AYEARINSPACEINSIDESCOTTKELLY’SHISTORICMISSION—ISTRAVELTO

MARSNEXT?

TheInternationalSpaceStationholdsmorethananacreofsolarpanels,weighsclosetoamillionpoundsandcarriesclosetoseventonsofsupplies.

THESPACE-TIMECONTINUUMSPACETRAVELLOOKSLIKEFUN—WHATwithweightlessnessandtheviews—butitcanbehardonthehumanbody.Intheabsenceofgravity,muscles,bones,theheartandeventheeyescansufferdamage.That’swhyit’ssoremarkablethatastronautScottKellyandcosmonautMikhailKornienkospentayearaboardtheInternationalSpaceStationtohelprunthebiomedicalstudiesthatwillhelpdeterminewhetherhumansarecapableofmakingatwo-and-a-half-yearjourneytoMars.TIMEhascoveredtheirmarathonmissioninthemagazineandinayearlongvideoseriescalledAYearinSpace,thebasisforaone-hourTIMEandPBSdocumentaryin2016andaplannedsequelin2017.TIMEeditoratlargeJeffreyKlugerandTIMEVideosupervisingproducerJonathanWoods,workingwithdirectorShaulSchwarzandco-directorMarcoGrob,followedScott’spreparationforhistakeoffinMarch2015andhisexperiencesinorbit.Scott’sidenticaltwinbrotherMark,aretiredastronaut,servedasaperfectcontrolsubjectfortheyear-in-spacestudy—amanwithagenetictemplateidenticaltoScott’s,whospentayeargrowingolderonEarthwhilehisbrothergrewolderinspace.“ThetwinsstudywastooserendipitousanopportunityforNASAtopassup,”saysKluger.Itmakesforgoodstorytellingtoo.“We’vebeentrustedtohaveourcamerasinplacestheydon’tusuallygo,”saysWoods,“andwhatwedeliverbasedonthattrustisararefirstaccountofanunprecedentedmission.”Watchourvideoseriesattime.com/space.Forinformationonviewingthefull-lengthdocumentary,gotopbs.org/yearinspace

—NancyGibbs,EditorofTIME

CONTENTS

BlastingintotheFutureLiftoff!TheGreatTwinStudyBeginsAtHomeAbovetheWorldLandscapeModeGettingtheWorkDoneLabsandLeisureTimeTheSpaceShotWhySaladinSpaceMattersDockingManeuversSamanthaCristoforetti:ARecord-BreakingWomanWaterWorldShuttlingScienceTimeforaWalkFifteenYearsand...CitiesfromAboveEmergencySpaceWalkEarthLink:ScottKellyonSocialMediaTheSearchforLifeHomecoming

ABOUTTHEAUTHORJeffreyKlugeriseditoratlargeforTIMEmagazineandTime.comandanexecutiveproducerofthedocumentaryseriesAYearinSpace.Heistheauthorofninebooks,includingApollo13,onwhichthe1995moviewasbased,andtwonovelsforyoungadults.

ThispictureofanaurorawastweetedbyastronautScottKellyashepassedoverEarthinAugust2015.

PartsofthiseditionappearedpreviouslyinTIMEandonTime.com.

BLASTINGINTOTHEFUTURE

NASA’SGRANDPLANTOREACHMARSINVOLVESAREMARKABLEEXPERIMENT,TWINASTRONAUTSAND5,440

ORBITSAROUNDEARTH

Beforehislaunch,astronautScottKellysitsinsideaSoyuzsimulatorattheGagarinCosmonautTrainingCenterinMarch2015.

WHENSCOTTKELLYCALLEDHOMEfromtheInternationalSpaceStation(ISS)beforehisreentryonMarch2,heknewthatwhoeveransweredthephonemightsimplyhanguponhim.Thecallswerewelcome,butthelinkcouldbelousy,withlong,hissingsilencesbreakinguptheconversation.That’swhathappenswhenyou’replacingyourcallfrom250milesaboveEarthwhilezippingalongat17,150milesperhourandyoursignalhastogetbouncedfromsatellitestogroundantennastorelaystationslikeanaround-the-horntripleplay.“Whensomeoneanswers,Ihavetosay,‘It’sthespacestation!Don’thangup!’”saidKellybeforeheleftEarth.Thatwasn’tnecessarywhenhecalledhisbrotherMark.PerhapsbestknownasthehusbandofformercongresswomanGabrielleGiffords,whowasgrievouslywoundedinanassassinationattemptin2011,Markisaformerastronautwhohasbeentospacefourtimes.Heknowsthecrackleofanextraterrestrialsignalinhisear,justasheknowsthesingularfeelingofweightlessness,thesingularsweepofEarthoutsidethewindow—andthepowerof250milesofaltitudeto

makeapersonfeelalone.Drivethatintheflatandit’snothingmorethanSyracusetoBoston.Flyitstraightupandit’sawholeotherthing.Butmostofall,Mark,52,knowsScott,52—whichishowitiswithbrothers,especiallywhenthey’reidenticaltwins,bornfactory-loadedwiththeexactsamegeneticoperatingsystem.Thebrothers’connectionwasmoreimportantthaneverinMarch2015,whenScotttookoffforhisone-yearstayaboardthespacestation,settingasingle-missionrecordforaU.S.astronaut.ScottwaspartneredinhismarathonmissionwithRussiancosmonautMikhail(“Misha”)Kornienko.They,inturn,werejoinedbyarotatingcastof13othercrewmembers,allofwhomwereaboardforanywherefrom10daystosixmonths,conductingexperimentsandreconfiguringvariousstationmodulesforthearrivalofprivatelybuiltcrewvehicles,whichcouldcomeasearlyas2017.AyearinspacerequiredScotttoleavebehindalot:hisHoustonhome,hisdaughters—Samantha,21,andCharlotte,12—andhisgirlfriendofsixyears,AmikoKauderer,aNASApublic-affairsofficer.(Heandhisfirstwifearedivorced.)Butinsomeways,hedidn’tleaveMarkbehind.EversincetheApollodays,theU.S.hasvaguelydiscussedacrewedmissiontoMars,thoughthetargetdateforthegrandexpeditionhasalwaysremainedaconvenientdecadeortwoaway.ButonDec.5,2014,NASAtookabigsteptowardthatgoalwiththesuccessfuluncrewedtestflightoftheApollo-likeOrionspacecraft,America’sdeep-spaceshipofthefuture.AddtothatthecompetitionfromupstartslikeElonMusk’sSpaceXandnationslikeChinaandIndia,withtheirownsurgingspaceprograms,andthescrambleforcosmicsupremacyisacceleratingfast.Thebiggestproblemwithourexploratoryambitionsis,simply,us.Thehumanbodyisapurpose-builtmachine,designedfortheone-GenvironmentofEarth.Takeusintothezero-Gofspaceorthe0.38-GofMarsanditallcomesunsprung.Bonesgetbrittle,eyeballslosetheirshape,heartsbeatlessefficientlysincetheynolongerhavetopumpagainstgravity,andbalancegoesawry.Atleastthat’swhatweknowsofar.“There’squiteabitofdata[onhumanhealth]forsixmonthsinorbit,”saysformerspace-stationprogrammanagerMikeSuffredini.“Buthavewereachedstasisatsixmonths,ordothingschangeatoneyear?Isthereakneeinthecurvewehaven’treachedyet?”SoNASAneedssubjectstoventureoutandrunthelong-durationtests.Inaperfectexperiment,everyoneofthosesubjectswouldalsohaveacontrolsubjectontheground—someonewith,say,theexactsamegenesandaverysimilartemperament,soyoucouldteaseapartthechangesthatcomefrombeingaloftfor12monthsfromthosethatarearesultofgrowingthesameyearolderon

for12monthsfromthosethatarearesultofgrowingthesameyearolderonEarth.IntheKellybrothers,NASAhasthattwo-personsamplegroup.“Thetwinsstudydidn’tcomeupwhenwewereselectingcrewforthemission,”saysSuffredini.“Butitoccurredtouslaterthatwehadthisground-basedtruthinMark.”WhatNASAcallsa“ground-basedtruth,”ofcourse,Scottcallsabigbrother(bysixminutes).AndwhilethemissionthatconcludedonMarch2,2016,wasequalpartsscienceexperiment,endurancetestandhumandrama,itwastotheKellybrothers(andonlytheKellybrothers)justthelatestmileinajourneythey’vesharedforhalfacentury.

Mark(left)andScottKellytalktoreportersinJanuary2015aboutScott’sone-yearmission.

ROCKETMEN

It’samatterofhistoricalrecordthatScottandMarkKellynevergotaroundtobuildinganairplane.Theyneverbuiltarocketshipeither,butonbothcountstheycanbeforgiven.There’srarelymuchfollow-throughwhenyou’re5yearsoldandyouhatchyourplansatnight,inwhispers,afteryourparentshaveputyoutobed.ThebrothersdidtheirplanningaroundthetimeoftheApollo11moonlanding,whenspacetravelseemedsublimelycool.Theywerealikeintheirfascinationwithspace—andinotherways.Likemanytwins,theyspoketheirownprivate

languageintoddlerhood,gibberishthatwasunintelligibletoadultsbutseemedtomakeperfectsensetothem.Theydressedalikeuntilfirstgradetoo.“Thereisapictureofusinorangeshorts,orangestripedshirtsandbowties,”Marksayswithasmallwince.“Wedideverythingtogetheruntilcollegeandwerealwaysontheedgeofgettingintotrouble.”Bythelate1980s,bothbrotherswerecommissionedasnavalaviators,andtheywereassignedtoactivedutyaboardaircraftcarriers.Uponfinishingtheirfirstsquadronassignmentandtourofduty,bothbecameNavytestpilots.In1995theyappliedtoNASA,andby1996,theyweredressingidenticallyonceagain—andonceagaininorange—thistimeinthepressuresuitsofaspace-shuttleastronaut.From1999on,thebrothersservedacombinedeightmissions,thoughtheyneverwenttospacetogether.(NASAhadnopolicyagainstthat,butScottnixedtheideapreemptively:“Ithoughtitwouldreallysuckforourkidstoloseboththeirdadandtheiruncleinoneaccident.”)Andwhiletheyinsisttherehasneverbeenanycompetitionbetweenthem,theirinterplaysuggestsagentletweakingallthesame.“Scottflewfirst,”Marksays,“butIflewtwicebeforehegothissecondflight.ThenIflewmythirdbeforehedid.”

Mereweeksbeforeliftoff,MikhailKornienko(left),GennadyPadalka(center)andScottKellysitoutsideaSoyuzsimulatorinStarCity,Russia.

OverdrinksatBoondoggles,anastronauthauntinHouston,Scottdescribesa

OverdrinksatBoondoggles,anastronauthauntinHouston,Scottdescribesastubborneyetwitchheexperiencedduringreentryafterhispreviousmission,a159-daystayaboardthespacestationthatendedin2011.It’ssomethingotherlong-durationastronautshavecomplainedoftoo,butthereisnoexplanationforityet.“Whatdoyoumean,youreyestwitched?”Markasks.“Yoursdidn’t?”Scottresponds.“No.”“Yourflightsweren’tlongenough.”Byshuttlestandards,Mark’sflightswereactuallyprettytypicalintermsofduration.Hisfourtripsranabouttwoweekseach,givinghimatotalof54daysinspace.Scott’sfirsttwoflightsweresimilar,buthis159-daystayputhimatarunningtotalof180.Withthejust-completedmission,hevaultsto520.

ADAYINORBITAsmuchofanadventureasScott’smissionwas,neitherMarknoranyoneelseenviedhimeverypartofit.TheISSisspaciousenough:fromendtoend,itmeasures358feet,alittlelargerthanafootballfield.The14modulesthatmakeupthelivingandworkspacerepresentonlyasmallfractionofthatoverallsprawl,buttogethertheyprovideasmuchhabitablespaceastheinteriorofa747—or,astheastronautsprefertothinkofit,asmuchasasix-bedroomhouse.Still,stayinsideanyhouseforayear,evenoneinorbit,andyou’regoingtofallintoaroutine.Forallastronauts,adayaboardthestationbeginsandendsinaprivateenclosureaboutthesizeofaphonebooththatservesassleepchamberandpersonalspace,withenoughroomforacoupleoflaptopcomputers,afewbelongingsandasleepingbag.Reveille,intheformofanalarmfromawristwatchoraniPadineachastronaut’senclosure,comesatabout6:30a.m.GMT,butScottadmitsthatheoftenhitthesnoozebutton.“Iwouldn’twakeupatthetimeitsaysontheschedule,”hesays.“I’dgenerallyget30extraminutesofsleep.”Whenastronautsdocrawloutofthesack,thedaythatunfoldsusuallyfollowsa30/40/30workbreakdown—30%ofthetimedevotedtoscienceexperiments,40%tophysicalexerciseandmonitoringthestation’ssystems,and30%tofixinghardwarebreakdowns—whichisthewayofthingswhenyourhomerequires52computers,3.3millionlinesofcode,eightmilesofwiringand90kilowattsofpowercomingfromanacreofsolarpanelsjusttokeepoperating.Thedailyscheduledoesallowforsomedowntime.Moviesandbooksare

Thedailyscheduledoesallowforsomedowntime.Moviesandbooksarestockedinthestation,andNASAcansendupnearlyanyTVprogramtheastronautsrequest.Thecrewmembersarefreetoemailfamilymemberswhenevertheywant,callhomewhenthey’vegotagooddownlinkandsurftheInternet,thoughtheconnectioncanbesluggish.Duringtheyearinspaceflight,thetimefordistractionswasespeciallytight,thankstothebatteryof10medicalandpsychologicalteststhatwereontheagendaforbothScottandKornienkoinorbitaswellasMarkontheground.Flightsurgeonsran—andarecontinuingtorun—studiesofcardiovascularefficiency,bloodoxygenlevelsandbloodvolume.Bonedensityismonitored,asarecellularagingandfluidshiftsinthebody.Sonogramsaretakenoftheeyeandopticnervetodeterminehowthoseshiftsaffectvision.Thebody’smicrobiomecameinforscrutinytoo.Thebacteriathatmaketheirhomeinyourgutarecrucialtomaintainingbodilyfunction,buteveryone’sinternalecosystemisdifferent,dependingondietandenvironment.Thetwins’microbiomesareregularlycompared,viatheunlovelybusinessofanalyzingbodywaste.“Givingurineandstoolsamplesisanincrediblyexcitingthingtodo,”Marksaysdrily.Butintheserviceofhumanspaceflight—evenwhenthatserviceisperformedontheground—it’sworththesmallindignity.“ImisseverydayIspentinspace,”Markreadilyadmits.

