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Title page
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Map of lichen use2
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Lichens as dye
Photos byS. Sharnoff
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Lichens as medicine
Peltigera canina• Cure for rabies
Lobaria pulmonaria• For lung ailments
Usnea longissima• Antibiotic Photos by
Stephen Sharnoff
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Sooke Papua New Guinea
Usnea sp.
Lichens as decoration
Photo by S. Sharnoff
Cladina stellaris
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Photo by S. Sharnoff
Lichens in cosmetics
Evernia prunastri• Perfumes• Hair powder• Embalming mummies
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Photo by S. Sharnoff
Lobaria scrobiculata• Eaten raw by Yup’ik
Lichens as food
Over 90 species of lichen traditionally eaten worldwide
Always cooked in specific ways
• Remove lichen acids• Render lichen digestible?
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Yoshohito Ohmura (Japan): tasty
Lobaria & seaweed soup
Cooking Lobaria pulmonaria
My recipe: Norstictic acid (bitter red dye) removed with baking soda
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Fuji saruogaseU. trichodeoides• Tastes good
Yokowa saruogaseUsnea diffracta• Tastes bad Chili con Usnea
Prepared by Mr. Sato (Japan)
Usnea sp.
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Photo by Stephen Sharnoff
Eaten in eastern and northern Canada:
Iwa-take (Umbilicaria esculenta)
• Delicacy in Japan ($100/lb)
• Deep fried, pickled, in soups, etc.
• Boiled several times, eaten in soup, or with fish roe
Also eaten by early European explorers:
Rock Tripe (Umbilicaria spp.)
• Minimal preparation and limited nutrition
Photos by Y. Ohmura
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• Was important food in Europe
• Soaked in ash water, boiled, rinsed, dried, ground, mixed with flour, then cooked
• Bread, pudding, desserts
Cetraria islandica
Photo by S. Sharnoff
Sweden, 1868: • Pamphlet distributed to teach poor people to eat lichen
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Bryoria fremontii
Photo by S. Sharnoff
Wa-kamwa (Tenino)/ho.póp/ (Nimi’ipuu)Teh-ra (Dakelh)Qa’l (Modoc)Whyelkine (Tsimshian?)Dehtsighu (Inland Dena’ina)Nakuraartum nuyii (Sugpiaq)
Alectoria jubata (out-dated name)Black moss (English layperson)Black tree lichen (ethnobotanists)Edible horsehair lichen (lichenologists)Wila (Secwepemc)/wí7e (Nlaka’pmx)A.wi’.a (Stl’atl’imc)Skwelíp (Okanagan)Sqwelíp (Halkomelem)Sáw"-t-m=qn (Spokane)Sä’tc’Etct (Schitsu’umsh)Caúmtemkan or st’telu (Flathead)Ä'ttla or emgo'tlna (Ktunaxa)Ik!u'nuc (Ila’xluit)Kw”u’nch (Sahaptin)
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Bryoria use map 1
Ranges of lichen speciesEdible lichen Bryoria fremontii
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Bryoria use map 2
Ranges of lichen speciesEdible lichen Bryoria fremontiiBoth edible and toxic lichen speciesToxic lichen Bryoria tortuosa
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Bryoria use map 3
Ranges of lichen speciesEdible lichen Bryoria fremontiiBoth edible and toxic lichen speciesToxic lichen Bryoria tortuosa
Important foodUse by people
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Bryoria use map 4
Ranges of lichen speciesEdible lichen Bryoria fremontiiBoth edible and toxic lichen speciesToxic lichen Bryoria tortuosa
Important foodMinor food
Use by people
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Bryoria use map 5
Ranges of lichen speciesEdible lichen Bryoria fremontiiBoth edible and toxic lichen speciesToxic lichen Bryoria tortuosa
Important foodMinor foodUnconfirmed food
Use by people
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Bryoria use map 6
Important foodMinor foodUnconfirmed foodOther use
Use by people
Ranges of lichen speciesEdible lichen Bryoria fremontiiBoth edible and toxic lichen speciesToxic lichen Bryoria tortuosa
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Photo by Nancy Turner
Miscellaneous uses of Bryoria
Photo by Subiyay
Photo by Dorothy Kennedy
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Photo by Dorothy Kennedy
Eating Bryoria fremontii
Avoiding bitter and toxic lichens 1. Collect from areas identified to have good lichen2. Thoroughly clean lichen (soak, rinse, beat, scrub)
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BC: Dakehl, Ktunaxa, Secwepemc, St’at’imc, Nlaka’pamux, Okanagan
Washington: Okanagan, Spokane
Idaho: Schitsu’umsh
Montana: Flathead
Oregon: Ila’xluit, Sahaptin
1. Dig a large pit2. Heat up rocks
in fire
Eating Bryoria fremontii
Pit cook procedure used in:
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3. Cover hot rocks with dirt
4. Insert stick into dirt
5. Cover dirt with wet vegetation
6. Add well cleaned lichen
7. Add layer of root vegetable (yellow avalanche lily, wild onion, camas)
Pit Cook Procedure
Eating Bryoria fremontii22
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8. Cover lichen with wet vegetation
9. Cover with dirt
10. Pull out stick
11. Pour in water12. Cover hole13. Let sit for 12 h
to 3 days
Pit Cook Procedure
Eating Bryoria fremontii23
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The final product
How are toxic/bitter Bryoria spp. avoided?
