ce 0 f'altr1-li 's'; as " '
a~ aspectbf mo~al , ~bligatici~"(~. i55-i56)~
.. People do 'Dd·t·: .. pass.~ ~:~y w'ait \ f or" s itua ti~ns ' · to affect them; they ' acti-vel_y seek. out . and construct situ~~{cns that are ' app~o~ri~te to their'lev~l cit dev~lopment. It, is inteirated p~t~er~~ Qf
·.b~havior that " charpeterize peopl~~ not lsolate~ ~cts. (p. 1~7). .
, : .
Argument~ aboui the pr~cise name )~to , be' - 'given . to a ;
..particular aet :~ ~ft ' b~come invol~ed if .ntecedent inteinal • . ,Q
~onditi6nB ' inf1uencin~ the behav~or ~u~h ~s- the . , ,' .
I possibility
In t ern'~i pre s s~ re s ,~.t'o,-;-a-C1:;' . degree of s el'f 1~ s s-ness • :,.4" • I , \ , \
~requi:red; .the 'expectations of ·:futwre ,'reciprocity, etc. ' I,' 'are "..-/ ', I A ' '. • •
' ,.
'.' ". ·brought , in.' Witliout denying the 'i ,mport:'loce of the study of
th~se conditions i ~oul§ ptefer ' togp ~long with Rushton , , , '
.(980) when he ' s'-rgues tha t--.dis·cus s ~ons to . c.Q' J:I..Q~I.QoE~l..t...-E~~~ .......
altruism exist have beenfrui tless-, since \
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one ' can.' ·mak'e ' a , .,
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j' ucigment on .' the ' apparent quality ' cif . an' act but noi: on the ' ;. , I
. ' . · iestri~t the definition of ~elpini t~ observable behavior,
.i.e., ·whether' or n~t a subject is 1ti-11i?g to spend .time to
. answer a . . number Cif . que~t i _ons;
pf·d~clding whether or not , a behavior is really , alt:ruistic.· . , ' . .
bas e'd reasons of ' t 'he persona • Q
/'
10 ~hh thesls weare 'nterested ,~ ' difr-.;e~t. situation whe.r.~ $e PYformance of ' ,helping
,option rather tY in the, Hyp~.;~el;cal c,ons truct a' . . given . as. . exp la na,tlo,n lan te ced en t s . ~,f ~ 1 trui sm.
It ~iliBuffice for o~r ~urpoae to kno~ - t~~t , ' . .
.,
!J e'ven
I
i'f' the
explana,tion for · ,altru~ .sm :and altru~is . ti~ acts lacks a ,unified,
~oint 9f vie~, the ~xistence ' of altruis~ . ltaelf does not
, .
./
a 'e~m 'i to be ques tioned.
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,Since , tile . . , study - , a'ima to . inves~lgate ~ th'e . ~ ;; level of, .
~
positive ' interaction exi~ting be~v~en . individ~;18
t~ each o~ .) th~ ~wo cult~ral ~roup8, _ . a' behavioral , .
should , be . .
·approp-rlat·e. yelping ~"be1!,ayior · . will • • • .. . ' 1 • . •
tha t '
.. A · number ' {'f ' ~i.YC~Olo~·ical steps , .
, ., • -'l
--are e nec~s8ary , ..
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~elping act ,takes ' plac,~ or' not'. " ,Bar-Tal (1976) /
,g,ives\ a good 'process \ '
and th e various factorstha't impinge upon ,it. The common
'e.1eme~\ts of , helping beh~vior that w~ find" in most of the . ! ') , . ,,'..
,,~, i'lt,era~ure , on helping" are ' repre"sented in Figure , 1.
,'" " '\: ',.
( '. ~.
. ) " .. '
- .we\n~r' s . (1980) m~:d e C ;'~~le aokni'wledg ing .. th... . th~re ar,e a~ \1I,Iany de,~ermin~nts ,of"rhelp,in~ ~s therf ~r ,e ~Qurces of
motivati!qn" (p.' 197)' focuses, mainly on ', ' the ,following, I 1 •. I
, ' .• • • • " :"'. ~_ ' .. ' ,.. c
,sequenc.e! of ,events~ first internal to the' person .'~ :
,.
f~l1owed by ./'
overt be~avior' which, ' comprise, a helping act. / ihis is
"
, ' I , I ' rep,res'ented' . i~ , the fol 'lowing ,model of 'helping b'ehavior
: ,,/ . ,
divided' ' into ','a ,'three st~p "process: 1. , a'i~r,ibutio,nal
,analysis, caus , the need, ' (esp~-~:iaiiy' ~o'~trb,llaOility): . . ' I • • t ,'.~ ~ I , I ':.
, "/ request;i.n'g "help ,had 'contrlol" over " th'e , " I '
t.he r'eq ,uest; 2: bysta~der affective' , .! ~ " , ,. ' , ~(.
behavior. . I )
... ,
, .... '
reaction;: 3"
I " ,/ :t:Ieyer and ; M~fhe rin' s0.980.) inv~s t igat i~n. ,II'e'xp''!.ore [d)
, ' I
'further th~ ap 'plicab'flity of Wien'er' sattr'iJution~l' model of , " " , ' '! ' j, ft • . .' ~ II- •• ".' " t'
mot ivat ion ll (p' '' ' 203 ) 'by ,means 0 f ques,tionna i 'res. probing , ' the r' ' ' , /: ' , ,
"hi'potheti.cal / behavto< ', pf ithe Subjeci:!~ i~aced ,with 'various .' , : .1 ,I' l . . 4 _
conditions 9'f cap,sality(" and: TO,~nd confir/matory , eVid 'ence for ;/ , ' / ,'
it. ,I i '
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T~iandis ' (1976) and
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ji'i~ure L " DecISion-making'( prO,cess of 'altruistic be'haviqr,. " .
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.,' ,:", '
" , :"Nbt'e.: F.rom, Prosocial behavior: ' Theory and research ,
by :;D~" Bar,~Tii-i .. '--- N-e;i ':Yo'rk: "Joh'n W,~ 1 ey & S~ons, T9 76,.' " , .. ;t
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11 :
i '" , , " I' t~~ee , componen ts of , help.!ng: af feet, self'-reinforcemen t , and
cognftio~. Triandis'. mod~1 in its . entirety is very , ,"., ·r '.' . "
~omprehensive, t~king into ' account at~ribu~ions .b~ut others D '
" .- , .1
be '~~~iqr '~ , on~" s o~n pr~~to,u; behavior,. habi ~' j'0thers , aC,t ion,
· .... · f~~llitating' · conditions, differences in interaction .,
, .
..
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' pot en t t$l • . and 'ind ,! vid ua'I " ' d if f erences. " " ; " I' . con's'ist of .the . sam",e~leine~~s "as Bar~,Tal's , model.
; ~ ~ I
' """
B~t ':. bas{cally, . it
11 , . S c h'w art z (1 9 77 )
. " ;
(~. 223) foc~sea more na~rowly ' onthr~e ~
types 'of. explanat'ions to ' account f 'or ' the' li~k between , '
exposure to' the need, ,pf a ,~othe'r , and , the , initia.tion ' , of
I ,
in ten t i o'n . t 0 he 1 p : ', . 1) ~ \
arousal of eu!otion, 2) 'arousal of , I~
. " . ( . , . '
so' cia 1 ex pee tat ion s " 3) a r 0 usa 1 0 f "'s elf ex pee ~ a t ion s . " He
,acknowledges thai' the thre~ are not mutually e~.clusive and
that they can cotitrib.ute 'in combinations to the dec'ision.
'r second The one
soci~ty~ Whether or "' not one 'conformsto i ~he'ir requirement , ~ . ") .
\ I ' ,
" , · is part , of. the cost\-r,ew"ard caICulat~Onjh~Wri' (n Bar-T.al~ s
_ _ __ (E.ig.u.r,e , . . l.) · ~ . Th'e th{rd'i~ ~lS~ .. gov~~n~d -: by -' ,riorms,. but in
' I
' ,0'; .', ..
this case ~.rson~l I , '
norms whichmay , even . run agairis~ th~
im~edi.te self interest o~ the ~erson~ " ,t ,
" .. '
Although ' .Bryan and , Test (1975) ' focused . on I.' \ "
."self";s~c~iiic·ing" '- behavior ,their ',model is a,ppllcable to '\
.less d .,:m~nd. ing 'acts of nO,n emer·geney helping. ', They propose, ' /
three. hypoth~ses' regarding the situational determinants: ' ' 1.
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, ! . , of reciprocity', wher,e in-dividuals ,will
, "1""' " ~'though they maY ", n'Ot have ,rec,eived ' \ ,
,-~ . .' :~,' h,elp f7=om them in the t, ast'-be~aus~ . th:yi ~x;:~t ' ;e'CiP~~'~al
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, :' behavior on : their part; 2. sO~ial'!re8P~nsibi 'lit 'Y norm" . \. ~.
' ~here depend~ncy on others evokes i
helping, I . ,,"
wpen · ' the""' pos8 'ibility\~f " exter~~1 ~ewar18 for the help 'e~, are
r ,e,mote; " 3. the pre'~~;;'~f ' helpin~' l , (or ' ,non hel~~~g) , , !
mO,d,els t where ' the ten~ency to help ,willi be' higher ,fo'r pe~op~e
wh'o ha"veobserved , ,80meone 'doing ,
Sch,war t¢ ,(1977~ " th; role ' of no'rms . ' I ,. : :
ca,ses ' out of ' three ' s 't least. J ..
! ' Da~+ey , ' and Batso~I, (1973) ~t :~te ': that ' p,erson~'lity
,;', 'variables would " be ' ap'pr~priate It'o ' inSl~de ~ ,if" we ' a ,re !
" intereste'd ' in the different ,forms ~'elP~ng behavior can take
but> 'that 'the ' de~i~ion"to ' ' hef~rlor ' not is situationaily
'cori,i:-rolled (the' second gro,up" of ,vlriables' of " influence :. in
Figure .1).
:" ",
,,'
' .. " Some author,s w,hi.le ' a:ckno~ledging ' t;he mulHple , .
d'eterminan ts ," oftll~ , , . helping act , see~ to ~ut mQre emph~~is
, I ,
up6n' the pers,onal'decisiori power ' of ' individuals (Personal 'I ' ' ,' " ;. ..)-,
v~,riilb ,lesl in ,F.igure l-r~ ' !:OtherSgiV~4,r '~" importance to
pressures , that arise from, the ,social ,' environm.ent ' (even if . 0 , ~
internalized) •
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e~ Ii '· ' ,ha'l'e
. be'en 8tu~ied as ' a~t~c~de~t8
.1e~ h or a · }f_ ~a dab
for helpi~g behavi r "few · of ",
'those related( to ' each ' other i ,n any . cohere,nt - ~ay~1 , (p~. 723) •. ........ - ,
'-" ,'J . ~
rejects a , p~r:elt sftuational
,a~truistic behavIor (h,is ', point ' il relevant ' to . I
K reb s -: ("" ( 1 9 7 8 )
t:he' more ;.
",~ restri<;:tive notion . of heJ,ping) on the gr?und that the liS~.
of poss i b Ie vari,ab les could . be·' extended ~ i!ldef i~iteJ.'Y • . / - ~- " "" " ~.,.- , ." . .
Indeed a '. n.um-a:e.r ,of ' papers reviewed were, takenglo'ba'I:!:t" no . . ' , .,. . . . . ' ' . ''''~~i:''"; .
mox;e tha'n ;, ... an ... .' .. accumulation , of sometimes , ingenious;~~,ut
I. ulti~,ately sup~rfic 'ial va~ ,i!itions. on a' theme' w'~hin i~self d~d no more than add foot,ootes to a point already made that
. ,/
' variat'ions in' 'situat'h)ns~' l:ead tovar:l-ations in helping. "
Krebs ("1970) , also . recogniz'es the difficulty' of. ' an
inte~~ated · pe~spe~tive.
riev~rthe1ess offered , an organizational framework for the
'variable,s ~ith ,? altruist;ic ~ behavior cross • '1"1,.
classified , a'long the' two di~en'~'ion ls :1 ' "" ,
of l chsl,"acteristics of
t ,he ,per sons involved and the lev'el of g.enerality. ' (Again-,r.
aitl10ugh :Ihe ' focuses on altruistic behavio'r "1 belie.v.e his ----- . . -..
. review is 'ap'plic'8'ble, to helping acts): .
The fi~st dimensio~ of cl~ssificatiori, ,tben, separates ' .' variables which ',' ', r'elate the chara~teriBtics ' of benefactors , that cause or
"
'correlate with a1 truism fr'om ' ,the al truism eliciting characteristic's , of recipients ~ •••
.:"'.j.!.-:' Independent , variables can 'also ,beclassi.fied according to their level of generaliti. . Research on al~ruism b.s ·, manipulated ~ndependen~ ~ariabies ,at . four .more on. less di~s' tinct levels of generlllity. ' The fi.r,st' .. levelinvoives . t ,empor.ary psyc~oJ:ogical states,-.. Tbe second l~v 'fi!l of
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"~I· ' , ' g~neraiit' involves personality t1"aits •• ~ .. At "t 'be 'thitd l~ver ' -~hat which invol~eB Bocial ' roles ' and. · ... 'iemographfc ":ariables such -as : soci~l c1a~s~ - age, a~d ' sex':.:" the level of , gpnerality , is even
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greater·... The" ·final . level, which deals wfth ." '" .' social norms, Is tb~ m~s~ ' general ' of the fou~
(P.p. :. 262 .... 2·63). . ,l.
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-': '/" ./ C
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:;: ,of
f . , - -. O~r -inte1"est in dimension one . concerns characteristica
'I' '. bQth . b'eriefactor and , recipient.
, .. In, dim ~ensio\n two gu·.r .
<inr::e~,est · go~s .beyond · Simple s' ituational ' variables to inClude -"--' '/ . ~ , .
~evel _ o~ gr6upaffiliatioQ ~nd nati~daiit~~ "
./ . , ,
"'IOur .interest .'stops ''pelow' tbe level of', ·' social norms I
..
.' Wh~\C~\.~8~: :Krebs (1970) states "are , so gene~al that the'y
: . ~ . ~ul'ply ~no,' 'info~rmation ,about the variance ' i,n .", incidences . of ..¢.
even at that · level . it ma~ be alt'ruism" I
(p. 263). :. However . 0
.. . possible to '- encountEir. cross , cultural differe'nces. TlJ,e norms , ' : I ' " .
. of ' .. he Ipi ng ~.ig h t ', die ta ted iff er.en t ac t ions ac co r 'ding to tb e
.. I , '
Culturai Identity~ Related Concep;s,Ethnicity~ :Language . .. • • . f· •
, .... . ~
. A question , to- b,e considered . 'is -how' the ', . concepts
. . ·. c-ultures • .
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cr.ucial ·' . I comp'onen t ' ~ -'
a of cuI tura.I
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.. ~-..:.., . d :La t 'In c ttv en e as .
of cU,lture t " 'and.
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."Lling 'ua~e is th 'e ' most , evident ;. expression
in . t .urn t,: ' a cultural : ~de-ntity,' revolves '
around and'· is· ~aint~:i.ne·d,by . shared , lan'guage" (Laxer" 19,79, . , i . ' . .", . ' '", . 0 ' "
p. 25) .• ' .' It it ' a ' most pr~~inent ~eature in , a ~erbal exchange ' , .' ., . . . \ ...
between individuals or groupS of different mo~her , ~ongues :
other in ' day to day
'. : ' . \ I ' '
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1 ':,
(1977 )l fou~.d a , ~ ' .
' thr'ough , ·Gil'es, Taylor,, ' and Bourhis
multidimen&ional . . ,( . .
8c~ltng procedureJ with ' Welsh students that " "
language ' ~ven. took prece,~ence ' over ' cultural , back'groundand , , '\ '
geographical ',,· region for ,::" p'ersona '~ ident'ity. Bu·t ,tney aIs~ ' ~ , ·· f found t hat . ' wi t h '~ ncr ea's e s
'-,.' -'
.oth~r fa 'ctors
,salient. . "'. .. , .... . ":' ..... '
1 ' ./
,Tay~or, . Bassili~
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Abou,d
, s'ca lin'g ' s t tidy, , . , r· o
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in ,1=,1' a cu 1 tu ra 1
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in,' anoi:h,er
.time wi t li 'Fr Em'c h
""Canadians anCi" Eng'lish 'Can;di'ans, again found' the • • J -
, importance
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of .' }:anguage.' . However, ' in the case of , tqe French Canad,ians.
, I '
bB:ckground played , a v,ery. importan~ 1'0 e al~o, ' mo're , o ,,'.:.~. '
for 't~-e :' English , can~d;an'~. I The Fre' J h , ca~adi~ns ~ , '. '
c~l,tural
~~, : 'than
. . , - .' .,.. ,
'being a minority in North ~merica, have felt .: I'· ):' .
Qr,e acutely
," the : ' need
idE!Otlty. • #' •
· based "·' , o,n'
'ii, -
' for a common
This - i~ , ~chieyed
bondto ' presei~e their collect~v~,
th,rou'gli '~ n'~ t'i.onalia, ~ic I fee lings
a - shared c~u1ture' . ,
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·nationalisma,s .'lI an :e t~nsion of e,th.nic.itY Qr as -Baroti', (1947) , ..
: --.:.--~ ha a 0 • put _~~ 4
. e 'tbno',cu 1 tIH!:~'t., eo 1 idar 1 t Y' II • '. '. : ... . \ •• " \.,:) o;. ,~' •
it;, ' ; 'a~ ' org"anized . ,. : . ,' , .
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... j ~ Lain~ ' (197.6) ao·R·n •• ledgea . the ·re l>~·i ve im~rei iaion thai · r./:.· . . .', . : ," '. .' I
. .. has:. '. d~v lo~¢'d ' in wha t ·· . was .. t;h~ 'histo'rically, well d!!ffoed '.': '" , : . i . ..:. , . t •
0 , ethnic i"dent~ty, of our ancestors · .. ·who . f~ rs' t settled, on' thi,s , '. ' "
, Beca~se " . of ' . yast ' movemen t and i~t' erminglin.g of
P? \rlation~ .' t.he, terms " French' at\d~Eng1i.~ h' . are boun4 ' t.o, ~ ~ .,
he te I'O'S eneoue gr" ouP /:~ f . :i nd 'i v1d uais. St,i1l, :/
h .e ' fi.~S . that .... a ·.: ;'~espond~·n ~; S '"s ,elf definition ~f: ,: :'thelr " . "
ethnic , memba~sh~v . [do~s) show" a , high correlation wi th th_e ' . ' . '. / l '. . I ',' • • .... , ,
, ' ,'
and . , cor,respo,nding ' . . e ,thnic . '" , ' . .,. .. .... '
'spcike'n . a: t ~o~e, the ·. l~nguage· ;:.,.. . .
; o~erwhel~ingly ;' the language . t . ;.
I' .
~'po'k.en bes t is th·e . :ine~ .ofthe.i .r cultural .. group'. .," ..
, ~ . .... 1 r·' . . '," . "
. ... M c.'
"' ,
, ~~n'guage. wil'l play an-" important · role ' in cueing th'e , '~r :,t, ' r'
" ·st.ereotypes. 'v'~ h·a';'e.' de"veloped to apprehend a · set. of inferre if ' ." , , • 'I. , ,~~t ,.:" : , ..,., ",.
~' ",. ~, :' ' ·. qualities ofa .. ?rou,p, or. . of , ~ i-epree'.~ntative , .~~diV-idtialof
the gro~p· . ' · While st,ereotyop!ng is " c,ogni t i,v:e'l ,Y' -eco'nomical . i t , . , ',' ' , - I·' \ '
.;; . 'flao conceals ·i-nd.ividual dif f erertces. Language ci4ent if :lea':
. ,
~ , ,/' , .- ,
. people and is used as a way nj linki~g th~~ wi~~ a ;erceivea . \. , ', ;'
~ stereo~ype which ' then a,ff'ects their " iriteral~tion8. ..
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Cult-ur a 1 ld'ent i ty , and Xl t rufam/He lpi n8 BeH'av io r ~ I
"
, '17' "-
, " ,
, I . •
I , One , c<;>nte,p't which links culture' to altruistic/helping
! , I • I
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.1
',I behavior ' ' ia , the d'istin'ction "whfch most peopie -make betwee~ ingroup an:d out,sroup'. , Krebs (1970) cites work / by Friedrichs
. " -(1960),
, <:::ampbe.ll (196'5), and ' Hornstein, :Fisch and-'Hol'tnes
" ' :(1968), which . supports th~, idea of in group affi)iation as an
.' I:
, ,
e~~citor of al~ruism~ ~
I "
Altruism ~ r,emains, we :'believe, circums.cribed socially, , tl ' , "
,limited to a group ' ,significant, , for tpe per~on, 'e"g., " • J
immediate family and ~rily ,in rare ca~es including , all , . ' \
(1977) concurs', ' uIn ,
indi viduals : ;i,nd iscr imin's, tely. Hardin
~ars~ gro~p~ enlightened egoism isth~ mo.~ 'pow~rfui m6~~ve" . "
Taj~el (1978) de~onstrates , ~hat classificatipn bi
subj ec ,ts ,of 'people, int~ ingro'tlp" and oUftgroup occurs on the ,/-
. ' ,basis of ' the most trivial consfder.ation ~
An eXf~pie of , t~is' minimum ' require~ent
i ' i,
' for the
estab,lishment of , distinction Pbet'll\e-en, people 'is provided :by
,Pearce ( i 98,0). II
experiment' where . he He found, in ari
I ,' , , / ,tr'!lvelled States, th~t ~t~anget8 by' bus ~~ro~s the United
"' ,
J ,
when they cah ident{fyeachot~er,'even ifon1y because of
faciaL 'familiarity, , havingsesen ~each other-on the" vehicle , I'
'"are ' more willing to he'lp than '\.Then ~hey ,cannQ.,t ' :td~ntify each'~ '- c ;4... ,
," other. It seems logi'cal that if the identifi 'ca'tion is based : ; .
, ,
. , _ .l ._: .,' . __ , ... ...... ~ ..... _~ ... , .. _·I .... .: ' • • _ .~ ••• • _ " .. .. _ __ " .. _-: .. w_ .. ___ _ ~ ~ __ .' .. . _ _;
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.cin': ~, ~ro:ng~r, ' mote 'persot)al bonds the ~eadinesB to help ,would
, ' also be 9;~ro~g ,er '.~ Triandis , (19,76) proposes, that amount of
help is correlated with ' fee'ling of' respori~ibi.1ity to ingroup
menbers. This distiriction amo~g p~ople beco~es even mor~
,r, , , ,<
or actual with , t:-h~ ,;~outgroup Which is the case for \ '
,the French and English' ,in. 'Canada: ' ,', ,~
Feldman (1968) in a series of five experiments on
help ,ing, in Pa~is; Ath~ris and~os~on f~un~ d~ff~rentiai , ,~
r~teB of ' h~lping depending on ethnicity (~ompat~iot , versus , i
foreigner) and ianguage'used. In ~aris ~nd Boston, fellow , ,
,c 'ou\:ryinen rec~ived more , hel'p , but the 'fore,igners(all ' were
strangers) were ,trea'ted better ij} Athens (p. : 202). That N , , ~ ,
, !'i " , ' ,. , .. " GreekUr, , in ,Feldman's ~~,udy, ,were more helpflll td foreigners
' ~ ' '
than ~ounknown compatriots . ,p'o~nts to the flJFt ' 'that
'~at'egori,zatio,n does n,?1;. necessarily ' follo~ only cultural
In 'this • particular case " the rationale for
categorizati6n was ,the g~eater po er of interpersonal
attractiveness due to s1milarityor, high prest~g~ ~
, ,~n~ther exam~le of
other than cultur~l lines
, laborato,r'y
)
occurring , along
'1: ed ' by Be,r,kowitz (1966').
u.y'es tigat i ng -.. , .,:-national
diffe~ences in helping , behavior ,~ he effect1.v~lY f~un(L ,th(~,t '
, . ,
, ,
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I' " -:-if~ the economic background influenced 'level of helping': ,But it '.-
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"diffi'cult .to, ',draw conclus ions , from ' this '. s tud-y: ab.out . th'e·.~"" , . ... ' . .' .. . ,
r~lativ~ ~ .trength, of , '. " ,- ~.'
' \ ,
culfurai . and , ecoJ'\omic 'fac;to'rs' the , \.
across cultures;- si~ce he , could only study intracultural , '
.variations due to the differences b~tween ~he test for
two na,tiona1 gJ::OUps ' ~ Mann; ~nd Tayl~r (1974) exa~in~d ; the , ,
Canadi~ns " a,nd . :t;:ng'lish ' r
: Cana~ians. for b~'h~vior of m'embers of t:hei ~ ingr.5lup anlW"'(;r ./
: outgroup members. ' The results show tha't;' the Eng<r.ish mai:le <~~ , '
,g\reater us e, of social class informat{o~ ', i 'ntneir 'r'
.attributions. The French however~ut '· more emphasis , Qn . . , ~ ' . , " e'thnic diffex::ences. , .
, ,
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'" Karpieniand Zippel (~97~)found .no ethnic diff~renc;eB : :,
'T" '
when ' .. . " I· .
an experimenter assuming ~ri Irish or Italian identity, .. - ' . , ., "
by ~sing a name of t:h.e proper con~onance ' phoned pe,ople ' ,of
' ~itheridentity, · a~so identifie~by thefr ~amily na~e ~~d \' ':
their middle class background by cmeans 'of' the ,phone book;
arid asked for help in ~nswerirtg a ~ailed in questionnaire.
They int&rpret thts f~sult 'tomean tha~ sbcijl class of . the
requester not his ,' ethnic.ity ' is more important in g'ettin.g ,
help • . However, it is , possibleo
that the manipu~ation of
. ~ .thndc . ident~ty was n6t s ~r~ng ~npugh . for subjects to ' use dt ,. ,
;.
I asa ~asis f~r ' ~eciding ~hether 6i no~ to help~
the
..... ..... ..... ... - ...
. . 'I ,
T~ tompli~~iema(te~s fu~ther there is " ' eyidence :tha t
:same
, "
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p 'erson . .'may use differe,nt' ·t.ype~ : of infortriati~n hi .'
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his 'j,u"d,gment,of 'per'sons depend'ing on" whe th,e r " Or" not , ,they : ', ' , I "' '
" ,
.belong ," to ' h'is : ingr?up. " Aboud and Ta-ylor (197i l , stu.died' ;the'
't-,elativ"e importa~ce ' of ethnic and , role'~-stereotyp'es in person . " . ", . .'
'l;'hey found . "a pattern , of ~utg'roup' percept'ions , 4 and at e"r eo the,l:! ' p re dO~~ll ,an t .. ly involving. ,the use of ethnic
t' :' ' • . ' . , •
, ingroup perception relying on ,role s'tereotypes" (p. 22). s'o ,
·· £o~ ' ... mp;~:-:'1' ,it-u.iion whicb m.y ~equir.e ,ivin, h,i p , .f' out'gro~p " mem/~, Wil~ be judged , on his e~h~-lic m'eJilbership but,
...-an, ingtoup mem-ber will receive ' help or ' not ' t ,o ' the degree (- , " "','
that ~1s social ' "standin'g" compels /demands, ' i 't. , . '. . .' .