YOURBRAINONSPACETRAVEL

Ifthebodycansufferfromlong-termspaceflight,themindishitevenharder,andthatcausesNASAparticularconcern.PsychologiststrackedKornienko’sandScott’scognitivefunction,moodandstresslevel,partlyviaregular—andprivate—interviews.Theywereespeciallyalertforwhatisknownasthethird-quartereffect,aslackingoffofpsychologicalperformancethathitsbetweenthehalfwayandthree-quarterpointsofanylongconfinementortourofduty.“Scotthasflownasix-monthmission,sowehavedataonhim,”saidNASApsychologistAlHollandbeforetheyearaloftbegan.“Butit’snotalinearthing.Runningafullmarathonisdifferentfromrunningtwohalf-marathons.”Here,thesciencemustyieldabittothewildcardofhumanemotion,andevenaveteranlikeScottmayhavehadtroublewrappinghismindaroundthescopeofthemissionhewasabouttoundertake.HisflightbeganonMarch28,2015,buthehadtoleavetheU.S.onFebruary16,sincehetookofffromtheRussians’

Baikonurlaunchcomplex.Beforeheleft,Kauderer,hisgirlfriend,musedthatsincehisbirthdayisFebruary21,he’dbe50whenheleftthecountryand52whenhecamehome.“Iwaslike,‘Thanksforpointingthatout,’”Scottsayswithalaugh.ItwaseasytomakejokesatTminusthreemonths.Thingsgotmoredifficultlastspring,whenthemission’s5,440orbitsgotunderway.Itwasthenthatthebrotherinspacewasespeciallyfortunatetohavethebrotherontheground.“Thisisadangerousjob,”saysMark.“Thepublicdoesn’tunderstandhowdangerous.ButScottcantalktosomeonewho’sdonethisbefore.”DuringScott’spreviousmission,itwasMarkwhohadtoleanonhim—inJanuary2011,whenGiffordswasshot.NASAgotthenewsuptoScott,anditwasonlylaterthatthebrotherscouldtalk.ForMark,itwasn’tquitethesame.“Theonepersonwhocouldhavegivenmethemostsupport,”hesays,“wasofftheplanet.”DuringScott’syearinspace,thesupportcamefromthegroundup.MarkhasalreadyretiredfromNASAbuthasnotgivenupthoughtsofreturningtospaceoneday.Scotthasnotdecidedwhetherhe’llretirenowthathe’sbackonEarth.Eitherway,it’sunlikelythattheKellybrothers,whooncedreamedofbuildingarocketshipsidebyside,willeverflyinonetogether.Butifhumanityhopestobeatthebiologicallimitsthatconfineustoonesmallplanetinatracklessuniverse,itwilldependonthekindofsciencebothbrothersaremakingpossible.OnlyoneKellynamewasontheyear-in-spacemissionpatch,buttothosewhoappreciatethebrothers’bond,itstoodforboth.

AttheSonnyCarterTrainingFacilityinHoustoninFebruary2015,ScottKellyworksintheNeutralBuoyancyLaboratory.Neutral-buoyancytrainingsimulatestheweightlessnessexperiencedbyastronautsin

spaceflight.

WatchourvideoseriesAYearinSpaceattime.com/space.Forinformationonviewingthefull-lengthdocumentary,gotopbs.org/yearinspace

HOWZERO-GAFFECTSTHEHUMANBODYAlookatsomeoftherisksScottKellyandhisfellowcrewmembersfacedontheiryearlongmission—andpossiblewaystocontainor

reversethedamage

EYES

Visioncanbedamagedasfluidsthatarenormallyrestrainedbygravitymigratetothehead,compressingtheopticnerveanddistortingtheshapeoftheeyeball.Lower-bodynegative-pressuregarments—thinkballoonpants—canhelp.

IMMUNESYSTEM

Thecontrolledenvironmentofthespacestationcancausetheimmunesystemtoslackoff.BothKellybrothersaregettingfluvaccinestodeterminewhethertheirreactionsdiffer.

DIGESTIONMicroorganismspopulatingthegutareessentialfordigestionandotherfunctions.Dietandradiationdamagethismicrobiome.Fruitsandvegetablesshippedtospaceoncargorunsmayhelprestorebalance.

MUSCLES

Musclesneedthepullofgravitytostaystrongandtoned.Runningonatreadmill—withbungeecordsholdingastronautsinplaceandsimulatinggravity—givesthelegsaworkout.Pullingagainstresistancecanhelpexercisethearms.

MIND

Ayearofcosmicconfinementishard,especiallymonthssixthroughnine,researcherssay,whenfatiguesetsinbuttheendisnotyetinsight.Distractionslikevideochatsandemailwithfamilycanimproveastronauts’moodsandperformance.

BLOOD

OnEarth,thebloodmustflowuphillagainstgravity.Inzero-G,thehearttakesawhiletoadjusttothelowerresistance.Bloodpressuredoeseventuallyreturntoahealthybaseline;exercisecanhurrythatprocessalong.

BONESBonesthatdon’tcarryweightdecalcifyovertime,somuchsothatnewlyarrivingRussiancosmonautshavebeendiscouragedfromhuggingthosewhohavebeenaloftalongtime,lesttheybreakarib.Exercisehelps.

AGING

Capsontheendsofchromosomescalledtelomeresshortenthroughoutlife,contributingtoaging.Inspace,thetelomerefuseburnsfaster.Scientistssuspectnumerouscauses,includingradiationandoxidativestress.

LIFTOFF!ONANEMOTIONALDAY,THECREWSAYSGOODBYEAND

LEAVESTHEEARTHBEHIND.NEXTSTOP:THEINTERNATIONALSPACESTATION

At1:42a.m.onMarch28,2015,ScottKelly,MikhailKornienkoandGennadyPadalkaroaredoffthelaunchpadinBaikonur,Kazakhstan.Just11minuteslater,theywereinorbit.

YOU’DTHINKYOU’DHAVETROUBLEdecidinghowtospendyourlastdayonEarthifyouwereabouttoleaveitforayear.Butthefactis,you’dhavenothingtodecideatall.Everybitofitwouldbeplannedforyou—literallysecondbysecond—asitwasforGennadyPadalka,MikhailKornienkoandScottKellyinadvanceoftheirliftoffat1:42:57a.m.localtimeinBaikonur,Kazakhstan,wheretheRussianlaunchfacilitiesarelocated.Thethreemenwereinstructedtonapuntilninehoursbeforelaunch,orprecisely4:42:57p.m.Theylefttheirquartersexactlyonehourlater,at5:52:57p.m.,settledintothespacecenterreadyroomsandbegantheirpreflightpreparationsat6:52:57.Andonthedayticked.Forthefamilies,allthosehourswereamuchmoreamblingbusiness—timetheyhadtocontrivetofillontheirown.AsKellywasgettinghisfinalhoursofmandatedterrestrialsleep,hisdaughters,SamanthaandCharlotte,20and11atthetime;hispartner,AmikoKauderer;andhisbrother,Mark,visitedBaikonur’soutdoormarketinahuntforspicesKaudererandthegirlswantedtotakehome.Mark,whoarrivedinBaikonurstillwearinghischaracteristicmustache—theonlythingthatallowsmostpeopletodistinguishhimfromScott—hadshaveditoffthismorning.“DoIlooklikemybrothernow?”heasked,andthenadded

offthismorning.“DoIlooklikemybrothernow?”heasked,andthenaddedmischievously,“MaybeIam.”Kauderer,whoworksasaNASApublic-affairsofficerandhaswitnessedhershareoflaunchesaswellashershareofspousessteelingthemselvesfortheexperience,carriedherselfwiththesameapparentcalm.Sodidthegirls,whohaveseentheirfatherflyofftospaceseveraltimesbefore.AsforwhatScotthimselfwasfeeling,Markwassureitwasnothingterriblyspecial.“He’sbeenthroughthisfourtimesalready,”hesaid.“Actually,whenyoucountthetimesyoudon’tlaunch,it’ssixorseven.”

Inaceremonydaysbeforelaunch,officialsfromRoscosmos,Russia’sspaceagency,handofftheSoyuzspacecrafttotheprimecrewandthebackupcrewoftheone-yearmission.

Onlaunchday,theroutinepressedonregardlessofwhatScottmightormightnothavebeenfeeling.At7:52p.m.,thecrew,cladinbluejumpsuits,leftthereadyroomsforthe100-yardwalktothebusesthatwouldtakethemtothesuit-upbuilding.ArousingRussiansongplayedoverloudspeakers,whilecrowdswerekeptbehindropelines,bothtopreventacrushandtoprotecttheastronautswhowerestillundermedicalquarantine.Oncetheyweresealedinsidetheirbus,however,thelinescollapsedandthecrowdsurgedforward.Achildwasliftedtotouchthewindow.Padalkapressedbothofhishandsontheglasswhileawomanreachedupandpressedhersoppositethem.InRussia,cosmonautsareeverybittheculturalphenomenontheywerehalfacenturyago.

Kornienko,KellyandPadalkapreparetostepontothegantryelevatorthatwillcarrythemuptotheirSoyuzrocket.

Nooneoutsideofflighttechnicianssawthecrewagainfortwohours,untiltheyhadbeensuitedupandthefamilieswerebroughtinforafinalgoodbye—thecrewononesideofaglasspartitionandthelovedonesontheother,communicatingviamicrophones.“Poka,poka”—Russianfor“bye-bye”—Padalka’sdaughterscalledtohim.Mark,whomadetwovisitstothespacestationonhisshuttleflights,waslesssentimental.“IleftsomeoldT-shirtsupinthegym,”hesaidtohisbrother.“Wanttobringthemdownforme?”“Youlookgoodwithoutthatmustache,”Scottanswered.“Yeah,I’llprobablygrowitbackontheflighthome.Imissitalready.”Scott’sexchangeswithAmiko,CharlotteandSamanthawerelessplayful,andafterward,whenRoscosmosofficialsdeclaredthefiveminutesallottedforthevisitover,Amikogatheredthegirlsinahug.“Wehavetoholdittogether,”shesays.“That’sourjob.”Finally,family,mediaandspaceofficialsleftthesuit-upbuildingandwalkedtotheparkinglotjustoutside.Thecrewemergedafewminuteslatertoafusilladeofcameraflashesandwalkedtothreedesignatedspotspaintedontheasphalt.American,RussianandKazakhflagsflutteredbehindthemand

Roscosmosofficialsstoodbeforethem,biddingthemafinalgoodbye.Padalka,thecommander,stoodinthemiddleduringtheceremony,andheoccupiedthemiddleseatinthespacecraftaswell.ASoyuzveteran,Padalkahasjokedthathecouldflythecraftwithnothingbutapairofcabbagesintheseatsoneithersideofhim.Maybe.Butifhemeantthatinthemonthshewastrainingforthisflight,therewasnosignofitonthenightheleft.Thecrew,whowoulddependononeanotherfortheirlives,boardedtheirbus,drovetothepadandclimbedintotheirspacecraft.Twoandahalfhourslater,atthedesignatedsecond,theirSoyuzrocket’s20engineslit,andtheyleftKazakhstan—andtheplanet—behind.

THEGREATTWINSTUDYBEGINS

WHATHAPPENSTOTHEBODYINSPACE?BROTHERSMARKANDSCOTTKELLYGOUNDERTHEMICROSCOPETOHELP

FINDANSWERS

ScottandMarkKellyaretheonlypairofsiblingswhohavebothtraveledintospace.MarkretiredfromtheNavyandNASAinOctober2011.

TheKellybrothers,seenhereatage5,werebornandgrewupin,yes,Orange,N.J.

WHENSERENDIPITYHANDSSCIENTISTStheperfectexperiment,theydon’thesitatetojumponit.That’ssurelythecasewithNASA’simprobablestudyofScottandMarkKelly.Zerogravitymesseswiththehumanbodyinallmannerofways,butit’snotalwayseasytodeterminewhichproblemsareactuallycausedbytheweightlessnessandwhichoneswouldhavehappenedanyway.Thepuzzlegetsaloteasierifyoujusthappentohaveasecondsubjectwithexactlythesamegenes,thesamelifestyleandthesameleveloffitness.Observeanydifferencesintheirhealthovertheyear,subtractthematchinggenetics,andwhat’sleftoverontheothersideoftheequalsignislikelytheworkofweightlessness.MuchoftheresearchthatwasconductedwhileScottwasaloftinvolvedcollectingdataonbothtwins;analyzingthatdataandfollowingupontheirhealthwilltakeatleastayearmore.Oneofthemostimportantstudiesinvolveswhatareknownastelomeres,thecuffsthatprotectthetipsofchromosomesinmuchthewaythatplasticagletsprotectthetipsofshoelaces.Thelongerwelive,theshorterourtelomeresget,andtheunravelingofthechromosomesthatresultsdrivestheinfirmitiesthatcomewithage.

comewithage.“OneofthethingsthatcomesupalmostallthetimeintheinterviewswithMarkandScottisthisideaofthetwinparadox,”saysSusanBaileyofColoradoStateUniversity,whoiscoordinatingthetelomereresearch.“IsthespacetwingoingtocomebackyoungerthantheEarthtwin?”ThatkindoftimedilationhappensinmovieslikeInterstellar,butonlywhensomeoneismovingatclosetolightspeed.TheyearScottspentorbitingEarthat17,150milesperhourmayindeedhaveslowedhisbodyclock,butbybarelyafewmilliseconds.Histelomeres,however,morethanmadeupforthat,andhelikelycamehomephysicallyolderthanMark.“Awholevarietyoflifestresseshavebeenassociatedwithacceleratedtelomerelossasweage,”saysBailey.“Youcanimaginestrappingyourselftoarocketandlivinginspaceforayearisaverystressfulevent.”ChromosomalsamplesfrombothKellytwinsweretakenandbankedbeforeScottlefttoprovideatelomerebaseline,andmoresampleswerecollectedovertheyear.Mark’swereeasyenoughtogetholdof,butScotthadtodrawhisownbloodinspace,spinitdownandfreezeit,thensendithomeaboardreturningshipscarryingcargoorastronauts.BothtwinswillbefollowedfortwoyearsafterScott’sreturntodeterminewhetheranyspace-relatedtelomerelossslowsandwhetherthebrothersmoveclosertosynchronyagain.Thetwins’bloodsampleswillalsobeusedtolookforthestateoftheirepigenomes,thechemicalon-offswitchesthatsitatopgenomesandregulatewhichgenesareexpressedandwhicharesilenced.Environmentisahugedriverinepigeneticchanges,especiallyinspace,ascellsadjusttotheunfamiliarstateofweightlessness.“Wecankindofbuildthesemolecularmapsofwhat’shappeninginthedifferentcells...asthey’rechallengedbythislow-gravitycondition,”saysgeneticistChrisMasonofWeillCornellMedicalCollegeinNewYork,whoisleadingthispartofthework.

TheKellybrothersmatchagain,thistimeafterabaseballgamein1971.

AlsodueforagoodcloselookareScott’sandMark’smicrobiomes.Thenumberofcellsthatmakeupyourbodyareoutnumberedbythebacteria,viruses,yeastsandmoldsthatliveinsideyouandonyourskin.It’sonlythefactthatmostofthemaremuchsmallerthanhumancellsthatpreventsthemfromoutweighingyou.Still,ifyoucouldextractthemallandholdtheminyourhand,they’dmakeabolusofalienorganismsweighinguptofivepounds.Thisisactuallyagoodthing,sinceweneedthismicroscopicecosystemtokeepourbodies—especiallyourdigestivetract—runningsmoothly.LikesomuchelseforScott,thatchangedinspace.“Asignificantpartofwhat’spresentnormallyinthegastrointestinaltractdoesn’tactuallycolonize,”saysresearchprofessorMarthaVitaternaofNorthwesternUniversity,theco-investigatoronthemicrobiomework.“Thesearethingsthatareconstantlybeingreintroducedwithfreshfruitsandvegetables,andthat’smissingfromScott’sdiet.”

ScottandMarkKelly,bornonFeb.21,1964,haveeachcompletedfourspacemissions.

AttheJohnsonSpaceCenteronAugust10,flightcontrollersatISSMissionControlkeepaneyeonaspacewalk(left)andthecrewasitsamplessaladgrowninspace(right).