What nutritional value does the lichen have?
Two questions:
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B. pseudofuscescensTqwesimáka7Bitter lichen compounds
Bryoria fremontiiWilaEdible lichen
Bryoria tortuosaToxic vulpinic acid
Selecting edible lichen
Photo by S. SharnoffPhoto by S. Sharnoff Photo by S. Sharnoff
A variety of similar-looking species to avoid
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Fremontii - tortuosa continuum
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• Location• Tree species
Identifying the right lichen
Start by looking in the right place:
• Taste• Appearance
Bring samples to grandma, and she identifies by:
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A simple study on collecting Bryoria
• Bryoria spp. collected from 80 trees at 8 locations• Used likely collection sites within Secwepemc territory
• Bryoria species composition identified for each sample
• Some samples shown to Mary Thomas to determine suitability for eating
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Different sites have characteristic Bryoria communities
Kruskal-Wallis test• Variation between sites greater than variation within sites
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The abundances of certain Bryoria morphotypes are correlated with each other
Principal Component Analysis
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Principal Component Analysis
Kendall’s W• Several concordant groups
Spearman test• B. implexae negatively correlated with B. fremontii
The abundances of certain Bryoria morphotypes are correlated with each other
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Dr. Mary Thomas
Light-coloured or yellowish lichen is not good for eating
Avoided:• B. implexae• Yellow B. tortuosa
Preferred:• Dark B. fremontii
Asking an expert
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Dr. Mary Thomas
Light-coloured or yellowish lichen is not good for eating
Avoided:• B. implexae = less B. fremontii• Yellow B. tortuosa = more brown B. tortuosa
Preferred:• Dark B. fremontii = more light B. fremontii
A simple way to select edible lichen!
Asking an expert
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The nutritional value of Bryoria fremontii
Protein: 4–8%
Fat: Minimal
Vitamins: B9, B12, E, and choline in some lichens, but not Bryoria
Minerals: Ca and Fe in some lichens, but not Bryoria
Carbohydrate: 20-30%, but is it useful?
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Lichenin (Lichen starch)-(1-3)(1-4)-D-glucann = 60 to 70
Isolichenin (Lichen starch)-(1-3)(1-4)-D-glucann = 40 to 50
Amylose (Plant starch)-(1-4)-D-glucann = 250 to 5,000
Cellulose (Plant cell walls)-(1-4)-D-glucann = lots
Lichen and Plant Polysaccharides
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Eating indigestible carbohydrates
Lichenin (in Bryoria)
Inulin (in camas)
Indigestible to humans
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Eating indigestible carbohydrates
HeatAcidityTime
Lichenin (in Bryoria)
Inulin (in camas)
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Eating indigestible carbohydrates
Digestible simple carbohydrates
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[ ]xt= s + · erf + erf + ( )r + d2·h·t0.5( )r - d
2·h·t0.5
r - s
2(e-a2 - e-b2)·2·h·t0.5
d·0.5
a =r - d
2ht0.5b =
r - d2ht0.5
erf = 2-0.50
e-2d
±1∓x2ht0.
5
=
t = timer = initial temperature of hot rocks = initial temperature of soild = distance from hot rockr = radius of hot rockh2 = thermal diffusivity
Variables
A theoretical model for heat flux in a pit cook
Important aspects of a pitcook39
Temperature: ???
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Peacock’s pitcook• British Columbia, 1998• Good fit with the temperature model
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40
60
80
100
0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (h)
Temperature (ºC)
FoodPredicted
Important aspects of a pitcook40
Temperature: ???