ThiB , sho'uld , ' , )
be a caut;1onary ,note ,that th,e p~rs9n8- ,in need of help " may. , ' , \' '
, no t be, j ~dged " , on on,e unique dimension.
, -\ " .. ' "
, , \
" ~ost , , fo,und
I ' 'uiii~g , th,e St,il! Hanson and s~ad'e" 's , i (J~77)~eiperiment,
'le~ tei, techni que
th,a't 'the number of letters returned was, lowest ' for' a , .... deViant, i.e.,
' fpr 'example, ,a ,meiub'er of , an extremist po11 tic a 1 p ,1.'I,r t y ~ , 0 r ,
,owner of ,a night club. If 'we' can as sume a similar '
" '\ for , ing~ouP-lu~,gr_oup ,
I ".
he~p to " i
, these , ,
show ' the deviant-riondev{ants, results
g'enerality of ' the procE!sf\ ,' , ' ..
. Ur'ban Space, ~ and Population .,Den"s1 ty. ... ' .' ' ::....
/
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relation :. to ' Cunninghllm{1979), for I
example foUnd ·t'ha t: the weather (degr'ee , of sunshine,
t"e_perature,humldity) i,nfluenced level of .. helping. Of the
stabl~~ . permane,nt" enyironmental featlfres; , . thli! (
rural-urban ' ~'dichotomy. ('Hanson ' and Slade, .1977; Feldman, '\ ) .'
19,68)" ha~'~n -stud i ed in· relat iort, t 'o J:telpi ng. Urba~ ~ize I ,' .'
" and , population -. density seem to 'be' the ~ most . '
, '
attributes : that, separately or in i ,ntera'ction, contribute to '.. . ! ' . J . .'
. t 'he distinctj,ve infl~ence' of ciLies~ '
;'U" One of the ~arliest ' .tll.~dein attempts at a ' !!'ystema~ic ''-.',
of urban phenom~~a . was· by the Chicago s ,chool
in ' the' l '920's of wh:f.ch L.Wlrth was a · n'otable , ' fi'gure. ' In' I
li:f.s . article. in the Am"erican Journal of SociologY"(1938)"
,'Urbanism ~s a .w~y of 'life' he saw threeta~tors' at th~~··rroot , .. ,,~ . . , .
6f urb·an\d'i.ffer.en~i·atiO'i1: ' \ ..," ,
}ize~ density; and heter,ogeneity~ They are he· ' elem~nt8thattlm8rk . it [the citylasa
distinctive Jo~e of, human group life" (Wirth, , 196 ,4, p,' 62}".
, '.
Wirth',s v ,iew ,s·till. ·has advocates, today ' such as ' Milgram , ... l'
(1970) who . still se~s number, density" and heterogen~it'y ; a8 '
the "root of any SOC:f.~'PSYCh:lcigiCal theory' ,of ~itY.' l~f'~ for . • \ 'I
they conditio~ all a 'spec'ts of our experience" (Milgram 1970, . . 'I ' .
,p • . '1461 ). In Wirth' s ,,,,basic proposition he sees " the need ,to ./
, \ interpose : a necess:ary . psychoiogical media.tor between ·what ., . .. / .
. are only "demographic , fac ,tors" and , the individual. His
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con.~ept, taken f 'rom syst,.em :-analys,i.s, :, is: II(L'er'ioa~". " II,City .... ',' ,'( '"
lif e is the: result , of ' , encoun,te l' w:i ~h 9ver l 'oad 'and ,' t;'he ,,\ "I
re!3ultant ,adaptation'~ , '(p; 1462)., " '
, " \"
•• ',' I
" '
, • ' Sada' l1a ' (1.9 :~8) , also think~ that" ,the, factors , ide It t if-iea , , ,
, '
by ' Wi1:th ' hav'e some v 'alidity. , In, the , 1978 ' article he re';'iews
'~~'idence that the size 0'£ ', urban center: ' in itself ' has·
i~partant ' s02ia1 ana psycho19gical consequences. , . -' .
Increase \
. ~'n ' sh,'e ', , by /tself ' would , .lead ' to a " ,, ' ,', , . , '
s t rluc turEll d'if f ~ren t ia tion.. c~~s e quen t 1y : inf 1 uencing 80 c,ia 1
, "
- \ ,~
, ', ' ,...t·~"" 4 :'~ _ . \ , ' , . ~ .; ~ " behavior of. ,city dweller"s. ', He lists , four conseque!1ce"s:
" ." ,) , '
'anonymi t y • deindivid~ation. ~ deviance, and .' person'alt,ty
• ?
r '
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" ,
. / , ' . '. . '"" ". . . " " 4ev'e 1 opme n t •
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"But Wirth hiin~elf in a later ' wo'rk ,"On ciites ,and ' 8~ci'al
lif ',e!' (1964), even though ' ' ,h'e cling.sto hi,s three ' fa.ctors
{ir.st ~laborated~n th~ , 1938 "artiel'e ' acknowledges ' : !?bme of ,
later ' criticisms, i,1: re,ceived , by qua1ify'iog his ' original I
vi,ews. H~ , admits tha~ ~aiiatio~~ between " t'
rutal and ' urban
personality are ' , the two en'd'sof a ,co,nt'inuum~ that ' --the-re i ]s
no abrupt_ chang 'e as ' we' move ' fr~m .'on~ ' e~d to the other; that
with the " grea ter '\
poss ib i1~ty' for communicat ion , and
tt:,aospor:tation. the influences of ci~ies has ,spread r to , the
-' ~ouqtryside; ' " the ' ui:ban~ay 'of life malY not be confined , ~ '
actual residence in a city.
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,He also brings 5 !,me e , points of a more tec,hoica! ~
. : I:': ';:~'p,:<,' 'na ture. Thes e r ,emarks shou'1 d be, warn.ing about o ,ur ; , r, .... ,
: ' (
un,critical adoption of census ' .d·,efin:[t!ons as ,be ing : the
' important , fe'at'ure~ ,for peop~e" in . their da:i1y life. ' For
example, the . census· de!: i nition of the' city , is an
administrative concep tj the ,census enumerates th~ night
. , I rather than the day popula,ti,ot:\ of an ·area •
, . Pa t ,terns ' ,of
. I. .,!
residence ' (the night
r ' ,
during the day time the 'citi,z,.ens of different ' s 'ectioris of ',' " ,. 1 ', :'" .
. ,' the "' urban area 'converge on the wo'r:ki~g ·" ae '~i: ,ors er'Bsing' the '. • • , ~ " "I
A~ ': . .... . \ ' -: '" .. ' "
nightly' division existing across ~-"t·h~it.< : :6~ d/o,rsoc, ~al cla~s ~ ~ ~
' dan'ger 'of . e,o,nf~iiog . urb'anism with ' " '
There , is . ,",
t ' ' I
industrialization and , ,modern ,cap it a liSD;l as ...
Dewey ' (1960)
criticized him of doing. , The . gre:at : diversity ~f ,cities
:amongthemselves would also have> tQ be considered. '
"
1 ' ,
'" , Dewey (1<960) saw Wirth's original ,propositi'ons as a
,failure to distinguish botween demOgrSPh~uence. o~ · the
one hand, density and' size ,of popul,.ati'on' , and ', influenc~ . of'" , ,
cuI ture, on' the other hand·. " Unlike I ' cultural ,factors,"
,demo.graphic facts , may "have un~ve'rsa.1. inf~uence that are not
time' bound. ' Never~heless . , lie finds' that den'sHy and
• '- l, ~
variations in ,S i ze ' induce five concomitan~ var iationsin .the
" qu alities of;
propositions j
They are 1.'
, iii ' ,
, t'Ue ~ ,' But 'they
'tltey vary along ' the
ano'nymity,2.
'1 i" I
rural urban ~ontinuum.
'of ' labor; , 3';' J '.
di.vision -.", ,
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,, 1.mper-sonal and fo r,mally 7 ' pr'es cr i bed,
symbols of ,status.:bicha,rl in~ep~~de:nt" '; ' : "'\ '-.I " 'I ,-I,'
:', 'heterogeneity', .' " .'. :'. . .
4.
'r e la t ioushi ps·" , ', ' .: ' . ('/
:s •
'-, .
" of" per sona'l :acq'uai n tance. '
I ' , . ,
.' , . .' ... ..... I Kitm,e'yer (1978) brings, ,out the ' i,nt~res'tfng ,point
, I ' that '
urban ' in~dweiling' : :d~n9ity, ", may '· in fact, Ib'e less 'than the .. , ", ,,' I' , ;t'ural one. Urban de'naity is ,orily,', highe,r ~heh we, ' consider-,
I
'its greatel numbe'r of dwelling u'i1its peri~tfa'ce 'a'r'ea.only,
the second d~firiition of derisity has ~een ,us~d , in the , I
It , may! not' be the m'ost , I literature reviewed so far.
! imp 0 r t a ,n ton e . ' '
/ ! I ' I
, / .. ' , . , I-, " ',l O'" ,! ,
Poplin (1972) is crid'cal' of , the / ,whole ' ent ,repriseof ' . " ',' i ' , ' "
the s~ud~ of urb~n phenomena. , The ; rural!urb~n concep~ can ~ " , I" '
be ' ide: t Hied with , hundr~ds of 'va~:i.Jbles " nO,t o~l'Y ' s'ize and , I'
, ", : . " ' " I ' J . , de~sity,'ecologfcal charact~ristic~, . .' . ... ~ ,
/ 10 -l so' e foeti 1 tur a 1 cha rae ter isties or
~ut adso legal status,
economic , , ' .. -~ . .... . ( " . !
nature ' of tgeir
predominant
h tn te r.'1 and. s activity. , The makes a." , ' , i"
difference. In ,fact he d,isoiissesi the :,urb.iiD! rural,'dichotomy , ' , J'
,since hep ,rop~ses , Ithat ' the ,urran way , ,of ,life ' is no .longer
d~'peri'dent on ' place of 'residence,i that the ' ",entire :popula'tion ' , " ' ~, " . " I '
of the Ull'itedStates" is trbanhed (pp.43':'44), tha,t
nowadays, the differences are , o~ly a matter of' , degree> ,that",
the ' lias ic features or Ame'~iJan ~o ,ciety, i ndividua'iism. : for ' . ,"
example, have, penetrated into" all comuiunities.
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" The ' resultsconcer.ning the r 'e'latio'n ' between urban size, . " ' .
, . \ l .-l: - ~ .' -: p()pula ·~ion density, .'and h,elpingare ' equivocal, some . s ' tudi~s
. find , les~ . helping in ' the city, som~ f~qdmore.
" .. .. , . '\ '/ ',. "'1 \. ..
.. '.:. Among the . au,th.O'~;ho ; find" less . helping ii;l .',: ' ~, ,, , " . . ' , .
," '
the
, '
' . , .: : Amat·,:, .. -(1981) measured , i'evel · ' of help in urban and " rll~,al· . . '.
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.. , .settings in ' Au,si:rali~ ' iindthe ,United States • . -" The request ' . . ~ ,
f'or help was .from a . person wHo ' seemed pliy}si,cail'Y ,in. pai,n- a~d
. would fallon the ' sidew~lk. of , he'lping were , .
ti:1g\ler ,in th~ towns than in'· the ~it'1\s : in b~th ' c .ountr ·:les. ' r
'Rushton (1978) ' in~:J, of 'urba,n , , density and alt'~uism
. ~ . "
se.t in -C,anadi'an an ",inverse environment found : f J ',
th,e " .
r~lat:tonsh~p bet~e~n 'density an'dhelp giving,'. , th~ .bigger the
cbmm~unity. the less help a :;;tra't;lger' got , to a request • . , \. '
H~ advanc~d . two bypothesesto ac~ountfoi his data. One; ;.
, '
,/ that :/-
people' in ~ities . ?-·re."socia1ized ·di:f ,fe ·rentlyl.'(p. 989)
'f o"r '. • '. I . " " "-
than ' are people in smaller com~unit~es in '~onsid~ration .1 ' . .. ,I .
others. His . s'econd hypot1.1esis is ' s'imilar to Milgram' s " \
(i970)., pr'oposition (p. 990) that , stimulus overload '; lead~ _ e '
I
to shut · put stimuli of secondary importan~e, i.e.,
.all th'e 'ones not , required .to per{ormthe action, for example tJ '
getting .. ' from· ,point . a t 'o point b, iI!- which the! are Emgaged.,' , J
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'~~all~~r ' '!lrb~~' ~ente'['s' \-"sbowed mOJ:'e 'help'f ~lne's s. B';l't he :.note's' .. .. ,-J . £, . , "
.tba t :·· t·hesodoecon'omic,! st a tus ' o f r~~~~~de'~t . ~il'Y ' ha-v~ ' b\:~e~ , '8: ' • ~. J~ • . ', "
' more ' .
urbani~m ~ndet~rm:Lni;g the he ,~p·fulnes.s . of, I /: • , .' •
subj ec't's ," in . ' a 'j'
" . ~ .' .
: 'pa~~'icula' r: city .... : '.:!Ii . '
' ( . • 1 _ ~~.' • i ." . I· • . .' I . , ' . ,
. ,. ' : .Hoi .ohal\(1977) : a:~g~)ed "~ ' tha't : " p .ers'o~~l and ,s~~uat'~~:~~~'/, " \ '. ':
.... ". ",'
.. . .. . : : .. varA·sbl,es ' hay~ ' ~:~en I , d~.n· f~~~ded " ,'si'n~e '~rbari : 8u'~) ecfs bav'e " : . ,~ ,,~: "
. . ' bee~\:~tu'~i-ed 'OnlY in urba'~ , e ,nviron·inen·ts ari'd . . r~~a·l subj ects ' P ' .
. . ~. ,~.
, . ) on:ly~· Bmalleragglomeratio~.s . ox: :l.n the count·ry • . . Us.~ng , . ,;- " , f , . :. '. ' . "",
~tudents fro'\. :pome. towns .of diffeJent' size be' "administered
a s 'c"ale ,wh:ich ' mea.~ured their j~dgm~nt of-: ~?e . app'r'o 'pi:iaten,e 'sB , '" . . . ,~
re~p on~es" . ,( p. ' 3.79 >.: and , , , " . ,' . 'varyi ng :s i ze . helping ,pf " e
, , ,
lle',te ,rogeneity . of .environmenta • . and urgency , anq d 'egreeso'f :' .
.' , .
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r,~kinvo lved. , ' His result s ·off"e, r evid ,ence . that: , " ,' , .' ,
, The ' reported ~n.willin 'gness ,of the ' urllan'fte to l~nd , ~ hel'ping hand ismorea· 'function of "situati.onal ~actors and of' interactio,ns between sitU:at '{oiiill 'and .', subject . vari.ables tban .. ··, of · " su})ject ,,' . ,. characteristics alone ' (p . ~ 381).... and · are " not
, ,inte'rnBlized and broa'dly ,general~zed . as norms ~f( . non,' responding . (p. 382)." ,1 : .-,
' Kamman (1979). using ' the lost letter " tlnniqU~ :fC)'und :'t,11a.t " b" . · ..
" , "" , ~' : . " . ' "immediB; te pedestt'i'an dens i..--ty is the more iel .ial]lepredi:C: tor , . , ,
"
0,£ non helping ', behav.i~r than ' city siie" :('p. 24·S). The
.. d i ftn,i on of · r,sE ib ~ liM'O dd p~. t.~ tia 11y a e c au. t • . eO.
vir.tuall·y ' · ali of, ', the data.- · ,
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-', -. -' -':-lto'use 'a 'nd WQ'l .·£ :(19'7'8 )re~ nalysi ng .'.the . dat~ , ~ rom ,> census ' . , .... .'
.'betw.een ' ·1'952': and '" 1.972.,. ', assul!li'ng ,
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"b ehavio r t , • > ' , .
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· an · ) .. nterview , to b~ i helpful '
to : theirexp~~tations ' that the '. , : , '. I
rural: resid·en ts wer e ·more he~p f ul'"th 8Q. ,th e .ct t Y . ie's idents . .' ,·. 1 . ' .
. ·bu·t : that ' th~se repor,ted" dlfferen'ces ' beiwe~rt urban and' i:'uril1 ' . : . " .
. 'r esiden t;s, . were due :.more · .' .1. ... . than
: i.e., . are '" sHuati:Qn specif :ic ratl~~'r ' ~han ' stablefeat'rire. C?f' . ." . . / . t '" ;: . . , .
'~nd.ividua~s; ' 2. . that . diff eren\~es iri · · helping .· .behaviQr.
b .e t~een pl~e e 's ' of r esiden'ces . have .be come s ig~lfi c ant ~n' ly . 1n .... ' "
'. . . ., ,, Ii 'tb 'at . these · d .1ffer,ences
' . " 1 ' 1 ' ....
are tied tQ ' fluctuaJ:ions .':in level .of " c~~mi. ~l:'lity ,rather ' th~n ' ,' • D ) :, ', t
t'~ the' var1abl~~'we . associate'. wi t h urb ·an1s;n. popu l 'a tiQn. , , .. : .
:, "
, "!I
.' ' . ' . '. ' Among, those ' . ,'
. ,re;sidents, . · W'e:in'er
who , ";;1 ' m~'" .h,lping , .... oJa .' urban
: (~ :9;~) ' lil ' ~ " .. iab'o'ra'torY . expe.rimeri·t ·, . tesi:'ed . I
I ,' . ,':.
.a \ h:l:gh · o 'r l.ow " subjects from rural or uJ;'.ban r~sidenceQn ' f _ . • " , .: ....... . ,
" ai ... <. ';:1' . . ,overl·oad .. task comb~ned with an ' unforeseen (to the ,subj'e.cts)
' reque,st f.?r'help~ She' found th'at the' ru.ra<l an,d urban ' group . . .' .
, ! " .. , . ,
d.iff'eredeither .on ' task performance or on amo.unt of he Ip~ng.
rural grQUp , . was less . \ ..
helpful 'but ther,e' w~s n'o difference' · in the task perf.ormance · • .
In . the high·~,ov.·erloa· d 'conditi'on theie ' was'· no di:Eferen~e ' ~n: , ,
· a.mo~tof .. l:telfbetwe .e~ · 'the gr1uPs but the ' task perform~nce ,
of the · rural ,group waswor .se th'an .. fo,r 'the -urban grQup., . Spe'.
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.--- . . '-' 28
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per' s ,onalfty . ,'v'art·ables. , influence . the
,'predis'pofjitio,Ds : to ,, ' hel'p' " .. .' " ,
" ,," . va r fable's " that . si tua t.iona!.
iriflueiic,e · : its ' ., initiationan'd' that both ' .. tnt·eract · with ' \a , "
poi:entfal\· h~lp.e· ~' s i'experi'ential' ~oi'ld" (po .l23:) 0 ' . '
. ,: ' .. ' . ' '\ . : : " ~;' ".:' ,';<" :'~:~';' : '\ " . " , "
o .
.. , .~ .' . A st,u 'dy' .·, ' b:~ '. McKenna sniMo~g'en th~u ' ( ci. ~ed . ' iri . M.i l·gr~am~ . .
:; \ .. ..... , .1970) ~lso · .c~ntradictr the s-tere"ot.ype·· '~· f·i:he un~'ooper 'a~ive' ,
:, '~ ': 'uiban , r~'Sid~nt: o ' I~ :, , " 'l~~Jg dis t~nce terephone calrs ' urb~'n .·' ., .
getting ' : r. e~ueBts ··, for ': , information ' gavea' ,higher. . . . . ,'... . . . .,.' " '. "
leve:l of : help ,than .sma! ~ to,wn residents. , ' .} • • . ' I '
"
. ~t '. . ., .// .
Weinb erger wi t~ '. Glas~·( ( 1.9Si) • . in field ', .:
a
helping iri , the protot~pical big . c.ity, New' York,fou~d that ' . . , . \ .' ~ .
'. peopl~ ' were w.~lli!lg . to ge ~ involv:e4 ': wftQ strangers , . beyqnd ,< . - : answ~ri'ng'
., ... .-.. -; . .. ~ trivia.!.' J;'E!qu es t f 0'1i ' d irec·t·i 6na nd auch < ther e
r '
. ,
~ wss no comparison tp , smaller u'r~an lo~ations) .• , · '. ~ . . .. '. . . . . .
, .'
/ .
" : " .
~Cintr ,ai:y ' to Weiner (1976), 'Mils'ram (1970.) , denies -~tha t . . 'i . . . ' '/,. .. .. i
, the " diff,erences ,. are· . duet.a . nint ·~insfc · differences . . in . ~ht:! "', " .
' : · :·" ~ ... ' .personil.lities .of· r ,uraJ ' .and cityl' dwell~rsi, '. (p. 1465) but . • • i
' . i , , . , cpnte.ndl?
. " \
that ' it ·. is only a shor.t t .erm. ·r .evers .ibIe, adaptive .,. .
.,', >
. '. ' / ' .
.: : .. : ' , ~.Kor'te c:. (19.78) , reminds ' us ' . . ', . ~ . . y . "
di ve'~ s'1- t:y , ' I •
and · . of .. the , great . .
of' urba.n · space •. Whi:l~ his own : ·as'se,s·s.ment () ·f
.. " ''' ,expe:r i.menta.l "'·re:s1,11t·s : so .1, fa r . is
" ths·.t . they ' suppor t ' . 'th e
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,'.' , "iiuii 'tatt-ans , ~f: these- ' finding s: . ',
• . .. L , ih~ c'a 'n~'ePt~~,ii~atio~ 'Of ' u'rb~~~Zatian" ::,wh~C~,, " l .·
, I
;~~ .' .
,ignores ' crucia'l ', ""rariatians, . arid compleXities related to ' ur,bantorin ,such' ,as' diffe,re'nces withf'xi ·it "siri'gle " ~rba~ envito'pment · a'n'd : b.etween , ":urboan ' :eti,vironmen,ts in d ifferen t . cultures , an~ . 2. ',., the ·. failure to identify .. the particul,ar factors that . are influencing., the ',I 'evel-' .of helpfulness ' and mutu'al aid (po 89) 0 , ' • "
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·, n :'is som'ewhat .d;l-fficultto · draw a . .:
. ,', II ':' :, ' ,~~ . gener.a ,~,' " C? rir::ius.io,n
'" ..... . " ' . '
~bout ali the'se ' t'ind'ings~': whetqer' , , i- .
urban ' e'nvir 'onmen:ts'
"fnfluences'" areinternalized .ar' not ,temporary or permanen, t; .'
-.- "'",~
o'r ' negative . . , '
. , .. ' ~ in . relat i()n . to . helping , behavior. At
' ~:east 'it seem's eVidim't ·that there fa no simple tela t ipnship
G~ven 'the ii.bs .e-nce of
'clarity surr6un.d.inf the ' con:~ept: 'af.
'~'
.. urb anism 'this is ' ,~ot
. 8,urp rising o' " ,
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; , . Ci ti es and ' Cul tural Identity' and Helping Behavior. ' .
'I. "
Th~ . v 'ariab'les cif cultural identity and ' u~binis·m, wi 1:1,. . ~- .'
.e,ach o~ , its ' own, 'a'nd in .inter·actioninflue.nc~. the level of , -' .. ~ ..
· ··. help for pe'ople . confronting each ' other'. .!
. W,e r·e'v.:I:e_'W_ .• he r e· , ' o . '
,<authar's .who have studied .the'ir m'~t'ual in,teractive \ i~:iluence
, ,', . ' i
" . , ' . I I .
that :ethnic' ,al).eg '1ance ~ay,well, , ! ' " ,I .
means ' of" cop1 ng .\<li t,h over 10al1 in' ' urban' ar,eas.
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.' out urban heter .og .enei~y 'by responii'n'g', along ' ¢th~ic. l in.es .. ·, •• '
:.,:: : ' 'over,ioed is·~ade . m~r~' · m~~ageablen . (p: '1463), '. '. Thisshou·id ; be
.,
relativel'Y ' " easY, ;' ·when .~ . . . .' . '
. the phys·ical features ' and/or
d ff ferenc.es in .. ..4'ress '~r e .·obvious '. less so when ' ,th'e'
dif ferenc·¢s . ;:, ar~ 'ies s .. a~pa r~n,tt .,a t the level ?f 'language , f,o 'r '. '-\y ,: example,. " In such a . case : tlle rel~vant '~'nform8tion WQuid, ~~lY'
, \ . ,. " . , , . . ,\ . . ..
. ~ . " I' : ~: • • • • . be " provided once . the' .. fn terae tian is underw'a·Y. Milg ra'm '.' ".. , ', ,: ~ ~ .. "
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. " :( dpn'e . in cit tes. only.) 'where. white. <> r :bl·ack . p, rs .ons pho~ed
.. .. :'.re pofts ' an . UtlPU~1.i8 hed .. exp~.rimen t . ~y . ,Ga,ert ne~ 'f~.~d Bl~ ,kman
. ~ , , . "
for . hel'p. Ho'rehelp was · gi:ven. : along, ethnic ' li'nes tha'n ' 9 ' .
. hcross.
'1 I
I
Hansqn andSia-de~ so . (197'7) ~: experiment , . ' . ."
'us 'ing . the'" lo~t ' ', : .. ,'
" ,leet'ertechnique, 'foundgrea'te( help ·.in .small .towns . co~par.e.d . . ...
' to ' urb 'an ce"nters except when the per,son in need of .'heip was <
:;
s , ,devian 't on . '.~ . social' 'dimen sion , . , In '. that:'·: cas'e '. the'
:dgferential helping ' rate8betw~'en ' i:h~e ' ' lo'c~tt'o'ns (111 but , ,;,' "
.· di.sappeared. , Whi.t~h.eaf ~nd ' ~etzge~ '(1981) repol.~~a~ed Han~o~~ ' .
. a~d . ,' Slade's ' 'study ' u~ing ' affiliation' with a ~9mo8e'xu'al'
:. organization I as . a 'measure ·of. dev.i'ancy,' Their i'esl!lts :'are
.. , were hig~er .fdrnon deviants.
','
.Weiner
" .~ .
" , ('1976).. mentions"
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il 31
- "i-- , ' ,/-.,
' the 'decision to help' or: not, for rural residents as ,oppos'ed '
" to , , urb'an residents (the ~xperiment , was done 'in the
l~b~Fa~o~y using ' rural ~nd urba~ re~red college stud~nt').