Genescanalsomakeadifferencetothemicrobiome,sinceanyindividual’sgeneticmakeupmaydeterminewhichmicroorganismsthriveinthegutandwhichdon’t.Scott’sandMark’smicrobiomeswerecomparedthroughoutthe

year,principallythroughstoolsamples—whichensuredsomeunglamorousifscientificallyessentialshipmentscomingdownfromspace.Otherstudiesinvolvedthewaybodyfluidsshiftedinzero-Gandtheissuesitcaused,frompressureontheeyeballstodamagetothecardiovascularsystem.Someofthesechangesarebeingtrackedbybloodstudies,whichlookforproteinsthatregulatewaterexcretion.Ultrasoundscanscanalsolookforvasculardamage.BeforeleavingEarth,Scotthadafewsmalldotstattooedonhisupperbodytoindicatetheexactpointsatwhichhehadtopositiontheultrasoundprobe—easierthantakingprecisemeasurementstofindtheproperspotseverytimehewasdueforascan.Multipleotherstudiesarebeingconductedonthetwinsaswell,lookingattheirimmunesystems,sleepcycles,psychologicalstatesandmore.Foryears,spaceplannershavebeentalkingagoodgameaboutgoingtoMarsoneday.Weknowthehardwarecansurvivethejourney;whatwedon’tknowisifthehumancargocan.Beforelong—thankstotheKellys—we’llbealotsmarter.

ATHOMEABOVETHEWORLD

SCOTTKELLYANDMIKHAILKORNIENKOSETTLEINTOAROUTINEOFMAINTENANCE,LABWORKANDMOVIENIGHTS

AviewoftheISS’ssolararrayfrominsidethestation

AYEARINSPACEISMARKEDINPARTbytheholidaysthatpasswhileyou’reaway.Christmas?Sorry,outoftown.Easter?Ditto.Thanksgiving,NewYear’sEve,Halloween?Catchyounextyear.It’sfitting,then,thatthefirstholidayastronautScottKellyspentinthefirstmonthofhisstayaboardtheInternationalSpaceStationwasCosmonauticsDay.Neverheardofit?YouwouldhaveifyouwereRussian.CosmonauticsDaycelebratesApril12,1961,whenYuriGagarinliftedofffromthesamelaunchpadfromwhichKelly’smissionbegan,becomingthefirsthumanbeinginspace.Kellyandhisfivecrewmatesgotthemorningoffonthatspecialday,takingtheopportunitytoenjoytherelativecomfortsofaspacecraftwithmorehabitablespacethanasix-bedroomhome.Butintheafternoonitwasbacktowork—followingamoment-by-momentschedulethatwasscriptedontheground,thatwasadheredtoinspaceandthat,whileoftengrueling,isthebestwayforastronautsandcosmonautswhohavesignedonforalonghitchtofocusontheirworkandkeepthetimefromcrawling.Kelly’sfirstmonthwas,insomeways,typicalofthe11thatfollowed.TherewasthearrivalofaSpaceXcargoship,avesselcarrying4,300poundsof

equipmentandsupplies,includingasubzerofreezerthatcanpreserveexperimentsat–112°F,thatneededtobeunloaded;newgeartoaidstudiesoftheeffectsofmicrogravityonmice;andasampleofso-calledsyntheticmuscle,astrongbutpliantmaterialmodeledafterhumanmuscle,tobeusedforroboticlimbsandjoints.Alsotuckedintotheloadwasalesspracticalbutinfinitelymoreanticipateditem:azero-gravityespressomachine,dubbedtheISSpresso.Thereare250experimentsthatmustbetendedtoatanyonetimeaboardtheISS,butthemostimportantoftheminthepastyearwereKellyandcosmonautMikhailKornienkothemselves.Intheirfirstmonthinspace,thetwolong-termerssubmittedtoawholerangeofpreliminaryexperimentsthattrackedtheirhealththroughouttheirstay.Spacephysiciansalreadyknowthebasicanswer;it’snotagoodone.ButthehopeisthatKellyandKornienkowillhelpprovidewaystomitigatedamage.Biomedicalstudiesinthefirstmonthincludedseeinghowtheupwardshiftoffluidsinthebodyaffectedtheeyes;samplingsalivaandsweattotestforbacteriallevelsandchemicalbalance;legscanstodeterminebloodflow;studiesofbloodpressure,whichcanfluctuatewildlywhentheheartnolongerhastopumpagainstgravity;analysesofthroatandskinsamples;andbone-densitytests.The11monthsthatfollowedwerenotallaGroundhogDayrepetitionofthefirst.Kellywasscheduledfortwospacewalks,thefirstofhisfour-missioncareer,toconductbasicmaintenanceworkandhelpoverseeacomplexreconfigurationofthestation,withmodulesanddockingportsrepositionedtoaccommodatecommercialcrewvehiclesbuiltbyBoeingandSpaceX,whicharesupposedtobeginarrivingin2017.Hespentlonghourspreparingforthewalks,traininginNASA’sNeutralBuoyancyLab,a6.2-million-gallonpoolinHoustonwithafull-sizemock-upofthestationrestingonitsbottom.Weightsinthebuoyantspacesuitensurethatanastronautneitherfloatsupnorsinks,mirroringthedrifting-in-placeexperienceofwalkinginspace.Butwork—eventhrillingworklikeaspacewalk—couldnotbealltherewastosustainanastronautspendingayearaloft,andsoKellyalsohadfreetimeandleisureactivitiestolookforwardto:movienights,Websurfing,andregularvideochats,phonecallsandemailswithfamily.Theperiodicarrivalsofcargoshipsprovidedsuchluxuriesasfreshfruitsandvegetables—whichdon’tlastlonginspace,buttheydon’thaveto,becausesix-personcrewsmissingthecomfortsofhomescarfthemdownquickly.TheclubhouseturnofKellyandKornienko’sone-yearmissionoccurredinDecember2015,the50thanniversaryofwhatwasonceAmerica’slongeststay

December2015,the50thanniversaryofwhatwasonceAmerica’slongeststayinspace:thetwo-weekflightofGemini7,whichastronautsFrankBormanandJimLovellpassedintheequivalentoftwocoachairlineseats,withtheceilingjustthreeinchesovertheirheads.TheISSisamanorhousecomparedwiththeGemini.Buttheastronautsarestillastronauts,humanbeingsinaverystrangeplaceexperiencingverystrangethings—insomecasesforaverylongtime.

Thegalley(above)includesanangledsurfacewherefoodpacketscanbeattachedwithVelcro.Kelly’ssleepingquarters(belowandbottom)affordhimameasureofprivacy.Thegreensleepingbagcanhang

uprightbecausethereareno“up”and“down”inspace.

LANDSCAPEMODE

DURINGHISYEARINSPACE,SCOTTKELLYKEPTANEXTRAORDINARYVISUALDIARY,USINGHISCAMERASTOCAPTURETHEWORLDINSIDEANDOUTSIDETHEISS.HISIMAGES,POSTEDONSOCIALMEDIA,REVEALEDTHEGLOBE’SGEOGRAPHYINJOYOUS,GHOSTLYAND

UNEXPECTEDWAYS

Tajikistan,borderingChinaandAfghanistan,isfamousforitsstunningmountainranges.ScottKellypostedthisphotoinApril2015.

KellysharedtheseimagesofcloudsonEarthfromhisperspectiveinAugust2015.

KellytookthisphotowhileflyingoverMadagascarinApril2015.

GETTINGTHEWORKDONE

THEASTRONAUTSTACKLEMUST-DOTASKSWHILEMOVING17,150MILESPERHOUR,250MILESHIGHINTHESKY

ScottKellyandTerryVirtsconducteyeexamsinsidetheDestinyLaboratory.Astronautssuffernumerousvisionproblemsinzerogravity,sotestingbecomescrucialinpreparingforlongerspacetravel.

HOWDIDYOURPRE-TREATEDURINEtransferrateworkoutthisweek?I’msorry?Youhadnopre-treatedurinetransferratetoworryabout?Oh,thenyoumustnotbeaboardtheInternationalSpaceStation.ItwasabusyfirstthreemonthsinspaceforScottKellyandMishaKornienko,aswellasfortherestofthecrewaboardtheISS,whichprettymuchdescribesalloftheirdays.Ifthere’sonepointastronautsmentionabouttheirtimealoft,it’sthechallengeoftheschedule:thelong,every-minute-accounted-forchecklistoftasksthathavetobecompletedeverysingleday.Someofthemaretheglamourstuffofspacetravel—spacewalks,formationflyingwitharrivingvehicles,TVbroadcaststothefolksbackhome.Someareagooddealmoremundane,suchastroubleshootingthestubbornlylowflowrateinasystemthatissupposedtofilterandrecycleurineintoordinarydrinkingwater.Missionplannersarenotshyaboutrevealingjusthowhardtheymaketheastronautswork,asaglimpseatNASA’sISSblogreveals.OnMay22,forexample,thecrewwokeuptoalistof65must-doitems;threedayslateritwas67;thefollowingdaywasalightdayincomparison,withascant55.Alotof

whatwasdoneonthosedayswasverybigstuff.OnMay26,KellyandcrewmateTerryVirtsoversawthetransferofthePermanentMultipurposeModule(PMM)fromoneberthingsiteonthestationtoanother,whichisbothmuchmoreimportantandmoredifficultthanitsounds.Foronething,themoduleweighs11tons.Andlikemoststationmodules,it’sroughlythesizeofaschoolbus.Relocatingitmeantthreecontrolcentershadtoworkintandem:MissionControlinHouston;theMobileServicingSystemsOperationsCenterinQuebec,whichoverseestheworkofthestation’sroboticarm;andthestationitself,withKellyandVirtsincharge.ThegoalwastodecouplethePMMfromtheUnitymoduleandmoveittothenearbyTranquilitymodule—byremotecontrol,whilemoving17,150milesperhour,atanaltitudeof250miles.Butitwasworththeeffort.By2017,twonewcommercialcrewvehiclesbuiltbyBoeingandSpaceXwillbeginflyingtothestation,freeingtheU.S.fromitsrelianceonRussia’sSoyuz.Thatcalledforreconfiguringthestationtoopenupthebestdockingportstoreceivecrew—andthatmeantthePMMhadtofindsomewhereelsetolive.AlotoftheotherworkcontinuedtheextensivebiomedicaltestsonKelly,Kornienkoandtheotherastronautstostudythehumanbody’sfitnessforlong-termspaceflight.Forexample,KellyandKornienkowentthroughtheirpaceswithfine-motor-skilltests,tappingattouchscreenstomeasurereactiontimeanddexterity;theresultswillreflecthowthosefunctionschangedoverthecourseoftheirstay.KellyandcosmonautGennadyPadalkaworkedwithultrasoundequipmenttohelpstudyhowfluidshiftingfromthelowerbodytotheheadaffectstheshapeoftheeyeballandtheconditionoftheopticnerve.Inaddition,KellyunderwentsimilartestingwhilewearingaCHIBISlower-bodynegative-pressuresuit,whichpullsfluidbackdownfromtheheadandreducesthepressurethatcausesthedamage.Yes,amorecolloquialdescriptionofaCHIBISlower-bodynegative-pressuresuitis“rubbervacuumpants”—butifyourvisiondependedonthem,you’dbehappytoputthemontoo.Otherworkonthestationinvolvedechocardiograms,withcrewmembersservingsometimesascrewmedicalofficers(CMOs)andsometimesaspatients,astheyperformedscansononeanother;experimentsonconvection,fluidphysicsandtheeffectsofthespaceenvironmentonvariousmaterialssubjectedtolong-termexposureoutsidethestation;andmaintenanceworkonextravehicularactivity(EVA)suitsinpreparationforfuturespacewalks.Noneoftheworkwaseasy,someofitwasmonotonous,andallofitjustkept

Noneoftheworkwaseasy,someofitwasmonotonous,andallofitjustkeptcoming.Beforeleavingforspace,KellyreflectedontheprevioustimehewasaboardtheISS,whichwasacomparativelybriefsixmonths.Thebiggestadjustment,hesaid,wasrealizingthathecouldreturnhome,sitonthecouchanddonothingatallifhechose.Now,afterafullyearinspace,that’sprobablyanadjustmenthedoesn’tmindabit.

Whatlookslikeasurgicaltraywithimplementsisactuallyakitchencounterwheremealsarepreparedfrompackagedfoods.Thetableisinclinedata45-degreeangletosavespace.

KellyworkswithsomeofthemanycamerasandlensesaboardtheISS.

KellyandTerryVirtsworkonaCarbonDioxideRemovalAssemblytokeepthecabinairsafeforthecrew.

SIPPINGCOFFEEINSPACECOULDHELPSAVELIVESONEARTH

Theso-calledspacecupscanrevealmuchaboutfluidphysics

TheISSpresso,allowsthecrewtobrewcoffee,teaandotherhotbeverages.ItalianastronautSamanthaCristoforetti(below)sampledabatchofjavaandtweetedherverdict:“Nottoobad.”

ASTRONAUTSABOARDTHEInternationalSpaceStationcannowenjoyamuch-neededcupofjoewiththeirownespressomachineandasetofsixmicrogravitycoffeecups—whicharereallymorelikejugs,butnevermind.Whateveryoucallthem,thecontainersdomorethanjustofferastronautsalittleearthlyluxury;theymayalsoprovidescientistswithdataonhowcomplexfluids

earthlyluxury;theymayalsoprovidescientistswithdataonhowcomplexfluidsmoveinzerogravity.Beforetheinventionofthespacecup,astronautshadtodrinkbysuckingliquidoutofabag,atechniquethat’sbeenusedsincetheearliestdaysofthespaceage.Thenewcupshaveasharpinnercornerthatallowstheliquidtobepushedalongtheinsideoftheinteriorwall—aprocesscalledcapillaryaction—towardthedrinker’slips.Byexperimentingwithcapillaryphysicsinsmallcontainerslikethese,scientistsbelievetheycanbuildbetteradvancedfluidsystemsforuseinspace.Thiscouldimprovedeliveryofcoolantsandfuelandimprovethefunctionofairconditioners,toiletsandrecyclingsystems.Thesamedata—andsimilarphysics—couldalsobeputtoworkonEarthindeviceslikeportablediagnosticdevicesusedtotestbloodforinfectiousdiseasesinremoteareasoftheworld.ItmaybeonlyNASAthatwouldrequiretwoinvestigators,onedeveloperandaprojectnametoinventacoffeecup,butitalsomaybeonlyNASAthatcouldfindsovaluableanearthlyuseforit.

ScottKellypostedthisimageofadropletoforbitalespressosittingattheendofadrinkingstraw.

LABSANDLEISURETIME

THECREWSTUDIESSKINANDCELEBRATESSTARWARSDAY

ScottKellypreparedanegg,sausageandtortillatacotocelebrateCincodeMayowhilewatchingtheHoustonnews.

THINKYOU’RECOOLBECAUSEYOUhostedaStarWars–watchingpartyonMay4,adaterecognizedasStarWarsDay?(Maythefourthbewithyouandallthat.)Well,you’renotascoolasyouthink.WatchingStarWarswhenyou’re250milesaboveEarth,orbitingtheplanetaboardtheInternationalSpaceStation—nowthat’scool.That’showScottKellyandMikhailKornienko,alongwiththeothermembersoftheISScrew,spentafewhoursofdowntimethatday.Theyearinspacewasnotwithoutearthlygracenotes.Thereweretacos—ortheclosestapproximationofthemwhenyou’reusingrehydratedfood—thenextday,inhonorofCincodeMayo.Andtherewasespresso,thankstothenewlydeliveredmachine,dubbedtheISSpresso,whichItalianastronautSamanthaCristoforettisetup.“Coffee:thefinestorganicsuspensioneverdevised,”shetweeted.“FreshespressointhenewZero-Gcup!Toboldlybrew...”Buttherewasmorethangoodfoodandgoodfilmshappeningonthestation.Takethemousestudies,whichareroutinelyconductedinorbitbuttookonspecialimportanceinthecontextofthebiomedicalresearchattheheartofKelly’sandKornienko’smarathonstay.Zero-Gcanbeashardformicetomanageasitisforhumanbeings,andtheyspendalotoftimeintheirenclosuresjusttryingtogetoriented.Conductingexperimentsonthemishardtoo,since

justtryingtogetoriented.Conductingexperimentsonthemishardtoo,sinceyoudon’twanttoopenahabitatjustanywhereandhaveanescapeedriftfreeandgetlost.Somouseenclosuresmustbeanchoredonanexperimentalrack;lights,fansandpowerconnectorshavetobeengaged;foodbarsmustbeprovided.Theresearchfocusesontheanimals’skeletal,muscular,immuneandcardiovascularsystems.Butunlikehumansubjects,micecanbe,well,sacrificedanddissectedtoprovidemoredetailedlooksatwhat’sgoingon.CristoforettispenttimeworkingonthestraightforwardlyifunartfullynamedSkin-Bstudy,whichinvolvesanalyzingcellsandtissuesamplestodeterminewhyhumanskinagessomuchfasterinzero-GthanitdoesonEarth.Thatshouldnothappen,sincemuchofwhatcausestheordinarystretchingandbreakdownofskinisgravity,whichisnotafactorinspace.Butwhatshouldhappenandwhatdoeshappenareoftentwodifferentthingsinscience,andCristoforettiwasputtoworklearningwhy.