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Peacock’s pitcook• British Columbia, 1998• Good fit with the temperature model
20
40
60
80
100
0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (h)
Temperature (ºC)
FoodPredicted
Pagoulatos’ pitcook• Texas, 2005• Really hot rocks • Does not match model
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
0 12 24 36 48Time (h)
Temperature (ºC)
RocksFoodPredicted
Important aspects of a pitcook41
Temperature: ???
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Peacock’s pitcook• British Columbia, 1998• Good fit with the temperature model
20
40
60
80
100
0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (h)
Temperature (ºC)
FoodPredicted
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
0 12 24 36 48Time (h)
Temperature (ºC)
RocksFoodPredicted
Pagoulatos’ pitcook• Water maintains food at a stable thermal maximum
• Higher boiling point?
Important aspects of a pitcook42
Temperature: Food maintained at 100ºC, then cools
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Potential sources of acidity
Soil: As low as pH 5.0
Vegetation: Conifer 4.0, broad leaf 5.5
Root veggies: Usually 4.9–5.6
Fruit: As low as 3.0
Important aspects of a pitcook43
Temperature: Food maintained at 100ºC, then cools
Acidity: ???
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Potential sources of acidity
Soil: As low as pH 5.0
Vegetation: Conifer 4.0, broad leaf 5.5
Root veggies: Usually 4.9–5.6
Fruit: As low as 3.0
Important aspects of a pitcook44
Temperature: Food maintained at 100ºC, then cools
Acidity: Probably above pH 4, possibly as low as 3
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Temperature: Food maintained at 100ºC, then cools
Acidity: Probably above pH 4, possibly as low as 3
Duration: Left for 12 h to 3 days, time at stable thermal maximum depends on rock temperature
Important aspects of a pitcook45
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Testing the effects of pit cookingReal vs. artificial
Faster and easier
• More replicates
More control• Higher consistency• Better to test specific factors
The real thing• More representative of reality?
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Pitcooking in the kitchen47
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A pit cooking experiment
Black tree lichen Camas
Two kinds of food
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Time• 6 to 34 hours
A pit cooking experiment
Acidity• pH 7, 5, and 3
Black tree lichen Camas
Synergy• Cooked together or separate
Three different treatments
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0 10 20 30 40
Hours cooked
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 10 20 30 40
Hours cooked
Digestible sugar (mg/g)
when cooked separately
What happened to the food
• Glucose does not increase with cooking time or acidity
Glucose CamasLichen
• Not much glucose
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0 10 20 30 40
Hours cooked
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 10 20 30 40
Hours cooked
Digestible sugar (mg/g)
when cooked separately
What happened to the food
• Glucose does not increase with cooking time or acidity• No fructose
GlucoseFructose
CamasLichen
• Not much glucose• Lots of fructose when cooked
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0
5
10
15
20
25
0 10 20 30 40
Hours cooked
Digestible sugar (mg/g)
0 10 20 30 40
Hours cooked
What happened to the food
GlucoseFructoseCooked together
Camas
when cooked separately vs. togetherLichen
• Captures large amount of fructose from camas• Captures some glucose
• Perhaps retains more fructose
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Total sugar content
0 6 10 18 26 340 6 10 18 26 34
FructoseGlucose
Hours cooked
cooked separately
Lichen CamasCotton (around camas)
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Total sugar content
0 6 10 18 26 340 6 10 18 26 34
FructoseGlucose
Hours cooked
Lichen CamasCotton (around camas)
Cooked together
cooked separately vs. together
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Total sugar contentas calculated from best fit models
Sugar content when cooked separately
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Total sugar content
Sugar content when cooked together
as calculated from best fit models
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ConclusionsEthnolichenology
• Lichens have a variety of traditional uses• Food lichens are prepared in specific ways to make them non-toxic and nutritionally valuable
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ConclusionsTraditional knowledge of Bryoria
• Bryoria fremontii is an important food lichen• There is a lot of wisdom about the proper selection and preparation of this lichen
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ConclusionsSelecting edible Bryoria
• Identifying the appropriate morphotype for eating is essential• Colour-based ID can successfully differentiate edible lichen at the relevant scale
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Nutritional value of black tree lichen• Lichens not digestible even with processing
Conclusions60
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Nutritional value of black tree lichen• Lichens not digestible even with processing• Black tree lichen could function as a nutrient enhancer in traditional pitcooks
Conclusions61
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Dr. Nancy Turner and Dr. Mary Thomas for their knowledge and advice
Dr. Peter Constabel and his lab
Dr. Barbara Hawkins and her lab
Dr. Nancy Turner, Dorothy Kennedy, Stephen Sharnoff, and Yoshohito Ohmura for pictures
All of the elders who shared their knowledge
Acknowledgements