" On the c~ntkary Edwa~ds (1977) , repor.ts ' st,udies by '
Fishman ' (1966) gr~ater d~scrimination along,~ultur~l " ~ '
liries would ~ainly ~~cur ~n th~ largei urba~, centersi " I
_~ ,Ethnic self-awareness ' and nationalistic , feeling ,s are ,urban " ' p~en,oillena... Urban environments are
, ~~re likely to be those produ~~ng, individuals and , '_/ .~.g;-OUp'g'- c..oncerne'd with langua'ge maintenance, and
' ... " C-' rev iva 1. , ( p • 2 7 8 ) •
o , " ,
\
!' ' , i , /'
I 't / .-1'
,SO ' the , interaction of residence" and ethnic allegiance ,"- ,J'
,I ',may 'contribute to' alter ,the ' re:lation between community size
, ' I
'and' helpfulness. Results ,from the laboratory' and fr-om' the' o
field. / show that ethnic" knowledge ,'of the, p,ersons in;volved,' i "n
t~e helping act will modify:its occurence ot mag~itude. ,
, ,
person's t
cultural exp,erience is an
~is/he~ pe~so~ality., on~ w~ich will always be ,- manifeat
A
'.,
. \ " ~ i . v'
~ the presence of ~tl;ler, ~ and eVen when ' by-'himself/: her~e~fit \ ,
will at ii'l shape hj,s I,her way'of ' thinking and acting., ,In
. :: ... su,mary some studies, suggest more helpfulness ,in urbani~e~
• "due to.'~r'7ater indifferehc'e to , . , ' . l , I,
cu'ltl,Ira1:" 'divers'ify or ,to
' cogni,tive ,complexf'ty ' (Wein;~r • .l976) .. , , , Som~. on the coritra~y. ,-' s~ggest le'sshelpfulness ,on thep,srt of, the urbani'tes due ', to
, / ,
oy~rload ',sele,ctivity :management along cultural li'nes. ,,- . . . , ' , . )
', f
"
','
'f _
, ,
::- .... ~ ~ ... -. ~ .~ •. -- •• .:. -.- . . , --_ . ~-..._ .... __ .,. .. _.-..'.\ .. ' ..... " .... ' .. _ .......... 'II.' ...................... -.-; .... : ... ----":----_ .. , ..... ,! --:" • ....:-. ___ ......... ' .. , ........ _ ... _~'-.- ... -:'-~ - . :
"
"
....... . .r '
"
r:
" ~
I,
I
"
i.· ; . . ,' , "
\' ....
I, , "
, ;
, , I I ,
,;.
I' f
, , ~ ',:, ____ ",. J:~ '
:"
I ~
' , f
~, i f
'j I
I I
" f
I ' :, !',
' "
" q
, '
\ f
, .
, . ;
I i ' ' ... ' .. ,~. '" , ... -: ..
.~
:;3. , : '") ,
. ... ~ . 3.2'
"
Ovefview. , " '\ . ~
" , '-', . , f " .' , ....... . '--;"'
", ~C~,,0It .. iS , propo'sed ' that, ' th'e level of altru113m/helping
" beha:y:Cbr is affected,by, t.he characteristics.of ,the persons c I • ' .'
invoLved ' in the heltSing s'ituation" as , r :equ~sters or as
persons . I . .
bei, ng asked for help 'and b~ , the type of ' environme~t
in ,·which the request, t~kes , place. In the present, experiment
I ' . •
the r~l~vantcharacter±~tic of the per sop is t~eir cultural .' , " . .
.identity "as revealed t.hr,Qi'gh t;he~r, ~anguag,~, an~ th;"e of
envi'rfonme~t is , the urban size~ " Given the ' lack of clarity, ,1
arol}nd the , coricept of tir,b'llD si,ze its , e,ff~ct wir'l' be examined ;r 0'
:, . : but nop~eaictio~ is ma~e : coric~%nin~~ts effect:
to
Two experiment~ , were cdnducted in which the willipg~ess
of ' ass 'ista~le; ' of members' C!f ·the two ,cultural groups , , be '
t6w~rd~ each other,was assesseft: in one " J . ' '< _ I';
exper'iment , t.h't~ " a/'~~F
'J "
was" 'done by Ii ve in tervi'ews; in the , other, used'to pro7"ide
corroborati~~ e~idence, it,~a~ ' d6ne , with th~ lost lett~r
tech~ique ', ,,(Milgram 'et iiI, 1965). The' independ?t. variables
were the ;~a-ng:uage ' in which a request for hel'p was , mad'e, the
language o~ the responden't ,and .' wher~' ,Co , reques~ ' was 'inade.
The/ locations\ were ':cit'ie 's and towns iIi New Brunswick ' and '" \ " • ' ~ , . . . . '
• 'J
' Quebec. The ' ,
met'hod experimenters~ involved two ,- one
b 1:11.ngual fr.ancop,h,pne and ·6n.e b iU,;ngual anglophone', , "I meeting '"
,~ , I'
persons ' ori i the str~,t ,and as~iIig them , '. I'
a few ,questions about <:
t~~it lang~a~e usage and, th~ir place ' tif ~e~idence. The , "
:, r ' .' /, ,
, .,' .... -_._, . -~-~j --~-'.-' -.- - I .~ ....... --.-!--- ":' .... _ .. :.' ...... : ~ '.~ .. . . ~ . . -. " ' <'j . '
"
\~ ...
, I
,- ,
)
"
, 'J
; 't '
/
" ' . , ,
, ,
-~,
i .
L' l
. ~ .
'.},
\ -,\
,..,
" , '
,,/
,
)
i '
~ •• ". ~ ~ ~_:. " l ', ' .. , , ~ . ' " ~. ~ .
' 0
r "
. r! - I
"-
'..,f": '
33
,depend'e,nt ,measure was , the': 'w~gness, of 'peop'le to an 'swer
q~estio~s put to them by ,a ' ~be~ of' their own ', cultural { . " ' ........
' group (ingroup) or ' by a'~embe~ 'of the dther cultural $~OUP
(outgroup). ' , '\ '
' . .:
, 0 exp~m~n~· ' .. the" ' lost , letter .~
t e c~:rli que
prov~d 'ed ' an u,nobstrusiye , m'ethod' of behavior , assesmen t.
t 'et ters bearing, 'only an address and a ' l
stamp but " notpos.t
.' marked were'lost'· in , different 'locations. Th,e ,behayioral'
measu~e '~as numb~~ pf ' lettersmaile~ back\ Whe ther ' " the '
decision to mail the letter a~ not -is influenced by , the
,'.id:ntit y (FrenChorj EngliSh) of the , person to whom His
addressed '. should , be ,r:eflec ted, by t 'h~' d iff erences f~ re turn
,rates. , '
In both . experimen~s if , t 'he p~p.~lat !ma-gra of the
relati~nship
• qndi~gs in
" \
,'betweeI)..l'the two .cultural grp'ups, s~ppported ' by ,
theli'tt::ure ' suc~' las " Tajfel, ' (~9i8Y; .' is \
accurate we shoul'd 'find in our results that ingroup memb,.rr:s ....
give ,more help to ingroup , membe~stha~ t9f:~uts'iders. , .'
, , On the otb 'er; , hand if 'there is no s:\gnifi-eant , diffe,re,nce • I, " . '
between the level -ofhelp'rec~iv~~ by each expe~~menter it
" would , 1=end to suppo~t . the opposit'e l~e"" , that individual. . , " ,', .. . . ~
interactions will b.e, 1 more .. posi ti ve', than ,'accoU'nt 1ngat the ' ,. '..:, " , : ' "
group ' le~el wo~ld predict. i
" , . ,
, ", ,'1'
,/ \.
" "
. , "
,'. \ ,
\ , ! ' , , ,
I ,i i
. i' I
' . , . ,
,. I
;':
~ -....... ~ .',., "
'\ .J' /.
.'
EXPERIME~T . 1
Method .. . , "
Subjects. A p'ilot . study · was . done" 8S'
; . .. '
\ . ' . '\.
practi.ce, and
, "
34
to . ; .,..~ ..
. . . \ . . '. '
Appendix., A for details) '" 'A total of 384 persons ' were ask.ed " ,
.. ', ..:-
"
. \
:-,:.. , . :
for:, ~elp. Pe6pl~ ' judged ; t6 h.e 18 .'Years old or older, w-\\o "-
were .alone and had their . hands {ree, were ' approached, and •
aSke~ · ·tor ~~i~; as they got~out 6£ a cai. • " " • , • r ' •
,. . , ,
Evaluation,.2.!. potential subjects, :' A. dec'isi.on was , made .'
ahtays \ as k'·'. the' i ni tial ·gu.es tion -. that the exp'erimen ters would /. ., ,
in the . langu'age of the Ioca tion in .wh i ch they . £ ound\. ..
; .' them'selves arid that onG subj ec ts who a~ '~wered, ' at .le.a,s t th~' . ' ' ,'
.. '
flr'st an.d second ,questions pro·perly, . would count . towards the .,I " '~ ' . ' . .
" . goal of . reaching the re'quired ~u'mber of , subj ects in each"
location. P'roper ',answers to the "twof;lrst questions :meant ·
that a) the 'su~j ec t
.. their "main language a't
~lved ~n ~he ' cQmmunity~ and b) that .. ' ~ ' . : . , ' , , home was the s~me as the language of
t ·h·e area· we were' working in ' •
. in Table ' 1. "
Neve'~theless ev'€:r~~ubj e~ t ' :s.· answers w'ere tf;:' record·ed · in ' '" \ " ,
' seq~en~e ~ven ' if they were riot of the pr~p~r ~ultural '.
_ ' ~ I ':"'" "
identity and/.- or locati .o~ cir, .if ~hey could ' nct .,be identified
on th·ese. variables • . , , . ~
.,
' .. , ' . '.: . ,' .
" ~ : ... ,
. '
.. . _- _._-- -_.,._--- --.. __ ...:._-- -..-.- .- :-- ,, '-,- -_ . . . ,'-- ., .... ~ . . .... . .. .. '. ~ I " .
" ,J
.~
..
: ;
' ..
.' -.
, . , ' :
t ....
-,l,.:' "
.. , /
,/
. ., P •• "' _ _ 4 ' .' . ", .
,' ,
'1 ."
I" ( : ,
',' , ,'-.-1 ' I, . .
: .\ , "
j "
; " ','
--
.. 1' .\
: "
. :
" ' ,:
' . t".
, ; -' ,
" I .
• i
'. ;
; .• j .. , ' : 110
! 1 '.1 ', ~
1
; . , : , ~' f'l , ..
r .
t 1
'J . 1 "
.\ .". l
'1 ",,'
i:' ;'
", ' .:~ ~;, , t
,. .. " \ ., ' : .., . ' ': ":'1 ' . .
,..-:1 .- .' :. ' .... . , "
. ' '
,~ .
. ': .
" . ",'
.. ... '. ' • • _ 'I . ·Ii .,_~_·· .• _ •. .... , .' ", ,
,,-~ ._ ......... ,_ ... #. ".,.. "" .... , .. , -.-~ .. - ...... ""-",,,, , ;.
: i ' , " .: .. . : '
'_ 'r' , '
.' , ' ,,,
" ;' " , i , . ! . :. '
. ;' " .. ,~ ,','
, I
, , . _:_~ :- ~h ._
.,1
.. ,' . . ,"
-,I,
': : .
.. '
" " . t' , ' .. ; .. :' .. ~ ,.:, .. ..
, (
/ .
','
,', J . -,
,.: /
. !:
I ' .' , i , . , ' .
" I f'/-':. .
, . ' . :
,,' . ·· .. 1' .: , '
.r- J',
' ,>-
P,
; "
. !
, • '1,
i ..
..... . . \' ,
" '
'," , ' ,'
. ',1
,
; ..
·· _0" ·· -
, .. ' " /. ;
"
.. .. .
~'
,/
, , '
. ,.~'
. . : : ')
, " . " . ' . ' . .~ ". '
: ' o f
," " ,
", ,' : " , -
~ . .. '"., '
,' , " .
/ .
. '",
.. . ~ .'
: • • 1 " " , .'
," <h~ueSH :.;:: ::: ' : f '::i~ " ~~: Jeets ', ', • ',. ' " , . '. ' , ' .,' .
. : '
. , .'
-"~I
, L Wh.~ la~gtiag~' d~ yo~ 'F,rench or ,En'g l}sh'~'
" . . ' ,
, , ' '. , I
'1 .
.. ..
."
. 3,: How. l'onghave y~ubee~ ·, livfng'; heref' (in' ·Years'). .' . ' . ',f "
(, . , 4~ ' ,9f " the : ' la~g~age's you und':~ '~:tand whi~h Qnedid ,you. .. learn
i.' ".-" ~ , fi~8~,~ , : ~rigii',8h . ' Or · Fr,e~nc'il. " (""" " . " " '!t.
'. :,: ;. ' , ,',5.:, Wha·t langu.a,ge do .,}r'ou. mo,~ .t ·. often us.\a t W9rk' whe~ talki~g . . ,., : , _ . . ~o: a). you'r fellow workers, b) your · ,upervis,or?'
( .' " . .
6· . .. ·1n · what 18nguage did ' you ~~ceive yo'~r : instruCt.ion ·at.· pr,i,nary ' school? ' .' French or Eng,lish~ ' ' . ' , . . ', ' ' .
. ~ ..
'e ' ,/ ... .. ,,'
. '.
, "
... \ :.: .. ' ," '; " , ..
"
" '. ! - ,
.,
'1 : • r
. ~. '.-
'~ , ,, " / />
:.'
,:'
I-','
~ ,. I J.; 'J .' . I"
: '. ;' '! '. I
'/ • I ' f
' / ! " / i'
" / '
" '
" -, /
.. / " .. '
" .;
,"
., ;' ,i
, ; . ; ,
. ' , . 0, , . . J., .
. '. :. ' . . :-
. • ~ : I' " '\
" .... , ~ I • ,,'.'. { . ' • .
. ' ',/ . '
" I ', , .
" , ' , " , "
, .. ,: '. ',' ',' --;; .
: ' . .. ,' , .
, /
" , ', ' • .'· ·0 • , " ,:
,- ,
.- .. . ,' . IJ'
..... : .'~ : . . .' .
c · ';' ,', ",'1 ,' , ' .... " " , .
.. " . . . ~...-: ,'. : ' .1 , ' " . '
' . ': :",, : ' "1 ,.:
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' . :,
,, ·· c,. , .' " , .', , " . ,. '*,
, . ' . . ,., ~ .
-.: --....... :.,., .• : ........ --:"': .. --.. ...... - ..... :",....-:'"'?-..-~'.- .• :: '. ' ~ . ~ . " "
". '. , ;
" .... ----: .. ~. ~.~. : .
.'1'1:, ••.. , .-... ", .~." .' ,"~ h~~-,-,-~-· .. ~~:~·~
" . I _ .... ..,r ,
", ' . ,,. -, ' . ' . '. ; .
, I
"
' :
', r _
. '~- ' .:......:- .
" '
, "
" " '
36 :
~~l~c~ion of locations. rd~al situations ,being n~n-exl~tent . ; .'
' in : demography as else~~ere~ , : diBPari~ oC, curr~d 'betw~en locations -in' ratio of Fren-ch speakers to English speakers,
. . ' ~ . .
size of c~m~unities, , dis~ances between locatidns, distan~e
between s~all towns , ~~d : citi~s, ratio qf urban to _ ,rural , -
_ populations , in ' the" two p,rovinces, etc. 'Locati'ons'selectiop ., -:-.' .
was based on 197'6 census ,da'ta inform~atlon ' about , lang~ ,
1979). , Ho'wev~r' in that Y,ear only one
questio~, 'was asked/ab,out ' mother, tongue,: "The first'language
learned by c~ildren and Istill spoken or ,the language of the , '
home, whether " the person h'as , learned it < or not (e. g ... , ,
1,980, p.18). This questipn may not
reflect the' 'co.ntemporary ,language usag'e , of' - the
are 0 n 1 y- , s'o m e 0 f ' t Ii e mas t 0 b v i 0 it s
might have influenced the rel~tionship ' ,
, betw~~n the two cultural Jroups.
" [.
, -I Heeding the information supplied by Gil~s, Bourhfs, &, ,
Taylor - (1977) about the Variables that influence the,
'vitality oJ ethnolinguistic groups, ' , locations ' were sought
which we,re 'inhabitated by sufficient numbe'rs of people of '
~ach iden~ity for ih~m.to achieve a kind of 'criiical mas,s'
necessa.ry for , their ' e,xistence a~ cultural gro,ups ,. For 'the,
, /, ' ' ' , -two c'it'ies a ,populati0t?- of around 50,000' ,' was ,sought', -- each
i,nhabitated by ' French people , ,and English, people in
approximately equal number. " (Se~ Appendix ' I 'for additio'nal
'r':!
"-.'
"
J -,-
-' --_ .... _, _:. __ ~ ______ .' ___ :;-._ • --•. : .... _.,_n' ... .:., .. ... _~.~_.: ........ _ .. .... __ .~ ............ , ..... , , , \ •. '" . ~- ' .... ,. ..... ' •• '*-'" '- ", , \ • • ' . ........ ,.
, " . '
~ '.,
-', (
< '
, ~ .
, . l , ' " I '
, f
'.,
t , ' .
. !
. . , ,
. ~
-,
, '
,' .
",, ' . ,
. \
'\
)
. ,' I '
, '
;/ , , f. ~\ 4 _ ~ ~ •• ,_
, ,
, ' ,.. . ~ - ,-- ~ - ----_ ...... . _ ......... _. - ... ~ ... -~ •. -, <, . "
, ""
'\ 37
information on city ' · selec,tion. and Table 15 showing the
' population ,breakd'o,w'n ' .for ,the French and 'the EnglisQ';in the
r cities.)
For ~h~~mall t~~n~(population 3 to 6 thousand) we
'C'ho,s e ' , to equate on the . number ; Qf ,' spe~kers of each " langua~e
not enough' communities had ., proporti~)Os o~ ~ngli8h ' and , F~ench
,of s~ff, ;f:cient size , to ,make it practically possible. , t;:o ' meet
th~ . ~equired nqmber of ,ub~ects of ~achcultur~l . bac~iround "J , • • . \ • I • . ','" , '
within ~ne town. We therefore selected four towns in each "
. ---two 'majori~y French ~ommun~ties and two .majorit:,Y/ provinc~. "
&ngl iS,h ones.
~alient ~e also re~uired that the to~ns . ,have at least 100 /" '
persons of ,the, opposite mother, tongue. , The towns" .. s "elected .......
, ' and ;
their populations a.re pr.esent~d in Tab.le ' 16 in' App.endix
; I.
proc'edu'r~8. Two ,'e~p,eiimente~s were used, one ' 2 ~lingual
pers,?,n ~h08e I mot~e:~ ' ·ton:gue , was ' Fr'ench and one bilingual :, .....
person whose mo:fh-e~ ,tongue ' was English. Both :w'ere from ,the i ,/
, ' ~rovi~ce tif Qu~~ec b~t ' they were nqt evenl! mat~hed iti their
IThe origin~:t intent had been to avoid the ,downtown areas, ' exp~ctfng \ the mix , o( cultu:.;al identities to be' , greater there. However. th'ey ' had to ' be , used :. as on residentiar' streets it' would have , taken , too muc,h time to I
mee t the required- number of , subj ,ec ts" .r;;
",
" -
-.-- - . - ~ ---- .•. - -;' ... -.. ... .. --------.. -....-._. --"' """:.--"~---':"'.--'-,":,". :-
,.
,.
, I-, j , >
i'
r' .'
.:': '
"
" '
! .. i · )'
I r ..
"
"
. ,
)
"
I ' "
' J,
I ,
I ,
,I,'
J"" ,
, ,
. :' , '
./
\ , ..
, ',
J '
: f
t.
" .' ' ..... ,
"~
' \ . . I ~
" a'p iii t y ", tau a e their aes-ond language, the ' French ,'
,'experimenter ',being more fluent than the English" one:.:, ,To
a~oid a , sequence effe~t the " loca~i~~s were vi~tted I t~ice,
. lonce' 'whi.l ,e travelling from Quebec ' to ~\.;., Brunswick ~rd otic'e: '
~l:1 ile coming back to Quebec.
Ii , Iri each of the two 'cities 64'. sup.jects ' we.re to ' be met · . r '
32 · frbm the . predominantly French enumera~ion . are~s and 32 , , '
from the Englishinumerati6ns areas. , Each experimenter was ' J
" , to mee1: ' 16 subjects in each location, always a~king ' (he
J ' , ' J ~ !
,questions in the m~jority languagedf ~he enumeration ar~8.
"
In each of.the : eig'ht towrl's 32 subjects
32 in two ' French communities and' 32'
', co,mmuni ties in Quebec; the aame' thing was
were ~~ met,
itf tw\ English , , to ' be" tione 'in
'. '
New Brunswick. Aga,in" 'each experimenter was' to meet :'16' ,
subfects in each . locati'on-,_--c~.~~'~Ys aski"ng ' \
the quas pons ' 'in
the lI).ajoiity lan'guage o'fthe enumeral:ion
, . 2 area ~
I '
, ,-
2 ' - ".- \ T,he total ' numbe'r of 's ,ubj'ec ts aimed for was " changed
from ' 480 "to ' 384 once t ,he experiment 'was ', underway. There'af t'e'r ttl ~ .- in ten t i~~ wa s to have , 16 ! sub j ec t s i~ ea ch location but this could ,not always ', be done. ' The actual
" , I ' , ' -number of subjects in each ' ,location may vary , slightly due· to
, , the limited amount of time that could be 8"pent 'in "each location, 'in ,wh;Lch casj;ls " the sessions may hilve :'been ter~~nated before the , required number ,was reached. ;- --('See '
,block ' diagrams in Append iees ' F ' and G f or the ' ae -tual numbers.) ,
~--' I--
.' " '
I ' ',', . " -,.- --T . ___ . _· __ .. _.~~4 ,. __ ._--..,..-_._ , . , ... . ......... . . -~ ... - . ~-. - . ........ -.~, -.- ,-- -.- ~-' - _¥, ",_ . , .- ' / , ' " ' " ,
, " , I ~ ;' ,
" .
, :, I,
' I, '
:_;/" , ,
,'_ r "
\ , ,'./
( oi
, :~ .
"
... ~'
;' /
': 1
i , I I
. ! I .
, \
·l
/
" .
. ' . " .... ' . .
1 ., ,
; '
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i i
,
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,
j -
. . , .-
~ • ". , II
. '. ~. _. "--~¥~~-,":"'''' ''''.~~- , ' ' ''- ... ,- . -''-- .. .. ~ - '-' ,'
/ / .39 . .
)2f'"
. . ' O-~h t~'e .' liv'e . '~n~'er~~~w' and . the " lost 'letter, experiments , ;/ , '. . . . '"
ere , conduct~~ ' conc~~~:ntlY." To mi~tm:i.z~ I. e~perime~ter bia~ ',L
,I and · to keep . s~bj ~c t selection-- cons .tant , , .the in two.
. ". /' experi.mentS, · the 1 '. .
subjects ~ere ' to be peo~le :, •. , I. " .
g.et ti~g : out or ~xperime ,n 't;all
' ; "
> . .;... .. --
the i r . car. b.y : thems .e I ves •
. --~
At the start of '
se~s iO,n . the first , person . ·.doing t:l o was to be . i
randomly , i
\ fo ·r . at\ assigned to .experiment one or two. i . e. ', a . . subj e,ct
I . 3 , ~~terv~e~ or for
./ . a lost le t t ,er. \
\ \ ..
The second potential subject was assigned, to the o,ther " .
e 'xperimen t (the idst letter if a ' live" interview had just
occurred or vice versa). The third p'otential . subject . , w:as
, I ' . -~~aln randomly as~!gned to ' ~ither experiment. and the fourt~
one to : th'e alternate ' and so on until the 'req~lred minimu!l1
nrnber : of sub'j ects . had · been reached Eprthe location. .'
. Th. standatd format used · t~rQughout was , ,
ass:istance " (in French or English d'epending on t .he location) /.
for. survey in the fo~lowing fa~hion; "Excus~ ' me ~i~/Ms. ~
I'm ." ~o'ing . a surv,ey on culturaf identify_ I would .like to . ,
ask you a few ques~lon~~This should only take 15 or. 20
. , ,
, ,- ..
, . ·.,3Itwa~ no 't Y ' al;~YB'- '- pos~ible' ·. to ··. · alternate ·. the .::xperiments like ' this. som~' easB c9uld not be use~to lose ' the J.etters: · tocvman'y people watching-,·· people .' pa,rki'ng in
' front 'of .:the' s~9res ' where . th y went shopping, etc •.
1,
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··· ·minute.s 'of }'our time • . Do you · agr.e ·e?"
;j ,
, '
, " , . ... : , '
: , . . 40
. \. . : . .of :. , .,
,. ' ,',
. ~ns·we.rB were B~ught to a .t least , the .' fi.rst . second .' .. ,
to . e.8· t: ·a~li~h" . . the · c .tiltur·U identity ' and ' 'place of, . ' , '. , " '
res idenceof ~he 'subj ec ts • . . Whe th'er -qr not l we p!Qc·eeded . . to ' ..
'. t .he othin . ques t 10.ns . ' .depe.nd.!:!d
two • . If they 'were 'appr' o\priaf~'
on the
I '. e ... a '
ads~erB to the £Irst . '. )
subj ec ~ of ·the · ·"at?e ..
~ulturaL . identity as th~ location. we ·were working ,in ' (same I
. " 1 .
the' city . .or', .town,· w·e. -, " . . bome lan~uage) . ~~d residing ' in
• - 1
.proce,eded, If th~ . sub~ct was wiliing, ' to' ask the 'r,est of '
. the que.stl_on·s (£o.r ' 8 ' complete list 01 ' the quest.ions·. see ' o . '. " ~ : . . \.'. '., ..
. ,-' . - Ap'pencitx :'B "I'iln 'EngUsh), "Appendix C : li,u·: French]'). I ' ' " . " "
.. .'
Defining ' Subj eO'ts; Answers • . The classification of .' s~b:t~cts '
' a~ : h~lpirig ' ~ 6r . pat
decliion se~uencei
, ,
helpin'g was
' </. ' -' . ,. ,' ,1. .Is t he per son of ·the . pr~p .e.r cuI tl;l;ra.1 · id en t ·ft'y .?
,. . :'\ .
,'j
,~Ye8/rio. '.
. . '( .
. 4:iri . the . ·experiment .' onl-y .. ethnic,' inf~rmatio·n·· . was meant to be p:rov).ded ' at, the ' in~ti·ai:ion of cont.acts with subjects • . But in cases' wher·.e subj ects' ~ant~d to know" more' . about us before making their . dec 'ieion ·to .help or .not we did ' v ·olunt.eer tha.t · we were university E,!:uden't~ (i. :e •. ' role· · information). '
.'So · 89me" 'subjecte had bott). , type- olf . information ' a-vailable"
: . , . - .
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• •• - ' ...... ~ , ., •• ,-- ............. ,-. '<' - ••••• ' . ~' -. : - :.
. ...
, , I.
.. '·2, .' }s ': the ·pers.on. living in the , city' o'r town? ' " ,
~1
3 • ... ' : "'. . ' \
Is · the person wi.lltng t,o ~nswer . all ' the ' . qu'estioIis?, : . Yes/no~ • . .,;,.-. .
. , " , \. :1 , If- · the i' a'nswe,rs " were yes to·, ' al-1 .the · ques.tionsthe , . ... ' ".,-.'
,': subjei:it , was" ci~ssified a~'a ·~elpe ,~ • .;. }f.:.the ims'w'ers were ~es
c.l'as.sifi'ed as , .
a non·
.~elper. If the answer was no on · either .of t~e first two th~
subjec twas dismi 'ssed ~. In cases wher :e ,.the s,ubj es,ts refused
tp . answer any q'destions and. 'so did not ' provide the relevant
. ' inform~tion; ' they were classified arb i -i:ra.r lly. a~non hel:per~"l < , • • ' , t ' • "
of th~~roper cultural iden~ity a~d lo~ation. A relatively '
. high number of those cases", 'non 'rB:ndolll:.ly distribute~" might'
have . alter'ed " . 'I
the; r~sults. · Howevei since we actually got .,' . . ... ' \ .