Kelly,aStarWarsfan,workedwithexperimentalsphericalsatellitesina2010expedition.HeretweetedthephotoinDecember2015withthecaption“Waitthesearethedroidswe’relookingfor.”

Skinisthebody’slargestorgan,anditpaystoknowwhyitsufferssomuchinzero-G.Bothinspaceandontheground,what’slearnedfromSkin-Bcouldalsoprovideinsightintothefunctioning—andmalfunctioning—ofotherorgans,especiallytheoneslinedwithepithelialcells,thetypeofcellsthatmakeuptheskin.InMay2015,AmericanastronautTerryVirts,thecommanderoftheISS,busiedhimselfintheJapan-builtKibomodule,gettingreadyforthenextroundofRobotRefuelingMission-2(RRM-2)exercises.RRM-2exploreswaystorepair,upgradeandrefuelsatellitesinorbit,usingrobotsinsteadofastronautsto

repair,upgradeandrefuelsatellitesinorbit,usingrobotsinsteadofastronautstodothedangerouswork.Satelliteservicingwasoneofthebigsellingpointsofthespaceshuttle,andwhiletheon-callrepair-visitroutineneverbecameroutine,someofthemostimpressiveoftheshuttles’missionswerethemaintenancetripsastronautsmadetotheHubbleSpaceTelescope.Leastimportanttothestation’sscienceobjectives,perhaps,butmostimportanttoitscrewwerepreparationsKellyandVirtsmadetoreplacethefiltersthatscrubcarbondioxidefromtheISSatmosphere.RememberthesceneinthefilmApollo13inwhichtheastronautshadtofigureouthowtomakeareplacementfilterfromcardboard,plasticbagsandducttapeortheywouldsuffocateontheirownexhalations?Thestationcrewdoesn’twanttohavetodothat—soKellyandVirtshadtogetthingsright.That’stherubaboutanygivenweekontheISS:maintenancejobscanberoutine—butonlyuntilthey’recritical.Thesciencecanseemarcane—butonlyuntilitrevolutionizesourknowledgeofhumanbiology.KellyandKornienkohadlessthanayear’sworthoftimetodotheirotherworldlywork,andtheothercrewmembershaveuptosixmonthseach.Therestofushaveforevertousetheknowledgetheybringhome.

TerryVirtsandKellyareseenhardatworkduringacargotransfer.

THESPACESHOTHOWAVACCINEEXPERIMENTABOARDTHEISSMAYHELPUS

BACKONEARTH

ScottKellyself-administersafluvaccinetohelpstudyhowtheimmunesystembehavesinzero-G.Hewillgetanothernowthathe’shome.

YOU’DTHINKITWOULDBEHARDTOgetsickinspace.Thereisnopartofyourbodythemedicswouldn’thaveturnedinsideoutlookingforproblems;you’dhavebeenplacedinmedicalquarantinefordaysbeforelaunch;andonceyoudidtakeoff,well,goodbyeEarth,withallitscoldsandflusandwalkingpneumonias.Thebugsaredownthereandyou’reuphere.Butthat’snotthewaythingswork.Bacteriaandvirusesadoretheenvironmentofaspacecraft:it’swarm,it’ssealed,it’sclimate-controlled,andtheaircirculatesandcirculates.Bestofall,it’sfullofpeoplewhohavenowheretogoandnowaytoavoidsharingstraygerms.That’sespeciallytrueaboardtheISS,wherecrewsrotateinandoutandcanstayformanymonthsatatime,andwhereresidents’immunesystems—flummoxedbylong-termexposuretozero-G—areunabletofunctionastheyshould.ButNASAistakinganimportantsteptowardsolvingtheseproblems,withtheimaginativestudyofScottKellyandhistwinbrotherMark.Thecutting-edge,space-agetoolthatwillbecentraltothework?Theordinaryfluvaccine.TheKellybrothers’immunesystemshadalreadybeenstudiedintherun-uptoScott’slaunchinMarch2015,andbothmenwerecertifiedfit.Buttheyshouldhaveslowlydivergedoverthecourseoftheyear.Inspace,someoftheimmune

haveslowlydivergedoverthecourseoftheyear.Inspace,someoftheimmunesystem’sbillionsofcellsbegintochangeinshapeandfunction,especiallythecriticalT-cells—andnoneofitisforthebetter.“ThereissuppressionofT-cellactivationpathways,”saysEmmanuelMignot,animmune-systemspecialistandoneoftheyear-in-spacemission’smedicalinvestigators.“Theyarethegeneralsthatcoordinatetheentireimmuneresponse.”Makingthingsworse,whiletheISSishardlygerm-free,it’salotmoreantisepticthanEarthis,andthatmeansthebodycangetforgetful,unlearningsomeoftheimmunitiesithasacquiredovertheyears.“Theimmunesystemneedstobechallenged,”saysMignot.Ifitisn’t,itgrowsslack—anditsownergetssick.TheexperimentthatwillhelpstudyallofthisbeganafewmonthsbeforeScottevenleftEarth,whenbothbrothersreceivedacommontrivalentfluvaccine—onethatisformulatedtoprotectagainstthreestrainsofthevirus.Bloodwasdrawnfrombothmensevendayslater,whichistypicallythepointatwhichtheimmuneresponsepeaksandthegreatestnumberofcellsthathavebeenmusteredtorespondtothevaccinearepresent.InNovember2015,asfluseasonwasgettingunderwayonEarth,bothbrotherswerevaccinatedagain—ScottinspaceandMarkontheground—andmorebloodwasdrawn.Scott’ssamplewasfrozenandreturnedtoEarthaboardoneoftheunmannedcargorunsflownbytheSpaceXDragon.NowthatScottisbackontheground,therewillbeafinalroundofvaccinesandblooddrawsinNovember2016.Inallofthesamples,Mignotisscrutinizingthebrothers’twinimmuneresponsesinwaysthathaven’tbeenpossiblebefore.“We’llbeusinganewtechniquethatrecognizesjustpiecesofthevirus,”hesays.“It’squitesophisticated;we’llhaveideasofboththestrengthandqualitativenatureoftheimmuneresponse.”

MarkKellyisfollowingthesamevaccineregimenashisbrothersothattheirimmunesystemscanbecompared.OnEarthhecouldletadoctordothejob,butinsolidaritywithScott,hedoesithimself.

MignotandtheotherNASAresearcherswillbelookingnotjustathowScott’simmunesystemwaschangedbyhistimeinspacebutalsohowwellitrecoversoncehe’sbackonEarth.TheresultscouldhaveimplicationsthatgobeyondtheISS,affectingpeoplewithcompromisedimmunesystemsduetochemotherapy,congenitalconditionsordiseaseslikeHIV/AIDS.MignotalsohopesthatvaccineresearchaboardtheISSwillpayoneotherdividend:remindingparentsandothersthatvaccinesaresafeandeffectiveandthatscarestoriesabouttheshotscausingdiseasearejustthat—scarestories.“Vaccinesareincrediblysafe,”hesays.“Don’tbecrazyandletdiseaseslikemeaslesandpoliogetstartedagain.”CommunicatingabasichealthmessageisnotwhythevaccinestudywasdesignedfortheISS,butitisonemorereminderoftheprogram’sguidingidea:itisresearchconducted“offtheEarth,fortheEarth.”

SICKINSPACE

ThemostfamousincidentofillnessaboardamissioninvolvedApollo7in1968,whencommanderWallySchirragotsickandinfectedhiscrewmates.Buta

handfulofotherflightshavebeenplaguedaswell:APOLLO8

1968

1968FrankBormanhadwhatmayhavebeenabadreactiontoasleepingpill.He

discoveredthatbodilyfluidsarenoteasytocleaninspace.APOLLO13

1970

Thisflighthadacoupleofhealthalarms—KenMattinglyleftthecrewbeforetheflightafterbeingexposedtomeasles,andthenFredHaiseenduredaurinary-

tractinfection.EUROPEANSPACEAGENCYSTS-122

2008

GermanastronautHansSchlegelmayhavehadaboutofspacesicknessduringashuttlemission.Hehadtooptoutofascheduledspacewalk.

FIVEWAYSMEDICINEINSPACEISCOMPLETELYDIFFERENTFROMONEARTH

Thingschangeinzero-GYOUMAYORMAYNOTWANTTOGOTOSPACE,buthere’ssomethingcertain:youdefinitelydon’twanttogetsickthere.AskthecrewofApollo7,the1968missioninwhichthecommandercontractedacoldandspreadittotheothertwoastronautsandallthreeofthemspenttheentiremissiontrappedinsideacrampedspacecraft,sneezing,hackingandgripingattheground.Andthatwasjust11daysinEarthorbit.WhataboutayearaboardtheInternationalSpaceStation?Whataboutatwo-and-a-half-yearmissiontoMars?Andwhataboutsomethingaweebitmoreseriousthanacold,likeappendicitisoraheartattackorasevereinjury?NASAplannersgotaglimpseofwhatthiscouldbelikein1999,whenJerriNielsen,aphysicianworkingataSouthPoleresearchstation,diagnosedherselfwithbreastcancer.Itwasimpossiblefor

researchstation,diagnosedherselfwithbreastcancer.ItwasimpossibleforanyonetorescueherduringtheAntarcticwinter,andthebesttheU.S.AirForcecoulddowastodropchemotherapydrugstoherbyparachuteandwaitforconditionstoimprove.Inspace,thingswouldbefarmoredire.ThesearesomeofthescenariosthatwereonthemindofrookieastronautKjellLindgren,whospentnearlyfivemonthsaboardtheISSoverthepastyear.Lindgrenisnotjustawell-trainedastronautbutaspecialistinaerospaceandemergencymedicine—justthekindofexpertwhowillincreasinglybeneededasthehumanpresenceinspacebecomespermanent.“IfwewanttogotoMarssomeday,”LindgrensaidinaconversationwithTIME,“ifwewanttogetfurtheranddeeperintothesolarsystem,weneedtostartthinkingaboutthesethings—thinkingaboutthecapabilitiesweneedtodoanappendectomyortakeoutagallbladder.”TherewerenogallbladderorappendixtakingswhileLindgrenwasaloft.Duringthestint,heandtheISSflightdoctorsbackonEarthtookonlyspace-medicinebabysteps,learningthebasicsabouttheradicaldifferencesbetweenmedicalcareonEarthandmedicalcareoffit.Hereareafewofthemostvexingproblemstheyhaveaddressed:1.WHEREISTHATKIDNEYAGAIN?OnEarth,aperson’sorganssettleintopredictablepositions.Adoctorpalpatingaliverorthumpingapatient’schestknowsexactlywherethingsoughttobe.Inzero-G,notsomuch.“Theorgansmaybedisplacedalittlebit,”saysLindgren.“Theytendtoshiftupalittlemore.Theheartmayhavealittlebitofadifferentorientation,whichmaybereflectedonanEKG.”2.TREATINGEYEISSUESAstronautswhohavebeeninspaceforlong-termstaysoftenfindthattheirvisiongrowsworse,anditdoesn’talwaysbouncebackcompletelywhentheyreturntoEarth.(Theproblemiscausedbyfluidshiftingupwardfromthelowerbodyintothehead.)Eyeinfectionsandirritationaremorecommontoo,fordecidedlyick-inducingreasons.“Dustdoesn’tsettleinthevehiclelikeitdoesonEarth,”saysLindgren.“Sothingsareliberated;littlepiecesofmetalfromequipmentormaybedeadskinjustfloataroundandcauseeyeirritation.”3.MINDTHEFEETThecallusesthatbuildupontheheelandtheballofaperson’sfootafteralifetimeofwalkingaroundserveapurpose,whichistocushionthefootagainsttheshockofwalking.Sincewalkingisonethingweightlessastronautsarenotdoinginspace,theydon’tneedthecalluses.ButISScrewmembersneedtobewarewhentheyremovetheirsocks—thecalluses

maysloughoff,sothewrongmoveatthewrongtimecouldleaveunsightlybitsofastronautfootfloatingaroundthecabin.4.AVOIDGIVINGSTITCHESSuturingwoundsisoneofthemostbasicthingsdoctorsandothermedicalcaregiverslearnhowtodo,buttheproceduretakesalittleextraworkinspace.OnEarth,suturesaresimplylaidonatrayalongwiththeotherequipment.Inspace,that’snotpossible.“Insteadofyoursterilesuturethreadlyinginasterilefield,nowit’sfloatingaroundandrunningintoeverything,”saysLindgren.5.INTESTINALISSUESEasilytheleastglamorouspartofspacetravelisthesimplebusinessof,well,doingone’sbusiness.ThespacetoiletsaboardtheISSandtheshuttlehavecomealongwayfromthebagsandtubesoftheMercury,GeminiandApolloera.Butthehumanbodyhasn’tchangedinthattime,andwhenitcomestokeepingtheintestinesoperating,alittlegravitycanhelp.Onelunarastronaut—who,forthesakeoflegacyanddignity,isnotidentifiedhere—claimedthatawonderfulaspectoflandingonthemoonwasthatthingsthathadn’tbeenworkingatallwhenhewasinzero-Ggotmovingrightawayintheone-sixthgravityofthemoon.Historyismadebymortals,andnomatterwheretheyare,mortalsgottadowhatmortalsgottado.

AharnessanchorsCristoforettiduringexercise.

COUNTERMEASURESHowtolimitthedamage

EXERCISECrewmembersarerequiredtoworkoutfortwohoursaday,benefitingthe

heart,muscles,bonesandmood.COMMUNICATION

Real-timeemail,callstofamilyandaccesstoapsychiatristcanalleviatestressandboostmorale.NUTRITION

Acarefullyregulateddietaswellasnutrientsupplementscanpreventdeficienciesthatweakenthebody.

GARMENTSLower-bodynegative-pressuregarmentscandrawfluidsbackfromtheheadand

maylimitdamagetovision.

WHYSALADINSPACEMATTERS

APORTABLEGARDENABOARDTHESPACESTATIONCANBECRITICALTOASTRONAUTS’PHYSICALANDMENTALHEALTH

YES,YES,THEREWASADARINGSPACEwalkoutsidetheInternationalSpaceStationonAugust10,ascosmonautsMishaKornienkoandGennadyPadalkaspentsixhoursperformingarangeofmaintenanceandinspectiontasks.Butnewsofadifferentkindwasmadeinsidewhenthestation’sothercrewmembersdidsomethinghistoric:theyatelettuce.Specifically,redromainelettuce.Morespecifically,redromainelettucethatwasgrownonboard—and

lettuce.Morespecifically,redromainelettucethatwasgrownonboard—andthat’sabigdeal.Spacehasneverbeenaplaceknownforgoodeating.Certainlythefoodnowisbetterthanitwasinthepureed,shrink-wrapped,sucked-from-packetsdaysofMercury,GeminiandApollo,andthatsayssomething.TheISShashotwater,afoodheaterandthe“ISSpresso”coffeemaker.Butfreshfruitsandvegetables,whichtakeuproomandspoilquickly,areanothermatter.Whileapplesandcarrotsaresometimessentuponcargoships,thosesupplyrunsareinfrequent,andwhenashipfailstoarrive—ashashappenedthreetimesinthepastyearandahalf—theveggiefastcangoonandon.NASAknowsthatduringlongertripsintodeepspace,particularlytoMars,freshproduceisgoodfornotonlythecrew’sphysicalhealthbutalsotheirmentalwell-being,givingthemacomfortingtasteofhome.Thatmeansgrowingthecropsonboard.Toinvestigatehowthiscouldbedone,NASApartneredwithORBITEC,atechnologycompanybasedinMadison,Wis.,developingaunitknownstraightforwardlyasVeggie,whichconsistsofagrowthchamberandso-calledplantpillowscontainingprepackagedseeds.Theunitiscollapsibleandincludesaflatpanelofred,blueandgreenLEDs.Technically,thefirsttwocolorsaretheonlyonesneededifyoursolegoalistogrowplants.“Blueandredwavelengthsaretheminimumneededtogetgoodplantgrowth,”saidRayWheeler,theleadscientistforAdvancedLifeSupportattheKennedySpaceCenter,inaNASAstatement.“Theyareprobablythemostefficientintermsofelectricalpowerconversion.”Butplantsaren’ttheonlylivingthingsthatfactorintothisequation.Therearehumanbeingstoo,andtheredandbluelightsbathetheplantsinasicklyglow,makingthemaltogetherunappetizinguntilthey’reharvested.Sogreenlightsareaddedto“enhancethehumanvisualperceptionoftheplants,”saidWheeler.

AstronautsKjellLindgren(left)andScottKellysampleredlettucegrownaboardthespacestation.Anearliercrewgrewasimilarcropandshippedtheplantshomefirsttotestforsafetyandpalatability.

Nothing,however,goesontotheastronauts’menu—orintotheirbodies—withoutbeingrigorouslytestedfirst.InMay2014anearliercrewgerminatedthefirstplantpillows,grewthemfor33days,thenpluckedandfrozethemandshippedthemhomeonareturningspacecraftinOctober.Scientistsonthegroundcertifiedthemfittoeat,soKellygerminatedanewbatchonJuly7,andheandcrewmatesKjellLindgrenandKimiyaYuisampledthemonAugust10.Theypronouncedthemfine.Thereisonemorereasontokeepagardenrunninginspace—andthatexplainswhythereareotherpillowscontainingzinniaseedsaboard.Theflowersareedible,yes,butthey’realsobeautifulandcolorfulandfuntotend.Gardeningisaveryearthlygracenoteandhaslongbeenthoughtofasarelaxingandsatisfyingwayforastronautstokeepthemselvesbusyonlong-durationmissionsthatcanquicklysettleintorepetitivenessanddrudgery.“ThefartherandlongerhumansgoawayfromEarth,thegreatertheneedtobeabletogrowplantsforfood,atmosphererecyclingandpsychologicalbenefits,”saidGioiaMassa,Veggie’spayloadscientist.“Ithinkthatplantsystemswillbecomeimportantcomponentsofanylong-durationexplorationscenario.”That’sawholelotofexpectationridingonwhatis,today,justafewleavesofredromaine.Butearlyhomesteadersgottheirstartwithjustsmallgardenplotstoo.There’snoreasontheir21st-centuryheirscan’tdothesame.

DOCKINGMANEUVERS

TOMAKETHINGSEASIERFORANARRIVINGSPACECRAFT,THECREWMOVESITSSOYUZTOANEWPORT

CosmonautYuriMalenchenkodockstheSoyuzTMA-19MspacecrafttotheISS’sRassvetmoduleinDecember2015.Theinitialautomaticmooringplandidn’tworkout,soMalenchenkohadtoguidethe

Soyuzmanually.

ONEOFTHETRICKIESTQUESTIONSforaSoyuzspacecraftapproachingtheInternationalSpaceStationiswheretopark.TheISSmaybelargerthanafootballfield,butit’sgotonlysomanywaystogetinsideit,andwithcrewedspacecraftanduncrewedcargoshipsregularlyshuttlingupanddown,dockingports—oratleasttherightdockingport—canbeatapremium.Inthepre-dawnhoursofSeptember28,SpaceStationastronautScottKelly,alongwithcosmonautsMikhailKornienkoandGennadyPadalka,wererequiredtodoabitofdelicateflyingtosortoutjustthatkindofproblem.TheirSoyuzspacecraftwasdockedatthestation’sPoiskmodule—a16-footRussiannodethatwasaddedtotheISSin2009asasciencelab,observationpointandegresscompartmentforastronautsembarkingonspacewalks.TheSoyuzhadbeentheresinceKellyarrivedinMarch2015,andthatwasaconcern.Forfivemonths,theshiphadbeenhangingoffthestationinthealternatingsearingheatanddeepfreezeoforbitalspace.Theconditionscantakeatollonvessels’hardware,andsincethecrewsrelyonthemastheirwaybacktoEarth,NASAandtheRussianspaceagency,Roscosmos,hadinstitutedarule:180daysisthemaximumamountoftimeaSoyuzcanremainaloftbeforedetachingand

isthemaximumamountoftimeaSoyuzcanremainaloftbeforedetachingandreturningtoEarth.ButKellyandKornienkoweresettostaytwiceaslongasthat—whichcomplicatedtheirridehome.TheirSoyuzwasnottheonlyoneonhand.Therewasanotheronefortheotherthreecrewmemberswhowereaboard.(AnotherNASA-Roscosmosrule:theremustalwaysbeenoughseatsforeveryonetobeabletobailoutimmediatelyintheeventofanemergency.)Andathirdship,carryingthreemorecrewmembersforachangeofpersonnel,wassettoarrive.SincethePoiskmodulefacesEarth,itistheeasiesttargetforapproachingspacecraft.Butfreeingthedockrequiredalittlejuggling.Missionrules,tosaynothingofbasicphysics,madethejobadelicateone.

TheSoyuzTMA-15MisdockedattheISSinMay2015.ThespacecraftlatercarriedTerryVirts,SamanthaCristoforettiandRussiancosmonautAntonShkaplerovbacktoEarth.

At3:09a.m.EDT,thecompletePadalka-Kornienko-KellyteamclimbedfullysuitedintotheirSoyuz.Technically,itdidnottakeallthreementodothejob.Padalka,whoisoneofthemostexperiencedSoyuzpilotsextant,couldprobablyhavehandledmattersonhisown.ButintheeventofaSoyuzemergencyrequiringanimmediatereentry,allthreemenwererequiredtobeaboard—lestasolitarypilotreturnhome,leavingfivepeopleaboardtheISSandonlythreeseatsontheremainingSoyuz.

ScottKellysnappedthisphotooftheSoyuzTMA-17MbringingcrewmembersKjellLindgren,OlegKononenkoandKimiyaYuihomeinDecember2015.

ThecrewthenundockedfromthePoiskandre-dockedtothenearbyZvezdamodule,orservicemodule—astraightdistanceofonlyafewdozenyards.Thesekindsoforbitalmaneuversrequirecare,withboththestationandtheSoyuzorbitingtheEarthat17,150milesperhourbutmovingjustafewfeetorinchesatatimerelativetoeachother.“They’llundock,thenbackout200metersorso,”saidNASATVcommentatorandoverallspace-stationauthorityRobNavias,beforethemaneuver.“Thenthey’llflyaroundtothebackendoftheservicemodule,doalateraltranslation,flyretrograde,thenmoveinforadockingattheaftendofthemodule.”Ifthatsoundslikeanawfullycomplicatedwaytosay,essentially,thattheywouldbackup,turnaroundandpullinatanotherdoor,it’slesstechnobabblethanitisareflectionofthecomplexityofeventhemoststraightforwardmaneuversinspace.Twoofthenewlyarrivingcrewmemberswereonlyshort-timers,stayingonthestationforjust10days.TheythenflewhomewithPadalkaintheoldership,leavingthefreshoneforKelly,Kornienkoandanothercrewmembersixmonthslater:theirtriphomeonMarch2,2016.TheISSmaybethemostcomplicatedjobsiteon—oroff—theplanet,butit’sonethatcouldproudlydisplayasignreading15YEARSWITHOUTANACCIDENT.Playingbyalltheworkplacesafetyruleswillhelpkeepthatrecordgoing.

ARECORD-BREAKINGWOMAN

SAMANTHACRISTOFORETTISHATTERSTHEGLASSCEILINGBETWEENEARTHANDORBIT

Cristoforetti,thefirstwomantospend200daysinspace,enjoystheviewduringherhistory-makingexpedition.Hertwo“100Days”patchesfloatinthebackground.

THERE’SNOSUCHTHINGASAwomen’sleagueinspace.TheU.S.mayhavewontheWomen’sWorldCup,andbasketballmayhavetheWNBA,butaWNASAneverhasbeenandneverwillbeathing.Theboys’clubthatwasspacetravelhaslongsincebecomeaco-edenterprise.Butthatdoesn’tmeanfemaleastronautsandcosmonautsdon’tdeservetoberecognizedseparately.Withcrewsstillpredominantlymale,thereremainsaglassceilingbetweenEarthandorbit,anditisthewomen,notthemen,whomustsmashit.OneofthemostnoteworthyofthecurrentcorpsoffemalefliersisItalianfighterpilotSamanthaCristoforetti,whoreturnedtoEarthonJune11,2015,after200daysaboardtheInternationalSpaceStation,settingthewomen’sdurationrecordfortimeinspace.CristoforettispoketoTIMEinAugusttodiscussherexperiencesinorbit,thechallengesshefacedthereandtheinsightsaboutlifeonEarththatcomefrombeingoffitforsolong.Theinterviewhasbeeneditedforbrevityandclarity.

CristoforettiisallsmilesassherestsupjustminutesafterlandinginZhezkazgan,Kazakhstan,onJune11,2015.ShehadreturnedwithcrewmatesTerryVirtsandAntonShkaplerovaboardtheSoyuzTMA-15M

spacecraft.

TIME:YourrecentstayontheISSwasyourfirsttriptospace.Whatsurprisedyoumostaboutyourtimethere?Cristoforetti:Idon’tthinkthatIhadverysetexpectations.Iwasveryopen,likeablankpage.SoIdiscoveredmanythings,likehowitfeelstofloat—justthatsensationofbeingsolighttothepointofhavingnoweightwhatsoever,ofbeingabletomoveinthreedimensions.Everythingisjusteffortless.You’relikeSupermanalldaylongfor200days.Butthere,ofcourse,arethechallenges.You’reusedtosettingthingsdownandthey’regoingtostillbetherewhenyougoandgetthem.Inspace,ifyoujustletsomethinggo,it’sgoingtobegone.Igottothepoint,totheveryadvancedstageattheendofthemission,whereIactuallycouldletsomethingjustgo,andIhadjustasubconsciousawarenessofwhatitwas,andifitstartedtofloataway,Iwouldjustgoandgrabit.

WithallthevariouswaysofcommunicatingwithEarthwhenyou’reonthestation,didyoustillfeelanyisolation?Inmanyways,youstillfeelveryconnectedbecauseweareabletomakephonecallstopeopleonEarth.Wehavevideoconferencesscheduledontheweekendswithourfamilies.Aselectednumberofpeoplecansendyouemails,andwecanemailbackandforth.WehavekindofslowaccesstotheInternet,andsowecandoalittlebitofsocialmediaandwecanusetheInternetifweareverypatient.Ontheotherhand,youalsokindofliveinabubblebecausethere’sonlyso

Ontheotherhand,youalsokindofliveinabubblebecausethere’sonlysomanypeoplewhoactuallyhaveaccesstoyou.Andthen,ofcourse,whenyoulookatEarth,there’sanambivalentfeelingbecauseyouknowthatyou’renotthatfar,butatthesametime,it’ssuchanalienviewthatyoureallyfeellikeyou’redisconnectedfromtheworld.Everythingfliesbysofastthatyoualmostdon’thavethetimetomakeavirtualconnectionwithwhatevercountryorcontinentorfeatureispassingbeneathyou.

Didyoufeelyouhadanyprivacywhileyouwereonboard?Thespacestation,firstofall,ishuge.Sometimespeoplethinkthatwearelikesixpeopleenclosedinveryclosequarters,inaverysmallenvironment.IattendedamilitaryacademywhenIwas24,andbelieveme,wewerealotmoreinclosedquartersbackthenthanIwasinthespacestation.Wealsohavealittlebitofapersonalspace.It’saboutthesizeofanoldphonebooth,forpeoplewhoareoldenoughtorememberphonebooths.Youcanclosethedoors.Yousleepinthere.Itgetsprettydark.Ihadsomepicturesandotherlittlepersonalitems.Andsodefinitelythat’syourprivatespace,andmostofuschoosetogointheretomakephonecalls,forexample,sothatyoudon’tdisturbotherpeoplebutalsosothatyourphonecallisprivate.

TheSoyuzTMA-15MundocksfromtheISS;itbroughtCristoforettiandhercrewmatesbacktoEarthinjustafewhours.

Nowthatyou’rethewomanwhoholdstherecordforbeinginspacethelongest,howdoyoufeelaboutyourspecialstatus?[Laughs.]Well,Ithinkrecordsaremoresomethingformediatowriteaboutbecauseit’spotentiallyapieceofnews.Butofcourseforme,itreallydoesn’t

makeahugedifferencehavingbeeninspace200daysasopposedto190,whichwouldnothavebeentherecord.Imean,Iwashappytostay,buttheopportunitytostaylonger,whichiswhatledtotherecord,dependedonanaccidentthatwehadwith[aProgress]cargovehicle[whichfailedtoreachorbitanddelayedoperations].SoreallyIdidn’treallydoanythingtoearnthatrecord.

YouspentacoupleofmonthswithastronautScottKellyandcosmonautMishaKornienko,whowereaboardthestationforafullyear.Whatdoyouthinkwasthehardestchallengetheyfaced?Well,youknow,everypersonisdifferent,soit’sreallyhardtosaywhatwouldbechallengingforthem.ButIwouldimaginestayinghealthy.Ifelt,overthecourseofsixmonths,myphysicalwell-beingsomewhatdegradingastimepassed.ItwasnothingthatIcouldreallypinpointbutjustthegeneralsensationthatmybodyovertimewasgettingalittlebittiredofthisenvironment.IfeltlikemybodyprobablyatsomepointneededtogetbacktoEarth,tobreathingnormalair,tobebackinnormalgravity.

Didyour200daysinspacechangeyourperspectiveaboutlifeonEarth?WhenyoulookattheEarthfromspace,itlookslikeabigspaceshipthatisflyingthroughspaceandoh,bytheway,carryingallofhumanityonit.Andsoyoustarttogetthisfeelingthat,justasonthespacestation,wecanonlyfunctionifweallworktogetherasacrewandwe’reallcrewmembers.Noneofusisapassenger.Nobodyisuptherebecausetheyboughtaticketandthey’rejustgoingtoenjoytheride.Youhavetotakecareofeachother.Now,it’saloteasierwhenit’ssixpeople,butwehavetosomehowprogressivelyworktowardhavingthesameattitudeonplanetEarth.There’sanothercrewcomingafterward,thenextgeneration,andwehavetomakesurethatwe’llleavethemaspaceshipwhichisingoodshape.