·I ei.oly 14 of . these ' cases or less than four .. per·cent· . ot . ,the . '
to,tal ,they ' were elim'ina ted from'. the analysis ~ (-~ppendic es
·. B, .C, and, D ' c~ntaiIi8 : theforms 'us,ed in . data recording'.) 4 '
\ ' . , " i ·
,
. I \ " . i
! . '"~ I . ,
, . . . .
, '.
. j
EXPERIMENT .. 2
" Meth'o'd
-. I
• ;
In thi~ ei~eriment 6~lping ~~havior 'was to be me~sured
'by the '. 'LO~~ letter .t~choique·. (Milgram et ai, ' 1965,) ~.The
de.p·endent variable i .s a s~bjec·t.'s willingnes.s to go to the
trouble to ~ail anap~arentli'lost letter which ~as been
· ~tamped aod ; addres~ed hu~ has not ~een post ~arked. lh~
, ... . , . '/
; .
. .. _ .... _ . ... c. ','" -: . . "'_-'_ .. _:....." ... L.;. _' • .' I . , ~ .' • • '
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" .... ,'
, ..........
" .. ,:
• " "A . ' .
ra 'tio,nale, , for t 'his expe'r.im.en t 'was " . '.. ,"
u·no.btrus ive measur~~f . h~lpin~ , , :.. ', \. ' ." .. " b'ehavio·r • .
: :' .;, '//:: ' :.,,'
'c'
Pr'ocedtires ' . In each locai~~n th~ same
::.
. "
, ..... i.'
~u~ber, of · letiers , ,' . '\ . '
·,?ere.· to" be . los .~ : . as .. the' nulDb!!'r ", . of .subj ec ts" in the live ,'. .
. ,I
, '
.. '. ---: ' '. '
. ' : ';. '
.' ··~· interview, ha·lf ·of :,thoseby eac'Ii · experimen'terj. half ,in ea~h .. · ~ " . ' '
'.'
"
. ',
lcc.st.ion (French or En·glish, · asdete1;mined by' , the census)and ,, ' .-"'" '. '. ' ', ,' ..
·half wn il e'. tra'velling in 'one 'directio:O imd ' half wht"le . coming
back~ In fact lo,s.ing the letters incons.picuously . .'during th ,e .\
day prov.ed i:q ', be ,v.e,ry ·difficult · an~ ~i~e ·, consuming. FbI'
'·these ',' reasons we '~e~ided ' ,· to termina'te " this ' parti·cular . ' ·exp·eri~en t after . having don:e ,half . the t r~ p " ( . g~i'rig . one .way
puly,) . .. -Also . 'one ' town in ' Que,bec :.' :and . 'two ' . fown 'fI . in ' New
Br~.nswickproved :too'- small . ~o :. effe~tively' : - :,
ca rry, . ou:t ,. th is'
. ex~e.r1m~n .t · i .n. them_·. , ..
.J •
" '
" . , .
" Material. ' Th~ ' fett'era were' ·s·tan'dard white ' .envelope·s, ,'·each . .
. ..-- . . of which bore a 17 cent·s stamp and anadd 'ress with, no return
" ' r. - .
:add ress ·. The ' addr~!lf:J fis,elf e:l,ther ~ritten a.11 . ilr . I . - ,--"
F.rench · or ' all in . 'English, including ~n ~ddresgee with ~
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French name, . in ,the first case and an ' Engli~hname ' 'iil . 'the
second. , .
Th.e ,addr.esB was ' alway,s' th'e· ' s 'ame ~ a post ' offic~ box :" · L"""'·; ., , i, I
: in St. John's,. Se~~a~pl~~below. , ,: "
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·Ja.cques M'art'in· " Bottep~st~l~ ' 12S3 Succursale C. t. ,. St.'Jean', Terre Ne\lve Ale SN9 "
, \
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£ ' ,John Mart i~ , ~ . p .~O. B'Olt. I4S3' .
Station C •• , . St. John" s, :N~~foundland
' . '.Auj 5N9: \,,,. . .
'.' .'
, .
'. , Iti case the :envelo'pes were .. open'e4 , .
. v:ague '. ,. message about' a, r'equ~s t · . l· , .
typej! in the appropriate. language.' See s mple
" Al'pe· pi:t/.n~ ... rd· "i'bX' e ,iow. (As .. ample . .of the French let ' e:r. i .
l H)~ .', A .codi~j ,riumber w.s ~y~e~ ~~ , . .
of "E.ng1ish
included in '
ve'l,opes , to
id,entify the,m as tD location where ' the:lffl w
on what. day etc •
los by whom~
",," -
• " Y
. ., . "Sa1DpTe', Engllsh letter.,
[EngH,sh add [email protected]] . .' .
. Dear -John, . l) {
. '" . "
>-- .
." Th.anks f or 'your .inter.es t in our ' organi'zat ion. , . . '
./_ ,We Will. soon • end you tbe. i ~f ona ;;;; ~~~~:::u:~. t •
I , ~ ", . ' , -'.
./ .-. "
'. '
"letters ' at ' __ ., Experimenters ~ere to try to ' distribute' ... . ' .. . , ' ., /. ,
relatively equal dis t!lncefrom .,mai l' box,es. or-
. eqU~l~~ a.moun1;· , of eH.o,J;'·t · f In'ders' would
t offices to
,to' . extend
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'·.· -, .r'~---"'" ',~ , ,- ':--"~" •• ","~.~-----:-j.'" "-:. ' ",' ":,:~-:-'---~~ , -" ' '',: " "> ,, . ,: ' 'j\ . : ., ~, ,'''' - " ..
:' ,. ". " . '1 " , . " '~
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:_". ___ .... ~~,,...: .. _._ ... -:.._.,_. ~ ......... ~ 'r_"" , ..... , .... _,. ........ _ ..... ~ .... _ .... "' .. . ~_, ... '_ .. _ ."'" ;.~'" J ...... .,. .. ~ •• ~ ........ ' .......... _. ~ _ • '. "
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.I .' --t 44
·~feasibie • . · 'In's~ailtow~s· , ·'. the layout 'di'd not 'lend itself to , . , , ' .' :"', ,'., ' . " ,....-
such a . balanced. 'design', an4 , ' the p'ost ,offices' were one of .. '
. the few pla,ces .,where there was ,enough: ' traffi'c:,tP , m~~e ' i,t " ; .
possible 'to do. th.e ' :subj ~c. ts ' ,in" a . r 'easonable" time. " , .
. Approxima'tely a ' moti~h . ' . I"'; . '
the
,' . '
,:
.:, "
./
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' I .'
',,, ',' . .. ~ . " ,'
j " " . ' .
.;..
expe~iment th~ numbets 'of letters .returned · wa,s , calc~,1ated. ", . . '.
an,d ·an· analysis si~i~a'~ : to.' t ·he one" for the,liv,e ~, . ' '" .
in tervie',ws '
,/ .. .,.,::-~ . . ::.'
,' . . was ,performed. ·
t, :t .p ' ', '
. " ,l .-
:.' . ,. ' , . EXPERUiENT :l
' 0, " . ," ..
'}i:,' .:, .
", '
. '
" ., .
... . ,. "
, . Results
were
. ,"- ... ., ', - ' . '
. . " .
'""ar'fables: . cu It'~ra I ,iden t.HY o'f the' ·expe·riment~·r:~·: ct.tl tuta f , . ~ .. ."" ' .\" ', ' . . . '... . . .
~"" . ide~'t1t'y of the . popula'tion',~ urban size,': province ~ ', ' .~nd,. o~e
~e~ende~t va~iable, h~lp~ \
: I.
cu~tural· identity 'of t)1e . ' ,I
. . , " : .~ ,
..' -'
" '. !
\'
'oJ " .' to . " • ,
maiti · intet'!!"s t ·\.we're: .' thie .' . . ~.
, ~ . , ~ ~ . ' ,
. e~pe,rim~n te r' , (CUPEX:) .' and ,. the:
• j for a· list' of th.e ' variJ1bl.es)'o The, urha~ .size (U_RBNs~i'i.n " ahd..
" .'
G.:
.. ,
. , .' . , " , , .
.' .
i' 1-.,
" '0,'
o ·
' . . . '
l ' "
. ' . , .: .
cultural '1dent.ity· of ' ,t
f'" population' (CULTPO,P) '~e~Tab~e : . •
~ . -. ' , . . ,- ; ... '.-: ;;:" ' " the province (PROVIN9'E) variables· were' of secondary· 'in tel'i~'s t .
',- ' ; " I ' i ..
because, as ,we '. 1
,'-.,' ' :. '
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' , .' .
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-c ' ',', :.
• ~ .................. ' .. . " ", ,r, ... - .,' .': -'~ -. ~.~ --,- v·.~ __ ; :... .. .-:....'._ .... _ 'r •.
','
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'. , , .-."'y '. ! ,
, ~' , , ,
', ' , . , ' .. / Tab~e 2
\ ' ,
Va'riabfeNaines and Symbo"ls Used .1p theA'~~lY8i~
'~
, i
'~ '" ,
, Variables '
' \ cuI tural identity ,of the ,
.1.
. ' . , '
eXi>erimeriter
cultural , identity of the .
" '-. populat'ion
Urban .'8i~e ..... . .
, Province'
Nam¢s ",
CULTEXP
CULTPOP
URBNS~ZE
PROVIN,CE "
C?tegory
F.rench experimenter '"
'English experimen ter'
French poi;u!il ti9n
Englisb popu18t'ion
.ci ty
town '
, b '
o·
,r ' ,New Brunswick , ,:
, ...... :
.. , , HELP .'
" ....
~- ---'no
, 0 , ' _N_o_t_e , ~ , ' T~e variable " riames . a~e used ', in ' the tables fc;r.
',conciseness'. . /
,. -
'. ~
, ,~
f"'"' . , .'
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. , , , • u
., .: , " \. 0
· the . pre ·c\~se influeo'ce of urbanism has yet . to ' be . worked out
. s~tis· factori.1y and e because province wa-s considered to be a
demogx:aphic' variable whose , contribution it ~as important ' to
evaluate but which was ndt · ~x~ected · to ~dd greatiy to the
" ..
'var ianc·e. .. ) " , . . , \
\
As Bishop, . F.ienberg, and. H011 a:nd ('1975, p • . 31 ), Everitt .,
(1977, p. 70) , a.nd . Upton . (1978, .p • 42) note ... ..
a multiway ;.' ~ . /
table should nO.t be collapsed into ' a serie~ of two
, way-tables before ' th"e .presence or a·bse·nce of i .nterac·tions. at
" the higher . level SIG is as se ss ed.
' .. 1f
,3 -.
I
I /
The results · were . t 'abui'at:e~ initially ' i>11 '. a" contipgency-
table cross .clas·sified for . ~~ the .fi've · var.iables of help, ......
' cul.tural indentity of , the ex'per'imen~er, 'cultural ide~ti.tY of u
the population; urban size!, an.d p'rovince (see Table 3). ~.
/' . . The .:results were analysed with · t1!.e Blomecifcal . Computer
' .' , -::~ . .. . Prog'r'ams, P series, (l97in. the progra.appropri~ti~jor
. " =.'
analysis .of ' contingency ta'bles ~s " P,3F, multiway frequency ,- . :./ .. . . S· '\
1979, ~p. 297-332)~ taQ.les ·, the log-lin,ear m!Jdel '(Brown, - • .> '
J ' ,. The ~omputer · analysi~ . provides two chi square
"
. " va1ues.
! 5' .' .,
Programs · 4eveloped ~t the Health s~iences computing facility, UCLA. " Heal th s~iences I' compu,t in~ . f;adH. ty i 's spoosered by NIH f!JpeCial research re,s~ur.cesgrsnt RR-3'. . I'
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,', 7.; '.
. '. ' f , . '
,' :' "
, .
, r ,
- I', . . 'J' . • - _ " , _'\ ~ _ _ .. _ ~_. I , . .... " . t · .. . _~ .. "J';~ " -'::" ' ~ . _-' .... _ ~._
: ,'
.' ! . ~
, '
.. . .. , .
" ~
... # •
..
./ \ . " ' .
.' , . " ,
" . "
. . / . .,' ~~ '"
. .,: .Taole · 3.
. : . Contingency : Ta'bleShc)wing , the Percen'tage of:F·~op1e :Hel·pfng , ' . , and" the ·Tota~ · NutQber': of People . Asked,' for . . Each Lev¢l of the
, . '. , 'Four ' lridependen i: Variabhs , (ilve "int,erviews) ,.' '
--..,.-------.,-----------...;...----.,;.--"------'---.,;.~--:--- :; ~ "
'URBNS'IZE . . ' ,
Ql1ebec city
, .' , , .~ . tc;>wn"
-,
town .
.. ..
I
.~ J" .. ' . . .:~ . I
' , l ,
,'.'
CULT PO, , cULTEXP
trnchpop. · frnchexp" ~nglsexp
englspop , , 'frnchexp
eng-l'sexp . .
frnchpop , frnchex'l'. englsexp . . /
engl~p6~ , frnchexp , . englsexp
~rnchpop . frnchexp . eriglSexp
' englspci,p ' frn.chexp. ' . . ' engl .. sexp
" " , ,
, :.frn,chpop . . frnchexp . 'englsexp
englspop frnchexp , , englsexp
. "
. '. ~, ' , . '" . . ': , ' . ~ .
.,/'" . ",
, t ,
.... 1
f'
·.HE].P . , \ %he1,ping ' Tot.
.-
47% : . 47%
21% , , 53%
I
30%' . 61%
, ;'41% " ·' S.2%
38% 65%
40% 60% .
38·% 48%
47%' 63%
' ~ " ' "
.' . " , , : ' ' , '
, (,
(17 ) (15 ) .
:(14 ), ' (17) .
.' (33) ,.:... (3,1) .
(34.) " (34) , .
(13 ) .( 1 7 )
(15 ). <. 15 )
(32 ) , (29 '),
(32) (32.)
, .'
". '. . ~ ,
, ' "
. j '
,. l ,
" '
. / \
"l' . ,
• J"
. ,.-
, (
I' '. ' ' I ' •
. \
r ",'
j . '
l "
: r '~' \"> " ,
' / . . " , . \
• ,1 , " ' , .' " ',"; - : :: · ·: --c~·i$ : ,-: -~ -c~-~~~--~, , .~-, --' -. :~"""":T~"',--': , •. " ! ' , : . ' ,, ' . " ', \ , " I
"'-- "--, ' ,'
" .
. ' , , l
j . ..... .'
I . j ' F.J "
.1
-.
", .
,f) :
' . '
" ' .
. . ' .
1/ ..
•
" , "
, , .. ~ . ' ...... . - ~ , .... ~ :' '',
I, ', '
, ,' , I '
.. " 48 ,;
, : : i, i , "
This is to help .s~lect . the.tnte,ractions" of , borderline
s'ignific~nc:e which migh.t ' be rej'ected outright ,otherwise: • " ~", 1 " •
/ ,I,,! . , . " The' test of ,/ any ef,t'ect in a log-:-linear ,model
-, ' dependS~ I!Iwh,ioh ' t>ther effects are included in the model'. th refore no singl~ test determines the relative " iml?ortance of an- effect. B~'own (,1976) ,
" '\"~ 8nugge8')::e~ the u ,se " of ' .two tests --margina'l' 'and . , ,Lp-artial ~flsociation:-- to sC, ~e.en effect:s • .' (Brown,
'-19,79,; p' ,B03J.
, "
"
,By ,using the~e. two . ,tests' 'simultaneously' ' eff~cts can be , ': " ", \, ' , '
classified as needed ~ not ',.neede,d , and , indef inite (if
'f .. ~.
. ' .
.' , , ,
.1/',
., ' ~ . ' ' .
... .:
, ~
sig~ificant 'for' one . test but not ' the ' oth'~r). ,(See Appendix '
/ .
' ., . J for ' furt?er explana~iO~~>. I'
" / '
The,first \ analysis was done · to determine where , the
significant iriteract~ans, if , ~ny, h~cured. The 'sig'nifica-nt'
fig~r~~ an,d ' b~rderl 'ine ' cases '( •. 05< l' <.10) wil,1 be . presentled,
':( s "ee Table 4). ' ,,. .....
-,
Further analyses were done a 'f t 'er , or
.condit{oning on Borne of the variables. . "
Cond~tionnin~ is
s.ilnilar t~ ,controlling for the ' levels ' ' of a variable as . , "
I '
explained · in , : ' \
Blalock ( 1972, p. 3.02 and ' following).' ( S~'e
Ap pend ix' J .f or ' d et a Vs)'. . , , ' . ! "
"-"
d '. , . " " ,
., val;'iables, with ' succes,sivecq.1:\'spsing ' or ' ~ 'ond(tio'nniilg of
" / sub,sets of the orig irial four . in~ependeri.tvar iables.
" .
d.
" . , , ,
, " "
~ , ,
. . , ,, '
, ' ,'. . (
" I
. '
/ .
. - ' . '
! ;,..: .
i /
"
"
.' "
. \' ' I ,
'" ;-. "
, j ' ,::" ,
, ., "
! ' .• " ' ..
1', ' . '.
:' : -"'-':-~ ; -.~. -~-. -. ,- . -.~,-- .. ; - . ,:" .-----::.-.-~-;:.-, - -7---·-----:'-.----:-- - r ", - '_. .. ':" t' ~~i~, ' .... ~ ; .. " .
; .
\ '
, ..
·1 '
· i , l " . ' .'1/:
. '1 · i
.' .' "Ii .' . j.
.. i .. " I
I . 1 ~
!".
, .. " "
. /
I ' I
,:-"
{ .
....
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':',-
','
,."
! .... " · ~ ,
:;):. , '.
, I
'. ,,.
. . , .. ' . , .:'~ :. ... , , , , . . - ~ ... "-... -".-.---. ",P-, .~ - .",,,-~ ...... _ .. . . • _. ' .... ,.. ,, ·~r • . : : .,'/ '. , ,,_. I ••• • •• , .~ (. .,~"~ ~ 'or'" " ..", ~ . - .... \ .. -' _
/' " :: " -.. -','- .
. "
, ,
. ,'
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.. I,
' ..
.' \
.,
' .
" ..
. , " '
• ~II , . , .: : 3
t · .' :. ,', ".~
. I
. ' TEST ONE . ~ (<?ur) wi i:h
, . ,. ' .
. :' , , --;
, , "', .' .
" ,"
.', . . .... ~ . . '/~ , , "
" .'
,-. '
.' . . /, ."
" ,- . ' f ,, ' ' ,:
"
, .;. " . ' i . " ' Significa~~ Interactions (~n contingency table '
' Four' !tidepe:nden t ' Variabl e's and 9ne De.p·e,nd env One
. '
A t~st of. partial associa~~on of the factor.
. A tes t of ·.marginal as,so.. c :i: a t, :I::PTn 0 f the f act 0 r 8 •
· ·Effect
H,ELP by . :,?ULT,EXP ,
HBLP -' by C;ULTP·OP by URBNS IZE
1
. 1
~ I a ' " / . lr chisq . prob.
' . 20.73 ,' .~1
3.70 '.0544
i ,
, : "",,:
. lr cqisq I
'prah ~ , p< .,
20.57 .0001:. , "r
•. 0.6 6~·
, ..
,.. ' '. :' \ ., " " :-
. " '. -I ' , "
' 1' .,,', "' ~
'J , , '
.. '
.-/ ' .' .
. ' .
...
...
. j ', '
.: . ~
....
I ·
. .
" '. . . ' ;;
i ..
' .
, : ; r"
. ' ,
" ' " ,
"
" .
' .
. ;
/ '
" .
i • • 1 . . 1 ' .
., .
" , '
, " ,"" .~ " ~ : .. ~:~ .. - ..;-.: ~ .. ~~.- .. -~.~ .. ~- .;-.:~.-~,;~~.:~U":_.-.-.;-·-~~.~~~.~~"~,~~~~_~+~.·· ... '_':" ,:~,_~_, , . . : . :" : . ' .. ,",' ' .. '. - , ' " ,' .' ' . , ,;. ,I ,:''; ;.:.'
. . . ~ . '~ '.'
.'
"
"
j " ' j ~' •
,, '
. ' , "
, .
'"
"
, "
, , I ,
In the ' first an~'i'Y8is .there ' are two significant
\ " , '\: 50,
i • , "\
. \" effe1cts
on help ,. first of the cultural' identity of the , experimenter, ' > . '. )
, .' t
,a~d se~~rl,d of the ; in-teraction 'between llrban size, and
c'ultural ,iden,tHy' of the ' popullitio~~ In the first case th~
irenchexperim~~t~~was "helped signiflcan~ly l~s~ (3~%) than
'the Englishexper~menter (62%).
The seco,nd ' interaction' indicates, th'at the French
populat_ion was slightty m,ore helpful (5,0%) , th~Ii the :Eng'lish
pop~lation ,~, cities ,,('44%)' -·but in J.,~wn6 , the Fr~..t::.~ \. . .. '
"
pop'ulation was less " helpful > (~4%) than the English ~
p;o'PQlation (58%) '(see . Figure 2). "
"
' ,n~ inter~rovincial diff~rences ~w~re of secondary inter~st ' . \
~t was , colla~sedonto .the other variables and · the analysi~
reru~'· fsee Table 5) •
, 'The probab,ility level s, for' the remaining. vaHables ?,
aft~r c6llapsink~ stay the same as in test ONE~ Only the
cultural identity of the experimenter by,. itael.f, and the
cult;ural . . identity 'of'·~the popUlation by urban . size
interaction affect the level 'of h·elp\, signif'icantly. \
\\\'" '
~l.";'!" .... .
. '. Again si.c~ urban size .ss '~.ly of' . 1con~"ty .. interest .'
we wanted ' to see · 'how 'the' var .iables of,;nain interest were '. . . , .,./ .
. " , .\
.\
,, -; .
, ,
. " .
.. .' . , . '
?0" "
.' .' " .
! , "
. , :'. , .. . .
. ,
. . ,' .• •.• •. '. I
. " !' .' , J
'.' . : j:\" , .' . , I ' ',:. .' :, ,I .' ,0';"'" . i '.
, )
" '.", ..• .. "'''. ,
, .... ; . ' !
.:. , ,.:
,':'
. ,' . , :.
.. ... , r
" , :' r,' " "
? " "
,'j.' . , ,I.
, ./
/! . I' '.
.'
. \
;'
;. ,
, ~ .: • • • '" • I .,
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, , . ~ ~
-: '"
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\
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' .. ,.' , . ,
. 60
b1 S:: .
,,-j . ~ ' ,;./ al ' II:
.' s:: ' 0
',-j " . ~ +'
III
"
r-'f 50 _" ,.& . ' 0
Pl . ..c:,
" u , , Ill '. '. ,ri! '
'. dP
410 ,
.. .. \' '\: ' . "
', t ,
" ,
, ,
"
. ' ,
Engl'ish .population ·.·
, r . .. ' . ,
.~ ." , ..... " .. ,'"
44% " \.. ' . . \,,'
..
Towns . : .... . " '
Urban .. siz-e
'Figure.· 2. · Helpi'ng as . a · ,fUnc:tionof co~unity':'
'"
. -size '. and language. . , '.' '. . , , I .
" ' .. : :
,' , . , ,'.
" ,
' .. .,I' / ,
,' .. /~/
, ,'" / '
.1 I
'f' ( .
:0" .'
': ' 1
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. : "
. ,. ,
, ' .', '
i
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., ,;,1
: .... "
. '
') '
' ~
<' ,
: , ' , , '
_r '. ' • •• ,
, .,' 51 , 1
" \
', .' ,
, . ,
'.1
' . . " 1 , t,
I ,
. ",1'
"
,. >'
I. ' ,,' I ,, '
. j: .. i
'. ' .. ~ ..
' " ' .,. , :,' ",/. '. ' '.'
" .., .. ,' ,,'.,,$". " j
".,. , j.
,,'
', ' " ' '', '
, ..
, , " \, .
. ,.
.. ;
, .'.
". ,~
1-,.:' , , " . ~ ,'.: ".
.' "
: , ' .
. ,
.. r .. , ;" .. I'; .... ':
. . . '. 1 '. :,: , ,',,' . .. , , ' :,' ;;. ':>,~.
.' .. ..
I ." , \ '.I .' --;-:, ," ~' ",
"',:',
I
.' ."
' :.'
"!.
I :1
'1 i
, , 1
: ,'
:1 .
,,: I . \ '1
... . .
, .
,. J
:' ,
. / ' . . ' " , , ~ . ' ..
/~I . _ ~ .. . .. .. . . , ,_
, "
S2
" , ; ., ." , I
""
" , ' "
/. "
' . , , ' , 1
'/ , ~ . ' ,
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.' .. ,.' .
"' ,
."'i.
' . . . " ,'"
): . ;
J "
,. '
-. " . , . ~ ',' ,J • • ,
' .' :rEST TWO • . .Independent
," ,
, .. , .
. " .
Conti~gency' :, T~b le,lv! th Three " V~ria~l~s ' (pro~ince eollaps~d) '
, ' . . 1
' . , URBNSIZE CULTPOP ~ CULTEX~ HELP '
%he Ipfng . 'Tbt,. ' . .
.~-' ----------~------------------~-r--~~-----------. c;ity " frnchp.op frnchexp
eng~sexp
43% 56%
(30) (32 )
\ . "::'
1 ,"
."
engisp.op frnchexp ertglsexp
. :" 3-1% ,' (29) ~' } ' ' . ,
56% ·(32) ' ,:~ ." ', ------:-------:-:---:-----:----f---:--,-'-:------"-------'" ' .. ' . .
, ,
" ,' ,
. ~ " ,', :
' ... · . .tow~ ·, , f-r.pchpop -, ~ "
';' .
. :. engispop'
frnchexp 34% (65,) englsexP i 5~% ' : 160)
~inehexp engls,exp
,
44% 73%
(66 y. (66 )
A ,test ~f par~ial asso-6iati6nof the fa~tpr:
'A ti~~ o~ ~argin~l · aS80~ eiation of the · factoi~.
Effec t
HELP "by CULTE~P . ../
. HELP by CULTPO,P by l1RBNS IZE
. ' . { ,' .
.. ( .... - : ' " . "
d.f ir cl1isq
,1 ' 20.72:
1, 3.66
" ,
" ,", ' . :','
t · :
pTob • . P<.
.0001
·9557
) , , -
'-:" : , .
/'
,; : ' ..... . " . ,'
lr ' chisq
2Q.5,1
3.3'7 . .
I .....
.' , . , , .
. prob~ p< ,
'.0001
.• 0665
, ' .
.. .....
. " "
, .' . , • • _ _ . ..... _ ,_, _._ ... _,-:-._~.,....;.. _ _ -:-: " .1" , ••
. : .•.. . .. __ ._._- --;---..-.. __ .. -:; "7 .... :-. .... " . ' . . , . ...
., ~
I '
. " . . , ,'
, " ',~ . , .
\ . ;.: ':. ",
', ' ! .
, ,' ..... , :.
:. . "
, ', "
\ .. I .
,',
'J ' .
....