WATERWORLD

SCOTTKELLYTRAINSHISCAMERAONTHEMAJESTICBLUESOFTHEEARTH’SSURFACE

ScottKellypostedthisimageofSpain’scoastlineonamorninginAugust2015.

Abutterfly-shapedformationintheGulfofMexicocaughtKelly’seyeinApril2015.

InapostaboutthisimageoftheBahamas,Kellycomparedtheshapestostrokesofwatercolors.Itwasoneofmanyphotoshesharedofthearchipelago.

ThewatersoftheBahamasevokemountainrangesinthisshot,takeninJanuary2016.

TheGulfofCarpentariameetstheruggedcliffsofQueensland,inAustralia,inaMay2015photo.

InApril2015,duringKelly’sfirstvideoconferencewithhisdaughterCharlotte,hesharedanotherimageoftheBahamas.

SHUTTLINGSCIENCEWHENPERFORMED250MILESABOVETHEEARTH,EVENA

SIMPLEBLOODDRAWBECOMESCOMPLEX

ACygnuscargovehicle,carryingsuppliesandresearchexperiments,approachestheISS’sCanadarm2astheroboticlimbreadiestocapturethecraft.

SCOTTKELLYISSURELYTHEONLYastronautinhistorywhocouldn’tgotospacewithoutgettingatattoofirst—twoofthem,infact.You’dbehard-pressedtofindKelly’stats,andthat’sjusthowhewantsit.There’sonedotonhisneckandoneonhisarm—andiftheydon’tdomuchforbodyaesthetics,they’veveryvaluabletoscience.OneofthetestsKellyandhiscrewmateMishaKornienkowerecalledupontoperformperiodicallywasasonogramofthecarotidandbrachialarteriestolookforsignsofatherosclerosis,thebuildupoffattyplaquesonarterialwalls.Thesonogramprobeshadtobeplacedjustso,anditcantakealongtimeformedicsonthegroundandastronautsinspacetogetthepositioningright.Sotosavetime,KellyandaNASAsonographervisitedatattooparloronEarth,wherethedotsofinkwerepermanentlyappliedattherightspots.“Hejokesthosearetheonlytattooshe’lleverget,”saysStuartLee,theleadresearchscientistattheJohnsonSpaceCentercardiovascularlaboratory.“ItriedtogethimtogetalargertattoothatsaidPLACEPROBEHERE,buthedidn’tgoforthatidea.”FortheresearchersonEarth,thetattooswereasimpleworkaroundtothechallengeofmonitoringsubjectswhowere250milesoverhead,spinningatmorethan17,000milesperhour.Butothermedicaltasksprovedmorecomplex.

morethan17,000milesperhour.Butothermedicaltasksprovedmorecomplex.Takebloodsampling.ISScrewmembersaretrainedatextractingoneanother’sblood,buttheproperlabfacilitiestoanalyzethesamplesareontheground.Thefirststepingettingthemtowheretheyneedtogoistospinthebloodinacentrifugewhileit’sstillinspace,whichseparatesoutitsvariouscomponents.ThesamplesarethenfrozenuntiltheycanbepackedaboardSoyuzspacecraftthatperiodicallybringcrewmembershome.ThemomentaSoyuzthumpsdowninKazakhstan,frozenscientificcargoistransferredtoaLearjetandflowntoHouston.ThetransfertimefromspacetoTexas:24hours.“It’sunbelievablebecauseit’sfasterthanifyouwereonEarthandsendingittoaclinicallab,”saysAndyFeinberg,thedirectoroftheCenterforEpigeneticsatJohnsHopkinsUniversityandoneofthebiomedresearchersworkingontheyear-in-spacemission.“Thispushesthespacemission,soitfitsreallywellwithhowcutting-edgeresearchlabswork.”Studiesofthemicrobiome—theecosystemofbacteria,viruses,yeastandsporesthatpopulatethehumangut—alsorelyonthiskindofrapidshipmentfromspacetolab.Inthiscase,though,researchersreliedonstoolsamples,which,whiledecidedlylessglamorous,atleastrequiredlesstechnicalexpertisetoproduceandstore.ThemicrobiomesofbothKellybrotherswerestudiedthiswayovertheyear,withScotteatingaprescribedastronautdietandMarkeatingwhateverhewanted.“Mark,”saysScottSmithoftheNutritionalBiochemistryLabattheJohnsonSpaceCenter,“isfree-range.”Theresearchalsohasimplicationsforpeoplewhonevergointospace—whichisprettymuchallofus.Themicrobiota’simpactgoesbeyondthegut,saysFredTurek,aneurobiologistatNorthwesternUniversityandaresearcherfortheyear-in-spacemission.“Itaffectsthecardiovascularsystem,bonedensity,eventhebrain.Thiscouldleadtoresearchrelatingtopsychologicalandneuropsychiatricdisorders.”Studyingtheimmunesystemtakesitsownkindofimagination.Duringlong-durationspacemissions,thebody’snaturaldefensescanbreakdown,partlybecauseofoxidativeandothermetabolicstressorsandpartlybecause,inthecontrolledenvironmentofaspacecraft,crewmembersarenotexposedtoalloftheambientorganismstheywouldbeonEarth.Thismayleadtheimmunesystemtoletdownitsguard.TohelpresearcherscomparehowtheKellybrothers’immunesystemsfunctionindifferingenvironments,bothbrothersreceivedfluvaccinesbeforeScottwent

indifferingenvironments,bothbrothersreceivedfluvaccinesbeforeScottwenttospace,andtheirresponsesweremeasuredviabloodsamples.TheywerevaccinatedagainwhileScottwasinorbitandarescheduledtobesooncemoreayearafterhisreturn.“Wetakebloodsamplessevendaysafterthevaccinebecausethat’sthepeaktimeforcellsrecruitedbytheimmunesystemtodotheirwork,”saysEmmanuelMignotofStanfordUniversity,amissionscientistfortheyear-in-spaceproject.“Theriskexiststhatonareallylongspacemission,theimmunesystemcouldunlearnimmunities,soyoucouldcomebacktoEarthnewlysensitivetopathogens.”KellyandKornienko’smissionwillnotremotelyanswerallofthebiomedicalriddlesspaceraises.Someoftheanswersmaycomeonlywhenhumanbeingsreallydoshipoffforwhatwouldbeatwo-and-a-half-yearmissiontoandfromMars.Thereisabsolutelynoguaranteethattherewon’tbesomenastysurpriseswaiting—some“kneeinthecurve,”asspacedoctorssay.Buteverydayspentinspaceatthecloseremoveoflow-Earthorbithelpsturnatleastsomeoftheunknownsintoknowns.

ASTRONAUTKELLY’SDAUGHTER:MYDADIS“OUTOFTHISWORLD”

CharlotteKelly,theyoungerdaughterofScottKelly,wasaspecialTIMEFORKIDScorrespondentfortheyear.Charlotteturned12atthesamemomentherdadmarkedthehalfwaypointofhisyearin

space.Herewereherthoughtsatthetime

INAFEWDAYSIWILLHAVEREACHEDTHESIX-monthmarkofseeingmydadoffonhisgreatestadventure.Somemightsaythatitistheultimateadventure,buttomydadandourfamily,it’sjustanotherdayofhimatwork.Yousee,mydadisanout-of-this-worlddad.Literally—heisoutofthisworld.HeiscurrentlylivingandworkingaboardtheInternationalSpaceStation.ManyofyouknowandhearabouthimasastronautScottKelly,theAmericanastronauttestingthelimitsofthehumanbodylivingandworkinginspaceforoneyear.Tome,heisjustDad,andinafewdays,Iwillturn12,andmydadwillmarkhishalfwaypointofhisjourney.Wewillcelebratebyhavingdinnertogetherviateleconference.It’snotmuch,butitmeanstheworldtome.Iusuallyspendthebetterpartofmysummerbreakwithmydadathishouse.Icouldnotstayathisplacethissummer,andI’mnotsosureIwouldbeuptoit.Itdoeslooklikefunfloatingaroundandspinningfromoneendofthespacestationtothenext,butheworksalot,andIthinkIwouldhavegottenintheway.Summerdidmakethepastthreemonthsgobyprettyquickly,butthenextthreemonthswillbeachallenge.Iwillmissspendingpartoftheholidayswithmydad.Thispartiswhenhavingadadwithacooljobstinks.

TIMEFORAWALK

SCOTTKELLYANDKJELLLINDGRENSTEPOUTSIDETOTACKLEMUCH-NEEDEDUPGRADESTOTHESPACESTATION

ScottKellytakeshissecondspacewalkonExpedition45.

ASPACECRAFTTHATKNOWSHOWTOrepairormaintainitselfhasn’tbeenbuiltyet.That’sespeciallyproblematicwhentheoneinquestionistheInternationalSpaceStation—whichislargerthanafootballfield,weighsnearly1millionpounds,andrequiredmorethan100differentspaceflightsjusttogetitscomponentsintoorbitandproperlyassembled.After15yearsofcontinuousoccupancy,theISSwasinneedofoneofitsperiodicupgrades,andonNovember6,astronautsandfirst-timespacewalkersScottKellyandKjellLindgrensteppedoutsideforthefirstoftwoscheduledspacewalkstoperformsomemuch-neededwork.Thatspacewalk—orEVA(extravehicularactivity),inNASA’spreferredparlance—involvedbasicelectricalwork,withKellyandLindgrenrunningnewcablesalongpartsofthestation’slengthtoprovidepowerfordockingportsthatwillbeneededwhennewcommercialcrewandcargovesselsbeginarrivingin2017.Theastronautsalsoinstalledathermalcoveronascientificinstrumenttoprotectitfromtheextremetemperaturesofspace,andtheylubricatedportionsoftheISS’sroboticarm.Ifthatsoundslikeawfullyundramatic,low-techwork,it’sbecauseitis.Buildthemostsophisticatedmachineyouwant,butitstillcomesdowntothenuts-

and-boltsbusinessof,well,nutsandbolts.Doingbasichandymanworkisradicallydifferentinspace,however—andradicallymoredangerous.In2013ItalianastronautLucaParmitanonearlydrownedduringaspacewalkwhencoolantwaterleakedintohissuitandbeganfloodinghishelmet.Toreducetherisksandhelpensurethatthenecessaryworkgetsdone,manyofthebasicprotocolsforanyspacewalkareworkedoutfarinadvanceofamission,withpracticesessionsinNASA’sNeutralBuoyancyLab(NBL),a6.2-million-gallonswimmingpoolwithafull-scalemock-upofmuchoftheISSrestingonitsbottom.Butsomeofthedetailscan’tbefullyvalidateduntiltheastronautsarealreadyinspace,whichwastrueforKelly,whowentupfarinadvanceofhisscheduledwalk.SignificantchangestotheEVAplanareoftenbeameduptothecrewfirstassimplePowerPoint-typeanimations.FinerpointsareworkedoutintheNBLandradioeduplaterinthemostgranulardetailpossible—theprecisetorquethathastobeusedtotightenaboltandhowmanyturnsitwillneedbeforeit’ssecure,forexample.Thedeterminationofwhichmandoeswhichjobwhilethey’rebothoutsideismadebyexperience,skillsetandafewothernon-negotiableconsiderations.Kelly,asthemoreseniorofthetwoastronauts,wasleadspacewalkerforthefirstEVA,onOctober28,whichmeanthewasfirstout,lastin,andgenerallyincommandthroughouttheexercise.Hissuitalsohadtheredstripingusedtoindicatethecommander,whichhelpscontrollersidentifywho’swhoastheyfollowtheexercisefromtheground.Nonetheless,forthatwalk,Lindgrenwasassignedsomeofthemorechallengingworkinsomeofthetrickierareasofthestation.Why?“Hehaslongerarms,”saysNASA’sGrantSlusser,whowasthegrounddirectorforthefirstEVA.

KjellLindgren(inallwhite)andKelly(withredstripesathisknees)workontheP6TrusstoopenthePhotovoltaicRadiatorFluidQuickDisconnectCouplingonNov.9,2015.

KellytookthiscelebratoryselfieonOct.28,2015,duringhisfirstspacewalk.“Greatfirstspacewalkyesterday,”helatertweeted.“Nowontothenextonenextweek.”

ThemerebusinessofgettingtheEVAsuitsreadycanbeadays-longjob.Coolingloopsthatrunthroughthegarmentslikeahumancirculatorysystemhavetobeflushedwithwatertoremoveanycontaminants.Andwhileeachsuitispreciselytailoredtotheastronautwhowillwearit,whatfitsonEarthmaynotfitinspace,forthesimplereasonthatwithoutgravity,thespinemayelongateabit.It’sbeenmorethanhalfacenturysincecosmonautAlexeiLeonovbecamethefirsthumanbeingtowalkinspace,andinallthattimetheworkhasn’tgottenappreciablyeasierorsafer.Butithasn’tgottenlesstranscendenteither.“You

canhearyourheartbeatandyoucanhearyourselfbreathe,”LeonovtoldphotographerMarcoGrobinastoryforTIME.“Nothingelsecanaccuratelyrepresentwhatitsoundslikewhenahumanbeingisinthemiddleofthisabyss.”

FIFTEENYEARSAND...THEASTRONAUTSCELEBRATEAMILESTONEINTHE

ORBITINGSTATION’SHISTORY

AcrewmemberofthespaceshuttleEndeavourphotographedtheISSinMay2011.