;'~~~:';i' (i .. -, . , ·r·-" ':.
.' \. ....
"
" " . ,* .
}.,'."" \"
; .: ,
, :
) , , \ .. '
,j
..... '
i .'
', '
. ': I ~ / \ . ... /
! . ' . I;J
' . . .
. I
" /
. '
53
. , , '/" . .
affeceed when it. and the ' province variablelwer'e ' ~ollapsed at " 1 " .
. the same ·time. Also ' to see 1f ' the var:iable urban ' size ' would
, ' show some significance , when the" , other effect . wer~ . '
/
dis count ed" th 'e, ' variables of : cuI tura I id.en tHy of the
popu. 1a ,t~on ' an~ . province were ~ollapse.d .. in subsequent ·tests. ' .. ,
,None ' of. these manipula t ions 'provid~d new · information.
" , 1 '
.The . main eff~c t of the cultural ' ident'ity o£'· the
.experimenter was of ' ,ove~whelming - importance in the
significant .results so far. , In fact, as we will consider ~n
the discussion secti,on we can . .only b.e ,certain ' that so~e '
characteristics of the ,ex'perimenters made a difference ' in
the, level of he lp ob t a'ined. To draw th-e conclusion tha 't · it
was , their cultural ' indentity
hazardo\s:
that was 1;'espo~sible
/ " diff erences , be:t~een the
' is
1 '
Since there , were .' significant
o'f h ~elp "obtai-ned :: 'h~t t no' experimenters in . the level
, interaction between the . cuI tursI , identity of the
expe'rimenters and the cuitural ' id'entity of the populations, ,
sep ,arate analyses were conducted fo'r each · level of these I,'
variables.
Appendix J).
tests, .. ' The:
first' , then,
Tables 6 and
\ ,
'..!' •
• " 1 '
In P3F this ;is call"ed , cbndi'tionning (s~'e
NQ variable,!l-- were c~llapsed prior to. . these
ana1Y9is
' for
1)~
is' ,done 'for the French experirilenter '
the .' English
I.'
,', experi~eni:er ~
,.
( see
~ .
, ,
'-.,-, -'----~'------., :--,--~-::-::" " , "
. :1
I,' -, I
" . .. ' , ,, '
:1 . I
I , I r
'-1 '.' I
-',
.. ': ,I
, .
: , . ,'
54
' .
, . . .The French . experimenter, 'by 'himself, . didn~t · 'p.roduce'·:-','
. _. J' • • "':: ,'{' . . ,
," any '," S 'i 'gnific~nt' .. effec:t ':. :(see .'. :Ta'ble '6) • . ,The . 1.owest .·
.: ;.S~bl1ity ~s due . to .the . . .1~teraction .. C!~/B, PU~~ .. tio~,.,. ~~d · .
"J" - ·· .. ·:. u:rb~n · si .~e : .an·d -it is no~~:ignificant. · . ' .- i'~
, ,'.
f/,. ,' "
. ' "
.' exper.imeti"i:·er . by. himself . there' was a trend 'for: ,the" English
expe.;imen t~~f or' the ' inte~a cti~n ' of" urban s i~,.~:· aI'\d prov.t'n·ce . 1
'English ' . exper imen ter I . .
did be t ter iil
Quebec towns . than in I
the 72% .,
~gainst . 50% i 'n the . .
la-tter.. . But · he did bener in the New Br,uns'wic'k ' ci ty than in • t' '. •
' the . towns getti'nghelp 63% of the time , , . ,r .'
in the ' .. former · bu·t .
. only' . 56 % of> ' the time 1 • ,
in the la'tter (see Figure, )) ' ,',Hil?
. res 'ult 's ', also . . show a . trend for " c u'l t u r ali d' e n tit Y ' 0 f , . the
. " .. popul~. tion . w:ith th e , Frenc ·~ · popu la tion ·t end ing tc! .he,lp les s
than would b'e 'expec .ted, 55% of " . ~ .. , . " ,
time. and the . : Eng ~:ish . ' . I
popUlation tending toh~lp . mor~~ . 67%' of ' th.e time-, ,
I .
I .
We -repeated'. t ,he analysis . a.~ove. this tim'e using . the ' " '
ide~tity ·o·f . the ·~ population as · tne condi~ionning ' • , ',' I •
I. -
The analysis was done for the -French po.pula ti~n
fir'st and . then for the English .one, (see Tables 8 and·.9)' ";.'
-' J " ,
When .theFr.ench .po.pulation . is .. considered : by it'self ,.
'.' f
identity . of ~he ~xperiment~r's', th.eFrenCh populati9n'," givi~"g . 1 ..
.~ ... ........ , .. ....... ,/~
~~;.;~.~ .... ,
. 11 • • • •••• :. ," .. ~ _:"' ... ~_::.v.'···
.--:-~.-.-. .-.... - ... ...... ~-'-.=-:'~ .. "'a:~~:-:-::--.:.~ ... :-"-.~~.~ .... ..u~<_ •• ~~.,,_ ..... ,-;_ . _ • ..:...-._. _ ... _ . """::-" ....... ... ' ... ...:.~~ .. '!' .. ~ ... _ .. ......... .. 'y, ....... ~ ..... _ ... ..... _ , .. , .. I
' . .-" "
. ~
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, .. ~ .-
<- PROVINCE \' '. URB~S'izE
" I,
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1 '.
,47%·-2q
30% -41%
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, .
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:.TE-ST T:aREE"': ~) .' 1 'Ana ·l YBi'~ " .F e.rio~~ed 'ori: ·t~ ,e, :·.'Da t ' e! ' fo r ""the . Elig~iB h- ;Expe r , im'ente r Alane. ~ . ",(3 fud:ep,ende.nt, varia b ~e'B)
PROVINCE ~
" . .. .. ' Q,!e.be~
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. ,". -#, ;,
~RBNS~ZE : 'CUL:rPOP
ci'ty
town
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frnchpop ,en,gls p op '~ , ~'.
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,", HELP. %help'in~ '. To·t
(15 ) :(17 )
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' or ' '. '*
, town
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, ;frncllpop .eng 1.,·s.p op , ~
65% (n) 60% '. ' (15 j ,
4.8% '.". 63%
(29) " ( 32), "
', ' , " ."
·A. teSt ,of par tial as 80-
.ciatfon ' :0'£ ·.the fact·Dr .• A..t~s t ' of ma,rg.inala~so"'; d,a.t:i.o·n of . the fac 'tors_
. ,, '
'lJ: chisq It ch'isq. ' ",'-.. ' . . 'prob" .:
1. .2'.74 .• 0980 2. 85 . .. 0913 -
;. "
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.HELP · ,by ' . tiRB~S IZE'by PROVI:~CE .
,,- 0. 491 ' ).
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fr++++ 'fr+++.+ fr++++ r+-++.++ I'
,I ft-++++ '.50%' fr++++ . ft++++
fJ:++++ ft++++ fr++++ fr++++
. +++++ +++.++ . +-++++
Quebec
... ....
;)' ..
' . . l+-+H+ ;I.ft++++
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., '.
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56% +++++ .f-l:++"+ . ++H·+· +++++ '+++++
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, ft-i-+++ f+-++++
. New
.! "
exper imenter . ' . ;~, ' . .
/' >
English
3((,,:.... percentage. of help ' re . ' ved . 'by 'thl; ' 1;;£n'gli shexperime . . in ·.ci,ties '.and towns~n. each ,p:rc:ivirlCe ,:', ' ' .' . .
, , .' ~ - .
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I , I .:t
, '-', , r 'o URBNSizE " ',',
,','
'~} , , ' . ,1 ', ' . ..
" ' Quebec '
,',
CULTEXJ;> .....
frnchexp' \ ,engisexp'
~ Jo '
, ,HEtP , , ,I ,
%'heiping', To't ~ " / ' "
47% .47%
. . ', '
' (17,) , (I5)
"
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58 ' . ~ , "
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, "/" i' -~ ,', t.own, ;'" fr'nche.xp!
, engls,e~:p:
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(3'3' )' , ( 3'1)'
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."
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',,; ' <I>, " ftnc~,exp , e'ngl,iI~ xp
, 38~ ,65%
, . , , t,
,~ .
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,Eft'ect ,
HELP ,' by' , CULTEXP "
.' ~ , :
' town
d lr ', chisq
i l
i:rnchexp ' engl'sexp ... . ,- .
,p~ob.,
~O1'l2
.,
3, ~% 48%"
A: test of marginal' a:ss~~>.,' c'iatio'n of ~ the factoTs; I i:' ..
, " ,
-lr 'chiaq prob,. "
6.54 <'
. ' --------------~~~'~,----------------~----------------~------, -,-!~------------------~----~----'.~ .( I.. " .
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t" " !
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. . .. . .... " ~ . : .• J,~ ~
, . _.',_ • .. .. . - •• :.~ ~."lr .... _· .... · .. : · . .... " .. U".{_ , .. . ~ .... , ...... J _' • • _ : ...... -. .. . __ ..... __ ___ • •• _.. .. _ ... " ", ~ • ~. L. ,
", .
i' ,. ....
. ' /
I.
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59
less help.' (-37%) . to ·the Fre'nch experim.en't·er., than to, the
E~gl~sh experim.enter (55%). The~e ·~e~ulis p~rall~lthose
found in .~he overall tea t repo:r ted in Table 4 and Table 5 •
We repeated the analys.is for the · En·~1~li--popu1ati.'on. '.. , .... "".
. ' r '~ .
II!,
A~n the 'effect of ' the ·cul tural of the
I ' aI . , ,
e'xperimenters , i.'s . significant
" 'i.!
" ' .. ·· ·g1vingless help ' to the 'Frenc·~ expe·rime~ter.(40%) thJl-D to
'\ the ' Engli,sh exp'erim~\nte. r. (67%). (see Table 9):
. ' ''!~ ~ . -, ". . I Q ' . "
,-
.1
r I .. . . I .
/ . /. The ' Engl~,sh po..pula~ionis more helpful · in ·towns than in
./ ' cities, . g~ving 'help only 44% of the t \ime in. cities 'but 58%
" " ,
qf the time i~ tOWRS. /' ·
' . . ~
To ' " inves t 'igate whe th~.r .' ·' , might ' exis t ' , r - •
~!n~OVin'Ciai" ' differences .in w~a t bad been assumed to be ' a ' .. • . I " , . ) ' . ~ •
s ,hared cultural ~dentity for '~he French population -alid , the
'~ngli~h~~jula~to~ an ' analysi~ was dobe for the pr?vinc~
·variable.· ... The ana1Y,sis ~~sdone for'" th~ 'province of Qtiebet!\.
first ' '~ then for the piovince of ,N,ev Brunswick (see 'Tables 10 , ' \ '
and .' ln·
'. ~' I~ti- ' f "
,;';' " The 'results for " . ...
l-I , I
" the I I
\, .'
' i \ ',. , province of ' Qtiebei
- . 10)
para~lelthe. ,x:esults of tests one 'and : two. :. The PopulB:tion . .. . .; ' ~nf.:Quebec gtve's " mor-e' h ·elp. t.o' the En'glish , ex~erimenter , , (65%) . :~ ' " . ' ' " \ ' ' .
/ '
; ,
. ~
'\
.- ,
' . \J.. . , i"
I"
, ,
'J ' '
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• \.. r'--~'
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: ~ "\ ,/. '
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. j ' .. ~
(j.
.I
"
. ~ : .. , . , " , . \ .
. . ,.. ~ ... _ • • ,. ~ . ,_ .•. ,_. , t
/
: I
-': "
. , ' , '
\ .\'
'-" ./
'"
Table 9
..... " "
..
'.
..
. > •
. " ,.-. .. !. f • • ~ .:. _ : . ~'
" "
. ,
"
..
60 '
;.
. '
/ .
, . ' .' .. ) . ' , ,' ,
URBNS IZE . ..
" .1 i
PROV-I'&rCE , .
. ' .
/
' , ':.'
. '
. ci.ty "
town'
city.
town /
1
frnc'he.xp en'g'l ,sexp "
I frnchexp . englsexp
. frnchexp! . ' engl~exp
frnchexp en~1gexp .
. HELp·· ·. %helPi·ng:;.;tt' ~ .
21% .1
53%~
(lid· 07)
(34) . ( 3'4 ) .
/ , ,
(15 ) (15)
...... .. ~
,0 " 4 7.%' 63%
, ( 3 2·) (,32)
. ~ ','
... I' •
... (\ . . Effect
,) . " ~HELP ,by, . . CQ~TEXP
, " HELP. by ' o· URBNS I 4E
,/.~ . : .
A t~st of par 'tia1 assQ~ "':' A 'tei}t 'of marginal association .o'f the Jacto't:. · c.iation- of th"e . factors;"
df · . ·' ~~iSqprob ·. . '/ '" " p<
1 15 .• 33 .0001
( '-.' , , ','
:.
. ' . . . ' .~\. -11:' chisq~'
··· ., '14.70
.. ... ' L 3.32
probe p<
.0001.
/.
· V , ~ .
,1 ••
./ ..
/ '
- , .
~ , . , .
• ; " ',
j '.
. ! . ,
\ .
" . I : . ~
./~ • ." 1 '
. -i;' .: ~ ' .
• :" :,1 • • > . . 'if .
\. ,", ',: . ~ " , " , " ,. , ' .. ' . ~. i .. "
. I , . ":' • If- .'
.. ~ .'
;. . '. ' ' .,' \ I
" . . . ~ . .
1 "it.
. ,'" ' .. ~ . ! . • "
,-' .. ,~ , . f ' : '
, ' . ' .'
;, " , , /.
"
W~J""'~~~~~~~~~'~~";::~~'\:~~'~~~ ,;, '. "-.-' :':~~'~7'-:- '~~ ; ': - :.; ,.: .,.; :":-.. ~ "'~:' ::' :: ~:::- : -, . , :,: . :.-:; :,:~-:~'~ ; '''.
' . . OJ' .. C .......... . • '. ' " I
i , J ; .
!
i
r
\'
' . . ' ,
i '.
: "
. \
'! I
: t I
-'
" 'I ,
:\ .
"
• l . '
• I , ' .
.~ i
I . {
" .' .• !I " . ~ .
·1.' ,,' (
.. , . "'; ,' .} ,
: : . , '. ".' , ',
o . " •
.. : . ..
, .. '. .
"
:. I
. ' .. / , I · .. ' . ,r '
'~. " .. /
11' .
",! ' " ' .
. , -....
. . .
" . ~ ' . I 't '
.61 --:
"6" '·"';" . . . " . : . " '
" '., : .. ' \ .. '
:. ... .
. { . ~, J ., .. .'::,,'\ '. .. . .. . " Table ;10.
" ,' ~_, _.;., ... .;.;, .. :_ .. .::I,~., _'T_e_' . ~_._~ \.:..._F..;.I_V_E,..· _._'a_)_·.;..~ --:-A_. n-;-'._8.;...l_Y;... ~_i_S __ ~-:-o_r_Q_. u_ .. _~'_.b_e_c_ .. '_' ,.---:~ -,~_n_e_. -:,-,-:-,-_·_" -:-·' ·---:--: ' ,
" '
URBNSIZE! ClJLTPOP
. . / .
, CULT.EXP\ 1 \ : ,,' .
.', HELP 11 ~ ' . I ,' " .' .
. '.', . , . ,
%Helping .Tot •
"
"
, .
.\
frne,hpo'p ' . frnche~p englsexp
' ~nglsi~p . ·' .frnchexp I . " englsexp
\
. ,
50.% ~ ' (16 ) ' 47% (15 )
21% 04) 53% . qn
.,
.. '. town frnchpop frnchexp . ' englsexp
30.% (33 )
. , "
61% (31 ) ....- . ,
'englspop ' frne.hexp . englserP'
4.1% ' (34) 82% (34) .
--: . ... Eff~ct ' .. '
A test bf parti~l as so.da,d,or{ Of . the. f aetor~ .
.!!!. lr ,chisq prob •
HELP by CULTEXP ,
HE~P by . CULTPOP b.y . URBNSIZE
1
" 1. '
p< i7.D7 · .0.0.01 '
3.56 • .059,3 '
. , . . '
\ '
" ,
A test qf ~arginal .as~o~ 'ciation !Jf ,the :fa,ctor·~.
"
· 2.61
1 , • •
'/ --,
.'
probe p<
.0.001.
. . ~
.1(}61
.. ' '
.' .
" .
. ,
..'
0 0 •• • •
. ' .. '
" i' ':, . "
i r •
. ,
. '.'
.. {f
./
I ' .'
. : /' .
-, .
. .
, .
, :
, ;
r . . ..
, : . . ... .. .
. {:: .
, .'
,/ , .. \
.• ". '''~ ' "V .. '''' - ' •. ~ ...... " ............ ,, ~ , ....... , •• ~ .• " . .... " •• ~_ ....... ~,:_ ... . _~_. .. _ • _ .• ' ," • ,_ . ~ .,. , ' . _. _ .• ~ 'j .. ") '
. "
'.I
" " " 62,
'.
There is also an Q ,,/" '," ,
e~fect for : ~he interaction between . c~~tUtl , identity, ~f _____ the
, pop~la tion" and ur'ban size, although ' it is significant only
partial assQciati6n tes t " and not significant I . ' .
fo~ the ma~gina1 'one', I , The French pop~lation fs
a:proximiltelY' as hdpfu1:- in the city 'as i n t,~ ' ~owns " ~ 32%
vs. 31%) ' respective'ly), ,but the Eng1i,sh, ,population is ' less
he 1 p f u 1 ' i nth e ' ,c i t y t h ani in ' t h. e , , t 0 wn s (28% ' vs. ,' 38% /' "
respectively) (see Figure 4).
the provin~e ,' 6f
New Br~dsw~~k (Table1l).
"
For the province of N~w Bruns.ick the only significa~t "
" "
0 ,
effect the cu'l tura1 identity of th~ ,'
,experimente'r~. ~gain the Fren~h experimenter g6t le~s ' he1p
"
(29%) than the Engl~8h e~peri~~nter (37%). The resul ts of l
main impor~ance in ~he experi~ent,concerningthe effect o~ I ,
p'opu1ations, and experimenters on helpini ~reBummarized iri i ,
• . , . ' . . I
Figure , 5. · T,he results as pre,sented are ,taken froJII Tests 3 ," ,
:a, ' and " 3 b. They are shown on ' tb'e same Fig,u_re ' but they do ' ...,... \ . ~ I ' ' ...
not ,represent a two w~yinteraction of cult'ura1 identity of
-.. "
cU:ltur~l -----\
,.' the exp'eriment.er , -by ~dentity of t 'he po~ulation on ,
i level p£ help ,obtained. /
. I
'I
, , , , , ', . ' .. I
/'
" '
. . ' ,- ' • I ' .
'~'''' .''''~_~''';'-''-''''''~'''''_~''''-.''''_''''I .. ______ ·~_._ ;.A _"~'~ __ ."" ~'-' __ ~" __ .... ~ , _ . ...-,', , I
I
" /' '
, I
..
/~ .'
, '
/ '
O'!
' ...
. j ' "
. . ,
, ' . . '
: \
! ..... ". '"
1. "
!' ' .
J'
.. "', ,.
. \.;
,,' ,
. i
': , ;
~.
r .!. ' ,.
f' . . \
··. i
, . . '. . ~
,. .'
.. . . ___ ._ . • ~ .......... : . ... ... . ' . 1.
', '
\
. ' . /
t .
" ':" .
J ' .
\ ,.
. . ":' .
.\ . ' ......
: ..
, . . '
-\ \
. 1.
. . . ..... .. ....... - .... " .. ~ ... ,.- ~ ... . " ...... _....: __ ._-... -.... ~ .. ~ .~-:.-.. -.~ .... "-_.' ., .......... _ ... _ ..... ~-- .,. -I ~ , ' . . '. .1' ". I
". ' ,
~ " .' ' \
,. . ' rIP
Figure 4.
.'\
"
. ' .
.\
D', ':, ' .. ,Ci ti.es . . '. .
'- . / ,'. +++++ . +'++++ Towns' +++'++ .
·32% 31%
ft-+++t' f\-++++
.f\-++++ ft++++ . fr++++ fr++++ +++++ +++++ .
+.+++ French
, . '.
.. 38% [t++++
Ift++++ ft+++:+ . ft++++ ft++++ fH+++ ft++++ ·
'. ft++++ . ft++'+-+
' ,28%· t++++ ft+++~ ft++++ ~++++ ir+.+++ +++++ . f\-++++
Eng11sh \
"
'. 1
, ' .
, (
PQ.pulatiOl\S . of . Quebec ' \ . ..
Perc.ent;.age of" 'each population. helping in. cities and to'WJl·s -in Quebec. ' .'
; '1
. ~.; . "
. -..:..
.',
"
... ,' . .'
.1 • •
': .' . ': . .' ., ,
. ....
63 ... , ,
J '
; ,
.. .... '.
• -. : ~j .' .
.. ..,(' ..
1 '. ' .
t . •
. ' "
, . .,.
I ,
'. 1:4 '
'. I' ' j , i
I· , .
"
,'.
' ;/':. ' .: , "
-.--~-p p' ' - .. '
-: .: , ' .) .
. . •• ••••• I ... "; ' _ ,: .'.;.. ... ~ •• , ' . " •• ..:......, . ............ . __ . _ •• ..... ;._';' ... , .... -;- .. ·,,-... ·· .. · ·~-7"'-·7 .... ~--.~-·-. -', .. --~··'7. 7 .. --r. --'-:--."", . ..,-,-- -. --.-,' ~-"-"7~;~ ':',",:' .:: ' :-.~~:.~.:-:;::.~ .-.~.-. \" '.
, .. '\'
.\ " , . ~ '.'. . . ' .~, .' '. .. . ~ .", .. ~:. , .. -:.... . '-,.' . .
, , - ....... ... , , , . .. ~- ••• ~~ . ..... .,.. .. M~ t· ,· ~"" .... _4 ''''~ _ .. .. 1 ..... • .... ' • • __ " . _. _. .~ ••.• , . ... . ' , ...4, ... . . , :, : ._i . . " .. : . . :."# .
"
: ".
/ '
, "I '. !.
, i
. . "
'I
;: / '
j I
, ' "
" '
,"
. : , ' .
, ,' .
! '
. ' ,I
. ' .. ' . ..-,.:.".,
, . .. . , . '
. -'.
"
,, '
. , - . ,' ,
•• 'I'
: .. . ",' ,
-,'/
, __ 0" -
,: " '. ' ,' . " '
. ' ", .... " 'T 8 b 1 e/ '11 ' / '
, ',
,-
, .J ....
.' .. , . ...
- -,
, . " ...... rESTFl'VE b), . ' : AnalysiS' , for ~ew ,Bruns,wick -Alone
. ~RtIZE .cULTPOP CUL TEXP
C
HELP
, , -
" .'
town -
/ "
.... '
'frnc;:hpop..-' f rnctiexp , engls~xp ,
;-
' englspop " fr~~h.xp 'englsexp ,
~rnchp9~ , frnchexp / engls,exp , '
~ng{8exp ' frnche,x'p , englsexp
%helping Tot.
38% " (13) ' 65% (17)
40% 60%
38% 48%
47% 63%,-
, (15 ) (15 )
(32) ,( 29.)
02 ) , ,(32) "
1' 1 ,
"
' ~ ~eat ' of ' ~a~~ial ' 8SS0-
', ciatiori oi~h~ ' fact~r. A , te's t of ',JIlarg,fnal ' asso'ciat'ion 'oethe factors '.
, , ,
Effec t '; ,, : d£ ': lr ,chlsq , prob. , probe , ::' • .t .
. ,
HELP b,i CUt'£.E'1:'P
, 1 5 •. 2i .0224 5 .. 2,2 r<, .0223 ,' , \
" , ,
7 ( "
" . . ' " .. , '
./;' , ,
. --.'" "
:, .... , . 'C~ , I ~ ...... ' : .. '"
/- ' , ' , " > ' • • .' "
. , .~.
, . ' , .-.' .
./
, ' ' .. : .'
, ,. ' , /
.' . " ."
" ' '. " -,
" " , tr ; .. '
" , ....
. '
, .
; , :
/ ' , '
/ ,
'. , " . . , , "
" ,
., ' .
: ....
" ' ,'
, , " '
,,:., .
:. . , ..I, "
, "
i ! ,.
,', .
.. " , , ' . , · ' . .
" :<. , , , ....
· i
., , /' '- '
': .
\I " , ..
, " ' .
" . ' .
' .. I '
Q " ,
"·70 . " . . . . ~,
.' .:
. - , '\ ' ,.: ,"'., '
" . .: .
:-! " , "
, .'. . . , .
',' " \'. \ .
. \ . .
" ,',
. .. "
.' .... . ' ., '
· , ;, ! ' . i
.• ' []Fre~Ch pqpulat>on , . ..... ;~~/ . ' : , . , .
; .. - -- ~- -' - - -' , ' ' : . . ,
'. ." '. . " ., " ~
. : . " ' ,
,. \ .
.. '.'
" :-', ~ :': 1 '. ,. ' - " " ., . " .. ', '. 60 · ~ , , . ~, "
" • I
. .'~
.. , :
', , ' /.
.' . . ' . . . . . . . .
' . , ~ /
l . , . I
· .'
. :
· (
· ,\ , . ,~, · " · r. . :- f , ,
. ' ' .
, .. " ', '.'
..•. ;. - ',-" .
.. !
, : . ~ ' ...
, ", '
, , "
. . . " " .
.. _--'-
. '. -
' tn . s::
.r-{ . ~ ~ . . Q)
. :rl .'
" S:: .'; a - r-{ +J ' ro 50 ~ . & /
. 0 : Il!.
': '..c:: •. ' . . CJ
...
ro o r.l
, 4-1 ' , 0
·1 \. 40 '. , . . ,
. '30
.. I
I
'-- ' :, . ' 1.
'". : " I'
I.,'.
. ) '
\ . I " :, :
. I
. '~ ' .. ; . . . . , " ..
- ! .
' .. '
. , . ' . 40%
36% '
" -. '
.' .'
~*perin\enters
/1// ' . ' . jIll /1// //// ', 1/// . II/! 1/11 11//
, 1/11 55% . . 111/ -' .
III/ . //// . /1/1 . III/
" jill ·11/1 '.
.:- ji-/ / : ·-/It// · 11// .
' i/// 1/1/ .'.
, . ' ///1' jill 11//
.( 11I1 , I/I( .
'. .-, . "
.' 1 .'
II .
'. f • .-" .
..
1/// . . 'f.~> j~jj - .-' .. ; III/ 1/// . ' 1//1 If/I /1/ 1// /1/1 1/1/ . 1/1 i
, . ,
\ . ", . ,.'
" . I
.' i , .. ' , ,Figllre 5. pe~ce~'tage of ea~h popuia'tion helpi~g
. ,I'.
· I • . ! "
, " , . . each ex~r~en~er . .' . .. .. "
" ' 0··,7 . ' ... ,
. ,
· ! , .. ' !. , \
" . " . , ., ., . ,.'
.. ,.
, ; .
, . , . /"
' . , ' . '. ', .. " :;r'
. , ' ,
,'.
'. . '. I , ' .
',' l
1 . ,' .
, .'. . .. .
'. f, I.
. I' ' . ! .
,'!,
. ' ,
. . ' . , . . ' ~_ ;. , .. :r ... _, __ . . _: . '
.. 1: . " '0 , : : .: ' ,,' I
.' .' ' ... : \ ." .
.. "' . .' .,.:, '., '::':. .. '-'-.:...."-•. ~ .. ~:~~~: .... -:~.-:-~:;.~:~-. ..:,:~-"'::"- -"- . -:-'''': -",. :~~; -'. ,: .--- . '.-., :-: -:- "::.--- . "
~ . , '" " ~ ' .'. . : .. ' '.' ',' . I , ~ : .: ',:, \: ' ' .• , .. . . , " • I •• .' . ' , ' " ~ " •
,. ,
. ' ,?
, , , .... . .... ... .. - . .. ~-; .. -- .... -. -,-, ._.
' ~, ,.I ' .
! ' I : j I
. ~ ..
', 1 i
)
, .. . --;~ 6.6 , "
\
',' ,./' , ' .. ' ,
"
" : Re suIt s, ' ' , ,
\ In thls ex~eriment ; ther~ were .. four i nd,ep end en t
.' ' I .
variables: " , cultural ,identityof ' the' ad'dress'on, ,,!:he 'l~ 'tt~i, , "' \ : /7 ,
"
cultura 1 ' . id,,:ntity , : of, the' 'popu'la ~ ion, ti rban , 'size, and I, ,
province', one " dependent number of letteDs
Th~ rationahe Jor ' this experim~nt ,' and the type of , .'i' • ~ ,
, , ~ • to'
analyiis'perfor~e~ on the data w~re ex~ctly th~ sa~e as'in , "
. experiment one~T~e cine change was in the use of the
letters, addressed ' either in ' French or, " in' English, as'
repres~nting the 6~ltural identi~yof the person I[ •
requ~sti:ng , ,
This v~riable was represented by the s;ymbol CtiLTLP:T.
in · the 'tabl.es.
The results were tabulat'ed in ' a contingency table cro~ ~ ' cIa'sstfied for the five variables of help, cultural identity
. " ," 'Of the le,~ter, cultural ~ent;ty ,of " the~ PdPulat;i~n,
• " ,'L...\ ', urban' J
size, ' and province ,. (se~ Table 12)."
Al~ of the " sa~e analy~~s , were performed on the data , as /c'
',in c;>ne. .;~~gqifii.nt iesults Je~e o~tai~ed in~
any analysis. . . " .' . I : '
, , , ii ' '
" t
, . , '
" , \.
" " . f ,' .
'--7""'--... ....... -........ ---.f .... ~-· .......,....,-........ ,-,: .. :--, ~ ... ~""t.~~~.{.u;,}..~~)9'I~~w~'A."'!-' r ...... ~~ "" ....... }'~ ~, ... ~~r .... \:. iC~ .I .. <." •• ~,~,~.~ ~."'~'iI '''''' .... ~ .. ,~~~.~'''* ~ ... " .. : ..... , .. , ~ .. " J,
.. ..... ' ... 1 ~ .. '
'. ' ~
, ,----
, I
,, '
"
L ",'
~ ,
, " , I
i ( :'.-':-
,~ .. : ' .. '
" , I
! " ..
. , r '
:/ " '," "
,.;
'0..... __ ~ __ . , . '
.. : - . - ~ .. --'~-- - , .. _. -.. ,. -.. .:. _ ... .. -. --- .-:. _. ! ,
,67 , !
" '.
.! ',' . '. /, . ' "
,,'
\' ..
, '
r'" .' .. ____ "_. _~ _ _ . C~n~.ii:lgency Table of Resu'lts for ' tb~ 'Five '" Sho,wing the Percent:age of ' People Help'ing
Level 'of the independeni Variables (~ost
Variables for Each
.-, " ..
,
.....
"
.r
1 ,i ., ,
," '''i
. .' i
" . '
, ,.,. i
' J .-;.j ,
, ~ , , , ~ :
: ~
;
. ~'~ !
..... ,
-' "
, I '
. .. ' . :
, ,
" "
. -
, I" ,
PROVINCE
Q4eb~c .
. , I \I
URBNSIZE , CULTPOP
frncbpop ,
"I ertglspop
CULTLET
fqlcblet englslet
,f rnchle't ,: englslet "
Ie tters)
, .
HELP %he1ping Tot.
"
60% (10 ) 60% (10 )
,60% .0,0 ) .-50% I (10 )
frnchpop . __ ._-------
, towns frnchlet 7.0,%. ~ (10) englslet 60% ' (10) ........
, 'I
engl,spop f rn,chle t ,72% ' ' (18)a '
englslet ' ' / 66% (18 )a
, ' ,
frnchpop frnchlet 75%' ,~, ' (8) IJ englslet 88% (8)
, \
V
NBrJlBWick city
englspop fr,nc;1tlet 50% {8,i · englslet 88% (8 )
, ' ':' .
" ' frnchpop frnchlet '50% (8) town~
engls1et iJ 88% (8)
, englspop , frnchlet ' 88%'\' (8)
englsle't : ' 7~ (~)
'~wo English towns were , done ' in Quebec~e, where , 10 ,. ,' letter's of each cultural identity wer,e los,t and one ' where ' 8 letters weti lost. In N~w ~runswickonly nne English ' t6wri , was done where 8 letters of ea~h we~e losi~ ' ..
, ,-. "
•
"
, , , .. ,!'" r .:,-
i '
. , "
"
.r. "
.. -. .. . ' ,'- " -" "" " . - .. ~ .,~-. ' 'r • '-'~~'. ~'. " ~-:'-'---':"':'- .. - - .- ..".:---... - -. ; .. - .... ~ • .,.... - - - -:~t'Cl(""U:~I'i,'. , ". ' , .
. , ' I ~ .:..-.... " ~.' .
. '.' . ' . , .1 .
. , . ', I' ... .. "; ,; , .... ... _. ,.- . ~ _ _ " .... I. .... ~~._ .-::_ .:.. ~ _ ~ . ~ • • __ ._ .. .. ~ _.~ .... . .... .:.2. ~ . ,.
. " ' . . , IIi the
. " , .... -...
'.- . \ . . . . DIS USSION
'1 ' . : ,'
I:· " '," ... 'int~oduct1on;! two poss i~le '
', ' :-
--- '
" , . . 68
\ . -- .
,
. . <?utcomes were
,. .considered ·. ·The .. first · one ' wafj' - -_. . . - ', 'fiJ~ . "-.-.
that . ther~ ~ould be no ' J ' . ' "
,-.
di{ference <be·tween ·· ,the " ·level .. \ . ' . of ·help : received ,. ·by e~ch
'~.
"", exp'e rimen t e:r . for ." e·ach . . · r.esp~c dV'e . .. ,." . popul~rt:ion • . This would '
. " .' . ~ .
. 1 .evei, eve~ .. when :only cultural infprmation .was available. to
.. .. : thesubjects·, · could. be more positive .: · th·an ' , past global ' . .
.;
cultural lines. The l?econd p09sibleo~lcom.e was that there '
would .be '8, diffe:(?uce in ' th'e levels of help received ~··bY each ' . .' .. -; - .. ' . ', , '
. .' .1 . ' .1 . .
... ~xpe ·rimenter · from each pO'.Pul.ation~ This would · add to th~· ··
findings already pointing tb ihe phenomena ·· of .group .... .. :.~
" " "
di·scriminatio·n. ~ Unfortunately the results are. ·not . so . , ." . . clear "
. -- .
, cut .as to permit a ' confident choice beiween ~hose two ... - ~ :,
a·lternatives. ',. II
o·
·The result of maj or importance.', in Experimen?t 1, the " . , . , 1
is that;; there ' exists " 8 strong· main . ef~· ect iiv~ ' ~nterview8', , ,
l .
experimehteis. \ the Enilisb ' . expeii~enter . . . . / i ·
between ~ the
o:btain:Lng m~re help over.alll then. the French experimenter
: (see Figu~le 5). · This reSU~I~'iS +es:
•• : 1
. ;'f I
interaction be~w~en the cultural
.. expe'ri'Dlenter and that .of thE! pop'ulation ,
. ,I ' '. • " ' . ! ' : • " ' . 1 ' . . ' ':'. " ' " , ' '~ . . ' ., I , . " : " ~ .-. -":-.-~.,,- .------<--- . ; ..... · 1 .. ·_ .. '1- ---.,....-.• '." - -- _.,.-j.._ - .... -... -_ .....
interestIng' than an .,'
Identi,ty of tlie '
would . have ' bee'ri· •
/. :
"
. ' .
" "
"
, "
. " ~ . . ~
'. 1 .
, .\.
, .
i "
; .
i I
'.1)
; ,
; .... ,
, ' j ' , ' , "
'1l i
, '
\
,,-- " , .
"
.' , .'
" ,
69
, The results obltained ' ",are " open to ' two •• ' 11
types
' e.xpianations," one ' qthat ~hey, )nedue to 'cu'lturill phenomena - ,
and the ,oth ,er " ~s :th,8.t , they are a methodological ~r .. tifaci: •
• I
' The ~or~ pTo~aic expl~n~tio~ ~s ~hat ~he reiult~ h~ve a
' basis ~ , ~7' 1
in, methodology, ' ei ther '. '. - . . perso~~lity , differences or
different~a~p~ing t~chniq~es , betw~en th~ ' experiment~rs. In . . ' ,
t' e'rins I '
of pe~soriality. ~hat the , French populatio~. like the
E'nglish. I " '
d'ould ' be
.. the , English e;x:perime~ter
, , . ' . ' • I wo~ld givemor~ help to
du~' to ' some ' personal characteristics, which made him , Ij, , . " ~\e tt~r
--...:..-,~------------:;- /'
&It ': , ' I "
abl~ , to ~olicit ~nd obtain more , help.
r , ;
.. ,. '
The other p08sibility~ sampi~pg ~ias, can be eval~ate~ ;,
, by exa~ining' the number , of '/~tsons rejected i~ each location " '
be,cause they , did not ' satisfy ' the: ', language and/or ' the ..:~~~.; .
residence' , JJ \ •
criteria. A t~ s~ ~imilar to test one w~s ~on~.
wit'h~' the , one changetha't th~:- :dep'enlen~' variable of ,helping
was replaced by ' 'a '/d'~pen:dent variable. aC,ceptability, of
whether or' not a per-s~n ~as accepted OF re'jected as I '
, suitable f~ interviewing. Thefollowing'categori~ ~
used: accepted. the sum of' a ,1.l ' the peop:i!e < approached
being
t wer.e
who
\ or refused to' be int.e~V-iewed (the , sum of the , y ,es and
no categorieso£ , the help ~ariable); , ,
rejected, the " ~um of
,all the peop~le ,WiJ:h which ' w~ int'errupted the interview after ;" , , .
. j'
" <I' '
rea'lizing that ,they did not ' ~atisfy ~one or ' both of ' the ' , : \: "-
criterion. ' T~ese , data , and the siJn{~icant resulti are
/ " ,
" "
'i'
, ,
i i
f ,-
\ ' ','; "'," ~ ", ,:',,) ,,', " ,'(2) ' ' ' ' . " ', '
• ' ,_" . . •• _~. ' -;-.... . ~ ---:--.~.~ .... ....... - .. _ • .: .. _ • ...:....! ...... _._ ........... _ ... .I L1 • • • ~ - ....... , . - ... -~ • •• ·.~7'·77-·-.:...'0#···--...-·.--....1 _ _ _ ~ .. .. _ ..... __ ... _ . . ~ - -----, __ ..: .
\'
, ,
,\
L' '-:' " ,
" '
' "
t , , " ,
. . '. ~ , .. .
, , ~
, 70 , , , -,
pr~i~niea, in Table 13~ ,,',
.-, ,
Tw,o results ,are ~a's11y interpretable. One, for the , , ,I , , , " , " '
'Afect of ' the experim1enter on a ,c.ceptab;l'lit'y, we , see that the
' n~mber or rejee ts f~:!.'.he Fr.rieh,' expuime'oter ' i9' mush 'higher ,
t~an , for ' the Englirh~' ~or the same numb~r , of ~eo~le
actually tntervh~wed jY each ,(190), the , French . exp,erimenter
rejected 'more ' than ' twIce as many ' people (206 vs. 98) as the'
' English expe,rime'nter.. The re~son for ' this is '--- , I believe,.
' simply' a ' divergence in samp1ing ' procedure, i ,.e., in the
strictness with , ,whiFh ' each experimenter applied the
'criterion' a ,t each . step of the decisio.n seq~~nC:e ' u8~d to'
exp~rimente~ may . . ~ " . . "
hav'e accep ,te,d as ' po,tential,' subj e,ct.s ' people who , lived near a
I ! - --: - • ': 1
location but not in it, or who had r~centli moved out. For
what'e:ver other ,' reasons if he was m'ore lax in : ac .ceptanc~ 'of
. ,_subj ec ts ', i"t ,i's pO,s~,ible . ' tha~t hisriumb~r- of 'iI!j e~ ted subj e'c ts
" would ThiS might " b'7 tied to a differential
h'eip.'ing rate ,. , (Such 'spe.culation~ are based 01;1 informal
talks ' between the experimenters throughout ,the three weeks
, ~f the ~xpiriment). 0 ,
, . JJ
, I
, The , second result " accept-sbil:Lty by cultural, ,\ '
of " (he ' population by provinc~'i is' ' only of
. ., ". ;-interest. We 'see -tha t~e , stl,bj ects belonging to the '
, ' . ' .
mino'd ty;ln each provinGe r (Englis~ ' iil Quebec, French in New
" , I . , _._-----_ . _ .. - -----,. ' ,;
.. ~ ' " . , ;
\
':
, I
"
, .' .. ,' .
" .
: ,' ,
"
,; . -: -;- ~.-.-.,.- ..: --:- .. --.. ~ -.. , . -:....:."-.--- ~.-.-.- .- .. ~.- ... --~..- -"~ , ~ ....... ~ ........ -~ . -. ...... ~ ~ . ' .. . ,
" I ,' (' . I,' "
"
i . ! ,
, .
, ;,
... !l, h
.:-. " . · " ,, '
. !
· . :~ '
. ~ .
,~ i , I
. i " . 1·
i .\: . 1 .
'" I
'\T
\ " :
• " I~ " I
, ;
, \
."
,. ,
' . ' · ".. ~ :~
.f
;
'\ .. .. - ~ ', -... :... :. . : .. : - . ' .-. ' .. ":, " .. - -,, ' _. - ~ ' ~ - .:..:- .. -,: . . .' .- ,'- - ' -- ... -. '. ' . " .
. .' \
.. ,:
"
" .. " '
"
I . . [
, \ \ I .. 1
'. ,
.' '
. ' : . . " ~j'l ' .. . .. v·· .. · " '.0 . ' ~" . /1 ..
, Ml • . 13 . .. . . " ' ~ . ' • .•..
. '" I " , ;., ~. " •. , ..
Percentage!>f . 'People Acc'ep 't~d for t~' he ' {~ve . I~views ' , . 'out of, the , 'Total 'of the Person ' et . . , ' ~ .
, " , ~ - " . . ~ . . ' ~.
. ' " ~ . ' .
. 1 .'.
o
PROVINCE '" . URBNSIZE CUtT~X~, .
. Quebec c tty frnch'exp englshexp
: . .
',. %AcCJ'td. 'Tot.
.' 68% " (25) ' 63% ' (24)
' ,,; ."
, . " · ,\ .
' ., .
" .
,' . ,' .
': ,town
englspopfrnch~xp
englsexp
frnchexp eng.lsexp' · :
engispo~ ' frn~he~p englsexp
_.t ..
2.9% 63%
60% 86% '
44% 73'%
(48) (27) .
(55 )' (36 j'
(77 ) (52)
.' NB~n9~ckclty , frnchpop frnchexp 28% ' (47) ' , . 46%. . (a7)
Ef-fec t
. \ englspo,p
town !frnchpop " .~
. '
englsexp
frnche:icp en'glsexp
. \' frnchexp, e.nglsexp
56% ' ( 27-) 83%. (18) '
45% 5$%
(71) .
(50)
--:' A ~es ,t , pf ' parti~i ~ss"o- . A ,tes't " ~--nar-~:s'o.', dation ~r t,~e fa ·c.t ,or. ' ,~~f:fh:. - ~ac~or,s~ .,; .
.!f lr 'chlsq pr~b. yr C~iBq probe p< p< :' .:
22~:'59 .0001 22.09 ' .000[ ' ,( '
' ·1
..:.ACCEPTABILI. l byCUL:r'EXP
, "
" "
. AC·CEPTABILr. 1 by CULTP,OP .
, by PROVINCE " .
' / -- t ' .. ~ ' .! ' _,: ' ,
" , ~J, .
- . · ... 1.
, " ~' ,
/'" -.. , .
" . ~ .
., ~ . "
i~ l ' 't . '{.
34.65 .' -.0 , . '
.0 . '. .. " .'
~' , i----- - '" 1.-'
..
.. , , , · ,.
';J " ,
" .~
, .' . ..... . ,' . ,':
· ,
..
~ , .
: - ":-~ -'- " ---· 1'--'
'.:.. , ' ! . 0 . ~ "
-. _- ... _---"
, . - , , , - ..
" ' .. I .
, . .. .. . . J.
" o' , . .. ·.-:--r.---:. i\," -{:' .
. : ", ~ :,.1, ',_ -.... ~.-_._._ .• ~ ___ ._ ....:... ._~_ -_ .. .!. ' - -. --.~'1vfao:-'" ," ;.~r
:-::..... ..
o " . '\.'
. : '
, '
" '
I "' ~'i' :,'
/'" : •• • _ ~~ '~, _ _ ._.~_ • • ". - .... ~ .. . _ ¥~_ •• ' r ~ ~ ·_ ... , ....... ...... _ . _~~. __ ~_ .. _ .. .. ~:: •• _ '_ ._ . _ ...... ,; ,,:-'. __ • _ ~ •. ' • :/' • 0" " , '
." \
, , .... \
, 72,- , -'-'
., ' , " ,
, ~run~~:ick ):, ar~, "'rej eC: :~~d "~o~e,' ,:of~~n ~ 70% :of" t\l,e', ~~~e~ ' ,f or the ' .. , ' , ..
the"' cases for th,e' latter~than " sub'j'e,d'ts : of , .
f or,mer, ,75 % ", of
'more' to find , prope~ subje'cts ,.J " ,'
, "
" '"pop.~la tion---than ir'om a bigger 'one. .. :)~/ ; ,
" " ) ,
An explanation based onhulturai factor' ,couid b.e:, that
,~~j0),: ':, "ii, w,e ' assume that ' ~~<EJ\gUsh ,~~,~e,rime~ter ' represented, ~ " highe'r status person 'than the ,Fr'e,nch, th'en' psychological
~< cat'e~o'rizaeio~ by , 'thes '~,~j~::ts'~'OUld ' not; fa~or' t .lle ingroup
" ,\',.
L , " ,
c: " , ' I.,"
A'
: • -0 \
" ,
. '- '
,both , , . ,
'. ,.
'0 popul~tions ' . ' ' This ' is , s i mil a r " to ' ' Feldman~s (1968)
eip lanation for · the Greeks I ', be t t'~T trea tm~n t , ' ~ ,
of "fqreigners
, than'their unknown cO,,!lntr,ymep.
, C-
~rci!j ("p' ,'F .'1. '
" '
L~mbert, Hodgson, Gardner-, ' and' Fill~nbaum (1960-) fou~t; , ' ;, ' " ' • ./,' <5 '
'_ ', ' r~sults. supporting , such ~ possibility by u~ing , th.e "~~tched ':.-.
giilse ', technique". , This , ,technique used , ap'e recorded , voices ~' ,-. .} " . . . ' ) ; , " -. :: ~ e:~ 11::::': b::: S ::: S ::::1::b:': :~~:we;e O::~:bi:,~,th ~ ...
number , ' of qualities of the persons. They w'e~e. unaware that • , • ~.! . • " , ~,, " . .... • ••
the same p.ers?n , had, been rli!corded ill diH~re,n't ianguag~s. · ' . " , , , ' , ' :' ". ~, " , ',
, \1. " .~.
, ,' " .' ,: .. ~ . , . , .
Canadian' and '-., "., '
La'mber:t et a1 used ' f '
, French .. C\ . ' . ..
, , - - - . ,'-----'---
---:---Englh Ii Canad ian uni ver si ty' 's tu , ~ot 8urpri9ing1y .~~e , \ ~ . " . . " .' .' .
'E-ngli~h ~an.~dian8 showed a . . '. --
--'-'---'-:-'----; ' ;' :"
'" ' ~ , 0
, . ' .. ,',-' " ;.-
favor , o'f ,the "EngliSh' ,
" c ' ; I,
" '
'.
I .~
i 1
! . "
_., ' ,
'~.' f
: : - :.
, \',
.\ , I'
l" I __ ,, __ •• __ --,-' tf < ' " ~-'I""-:-' -~---!-t.-~--:-\-:· · "-,-, . - ............ " . ; .. , '
.\ /I , "
, ' \ I '
~.
j ,' . , ,
i . ~ . , ! ' , '
""; . \ .. ,
, . j .. ,
, ' ,.,
,.'" ,"" "'-~---'. '--, : \I
1, ' ~:. '
~ '. ,
I , '
,.
I l'
.... j i I k : I \ . t I"
~ i \. ... : ~
~ " ,.'
',,/ 1 "
, i
. ' I
i ," .,'.;
, .,' 0 ,
I .... !
"
. 1 .1 .. ,,' : "' :.'
" " . ~ ""
"
t . ,:
' v '
/
.I .
' ~ . " .1'·
. ..... .... . ~ "
.I '
'.
,.
" . " '/ :-
, J '. I \ : ....
\. . . ", . '
",I • • .... :-~- .. ...... :...:..... ... .... . ~~~''''-'''''' _ 1 ____ ~ __ . ''''.''~ .... _: •. . . _ . "
. . , I , 7·3'
U , ' / , . , guises but' _ wha-t should be less expected is that th~ Fren'ch ,
' \ " . . ' . '
, Ca'nadianS ~howed . th.e same ' posi tiv'e bias ,toward,s ~·he , En,glis,h ' ,: ' . l '
' Canad ian gi;J.ls.es, c ,ompared to tl.te'. French Canad ian guise's. " The ' L • ,
, ' -French Canadian judges' rating of voices , repr,esenting
, • • I 01 oJ' • • •
their
, ci~n. ' cultural group was e~~n lower '· than the~ratings by ' the ;/ ,
granted
Canadiari , ' 'judges ,......-..-.'
the " Fr.enc'h Canadians 0 was
lower 'status
# ' '
sixtle8 '~ when 'the
the'mselves as ' true~
eX,IJ.eriment , wss ·done) ' intern~lized ' , by o ~ . ," f>
, . .I , ,
. , ,Bndings can be 8S a.
explanation for , the higher ieve'( pf help 'given by both the,
Fre.rich an'd' "the English \
popu'latlons to 'the English
experime~'t,er ~" He ' 'ms"y ' 'h 'ave ' re,presen,ted " a higher ·sta tUB
per~on. Thu8~he , willin'n~1~/ de8i~e to help hi~~might haye - I ' .. .
been ~troriger than for th, French experime~ter. '/ '
t .
' ·The data from 'Lambert ' et. al (1960) are relatively" old.
It
' . mainly) . has
'among /~
French eanad ians. , ' '- , I
' (Quebecers
mo4ified ,the , rela',ti ,~,nship between " the two"
that . : ~he , /
status inequal.ity. has b~een
{f ,!;lot , r~~ov,ed complet'ely. / 'For ,:: example t ,he '*:; I , • \ . • • . "./ . " •
\ J / ' .. . co'mparative ' social sta'tus of the French , anc} , English. ' might
• \ .', , /' "'; I " \.
have ' ' shif,t~d ' ' ,:Lri' the ,last 20 ;~ars d~~ 'to <' the' em~rgencie ' It I . . . ,' .. I, .. .. .... : . " ' .
/ " . ; . .. infre'aSingl1 ' ~ationalistic :
r ~ I
I "'" I .:
governm~nt~ ,
" .. I ,., .. .
and
, ,
pro 'test , " I'
~ . '.
. ' " ', /I
, , ,.'
' .'
, .
~:
, .
:.;
\
"
, '
I
r ;, " /1 , ~>
i '" J ,"
. i,,; ,', I" .
. ,;., "
: ' ., . .... . :,. , ,
,"
: : ,' "
, , .. ' . . ... . .,. .. " .-.. ~" .~ ':.- ,
. " .. ," :; .' .. , ,,:, ",,' ::::', ':)':~' ,:''::<:'-;-'''''~'~ . ,,: :,~':; :':: . '~ . ' " , "';. .. ' . ~ . ./
. \ , ' .
-', . ',.
/' ", , lit.
:',
.... :,':
; , '
" . ~"-,, .. "
......
',4",
" . , .
" ,
~ "
" .. . , ' , ~ , ;
.' . . ~ .,
'. II "~- ' , . , ~ ... /-
. \ ~ ', ' J ·f • • 74 :,:..",, ' . ~
. \ .
. ! .
. " '
, , o
' . " , ,
ni'ovemen t ,s in QuebeG. How,ever,the pres!,!n t ·- re'sul ts sug'gea t . / .
I • •
~h~t tha~ is not correct~
", ' '
' . . ,
~ , .. '..,.. : Andth~r a~pect'. bf, ' theres~lts .~e~idi the fact that the: . . ' , .
"" ' " , '" I
. Biench . experim~nter obtained less help ' from both populations /, . " ' '" :i'" .
1~.· tha 't · ·t.~'er~ .was a1;so' : no si gn1f ican t '~':d'if 'ference ill the'
, I • level'. ' of. 'help , he
ThiB specific r.:s~lt got fro'm e.ither th~ , French or Engl~sh. , I
{/ ..
.', .
. '
,\, \ -, "', ,'i'
t , I ,
conforms to . our hypothesis , ' that . the
strifeex1sting : ' between the two ' cultural :groups w~~ld tiot '. -. .. . ) , ';
' ne~~s~a"rilY 'be ref1ect'ed~.t · the level .: of tndivid~al~. As , 'x, f at! ,as the French exper.imen ter 'is conc'~rned t:'he Frehch~and·.··'o>,;:
. '_ . ..... .
Eng1i~h vop~latioti are eqball~ , . I'J
• -'!' '
helPfu.,~( or unhel"~ful ). ' .
' 0
The. E~~lish . exp~rimenter~' on , · the ~oritrary '_pbtained , " , ,(. -""," I " ' '
Sig~ifiCan~~ mQ.re helpfrQl'Dpeople fro'm his own cultural.
group' thar/' , from the ' French :p~p,~l~tio·n. This re.sult",
".'t. .' -. . ' . • .. . 'couwared ~to the · one for ' the French experimenter', ·.appea"rs ,to
be paradox1eal ' ill . . t~~t. it':' ~s ' m~r~ ~as" ilY ~~o taki~g .\ ' ;.' ': ' ./. , ', ,
the vi~wopposi te ·to the' : pr~cedi~g ' o~e ' ~bout th~ absence · of \'.' I
. I
',diHer.ence / in c'rOBa li', cu~:,tura 'i ' he lpipg:: , ~
For . . , ~! >
'English '.