YOUPROBABLYDON’TREMEMBERWHATyouweredoingonNov.2,2000,butastronautBillShepherdandcosmonautsYuriGidzenkoandSergeiKrikalevlikelydo.ThatwasthedaytheyclimbedaboardtheInternationalSpaceStation,becomingitsveryfirstinhabitants—andbeginningastreakforthestation,whichreached15straightyearsofoccupancylastyear.Shepherd,GidzenkoandKrikalev—whowereaboardforfourmonths—weremembersofwhatwasknownastheExpedition1crew.LastDecember15,Expedition46,includingRussiancosmonautYuriMalenchenko,AmericanastronautTimKopraandEuropeanSpaceAgencyastronautTimPeake,liftedofftobegintheirownstationstay.Inall,221peoplefrom18countrieshavelivedaboardtheISSsince2000.Duringthose15years,thestationhasmade87,600revolutionsaroundEarth,giveortaketheoddleapday.Oh,andincaseanyone’scounting,thecrewshave

giveortaketheoddleapday.Oh,andincaseanyone’scounting,thecrewshaveeatenapproximately25,000meals—sofar.Onthedaythefirstcrewclimbedaboard,theISSwaslittlemorethanthreepressurizedmodules,somesuppliesandacoupleofsolarwingstohelpkeepitpowered.Todaythestationisaflyingpieceofcosmicinfrastructure,containing15pressurizedmodules,whichaffordtheastronautsasmuchhabitablespaceasasix-bedroomhome.Itweighs1millionpounds,runson3.3millionlinesofsoftwarecodeandrequired115launchesjusttocarryallofitscomponentsuptoorbit.AlothaschangedonEarthtoointhepast15years.Whenthestationwelcomeditsfirstthreevisitors,BillClintonwasroundingoutthelastfewmonthsofhispresidency;ChristinaAguilera’s“ComeonOverBaby(AllIWantIsYou)”toppedthesinglescharts;MeettheParentsreignedattheboxoffice;MileyCyrus—who,historyrecords,wouldlaterlearntotwerk—wasthreeweeksawayfromcelebratinghereighthbirthday;andtheNewYorkMetshadjustlosttheWorldSeries,fallingfourgamestoonetothecrosstownNewYorkYankees.(Sosomethingshaven’tchangedallthatmuch.)Thefactthatthespacestationexistsatallisatestamentnotjusttotechnologybuttotenacity—andalittlebitofwishfulfantasy.Theprojectwasfirstproposedin1984byPresidentRonaldReagan,whoenvisionedacompletedspacestation,dubbedFreedom,goingintoserviceasearlyas1988.Thatoptimisticscenariowasbasedonprojectionsthattheshuttleswouldprovetobesuchrobustandreliablemachinesthatoneofthemwouldbetakingoffeverycoupleofweeks,makingitnotjusteasytoshipallofthenecessaryspacestationmodulestoorbitbutaffordableaswell.Eventhen,however,justthreeyearsafterthefirstshuttleflew,theshuttlesprovedtobefarmorefinickyandfragilethanengineershadanticipated,withdowntimebetweenlaunchesstretchingfromweekstomonths.Twoyearslater,in1986,whentheshuttleChallengerexplodedonlaunch,thevisionofshuttleasruggeddeliverytruckexplodedwithit.Atthesametime,engineerslookingattheplansforaspacestationwithasmanymodulesasFreedomcalledforwerestartingtogetuneasyaboutthecostandcomplexity.America’sonlyotherspacestation,Skylab,launchedin1973,wasjustasinglemodulebuiltfromarepurposedthirdstageofaSaturnVmoonrocket.Russia’sSalyutspacestationsweresimilarsingle-unitships.ThemostcomplexstationeverbuiltbeforetheISSwasRussia’sMir,consistingofsevenpressurizedmodules,launchedoverthecourseof10years,andatthetimeChallengerexploded,noneofthosecomponentshadgottenofftheground.And

heretheU.S.wasplanningtoflya15-modulemachine,relyingonalaunchvehiclethathadjustlostacrew.Allthatcausedtheprojectedcosttosoarandtheentireplantoseemunrealistic.Asolutionpresenteditselfin1989,whentheSovietUnionfellandtheU.S.andRussia,oncerivalsinspace,sawawaytocooperate.Withthat,theFreedomSpaceStationbecametheInternationalSpaceStation—aglobalprojectthatwouldincludeNASAandRoscosmosasseniorpartnersandwouldeventuallywelcome15othernationsorblocs,includingJapan,CanadaandtheEuropeanUnion,ascollaborators.Thefirstmodulemaynothavegoneintospaceuntilafull16yearsafterReaganproposedtheproject,butthesprawlingmachineflyingtodayisproofthattheresulthasbeenworththewait.

THEINTERNATIONALSPACESTATIONBYTHENUMBERS

THEINTERNATIONALSPACESTATIONISABOUTTHESIZEOFANAMERICANFOOTBALLSTADIUM

MODULELENGTH167.3FEET

TRUSSLENGTH357.5FEETSOLARARRAYLENGTH239.4FEET

MASS924,739POUNDSHABITABLEVOLUME13,696CUBICFEETPRESSURIZEDVOLUME32,333CUBICFEET

POWERGENERATION8SOLARARRAYS=84KILOWATTS

LIVINGANDWORKINGINORBITONTHEINTERNATIONALSPACESTATION

Crewshaveeatenabout25,000MEALS sincethefirstcrew’sarrivalin2000

ApproximatelyTONSOFSUPPLIESsupportacrewof3forabout6

MONTHSAstronautsandcosmonautshavespentmorethan1,000HOURSaboardthe

spacecraft

Withinandoutsidethestation,morethan1,500scientificinvestigations

havebeenperformed

ONETHINGYOUCANSAYABOUTTHEINTERNATIONALSPACESTATION...

It’sbig—largerthana6-BEDROOMHOUSE

HastheinternalvolumeofaBOEING747

Weighsalmostamillionpounds(equivalenttomorethan320

AUTOMOBILES)TravelsadistanceequivalentTOTHEMOONANDBACKinaboutaday

INTERNATIONALSPACESTATION

isaglobalprogramvisitedbymorethan200peoplefrom15nations

U.S

RUSSIA

CANADA

EUROPE

JAPAN

INTERNATIONALSPACESTATIONTIMELINE

ItwasNovember1998whenthefirstmodulesforthespacestationwerecarriedintoorbit.BackonEarth,Googlewasbrand-newandtheiPodwasstillthree

yearsawayNOV.20,1998Firstmodule:RussianZaryaDEC.6,1998FirstU.Smodule:UnityOCT.30,2000Firstcrew:Expedition1NOV.30,2000FirstU.S.solararraysFEB.7,2001FirstU.S.lab:DestinyFEB.7,2008FirstEuropeanmodule:ColumbusMAR.11,2008FirstcomponentofJapaneseKibomoduleMAR.15,2009FinalsolararraysFEB.24,2011Finalmoduleassemblycomplete:ItalianLeonardo

SPACEPORTFORAVARIETYOFINTERNATIONAL

SPACECRAFT

RUSSIA

SOYUZANDPROGRESS

SOYUZANDPROGRESS

UNITEDSTATES

SPACESHUTTLE

U.S.COMMERCIAL

SPACEXDRAGON

U.S.COMMERCIAL

ORBITALCYGNUS

JAPAN

HTV

EUROPE

ATV

INTERNATIONALSPACESTATIONBENEFITSFORHUMANITY

ADVANCEDROBOTICSURGERY

CLEANDRINKINGWATER

forpeoplelivingfarfromwater-treatmentfacilities

remoteMEDICALDIAGNOSTICS

EDUCATIONALEVENTS:

42millionstudentsreached

THELONGESTTRIP

ScottKellyholdstheworld’stitle...fornowBYJONATHAND.WOODS

EXACTLY216DAYSAFTERNASAASTRONAUTSCOTTKellystrapped

intoaSoyuzrocketinthemiddleoftheKazakhdesert,hebroketherecordforthelongestsinglestayinspacebyanAmericanastronaut.TherecordhadpreviouslybeenheldbySpanish-AmericanastronautMichaelLópez-Alegría,whospent215daysinorbitin2007.(SovietcosmonautValeriPolyakovholdstheoverallrecordof437continuousdaysin1994and1995.)FromthetimeKellygottospaceonMarch28,2015,untilthetimehecamehomeonMarch2,2016—loggingatotalof340daysaloft—hespedaroundEarthonceevery88minutes,or16timeseveryday,aboardtheInternationalSpaceStation.“Ikindaforgotwhatit’sliketolivedownthere”(thatis,Earth),saysKellyofhisrecord-breakingstay.Spacetravelisnotsupposedtobeaboutbraggingrights,asItalianastronautSamanthaCristoforettiinsistedwhenshesettherecordforthelongeststaybyafemaleastronaut,at200days.Butwhatspaceissupposedtobeaboutandwhatitisaboutareoftentwodifferentthings,andfromthemomentYuriGagarinbecamethefirsthumanbeinginorbitonApril12,1961,astronautshavebeencompeting(sometimesquietly,sometimesnot)togohigher,fasterandfarther.Kellyknowshisrecordcan’tstandforever—andPolyakov’scan’teither—ifhumanbeingsareevergoingtomakethetwo-and-a-half-yearjourneytoMarsandback.Andthat’showitshouldbe.Therewasatime,afterall,thatAmerica’sgreatspacemarathonerwasGordonCooper,whowentaloftinaMercuryspacecraftin1963.Hisrecordstayinlow-Earthorbit:33hours.

THEHEARTBREAKINGLOSSOFTWOCARGOSHIPS

ARussianProgressspacecraftandaSpaceXrocketfromtheU.S.aredestroyedinconfidence-shakingaccidents

TheFalcon9rocketandDragoncargovehiclelaunchat10:21a.m.onJune28,2015.

THEREAREUNCOUNTABLELAWSOFphysicsandengineeringthatgovernthelaunchofarocket.Butthere’sonethatsupersedesalltheothers:ultimately,stuffwillblowup.Alwayshas,alwayswill.Thatruleplayedoutinadramaticwayinmid-2015whensuccessivecargoshipsdestinedfortheISSfailed—onewhenaRussianspacecraftlostcontactwithEarthandspunhelplesslyoutofcontrolwhileinorbit,theotherinafieryU.S.launchaccidentthatoccurredonlysecondsafterliftoff.TheepisodesdidnotposeathreattotheISScrewanddidnotsuggestthatthoseaboardthestationwereindangerofrunningoutofwater,foodorbreathableoxygen.Butthedispiritinglossofthetwocraft,whichcostmillionsofdollarsanduntoldman-hours,remindedtheworldoftherealandgraverisksposedbyspaceexploration.ThefirstaccidentinvolvedaRussianProgresscargovehiclethatwaslaunchedatopaSoyuzrocketonApril28fromtheBaikonurCosmodromeinKazakhstan.Theshipcarriedthreetonsofsupplies,includingpropellant,oxygen,water,spareparts,crewclothingandspace-walkhardware,andareplicaoftheSovietvictorybannerthathadbeenraisedabovetheGermanReichstagin1945attheendofWorldWarII.Thevehiclequicklyreachedorbitasplanned,butwhatfollowedwassomethingelseentirely.Withinhours,theProgressbeganwhatNASAatfirstdubbeda“slowspin.”Fromthere,troubleaccelerated,endingwiththevehicleplungingbackthroughtheatmosphere,incineratingitselfanditscargo.FollowingtheProgressexplosioncametheevenmoredisappointingJune2015

lossofaU.S.-madeFalcon9rocketandunmannedDragoncargovehicle.BuiltbyElonMusk’sCalifornia-basedSpaceExplorationTechnologiesCorporation(SpaceX),therocketandcargoshiplaunchedat10:21a.m.onJune28fromCapeCanaveral,Fla.Therocketcameundonebeforeitsfirststagehadevenshutdownandseparated,thenblewitselftopiecesandsettledintotheAtlanticjustofftheCapeCanaveralcoast.ThedisasternotonlycosttheISScrewneededsupplies,italsoshookconfidenceinSpaceX,aNASApartnerinbuildingrocketsandspacecrafttoconductlong-termworkinspace.

Shortlyafteritsliftoff,theFalcon9rocketbreaksapart,losinganInternationalDockingAdapterintheaccident;ScottKelly’sviewofCapeCanaveralfollowingtheFalcon9explosion.

ThekeypieceofcargocarriedbytheDragonwasanInternationalDockingAdapter(IDA)designedtoconnecttoanISSmoduleandserveasanattachmentnodeforprivatecrewvehiclesscheduledtobeginflyingin2017.WithouttheIDA,itwasunclearhowfarISScrewmemberswouldgetinreconfiguringtheISS’smodulesinadvanceofthearrivalofthenewcrewvehicles.Musk,theentrepreneurialfounderofSpaceX,tooktoTwittertoacknowledgethedebacle.ScottKelly,theninhisthirdmonthofhismarathonyearaboardtheISS,expressedhisdismayviasocialmediaaswell:“Watched#Dragonlaunchfrom@space_stationSadlyfailedSpaceishard.”NASA,too,saiditwas“disappointed”bythelossofthemission.Itwaslaterdeterminedthatabrokentwo-foot-longpieceofsteel,calledastrut,causedtheaccident,andeventuallySpaceXrecoveredthefirststageoftheFalcon9rocket,whichhadlandeduprightjustsixmilesfromthelaunchsite.Thatwascrucial,becausethepurposeoftherocket,inadditiontoresupplyingtheISS,wastorecovertheFalcon9soSpaceXcouldreuseittodecreasethecostoffuturemissions.

costoffuturemissions.

OnAug.24,2015,Japan’sKounotori5H-IITransferVehiclemakesitsfinalapproachtowardtheISScarryingmorethan4.5tonsofcargo.

Fortunately,thefailureswerefollowedbydeliverysuccessstories.InJuly2015,anunmannedProgress60Russianresupplycraft,carrying106poundsofoxygen,926poundsofwater,1,940poundsofpropellantand3,133poundsofspaceparts,dockedattheISS.Thearrivalofthegearpromptedcelebration.“ChristmasinJuly!”theastronautsannouncedinatweet.ThecappercameinAugustwhena164-footrocketbuiltbytheJapaneseAerospaceExplorationAgencyscoredaseconddelivery.Theship,theH-II,ferried4.5tonsofcargo,includingaprocessingunitforpurifyingandrecyclingurineandanexperimentcalledtheCalorimetricElectronTelescopeforthestudyofcosmicradiation.

Themostcharmingentriesontheflightmanifest:14miniaturesatellitesknownascubesats,builtbytheSanFrancisco–basedcompanyPlanetLabs.Oncedeployed,thesatellitesweredesignedtobeamdownhigh-resolutionimagesofEarthtopayingcustomers.Butsince“cubesat”lackedacertainlyricism,PlanetLabschosetocallthelittlesatellitesDoves.Spacemaybehard—sometimestoohard—butonAugust24,theDovesarrivedsafely.

CITIESFROMABOVE

ADIFFERENTPERSPECTIVEONFAMILIARTERRAIN,FROMSHANGHAITOHOUSTON

ScottKellytweetedthisshotofSanFranciscoexactlyamonthafterhisliftofftotheISS.

ThisnightscapeofShanghaiwastakenonFeb.6,2015—theChineseNewYearandKelly’s318thdayinspace.

KellytweetedthisimageofHonolulu’sDiamondHeadinApril2015.

EMERGENCYSPACEWALK

INADRAMATICMOMENT,COMMANDERKELLYANDASTRONAUTTIMKOPRAREPAIRASTUCKROBOTICARM

AstronautTimKopraexperiencesthejoy—andchallenge—ofaspacewalkonDec.21,2015.Kellyremindedhimnottogobackinsidewithouttakingtimetoappreciatetheview.

THEINTERNATIONALSPACESTATIONhadaroughgoofitin2015,withnofewerthanthreeaccidentsoranomaliesoccurringduringlaunchthatpreventedcargovehiclesfromgettingtoorbit.InDecember2015,anotherproblemaboardtheISSitselfthreatenedtopreventthevehiclesthatdogettospacefromactuallydockingwiththestation—andoneofthosevehicleswaspoisedtolaunch.ThatnecessitatedanemergencyspacewalkbycommanderScottKellyandastronautTimKopra.Theprobleminvolvedthespacestation’sroboticarm,whichmovesfromplacetoplacealongthestation’scentraltrussaboardasortofminiaturerailcar.Whenanuncrewedcargovehiclearrives,it’sthejobofthearmtoreachoutandgrabit,theneaseitinforadocking.Butduringoneroutinerunalongthetruss,thearmgotstuckjustfourinchesfromwhereitneededtobetograppleanincomingship.“TheMobileTransporterrailcaronthetrusswasbeingmovedbyroboticflightcontrollerstoworksite4whenitstoppedmoving,”NASAspokesmanRobNaviastoldTIMEinanemail.“Causeisstillbeingevaluated,butmightbeastuckbrakehandle.”

stuckbrakehandle.”Thatcameataverybadtime.Justthreedayslater,theProgress62cargovehiclewasscheduledtolaunchfromBaikonur,Kazakhstan,inpreparationforadockingwiththestation.NASAandtheRussiansfacedthetwindramasoftheProgresscountdownproceedingatthesametimeKellyandKoprawerepreparingtofixthetransportercar—andtheymanagedthecrisisdeftly.

TheJapanAerospaceExplorationAgencyKounotori5HTV-FisseenhereovertheilluminatedNileRiveronEarth.

OnDec.21,2015,commanderScottKelly(picturedhere)andflightengineerTimKoprasuccessfullymovetheISS’smobiletransporterrailcartoprepareforthearrivalofaRussiancargo-supplyspacecraft.