" , . . experi~.enter ·popu·lat1.ons " ./".
French - a~d ' E~gliah ,
, ." , " . ; f'.::· .' the:f,r ' wiH~ng,~eBs ·to h'e'lp •
the can , '. ,- :~
~ . , .," 1 ..(;1
' To . summarize . fhe di~cus8ion 80 far, lOO~hi{ ·at , the ', ' ~ J~ ' " ' • , • • ' • ,.\ ' • , •
!': .. < . , •• • .' ',' overa11 ·· ' ,res'ul,ts,: ~or ·.b~th eXRerim'~int 'e'~'~ it \re'ma:l:~8 th'ateven , . . ' .' .. : ,. ' , .... ") " ...... . ' ," .. ' " ' .. , ' .. , '., !'
" ':,', " - ' ,
!' ,
. ",
j '\ ' " .
., )
" ','
" ' , ~ " " .
.. ",'. '
'. ' ',: :
" , ' .. ,
, \ .. . > .
",
......
'- ,' oJ'
" . ; .
; ,
~ , '
,; ,
,i : ''\ . , " '- ~ -
.'. "
. ,: ;:: ' "
,;1 '. "
" . , ~.
<: , I
" \. , ' ._>,-,
. ' ' '" . ,', .J,': ' . .;. ~, ", .
Ai' ·· · · ·,ll·/ " ·'
. ~.
, "
I ,
. '
, ' ,',
' "
' r
','
, "
, ' , i I t
,:i I ;
,1
,I ! ! .J-: . i '
! " ,
.i
. i " I
'"
I. ,
I I I ,
,! "
,!
I : . .
, . . j ,!
/
) , '
,r
I ••
' j
"
' " , : I ' , ,
\ , • I : "
" ' 1 " , _ . ,
'. ' . ' . .. ' • • . . .... ~ . __ .' ~ ___ '~'_''''''''''''\ ''·._;' '''''''''''· ~ '~''''h''1_~ ' ''' ''':''' - , ....... ~." ... .. .. __ •• - ~ 't- '
" ,
'J ,
,'- . I
" , \
," "
I I
I"
75,
received ~iJ. ; . , ' , -
if , the ' English ~xperimenter ,from ;, the help '
Ep,gltSb population t;<J1an' from .th,~/Fre~ch p'~Ijul8.tion"at' the
same time b~th iopu1ations give more I
he~p.,:_; t:0/ the Engi i'sh , , ' ,' / ' " \ '
-to , tbe,_,:Frenc-h as shown in the test ,:controfling for . t~ , { " ., than
"
population, variable'. /"7
I ~
-,
So . '
indivfdual , interactions, 'bi'tween th'e ' two either
' '' cultural groups ,disc'lose a ,m,ore 'posLtive ~r at" least neutral
state of #'fairs than ; wh~t could be', pred i.e ted- from the ~ , '
, ,
" " social context 'Qy, .the r"e..isults for the French
I exp,erimen e'er. ' Or , s ta tus d 1-f ferences pe rmit t..o_e 'd" the ' Engli sh
exp'erim~Ji te~ to re~ei ve , ov}e~atl mQre ' h~lp from' both cultural .\ ' '
\ ---;. . . ~roups as sho~n by _the ,result~ for ,the English ,experim"enter;:
unles's , a third ' , ·.option could ' somehow" i~tegr'a~e both~ ,
, . Unfortunately th~ , results ' are , ~quivocel.
'- I ' \ ' ' " , ,
1 , A , replic'ation,
, using several' participant-experimenters.
identity could help ' to ' BQlve ' this prob.lem" by- mi,nimi.zing the , I ' ,
. ,, " I
,and/or idi.o ~ ~n,cra t ~c
, inter'pret;ation 'of , the pro~ed~res of , the single ~~pe,, '~' im"en
of ~ach culture actdqlly used.
\ \ . i
effects per 'sonafi t y, of , the
fl
Wh-en . the influence , ot: ufba~ , size , is , examined
results show ,that it inte~acts" a), wi,t,h ,the cultural .illen'tity ""', '" ' "~' " ,
' " '
,Ij ,~
.\ .
"
,# - •
I: i' !
, .
I ,
"
"
,"
, " ""', "
, ,
i 'I\~.:',~ ,
!\ :.( ",,_ ~;f , ~,he population"and als '~ , b) wiJ,h thepl'o;Vin<;:e , varill~:le •.
~~ ' \ ' I ' / ' .' \
','I'Y" , I '" ~ ',' ' / ' ¥, "
," , , ! .: . '. . . <,~ ,.'
" ' l , I
. , , , ~ " .'
I
" '
.I !
, ,I I
I " ..:,. ', '
,,.
. ,,'
'. "
. , . ~.
,',
" " l , ' " ' I , -- . . • ", -,1 ' •• ' .... ~'l:I .......... '.: ~ .. __ ..................... --.-._ •. • ___ ._ . ... ... ___ . ~ ..... ~_. __ , __ •• • ____ • " .: ....... . _._ . . • _ •• - .. ... _ _ •• _ •• " , '_ ... ' . _,' __ -0, . ' _'.'
.
I ,
, (
..
/'"
..
',' ,
-\
i r
"
\ , , ,
,,'
.... 76 " ,
In the first case we found that , overal'l, the ' French
population was mo're helpful in citiesthatl in ,towns " and that
on the contrary the Eiiglish populati,on wa~ ~ore helP~f 'in , ~
, the towns than , i~ the 'C,ities. This conclusion is , rthe~
Bup,portE7d, but fo 'r ',the. English p'op'illati~ '~ only, by the
result ' of
, sepl1f,rately. ,
\. ,I
"', .. the' test which looked at ,each , ' population
,/'
The " French p,opulation by itsel; did~ot ' produce'
s u C h ' a 11 in t era c t ion .• "
"
I ,
,- ". 'For the 'English experimenter it , appears that urbap size
interacts .: wi'th the p'r~vinc'e variable so that in, ,Quebec , he
reci!! ved ' more help ' in t6wns than in thec i ty but , tha,t , on the f ' ., ,
contrary '"fn ,New Brunswick h~ received mor~ ',helpb' the ,city.
: t~~ h'f towns., . AIt bou. h the . Fr,. c hex';. r im'.n t eT . by . himself did not ,F ,roduce stich ' a.n 'inters'ction. , ,/
o . ~ Urban size see,med. , then, to influence ' lev.el ' ofl1elp '
g'ive,i oJ? - recei'ved, " . " • . I , t .
through irite~action ~ith the cultural
fdentity of ' the population or' of , one . of , the , '
expe:r i m:e ters '. ' .. " \
As in , the' case 'of the': first interac'ti,on of s,ignific,B:nce, , ~he , ,
the -patt .~rn is not ':self ,eVident;" " My r ·evt'ew ,of , ' . ',' ',~ ,: , . . . ,, '
" , . '
r' : .' ~.,.' (
"
"
, ,
." :J.n ' preparation for , this ':'exper:Lment does not ,suggest why one ,
' c,,~tur., g~,ouP wou 1N~ow 'v er s 11mor. he1.; .. " behali ~ :.<;Z , ...... ··1. ' , one type " ,q£ environme,nt , (cit;l.es), and, 't::h~ other, grou; in~'i;'
, ' • I • ' , , I ' a'notheron~ (;to~ns). Perhaps , li~erature " on , cross , cult'ural ,
[ ,
, I' , . , , .' . ~
.to ' mo 're , dtv,,~rse , gro~ps . would:,:: provide' stud:l.e~ • applied .~. .
I \ ' ,j '\ . I , , , )
. , " ::\ " ,--
( ' I •
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"
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• . . i ~ .. !
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o'
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,: r ;
'.
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, "
';' . , . .
\,
',. ,'. , .
. ' .
. :-... / ,
, . . \ \\' Inst'~~ce!, of such i,nteractions. ' It would ' reulain t6be seen.
how ' ~uch .a find~ng c~uld be ~pplied to the cul~urai grou~s
~ studied here. wh~ch have ach·ieved •. ,I bel~eve,comparable
"
levels of urban~zat ion ~ ." ,This appli~s also inth~ case of
"
~he i~~eract~on ' of the ~xp~rime~terand' ftrban . size.
, '. Anri~h~r.poi~t is th~~ in the ' ·.presen't experiment . the '
, '/'
, cities wer.e ,,,only of : a ,popula tion 'si'ze 'of abo~t · 50.000'. In r
most'exper 'i~~nts ' in tn.e '. literature tha.t ' dize rep~esents 'a ,
small agglomeration. ~o.'~o han (l 9.J.7) for example ' i~ ' ·his \. eftieriment clas~ifi·es .. locations '-Of less
,population as small. .i ,
ptZin~e. ~ .;.;: . .
,province ' variable i'8 . .
in i~sinteracto~, wlth · the urban size
'influencing , ,
level of help rec·e. ~v d by the English
exper;l:mertt'er which I 'd~s ·cusse·d . above.' . "
. "'- -""~ . , . . ... .':.~ :" .,
' Problems of ,interpretation • . I wou14 some J 'of
the ,weakil'esses . · of the experim~nt an' some pos'sible .' \
.. , ..
.Q~·e of the most evident weal9t ]>oi . ts in ·the ls.1g,n. is ·
'cult'Urewa's used. /
the ' fact that . onlY lon,e experimeter of each . '. . , 'b
. ·1'
, .
, . I .
I
, ' . . \ ; I
.,'
"'1' , ...... . . . \.' j'" . . . (";'
I ' . I, " !.
I l .' " I. , ... ;.,
.1
r,
; .'. ~ ': , .', ", ... ;-__ ._._ ............ ~._~M~_._ .. ... . __ ~' ,
/, :; ' . '~' " ;;,~ :, . ,~ .. ,.':'_._.-.. ___ .. --=-__ . _ _ ' _', _ '1 '. ..' .. . 0 ,
:,' -;::::----.,-, -, .----,.-' ...." .,""':':--:-; -.. :--.~~ -t "' ~ ::.: ' . i · \ '
\' " : :., ! .•• . • . " .
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It, is , 'difficult to ~ntang;te what personal I
78
characteristics \
'are respon~lble for ,the d'ifferetices' in helping level bet~een
them, Jinancial constraints .~ pl~ced limitation" on the '
, '\, , , number of e,xpe rimen tel'S who could beus~d,
t~e English ~xperi~~nter' gen~iated. by , himself~ ~uch strong
in'teracti:~~~ that they may , haye obliterated more 9ub'~,
c01l).p"iex ones, This pcissi'bility was .. for.eseen at the start Jf 1 , I
But it was hop~d that, ' by trying to m.tch . I • . .... .
experimenters ' ~n sex ', age, phy.s1~~I ' , , ' , . " .. - - --: ,';/
appearance: (dress and
build), ~nd ~duc~tion~l bac~ground. d if f erenc esbe tween 'tn em . '. ~ " . . ~,~
would mainly , ?c~ur in interactionwiih ~he tulf~ralidentity
of t.hepop'ulati~n. , and 'also ths'tthe other ,e:xperime,n\ with , .
t~~ i6~t , letter technique N,
w,oU'ld h~lp 'to' cor:roJlorate the
results of the main experiment. " l '
, ,
.There ,is another ' aspect with the
,whic,h ,is not specific to this ' ,e~'periment but
'~an occur ,whenever the commitment of the', ,persons invo.iv~d ' -~ "~'~
varie,s', 'The' stu'dy , wa~ conducted by ,the ~utho ,r and, ,~ st'uden~
frbm another university hired .,for the durat'ion' of " th'~ , '
,experiment (3, w~eks)', ' 'It {-.s evident that the'fnterest,of
the: two 'in the ~;oJectwas ' ve-ry diffei:e~t. ,'While ' theautbo,;-,,'
partner was
o~tained", ". "7 ' •
,pro'bably , jmore neutral towar 'ds ; any ', results
The ,\ res,e~'rc'h on ex~e!im€i'~" t~, r -bias may . b~e ' -relevant." As , Ro,s 'enJ:-hal (1969) ~tates, :
. ' \ , '
, , >1-" , , ,
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) ,
, . .'" ' '
, , I ,
, ,.,{
.. . t~ ., (1, ... ~ .. ~.'.: ____ ~- .. ~ ... ~, . ... ~"b __ ~ ... t.-:' ___ ~"'~~~_--""" ~~"""" ' 4.q""""_"~""J ~""~ " " . ·" _" ·~' " . I ·~ .. .., ... ~ . " . - .:1..,.. .. '
•• •• • I '. '
: "
' ....
\,' ~.' ,,.
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,, '
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. ' While the other , attri'butes of the experimenter a'ffec't the , silbje'ct's response" they d~ ' not ' ~ecessarily aff~ct ~hese responses di£~erenti~lly
, ~s a , functipri . of the subject's , treatme~t " cond·ition. Expectancy 'effects, ' on the ' other haild,
always de.... ,The eX'perime'nter's expect'ancy ' of , how tlre; ,8ubject will ,. 'resjJo'nd ,does " change ' as a fun:~tio ii- of the s)Jbject's 'treatment " co'ndit'ion. \ ' .... , ,' , '
We, mig:ht have unwittingly di{feret,, 'tfally influ,enced ;;
7,9
! '
'the '
_respon,ses , ' of " s.ubj ·ec t~ .'although . we n'ever ' r'evie,wed th~' .' :.
: ';----., , I ; , '
a 'ccumulat:l:'Dg ,data during ,the experiment so we wer~, not at,Tsre , ' .'
' ~f anydeveioping trend ",
i n , ~h"e resu lt s ,'
~ '"
• 'J"
.. ~,~ . " ," ),' , '
The of ' t~ a,sistant
'hired by Roth (1975). ' A hired ,hind is ~
· per'B~n ~hos' e , task " ~ ,
,si\Ilply ,to carry ', O\1t the iqstructions
given tEl ' ' him. ' .. may not ' be ' "<lsk·ed ,to make a personal
th'e ' e~pe'rimen:t b~t t.,o simply fotlow ot:ders. • · 1',
contribution t . . " , I
negligen t. P reoccuP.ied ~,nly : with get t ~ng I.
Re may , become
results th~t w~ll statisfy, hi~ emptoyei. , '
The resuJ,ts' of research done in part or wholly by hi~~d , ha-n-d-s. shou'ld 'be viewed as ' a dubious sou'rc,e
' ,fot info~}Ilat'i~n .• about spec'ifi2' , " aspects , of o~r , ' sapial l~ or, fo~' the raw material fO.r d'evelopi.ng
:. broade r gEfner al J,za tiona. (p . ' 3-92) •
.. ,
It' .i;' posBib.l~ that_e~e . , dt~fe.rences towa ';d th~ project.
I' • (? ," __ ., 'from the tw.o. e~perimenterBl; may ~ be responsible for ' some of
I ,', ' , ' , , " th~ variance ip ,the resu~ts :
---the ~ost likely ~olution t~ : t~e pr~bl~m of exp~r~menter
,p artic ipao taof each ' cuI t 'ur,'al ' ~ro~p-
I _ ••• • ,
~ . " "
' .• ~ f ~
:,'1 . ' "
as e .arl,ier'.
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.: ..
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f , / I • ;;
4 ' " , ' ,
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, J J.
I' .-_-..: •• _~ __ M~ " _ ~._ ~ . ;~ . ..... _._
... . ;;: .~ .
. f.' ... ". 80 '
J .
. / ' However. this .is . by no 'mean the p~rfec~ solut~on ' since we
-. .
would be . in~re~s~n~ the numb~t ~f hired handiJ
I . • , .
'f· .. t· - , . Field experim'en t.
, '.
I have rel.ied on a .rguments.; such .\a~_ the
, pass! bili ty of achiev:lng ," ," .' ' . .' t',
greate.r mUnd81;le ' reaIi,sm; greate'r ' . ",, : " ' . .'
,E!xternal . validity . e .tc. as"3. j,,:stificati'on\ for t~.e -use' of I a
' fie~d experiment for~a~. Some ' degree'?fcont~ol over ' a}Y' \ ' . .
subje.cts •. etc ..
impaq t" of '. th.'e
,I ..
procedure. . '~~
is , lost : b~·t . ; lt . is h6ped ~ha,t .'the $reate·r
manipulation compensdtes ( ~ t·' · ·
• " i
· for. . ' }
Retrospee~ively it does notse ·em:~ .~Jo ob'vious that ~ . field
.: e:xperim·~nt should · b~ pr~'ferrfad over a fsbor.a,t~ry, . e~~er·'~ment~ ·
A • c1.,?se · s 'ccouniing" of th~' ;~~r~~.e'~~ff.s " i.nvolve~ . m"~y ~~~OT ·. the · f ,ield setting ' .. ,flS a b'ettet ' . envirol}m~n 't .· to 'tti\st ' 'our ,
• . I ' ~ I '; - • . '
Also the .· day to day ,uncertainge.IL.-.!.n the · f .ield; · " , ' ~"""":.
in'ed.equate settings " ,J
• ~ r e.g., rain, , to meet: , . sub~ect8" .'sparse ·
. . \.
~.umb ,e ·r :, of' ~ubj ec ts. 'make one wish f .or· the rela'tive ~ecu:d .. ty
J
and~red~ctab{litY ' of the laboratory • I,~ I.:', '
, . "
. ,
: '( ,i ., "
.' \ .' ,. .. , " t
The p,ract:'ihal' " necess~ty ofa" , ~ cer;:tatn " ., degr~. e of · ,/' . . .. ... . ' ... i"n ' !either "~ s e t~i~'g' .. ···' ·the la.bora toryl or< the'
. . ' ,
r ~ / . . sim~lif ie-at ion
.' I , ' 0 , • • I I •
fi~l~. : maltes . it, difficult to aChi~v~ ':' a~ ~ufficientl; d ine ,,: . , ~ , t ~"" '',J .f,
di~c.rimtna.t'~,on of ' people' , and ·grou'ps . -rela~iv.e· to : th'e 'cultur" ii '~' " ., . .~ ,:)
, v:al:;iabl'e. '. :-,: W~at we have . dic~.~tomized · . ~s .' .. two " dis tinct: ~ , • 10. • • ', ' .I,' , .... t . .
' t " ;;-..
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81
' v~r-, j
homogeneous cu~tural , groups may in .fact''- be, better
' repre'sented on a coritiJluum. 'The' typical inter'action between " I , , : I "
¢xper~menters and :~ubjects was planned to emphasize 'cultural
vafiables, to,· the detriment of' other, ff-ctors ,. I, /'
, was not complete'ly succ'i!sful. '
On,e - of ' th,e unstated ass\lInpt'ions in this: ,experiment is
that , the people of the ' two c~itural " groups' sha~e a ,number of
e qui val e,n't , soc ial, '''-
, cognitive ; orientat~ons' to , . : fhe1r c u It'U;)! a 1 and how t 'hey reiai:e . to ' th,eir own
gr'oup ; . w· - ' • J ,/,,' . \ : " '.
or in their phen m~nolbgical , categori~ation , of ' an .. I ' " 4
event BU,ch 'as street~ This assu~pt:io of equivaience~ :I.:f ' true, would make
our - results; lev:~l, ,of : help'
toward member~ of its ingroup or the outgroup, ~ leasily
'I
"c'omparable in the , sense ' .tl];~~ :,j, ·we could ',as sum,e a similar'
mean-ing for. a similar action~ " .. i:~~J ..-- ) ,"'
I .
. . ' . ' .. ...
equivalen,ce I
.. ' /. , ~ay~or and Blmard (i975~,_Christia~.
\ ' ., ' ,
, Ther.e is eViqen.ce that t~is pr.esumpt'ion o'f
not ' be ' correct~,
Gad£ield. Giles. '(and · Tayl!lr ' (1976), and , Taylor and Gufmond .. '
(1978) ' al1fo~nd, as expecte~. , I that : the identity .of the '
Fr~~~h a~d ' Eng1ish .ar~ ' indeed d~~fererit ariduriique , - ', . ' .
to e~ach t
,'. . ~
·t~e . ~ocia1 " mllie~ ' ~ion::g ethno1ing~i'Btic lines" ,," -, '"' ,, - ;, t i, , .' . " ',":" .' 'were'" "cons'istentiy m'ore ethnocentric 'than th'eir
, , ~\ . . " " l~~ :.:, ,)
, I
group. But also the Fr'en.ch Canadians are more ,prone to U ' " ,' ;' ,
)
_ u~~ t egor1;' ~e
" '
\ , , ." , , :, .! -,\ . ~ .,.,.,- \ .. -, . :l;· :
, '
. '
,~ (:,. - \ '
, ." ' ' 0
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. ~~' ~ ';,.
~ \ ,.'. , A, '
:,
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, '. , , " -'" , '.... " 1,,-
, " , , " '. , ~ , " '\' , , ' ,
",
. ,I · :. "I"'~. • . ~ ·.1 ,. I , i ., ••
.. -. ____ ... :-: .......... __ .... __ ~---',-,.--'" ___ • __ --,_....;..__ ~~ r-.: •. ~:~~,:,
, ' ~: : , ., '. . 1 ' \ . , .', , ,' I .' , " , ~. ' \; .' ;. .. "': . ~ • ." ', .: ' '. . .. ~ .
......
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1 •
·82
counterp~rt l l (Taylor and Gu~m~nd'.;. 1978, . p. 18)~ .. .
I This greater ' impor t ance of cultural dif f erenc es · for
Frencl:l Canadians can be further .peFHed : since this
particu.l,ar : ethnic group could be broken . down into two
. distinct . \
subgroups: ' a , t
"national1s.t.i.:c:: .. . group" . and a , ... " I'
"traditional group". The · 's econd one i~t ' more like the
. English : '~anadians in identifying with 'Canada as a', whole I,
r.ather than a s.pecific region or' province. I "
We see -that the two gr.oups . differ
impor tance\ they g1 v,e to ' cultural information when coming
(
into 'c' o~tact with at ang~r8. The English se!,!m to make l¢ss
use of that
also'~ that the
of information, the French more. ' /"
e~ch may differ. among themselves in ;
I prope.nsity a use cultural informa'tion. ,
with. differences in
We see'.
thei r
ethnic
ident~f1cation '>i ,9' the poss·ibi.lity that groups may differ .in.
their, adherence' to"the . norm of ' reciprocit'y.' The ·setti.ng and
. . type of ' request were standardi.zed although they varl,ed- .along
,0 , ,
predeterlDinded 'lines (counterbalan~ed for cultural identity, I.
. 1
size ' of ci t ·ie!'l, etc.). Ho:wever, 'each . group \
may have .
differen't , . non-:equival en·t n ·orms' · which . constr:ain I
respo"ri.d in diffet;ent.:l way,s .1n .ahelpin'g situation. I~ .
I .
'I.." • .1,
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, ' ' " ' ';
',:'
I
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\ . i \ t to,
. "
.,
e,. .
, I.
".
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f"'" , "
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. , . ~ . ' . • • ~ • • . . .. • " I . • I '
; .
.;.
i . )
.~'
.'-:'.~-
~~~~.
.' " " ': ':~. , . . '.. .'., '.' .' ..... , " ' -:-:-~. . . . .,--_-----~~t.: n.-.~~".;".~ ... \j.~~.1..r,.~r...,..rto_~ .. "'-" .. ~~.--~ ... ·.' ...... r-.~ . ....... ,, ~ ... .. ,." ... .,.~ .. ... ..:...\ ... ,,,, ... _,,, ..•• .. ..... u . .. ' o- ... •• .. .. '.,>:' . '. " :. ,.,, "'-:-. " . . '" '., .. , .. ,' , ."" . " ', . ~ . r ,' . · . .
' .. '.
, ! ,
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"
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, I 83 "
In'addi~ion the lang\lages,(French ~nd English) in ' the,
tWo pr!JViifce8P~obab1Y -have a ilumb~r of featU"i-es which may
lead people to , differentiate ·even among who share -' a thol3e
.r'. . I~ comm~nlanguage. There may be three or
instead of two,. Giles (U77). stat es ' i'Language will refer to '
, any lingUisti.c~ture~~ a,r set of f ,eatures (e. ,g., dialects "
accents" wQrds) ,which an" ethnic group valu'es, or uses, in'
making itse)f disi:inct:ive ,from ' a competing gr~up." (p. ·3~.'
,Cultural' ide'ntitiesmay nO,t only be m!>re differentiated
than ' assumed ' but" they may also be more 'complex, less 'well ...
defined.' For example a 'bilingual p,erson because, of his \
" !idoption, more or . less voluritaril~, ' ofanothelj ,cultural
"-'group langu8s.e m~y: then alte,r ' his relations'1!ip to that
group .' As Giies (1.977) s .ta~e8. , referring't6· ~<cha.Pt~r /b'y -" Taylor" Meynard" and Rh~Bult~ "
"acquiring th'e
symbo lic of ~ '\.u outgroupCBt;t de'tract fr~m ones ~wn
language
feelings
of 1:ngro'up iden~ity '." (p. 5). ~ J
There may als'o ~ cognitive differences linked , to, .,
member~hip to one g,roup . or the other. Lie berson , (1970) ,
stat.es: , The i~portance ' of ra~e and ethnic relat ions is also implicit in' ' r the~view of language as a collection of' symbols .~h , influence social, behavior •••• ' , If l!inguagj " influences cognition, .then eth~ic ' " gra\lp~ with is1:inctive 'tongpes , may respond differentlY:in the ' sanie social- si.tuation. (p.
1 7)." , .
" ','
. '!
I I,
I' ' : I I ·
I ,
b o, ,", • • \. ",, ~ .. ... , ... 1 " " 'n ..... l '.', • ','J ... "~ 1:,10.' .... ~ •• ... ,v.,""'''- - ..• .--.-,'"-r ..... ~,.~:-:--.... -.--,.~-:---~,.... ... " .. __ .... w·, ~ .. ~ ...... -..:.-- .!.1-"'~·--:"""'-----~"--....J..~·~----, -, :;."...-:,. ......... ---, ... • , ' .~ i .
'. '. , .-" .' ' .. \ .
- ,
", ,
, ,
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• '';.'J " ~. -.' :o., ,,_ . _ • • , .. .,." • • .•. • r._._. :1 ~. I \ ,
. , ~.
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, 84
.'
It ispo'sBible . that tlie : e~p,erimenta-i ev~-n '; - t'~at 4's designed ' . 'J to t~st · cross ', 'cultural helping was perceived,interpreted
andreac'ted to. diff~ren'tly by the ' two groups.
I. I .~.
'Even the . assumption of Simil arity of cogni t ive
processes woutd not, free lL~ cO,mplet 'ely from ' dHficultY , since
still' use' di.fferent information . ' in, the
I ' ~ ' . ' .
perception of ingroup or outgroup meml;>e·rs. Abo'ud an.d ,Taylor
( 1971 ):-Show th a t when. info r ,mation abo u t ' . \ .
r 0 Ie san d e t h n i c . \. . . identity fs available c~oss cultural perc~ 'pti'on falls "int;
a pattern of ~ut8.roup p~rception involving the use' of .ethn,i ·c
. ~otypes . predominantly
role stereotypes'.' (-p. 22) •
and in group perception ~ely~ng on. .. ... ,
. "
'1/:- - . ' hom the prec'eding arg~m'ell 'ts and .. fro'/h my own res,ul ts I
we see that the ,concep~ of cultural identity and a,~s.ociated
nor!ps of behavi'~r may not only be har.d t .o" define,it may . be . .
difficult to c1aasifypeopi,e in" ;cle'ar cut, mutu~.l1y. ,
ex'ciu'stve categories. In that" case t ,he ·. amQunt. of ~. overlap' " ,.
. should -be considered aod this . { /
is ' assuming a case , where w~ .
~ould identify __ only . twq pol'es of cultural iei'entity. More.'
'co~plex " 8it~~ t io~~ . .; - of . , ( ,
· r . , '. .
mul tip~e ' iden t ity- ~~.! ght· . ex i .8 t." . ' . '
All ·
these . variations ,allegiance .. '. ' '
.' I, ~ ",:
of i ,n. , pol it ica·l d~g ree .
. bilinguaJ,.ism, diff'e.rences·· in norm's, difference in co'gnitive , .. " ~
" . \
apprehension of events, compI'exity ·of · cultural :i:dent'1ty, .. if
not , recogntze.d , and ideo'fified add ,up to 'nOise', obscuring
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:\ These ' prob lems " call'.'
" . for mor~ specific definitions "" of the groups inves,tigated and
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of the ,.te'chni que , for find iog . re'prese'n tati,je member s •
. ''\. .
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, ~he los t , ~e~ter techniq1Je., ', T~e loat , letter , . technique d.id --,-, .. ,
not supply a'ny Bignifi'c~~,t .' res~lts ~ ' The re'a!'!ons are more I.
'Shotland's
. I an ,acfeq,uate .
" methodological than , expe',rimen~al; '._ . " , l ' .. h
Fol1q~ing
( 1,978)s\lgge.stiort about impor tance of the ~. " . , "
I under ' the distribution strategy. the . lett'ers. ! were' put.
\
·windsh i ,e ,lds of p~rked :car s. , This h 'ad to ' be i ,'"
concurren~ly with the ,li-y:e ' ~xp'er:l.ment how~ver. Obvi~us ly we
could' not VerifY ', the cultur~l ide'ntity of th~ per_~on owning
or, dr1v1-'ngthe cars~ l \ It 1s: 'very, like·ly that a ~ high .. . ' 1", " . ,.t,
f ' percentage ' of , the letters did ' no t ' reach the appropriat'e'
ta,~get'~:, • . As .can be' seen · in Table 13. for the l1;e ' \"',
interviews, the 'numb~rs 'of 'people ' .dis'missed '(because they
" wer,e ' not of the prolper, cultural identity or
~ . , , ] . loca t ion) 'ISS
high. , . ,'1,'
',.
" This was ' due to t~e greater m,h ' of ' peo?l .e,~ of different
cultural ide~tity , . occu~r~ngdudng the ,day tinie as op.posed·
to the more : segraga t ed Bi·tuations'f~r . their resp~c-t he' p.li~ . • . ' I ,
of resid,ence · at ,night. " .'-'~~~s prohlem could be C'irc~mve~ \~~d \\ . ' ' .
for the live interviews but Ii'ot for the los't . letters. ~lsci . ·41s cree t l,y, los,ing
- .. , ... ' .
the letters 4ur,ing ,the d.~y W8S_ difficult
. / on .ithe " ,',streets • .
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~ven , proved ,imposs/Ule, o > I •
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two towns ' in New, Brunswir:J bec,,~~se ,'of t'h~ir small 'size. ' I .. ', ' :."
think' the techniq~e should be u<sed at'nigh~ whent,here ' 'ls' a 1\ . ,
greate;- llikefihood 'tha~ ~ car parked ;" ~n ' a residential- " area
by peop~,e , of one , -,
id~ntified in ' majorfty
specific culture , wilJ.l 'tbelong to a ' perso? of the ~: 8aine
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presents mallY' , ',conc,eptual ,and me't ,hodc"logical haz:~:id~w~ic):l, 'j/ . . " !.' ..' , • -"
leave 9pen the pos'sibili,t,Y ofa,1ternate' eXi>lanati;'n,sof, the
As discussed "above,', doing
I " '
" ' r.s~lts · ?b~ained. :Ii '~imilar I experiment ' we, r~ ~ ·,~o .b'~ done " ' ,\\-,
'If ,
again, " th~n-,Jmhre extensi,ve ,mean's, .. ' " ", I ' ~
particip'ant- .experimen't'ers used and , . ,in'ter,ms ' 'of d:L ,S,c_r~,minate '"
ter,ms
sampling, sh'ould be ,~onsidered if i 'nt'erpretabi-e res\11ts ,', 'are-.!- ' ,
,to be.achieved.
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\) ', -
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" i'
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. )
-4_ .. :.:~
.-.... ...... ~
"-----..
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... ..... "
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Mann,' J. F., & .' T.a'ylo~~ , D. M. '~ttr..ibufioii. ' of : cau,sality: ' . Role. of Ethni city and so c ial c l'ei'ss." Journal , of Social
" Psychology, · 1974, ,2,!,- ' 3-13'. , .' - ,
.~ .
ii , , "
" . .. _.f. ,. ~_ ' ., . ,_.' ._ .... .':_ ,_ ' .
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91
I .
, ,
Meyer', ' J. P." &. Mulher'in, A. Frcim" at;~ibution' to .. fhelPi~"g: ' . . , . " . • 6 ' . I .
. an ana~ys~s , of the me'(ri/lting. ,effects ' of aff."ect and ' " '\ e'xpectancy. J'o 'urnlll E..f .Person·ality' and Social "-Ps, yc1ioiogy~, 1980, 11(2), 20.1":216. ' ,
' , ~ "
· · Milgram: " . S~· ~ 'Mann, .L.,I &: ·. Harter, 9 S·• The lo'st letter , technique. " Public Opinio'n Quarterly, 1'965, 12. •. 43,7,-4:38.
~.
Milgr~~'tS. the ~xpetience oflivin~ , iri cit~~~. , S ci e 11 c e, 1 9 7 0 , 1 6 7 ;, ' 1 4 6 1-14 6 8.. " . ' •.
\ \
. , . . '--~ ' . - ' ,
Pearce·; , p .' .L. " S~rangers, t~ravelers, te iminal s: A " Sot ui:ly ' 0'£ small- s cal ~ Journal .2f ,Personalit.y and 'Soc1lal ll(6). , , 935~940~
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a~d Greyhound , . heiping ,behaviorB' ~ Psychology~ 19.80, '
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" Leiden'~ the ·. Net'herlan s: ' E. J. Bril)" ,1979. " ' " ' , I . ,,' .
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, ., ' Popl'in" , D. ,E. " 'Communities '. !. .. survey of theoi"des and . , ' . methods of research. ' New York: Macmillan, ' 1972 • .
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,"
S:ter~, ~." T .• . A': st:ud'y ' of , th,e r~lat:l,~~~h ·:i.; . 'of 'hel<p!ng ,,: , '" beh'avior wi·th "u~m' " - sex,\ and. 's'o cio 'economi'c stil tus :in " ~ , ', ' two pausdf t .he . 1rilit~d S· tat~, s. , (Doctoral'dissertation,':. '
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,:' in the B 0 c ial ' p s yeha 10 gy : .Q.f ' in t err e 1at ioris'. 'New :( York: Academic Pr'es's, '1978.
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TayliSr,,'\ D. M.., ~assil .i, J :.N.' , :/& : Aboud, "F~ E. Diinens,io,ps', oj ethnic identity: An exampl~ 'fr.oPt u'ebec. , Jo,urnal of
'.: Sbciar Psy 'chology~ 1973, 89(1), 1,85-.1 2. ' . ,/', , . ~.-,- , :\
, TJ.~I~r ,': D. M .~ ", & Guimond',S., : " Th~' belie( ' p~~rr' of,
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! prej udice "in an" intergroup ' context';' Joo..rnal ,of Social
, " \ _ .psyc,hOl~~:( ~ ).1:7~.~ i05 ': : 11;:'25,' " . . ' ~ \\ ' - , -! ' '
' •. '.' :',//,/' ' ,T,~ylo,r,,' ,D.-'M." Meynard; ' R., " &: Rhea'!-}t" ' E. ,, T~reaj: to ' ethnic i~entltY - ,and s¢cond~language learn1n8~ ,.I~"
H. G:i.l,es" (11:d~), Language,: ethriicity, 1!.lli!' intergroup --.' ----'--------'-----;--,.-r'e-l-at'io~New 'T6Yle,: Academic P~,ess. 197.7. ' '\ Cited
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Taylor', 'D. M., &: Simard, . L .~ M. , ,b {Hngual se tt.:!,ng.· Canadian
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and . weH~ arid ,living, in New York., . .New York; :1.981,
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... . ". " , " ,Januar.y, :,26, pp. 2,9-,31.
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:Wet n.eq"; B • :.<A.~o gnid v~ , (a,t t r:ib~ t 'ion) '- - , emot i o,na~ t ion mOd 'e.1' o~ m'oefvat~~ - behavior: 'An analysis' of judgments of l"6.elp-g;i,!.in-g~ ~Jlournal , .£.f Personality and ", :Soc!a1 i "
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of run(1 and, 'u,rb an r ea't i ng ,on' h e1 ping, b ehav 10 r. Journa l ' ' . ,aLPer'son ' 11 t ,and SocLal" 'Psycho1ogy ,, 1976. '34 (1), ' . ;
" 112-.124. ---. , " , \ .-..
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' Psychology '~ ' 1981, 'J.'14,. ' ,295:'296. '. ' . .' \. ' . '.
",
, Wirth. , L '. , (UJ1b~,nismas~ wa,Y of ' life. ' American 'Journal ' ,SodoloS:!, 1?38, ' 44 ', 1-24. Cieed ,in -Wirth, 1964-... ,
, , . ....
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, ' Wispe, L. -<Ed.) ! 'Altruism, ' SympathY"" and,helPing .,\ PsYchol'ogical and ,Sociological 'Principl'ee. ' , 'New YO,rk:: Academic Press, 1978. ' ' - ' , '
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Appendix' A.
• 0
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. PHot · 'f or· 'Experimen t , one. \ . j :\
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. 1 94
'-
; , . . . T~~ ,p:(~~t serv,e~ two 'purposes: .1) :, it : wa~/ a _ 'pra',ct,iY
run .' .. to :famil,ia'r·ize.t'he : ~~per~menters with the' pr 'ocedure~, , , . ,,', . , . .
· and 2) 'it established the ' ain'ount of time ' to. reque~t ', fromthe
"
sub~~ctB·· to ach{~ye,~overa!'l! . a , ~O% refusal ' rate_ " . ,
. , ." , I " . ,
, . -'
a~hieyed . by following 'the
-I '.. • . ' • :' • .
procedure · exactly asexpfained in .t·he methodo'logy proposal. " " \ I,' "
But iIi' this ~a,seonly, --,t-he , 8~bJ~ct8(decisioli.80n whether , or , . \ ' • . . • . I \ , , ~ . . . I ' .' . ", ~ . .' • • ~
'not· til stop "and ans,were ·-the ' ques.t50ns 'was ' reeorde~ '., If '· s . , ' . ' I . . I
. s'~bj~ct was' .wiil~ng t~ \answe r the -1q,ue~ tio.n's . th e sess i on wa 's I . ... " ~ >'-: ... ' - 'l·
interrup.ted · .Wi·th : - excus~es/' , .Requkst : 'fo'r . 5, : rO, 15, 20, 2S ~ - , . ' _., . ' , ' \. . ' " . "
. " , ~
minutes were. ,made , ' '
'a. \ random ~ . .order . at' two 'in \ '
'locatfons, a shopp-ing e'e~t~r' and a ,"city street ,on ' the ,south . " , . \ .
· shore . Of~~'ntrear~" oSine e. t\os'~ t~~ ',~\ocat 1~nB"a,r efr'e q~e~~ed by ' p e 0 p le <? f . both langua.gE7s . t he , exp e t:, 1me~ ters , a 1 w'ays s h if te~
. . ":> ' . , - \ ' pre:fered, bY " the, \ subjes:ts.
, ', ,, , ,, ,. ' the ' langu'a'ge
. .. ,.These·, two to
la,cations :were not used' in \ ' the J~tual e.xp~t;.ime'nt •. Th'e
number af :" s~\jec ts~::c.ePt lng. 'a~~" , ,tli'e\ nuuib~r '-~'~~us i~g was ... ' , . . . .
\ ;\ \
tabura'te~ "for ' each time ~a~u~:-r ', The
, \ .. , ' · clQsest to, "50% a~cept~nce' was ;.. .~et~ee·n ,15" and
" • _ . \ '\. J . '" ~ ..
value;s were use.d t;qgether for the ac.iuaL '~eque!ilt
value com;ing' time
20 "minutes.' ~ . . '-.
These :. ",
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" '. , . . Appe,ndix B. , "
Q • I
. Data Recording ~ , ¥'age one (Englis}l ver,s"ion). ' , f • • . .'
r'ntrod,uction: /' ,~ , 'Excu~e 'lie Sir/Ms~' :l~m 'doing' a' research ' p,roj"eet on .
people's cu1turalid~ntity. I would like to ,a9k :'you ' a few ' qu~stions. This should take only 15 to 2'0 m1ntites of ' youy:
" , ' I - . time. , Do you agree?','. , ,'. , _ , , [ir subJec tasks"" ques t io,~s , s ta,ce that yo:u are a , univ.ersity. stude"nt and that this ·· interV:,iew is part of a pr 'oject , you ,are do i n g . " ' ~ ] , '
The Cfuestfons: ' a , . •
[t+Y" , to, ~~ 't anB~ers ' to _que'sti'~n on'E! and; two ~t lea~tr
: : l ,~ ' ,What' l'angu~ge ' d'o ,y~u use ~'~!!~: \ often -:tn " Y~llr h~m~ ,? ' !" , 'Fr'ench ·or ' ~~8lish. / , '- , '\ ,," " , " ">\
[terminate ' interv;ie,w if answ~r ,is \"different ,,from location] '" ,2. Do. you live .' in , this city (town)''l , Yes or 110 ,. ' \
'·[tertidna'te interview if answer' is ' 'rio] . \ , '~3. _ H'owlollg have' ,you :. been ,:liv',irig ,'h 1;e.? (~ears) , ; \
.. , "
.. · . ,
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· 4. Of the langl,lages "you . un,derstand which one did ' you learn \. . . ,, ' . , \ . , , ' . 1
fir.,at? ,' Englfsh or .':E;rench. ':-"' \ , .' :: " ' . , .... I,'
5~ .What la.?guage 40 'you most , _ofte~ ',u\se at 'work w1:t, ~1;l talking , . ,to :a) , your ,fellow ' wo-rkets' , ' b) Yo'u!: ' sup~~~iSiOX:?
6: '~n w~at ,langua:gedi~ ' you . re!=e:tve~~our ' instr~cti.on' at ' .. primary a,chool? Fre,nch or Engli~\~ . · . /,'
A; , Answers all the quest,ions ,. ' \· . I '\ ', ' . , " \ '- ' ,\
V \
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\ . -. J
'B. , R.efuses to\~answer. th~ , q' "tions exce t 1 and 2. ' . ",
c . . ReflJae"s" to1~ns'~e'; ' any , qu ti'on( but ,{erbally . i;dent f ied ,as. , to' i,cultural' . iden' t :y ' --~:ut 'n 'ot "ir 'esi:d'ence. " .
.' '
" .D ~ , 'Rei'u8 es · to No : id entif
" , ,' . ,id en t i.:t y 0" . ','
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answer . /lny qu~st:i.~ns. cation· of cul~ural ' rE!s1dence. 1,', .
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, , .. , Ap'pendix . C. . ~ "
, I i "
. D~t~ 'recof'ding " form.P" Page one (Fre·nc~· 'vets'ion) ,',
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.' .;ntrodu·ct.ion: .' . ' . 6'G" :" '. ' .' '. '\ .. . ,.EIX~U8~Z, mOi .,M./Mme/M1Ie; . je f~is . une r .e.cherchesG.r\ ' · 1 ident'~te ·culturelle ,deB: gens. · J aimerctis vous :.poser, quelques q~'e~t±ons, ~a .ne devrait 'pr7ndre Clue 15 a 20, ~_inut,;" s d..~ ~~~{ e tem,ps" ' A~ceptez vous?' . '
~" ~ , ~s:t le"; sujet p'~se ~e~ ?uest ,io~s d.:i..t qu .e ' eu eS', un ~tudiant ·8, ;. l'universiteet q!l'e cer interview'. fait--".ai:ti,e d'un travai.l : que tu aois fair.e" ~ . ] .. ,. . .,, ' . . '.: " .
- . • . .' ,'. . I •
. 1 \ '
, L~B ·qu ~estions. .. .. .". . ~ . /' , . . [essaie (d'.obt·enir une ' re,ponse I aux quest~ons .· l' et ' 2 au ~ui.oins] . ,. : .
. I' . . Quelle · liln"gue ;utiltzez · vous Ie plus~o~vent a. Ia maison? ' Frenc~ or English. . ." \ " .
,[terminer . l"interview si la'rep ' nseest diffe'rente dU.1:1.eu]" . . L .. D.emeurez vous ' d.a risee t 't ' e vii · ? ' :'" . , ..
.
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Ra,tionale for selection of · , locations. • . 1
Brl.l~swick '\
I and Quebe'c' were II
are ~w·~.· bilingu~i' ~ since·' they '
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that the hig:her p.op.~ 'latlon ' an,d number of !Jr.ban centers . ' in
Quehec wou'ld . make .. it' ~asy tOf~d its close ' equivale'nt +n .
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:Po.pulation by Mothe.r · . To,n:gue for' Ca~ada ;a·nd. Provinc.e·g· •. · 1976' Census
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. Moth'er tongue ' " . Canada . . '. New Brunswick , , ,',
. Quebe:c
'T·o.tal ~ 22,992,605 667;250, ~ '; 2 3 4 ~ 4-~-S
. English. 14 , :122,77.0 \' ' 435~ 97'5 B90,-680 . French · " . • 5;887,205 ; '-' .223;780 4,9..iI·9;245 . . Other 2,537~615 "6,.,9.2'5 ' 334,055 . N' o·t :!! t'a ted ( ~ 4 5 , 0.2,.0, 1 0 , 5 r ~ . 11 '0 ; 4 7·0
., ,Note.e, .' Fr~m S'ta't.:i:s t ic~ ',Canad a." ~ 1"976 . "Census 6f . Canada • . . . Minister of :Supply an'd .S·ervices. Ottawa, 1~79.
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' Ne* ' B~u~s,i~kadd ~ue ~lty Qu~bec
Mo t·her tongue.
Tota'l E'ngli.sh
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'Que . city '. . . 6~~. 000 22 ',300 42, 700'"
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apopulatio"n s:ize for: . NBc'ity is: fot the c.it:Y.· not the 'census _ agg~omeration w~icl~ would ' b~ a . 11"f.gher · number. .~u.oiber8 have ',
. been ro·unded . . :. to the nearest· hundred fo' prevent iien~ifica't~on : of Iocation's • .
, In~lud~s ' not stated. . . Note. " Pro'm ·S. tatistics .,.· Can~da. 'Minister of Supply and Services.
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.,197-6 ! Census Ot .tawa, ' 1979' •
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Table 16 ' /.
~. ,
. \ . .' Populcftion b,y,:Mo·t.her Tongue for Towns ' I' , I ' in New Brun9~i:ck "and' ' Q~e, ·bee· . '\
:"-Ne~' .B.run, 'swick " " . I,
Cod,e ~ "
names
/ . NJ!,l
NB2
"",:-Quebec
. ,QI . ' Q2
Q3. Q4'
I '
"
3:000 5. ,4'00
' 1,000 . -. 700
....
2.9.00 '. 2, ioo: ·:
300 400 . . / .
, .
French
700 ~ .. "
.23 . : 400 .06'
5,100 '. 21-,3, sob , .20
"
:,.
. 1,.200 · .~ 41 r', 000 .34
0:. - ,.
'~ ' ,;'
5',300 .06 , 6 ',000
" · .06
, "
~,
~ ." ,
"
. ' . ' '. , ..
.. aThe ::~~tios were:":d lc'ula 'ted us' i~ng '~he actJ'a'l ~e~sus , /n~'?tbers. Note ~. , All· ,nl!l'mes ,of , loc'stions have , been replaced· by c'ode" riames 'and ail ' the , nu~be~s ' ha~e b~en rorinded t~ the ' nearest 'hundr~dto prev~~t ~dent~Eication of t~e 'l~cations.as agreed .with the eth'i ,cs' committee which·, approved t'll'e, d'esign . of .. ,the re·sear~h' . . Ot,her and' not:' st~ted ,columns. ,as' they.' app·e·a.' t:: ·' in',
. the,S~atistfc .· Ciinada tabie . .. .are·~pt repprted here as' they , were not· taken"int;o accoun~ in ' 'the s'election 9£ ' locations; ,
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Appendix J '.
" .-
j, "
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, \
,'- ':,
E.xplana tiona rela i 'ive t'o " : ..
, ,
, . ,
. " the log-linea~ model
ver~atim . from Brown : (1979 ')~ , ~~D~ manqal. .'
" ..
\ . ,
Mul t iwa~,- frequ~ncy ' tab l~s, ~ The ': l 'o,g-Ii,nea r , m~d .. el.
. ', · 1·06
ta'ken '
', . :~ ' ' .'
"P3F analyses', data in .a 'mult;way tS,ble. -' . The purpose" o,f: . , . . . . ' .
. the , andye i e . :1s t o. ob ta it~ ' - a d e 'e c ~ 'i P t io.~ , of the ' r~ la ~'i o· ~sbip'.s
b~tw~eo the fa,~ tor, s of . th~-f~~l~.eit~er ' bYfoimi~g a " lD,ode'l
for the · data : or by testing and , ordeiing the impo:r.-t.ance ~'f
'the ' 'inter'ac t ion's be tween the f ac tor's., , I • The analy~f.'is ba~~~
, 0 , ~. •
- . ', .
that is ., the ', logarHhm of ~ .he . exp~cted , ~ , '
cell
__ . ' . , . " .' I frequency fs writte:n as an . additive funct·:/.on · of: mai'n ef·fect.s -
: . ,... '. " . , " . " - " '"
and a manner
oi'variance model.'- •• (p. 297.)
" , "
, '
"
/ I
~
.. ,u s U'8 1 ' ,- a n a '1 y s is
."
f ' Te~ts of part ial. and marginal '. associ~ation · . fO ,r
subset ' of . ficio~s (B~6wn, 1976).: . , ~
,.,
. ' . . , ' i, _ . , The --tes t .of . any 'ef f e-c t in a log-live.ar ",mod~l .depends 'on
. . Which ' other ·· effe·eta ' are iocl~ded io . themod~i,., Therefor~ n .o .
, '-. II
's.irig'le , :test ;determio'es ,the · re.la,tive importance' of 'an ·ef·fect. "' .. " , . ' '.' . . " .' '. ' . , ' . . -
B,rown (l976) " suggested : the ' use Qf . two .teats ")
marginal and
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pa r.t ia i ' as ~:Oc:I, a tion to s .ereen ~ffe~ts. , ...... ....... :,
.. · ' Th~h:ypot Jhes{.s , tbat the ' partia~", : assoc i a~ion of .·k
l
•
f . . ---f ' h \ ' actors is zetA. 1.s· .a te iH 0: wether . a 'signi~icant· .. . ', . · '~- \':-dif 'ference exists ·betwee·n . the "r ·t-t /~f tw~ ·"lhier· a.rchical lnodet"s ' : .
, . ..:.~ .~, ' . ',.., t' , . _ .... ,' ." ~J<~' - •
--I ~>ne' .1 ·S' the : full ·mOdel.' of ' order k" andihe ' ·ot~. e ·r th,e "model ,
I. , .
. '.
I "
the k-factor spec if i 'ed ' ,thfit differs . · £l· om. l ,t 'l in " tha .t • ., "\ , ' ,'l
'. . ',: '.' . I' i~teraction . · is ; excluded. , , ' i For ' e x·ample. t ,o te.st t 'he' partial . , . ..,
.o j!, . ',' aB!3ociGl 'ti~n of ' A' and 'B ,U , .. e., ·two }act'ors) ', ·the · full second
" . . , ord~r U!'6del' is fit ted' and ' th~n the 'sam'e ' mode'l ",i'th iambda\AB
' . .' . . . ', ~ .... ,
, . , .. . \ .. .' '. .. :'. .
s.et : ,~o .ze.ro ,~ : ~:he d1ffere~e\~ " , t.h~!.:~~es, t~of-f~t is , a test ' of
. · partiaL association. - ' . . ' ..
... The hy·pot'he's{s'·, that; 'the , .marginal. s 'ssQc'iation " -of ' k
factprs ' is " zero.: is :, a testth~t · the "k fa ~ tor In'teraction is' . " ;
z~~o . in the\ ~~tgi~al ' subt~bl~ fo~med'bi the'~ factors ; ({.e.,
sum~ed , over allother~ factors). ' , , For ' exa~~ .. 'to t .est 'the
. in'argi.na~~s.sQc;iation ~f ' A ilDd B · '!two \ '
factors )' t the
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two-way' . Ita'ble ··. _~indexed . · by ' A:' ,a.n.d . R ' 1\S. _c_:.,o:rmed
·----,-----,----:---o-~-~wo-;;;' f.a ctcfr ~riterac.don · is t·es ,ted. I , '.
and the
. '
'-... . . '
The ", tests of . inargina ~ .and partial ·ass·o.eiation c 'an be , "
s imul taneo.us.ly us i~ ' ~o screen the v~ri~os intera~~io~. to
for ' t1i~ , , ' .. .. ~
data , b~'ing used, ~he~h~~\theya~e ~ot necessarYi .or - whether
th.e·,y .are 'ciuestionab .l '~:' " In a · s 'e 'cond' pass of ' P3-i the mpde:!-'s
~I ", .
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• I • ' .
• J
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contafn' all .the nec~ssary,~ ~ . 1
.. , :r ,e levan i: terms, and that '
, ' . , ' ,J , ; " ;' combinations o,f the ' ques'tion'nable , terms , can be, 'defined" and ,
, \' ' " ,,',., " , ' ' . ' " ; ' ; , \ ,
! ;' an' approp~ia~e model (oI: ' m~del:"s) fo~\fiedat~ 'can' be ' ra'p~dly I ,t .,. ,' ",,' ' " ; '" '
, "
'\ 'cho,~~n. ' This ' is 'further ' ~~:iaiJin~d" in
pp. 303-305). ',I" , ,' j I ' ~
Brown (1976.
,', J , j
eac,h
thi~
t,: i I,
i' , ' ;
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, Condit ionning / '~~~ec t'~~n ,l o~ a ' higher-way 'tabie. " " d ' ~, i'; :" " ,
, r ' I
" .
va r a b les ::::: y ,tA~Z't.r: ::~::~>;:::::~ ::~a.:a: ::: p • ::~ . • , , " 1- " , -
i accomplished bl SPSCUY1~g/ a cat~g-o'r1c,~1 'N'aiiable
,':18 used ' to ./ q;atify, I'tie cas~s: .. w~ call 'this I ' ~,
TIONING the ' tab: es, on ,an , ap~itio~af ~ar111bl" e ~I\" 30 ,~') . , 11
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