LessthanfourhoursaftertheProgressvehicle—loadedwith5,753poundsofcargo—liftedoff,KellyandKopraweresuitingupandheadingout.Onceonthetruss,theymadequickworkoftheproblem.Kellygavethebrakehandleacoupleofswifthits,disengagingitandallowingthearmtorollagain.

coupleofswifthits,disengagingitandallowingthearmtorollagain.“It’smovingnow,”heradioedtotheground.“Ihitittwice;Ithinkthatfixedit.Thatwasprettyeasy.”Actually,easydoesnotdescribeit.Thespacewalktookmorethanthreehoursforajobthatonthegroundwouldtakeafewseconds.Buttherewerecompensations.“MakesureyoulookattheEarth,”KellyremindedKopra.That,asmuchasanything,madethehardworkworthit.

EARTHLINK

WITHACONSTANTSTREAMOFPHOTOGRAPHS,HUMOROUSHASHTAGS,SELFIESANDVIDEOFOOTAGE,KELLYKEPTHISFOLLOWERSUPTODATEVIATWITTER,INSTAGRAMAND

FACEBOOK

ScottKelly@StationCDRKelly•26Jul2015CaughtthesehighaltitudecloudsoverthePacific.Wow!

#YearInSpace

ScottKelly@StationCDRKelly•5Apr2015

ScottKelly@StationCDRKelly•5Apr2015The#EasterBunnycametovisit!#HappyEasterfrom#ISS.

#YearInSpace

ScottKelly@StationCDRKelly•26Mar2015Enjoyingamomentofsolitudebeforemy

#YearInSpace.

ScottKelly@StationCDRKelly•12Jul2015#bahamasandme.Ithinkweallknowwho’sbetterlooking

#YearInSpace

ScottKelly@StationCDRKelly•29Jul2015#EarthArtThecolorpsychologyoforangeisoptimistic.Frommyview

thingsarelookingupdownthere.#YearInSpace

ScottKelly@StationCDRKelly•19May2015@POTUSWelcometo@Twitter,Mr.President.Youtoldmeto#IGmy

missionuphereGladtoseeyoutweetingdownthere

ScottKelly@StationCDRKelly•18Aug2015Sun’sreflectionstrikinggoldin#USheartlandtoday.

#YearInSpace

ScottKelly@StationCDRKelly•16Sep2015#EarthArtHalfayear,stillshedazzles,colors,intrigues,excites,amuses,

interestsandshines.#YearInSpace

ScottKelly@StationCDRKelly•9Aug2015Day135#MilkyWay.You’reold,dusty,gassyandwarped.Butbeautiful.

Goodfromthe@space_station#YearInSpace

ScottKelly@StationCDRKelly•11Dec2015Theyarrivedinspacelikebabybirdsbarelyabletofly&nowtheysoar

homeaseagles.GreatjobKjellandKimiya!

ScottKelly@StationCDRKelly•28Aug2015#Auroraseeninanewlightwithadifferentcameralens.#YearInSpace

ScottKelly@StationCDRKelly•23Oct2015Hurricane#Patriciaapproaches#Mexico.It’smassive.Becareful!

#YearInSpace

ScottKelly@StationCDRKelly•23Dec2015Ourplantsaren’tlookingtoogood.WouldbeaproblemonMars.I’m

goingtohavetochannelmyinnerMarkWatney.

ScottKelly@StationCDRKelly•5Feb2016HonortotalktoPresidentGeorgeH.W.Bushtodayfrom@Space_Station!

ThankyouforvisitingourgreatNASAteam!

THESEARCHFORLIFE

EVENBEFOREWEFINDANORGANISM,THEDEBATEMAYBESETTLED

ThePillarsofCreation,columnsofinterstellargasintheEagleNebulathatwerecapturedbyNASA’sHubbleSpaceTelescope,areaboutfivelight-yearstall.

IFYOUASKNICELY,SCOTTSANDFORDwillbuildyouapieceoftheuniverse.Itwon’tbeabigpiece;that’dbewaytoomuchforasingleastrobiologistinasinglelabattheNASAAmesResearchCenternearSiliconValley.Anditwon’tbeaveryinterestingpiece—justthegasanddustofinter‐stellarspace.He’llswirlitalltogetherinalittlechamberinabigmachineandchillitdownto40Kelvins,whichis–388°Fand,nomatterwhatyoucallit,isvery,verycold.“You’renotallowedtoputyourtongueonthat,”hesays,pointingtothechamber.Thenhedoesaveryimportantthing:hehitsthegasanddustwithradiation—allkindsofradiation,aslongasit’sthekindyou’dfindinspace.Andrightthen,everythingchanges.

everythingchanges.“Yougetenormouschemicaldiversity,”hesays.“Wegetthousandsifnottensofthousandsofproducts.Someofthesearemorestablethanothers.Andsomearemoleculeslikeaminoacids:stuffthatlifeuses.”Howdidwe—humanity,thatis—gethere?Fromthepointofviewofscience,likeitornot,thecommonchemicalsoupinSandford’slabisallthereistoit.Ourgrowingappreciationofthatisjustthelateststepinalongprocessofhumanhumbling.Earthwasthecenteroftheuniverseonce,untilitwasn’t.Oursolarsystem,atleast,wasthemostimportantplaceinthegalaxy—butthatturnedoutnottobesoeither.AndtheMilkyWayitselfisonlyoneofatleast100billiongalaxies.Finally,though,therewaslife:theanimationofanentireplanetwiththingsthatwalkandcrawlandflyandswimand,inthecaseofhumanbeings,thinkbigthoughts.Surelythatwasthelongestoflongshots,somethinguniquetothesoleworldwithexactlytherightmixofingredients,orbitingexactlytherightdistancefromexactlytherightstar.Justlookaroundyou:iflifeisoutthere,whereisit?Thathasn’tstoppedpeoplefromlooking,ofcourse.Foralongtime,thesearchforlifehadbeenamoreorlesspassiveexercise:scantheskiesforsignalsfromanothercivilization,chopintospacerocksthathappentofallonus,orwait—ifyoubelieveinsuchthings—foralienstolandandsettlethequestiononceandforall.Butinrecentyearsthesciencehasgottenmuchmoreseriousandmuchmorerigorous.TheSETI(SearchforExtraterrestrialIntelligence)Institute,inMountainView,Calif.,notfarfromNASAAmes,isexpandingitsworkbeyondjustlisteningforsignalsfromspacetolookingforopticalclueslikelaserflashes.Otherresearcherswanttohuntfortracesofbiologysuchasmethaneandcarbondioxideintheatmosphereofalienworlds.ButthemostcompellingworkisbeingdoneinlabslikeSandford’s,whereresearchersaretryingtodeterminenotjustwhetherextraterrestriallifeexistsbutwhatitwouldlooklikeandhowitwouldfunction.Animatingthisnewpushforanswersisthegrowingbeliefamongmanyscientiststhatthequestionofwhetheralienlifeexistsatallisanoutdatedone.Lifeisoutthere,allright,simplybecauseithastobe.Water,whichisindispensableforbiologyasweknowit,isoneofthemostcommoncompoundsinthecosmos.Aminoacidsroutinelyturnupinthemeteoritesthathavebeenanalyzed.Andwhileasrecentlyas20yearsagoweknewofnootherplanetsintheuniverseapartfromthehandfulinourownsolarsystem,we’vesincespottedthousandsofpossibleorconfirmedworldscirclingotherstars.AshumanitymoveseverclosertoatriptoMarstohuntforlife—andas

AshumanitymoveseverclosertoatriptoMarstohuntforlife—andasAmericanastronautScottKellywrapsupayearaboardtheInternationalSpaceStationtohelpprovethatthehumanbodycansurvivetherigorsofsolongastretchinzero-G—itseemsmoreandmorethatsoambitiousajourneyisverymuchworthmaking.Lifeonotherworldsmaybenotonlypossible,notonlylikely,butchemicallyandmathematicallyinevitable.“Theuniverseishardwiredtobeanorganicchemist,”saysSandford.“It’snotaverycleanortidyone,butithasreallybigbeakersandplentyoftime.”ItisNASAAmesthatisconductingtheworld’smostcomprehensivesearchforlifeinspace,coordinatingitsworkwiththatofeightuniversitiesaswellastheSETI.Thelikelihoodofanysuchresearchers’actuallyfindingevidenceoflifeinspace—specifically,intelligentlifeinourowngalaxywithwhichwecould‐communicate—wasfirstformulatedbyastronomerFrankDrake,in1961,withhisnamesakeDrakeequation.Drake’sformulabeginswiththerateofformationofstarsthatcouldsupporthabitableworlds,thenmultipliesthatfigurebythefractionofthosestarsthathaveplanets,andfurtherbythefractionofthoseplanetsthataresuitableforlife,thefractiononwhichlifeactuallyappears,andsoondownforafewmoremultipliers,includingtheshareofthatlifethatbecomesintelligent.ThefinaltallyofextraterrestrialcivilizationsyouwindupwithdependsonhowyoufillinthoseXs—whichdependsatleastpartlyonhowoptimisticyouare.Drakehasestimatedthefiguretobe10,000worlds.CarlSaganputitat1million.“Aslongasnoneofthefactorsarezero,”saysSandford,“you’dexpecttheretobelife.”Theriskofgettingstuckwithazerowentdownin2009,afterthelaunchoftheplanet-huntingKeplerspacetelescope.Kepler’sjobwasasimpleone:tostareatafixedpatchofspace,lookingforthesubtledimmingoflightaroundastarwhenanorbitingplanetpassesinfrontofit.Thatchangewouldbetiny—“Ifastaris10,000lightbulbs,thetransitofanEarth-likeplanetisliketakingonebulbaway,”saysNatalieBatalha,aNASAastrophysicistandtheKeplermissionscientist.Still,inthebrieftimeKeplerhasbeenoperating,ithasdiscovered4,706candidateplanets,ofwhich1,039havebeenconfirmed.Makingthatfiguremoreimpressive,alloftheseworldshavebeenfoundinaverysmallpatchofsky,just3,000light-yearsdeep—orabout3%ofthedepthoftheMilkyWay—andjust10degreesby10degreesacrosstheentirecanopyofthesky.“It’slikethesizeofmyopenpalmheldatarm’slength,”saysBatalha.That’sanembarrassmentofplanetaryriches,butifyou’relookingforlife,you

That’sanembarrassmentofplanetaryriches,butifyou’relookingforlife,youcannarrowthefieldsome.First,yourplanetneedstobeorbitingitsparentsunintheso-calledGoldilockszone:thenot-too-hot,not-too-coldplacewhereliquidwatercanexist.Itshouldalsobearelativelysmallworld,fromoneEarthradiusuptoabouttwoEarthradiiinsize.Thosearetheplaceslikelytohavebotharockysurfaceandenoughgravitytoholdontotheiratmosphere,assumingtheyhaveoneinthefirstplace.Onceyouhaveaworldlikethat,justaddsomewater,seasonwithhydrocarbons,waitabillionyearsorso,andhello,ET.Sure,thatmightoverstateit,butnotbytoomuch.“LifeonEarthgotstartedveryquickly,”saysSETIseniorastronomerSethShostak.“That’slikewalkingintoacasinoinVegas,pullingthehandleandwinningthejackpot.Yousay,‘Well,eitherI’mvery,veryluckyorthisisnotadifficultbet.’”Shostakisdecidedlyonthesideofitsnotbeingadifficultbet,andSandford’sworkatNASAishelpingtomakethatcase.MuchofSandford’sresearchinvolveswhatareknownasamphiphiles,hydrocarbonchainsthatmakeupourcellwalls.Oneendofthechainishydrophilic(itloveswater);theotherendislipophilic(ithateswaterbutlovesfat).Nosoonerdoamphiphilesstartforminginapreorganicworld—whichiseasyenoughtodoasatomslinkupintostablemolecules—thanthechainssolvetheproblemoftheirbipolarnaturebygatheringintomembraneswiththeendsthatlikewaterontheoutsideandtheendsthatlikefatontheinside.Overtime,themembranesgetbigger,andiftheyhappentoincorporatemoleculesthatmakethemresistanttoexcessiveultravioletradiation,whichcandamagecells,andtosurviveinarangeofacidities,thehardierlittlemembraneseventuallycrowdoutthemorefragileones.It’snotlife,butit’sagoodstart.“Youhavetogothroughaphasewhereeverythingislargelydrivenbythechemicalnatureofthings,”saysSandford.“[But]sincethelawsofphysicsandchemistryarethesameeverywhere,ifyouhavesimilarstartingcomponentsandsimilarenvironments,youshouldgetsimilaroutcomes.”Butthenextsteptowardlifeisabigone:anincipientorganismmustdevelopaninformation-storagesystem,whichonEarthisRNAandDNA.That’sachemicaltrickthatismanyordersofmagnitudemorecomplicatedthangrowingamembrane,butit’sanindispensablecriterionforlife.SaysNASAplanetaryscientistChrisMcKay,“Ahurricaneisaself-organizing,self-propagatingsystemwithalifecycle.It’sborn,itgrows,iteats,andthenitdies.Whyisn’titalive?”Theanswer,inthisview,isthatitcan’trememberwhatit’sdoingorhowit’s

changedandpassthoseimprovementson.Theeasiestanswertohowaninformation-storagesystemgetsstartedwouldcomethroughamodern-dayanaloguetothecelebratedMiller-Ureyexperiment,the1953studyinwhichtwoUniversityofChicagoresearchersre-createdwhattheybelievedtobetheatmosphericconditionsontheearlyEarthandshotelectricitythroughthemodel—representinglightning—whichproducedhydrocarbons.ItwastheprecursortoSandford’smuchmorecomplexstudiesandofferedasatisfyinglysimpledeusexmachinabywhichprebioticchemistrycouldhavetakenabigjump.Afarmorecomplicatedandtheoreticalanswercouldcomethroughthehead-‐spinningworldofquantumphysics,whichdemolishesourfamiliarconceptoflineartimeandallowsittobendbackinsortofarepeatingloop.That,arguesMcKay,meanslifemighteffectivelyprogramitself,withthematureorganismsthatexistattheendofanevolutionarylinewritingthecodefortherudimentaryorganismsthatexistatthebeginning,whichthengrowupandbecomethecodewritersthemselves.“I’mnotsayingit’samatureideaorthought,”hesays.“I’msayingthatwearesoyounginourappreciationofthingsthatitwouldbehardtoruleoutanything.”It’salsopossiblethatwedon’thavetolimitoursearchtolifeasweknowit,becausetherecouldbeuncountablekindsoflifeaswedon’tknowit.Themostcommonlypositedexamplesofalternativebiologyareorganismsthatarenotcarbon-based,likeweare,butsilicon-based.Siliconandcarbonarecloseneighborsontheperiodictable,andbothbondeasilywithotherelements.Butsilicondoesn’tplaywellwithwater,whichactsasthecriticalsolventinallformsoflifeweunderstand.“Insiliconchemistry,alotofthethingsweuseinourbiologywouldexplodeorcombustinwater,”saysToriHoehler,aNASAchemistandbiologist.Methaneisthenext-bestguessforasolvent,andsilicondoesbehavebetterinthatmedium.Saturn’smoonTitanisknowntohavelakesofethaneandmethane,whichiswhytheCassiniorbiterdroppedaprobeintoTitan’satmospheretostudyitschemistrywhenitarrivedintheSaturniansystemin2004.Andwhileliquidmethaneiscold—ontheorderof–258°F—nothingsaysthatotherformsoflifehavetobehappyatwhatwethinkofasroomtemperature.Maybetheirroomsarejustreally,reallycold.Still,lifeasweknowit—warm,wateryandcarbon-based—mightremainthebestmodel.Chemistryandevolutionareboth,intheirownways,lazy.Theytakethesimplestroutestoelegantsolutions.Perhapsthereareotherwaystogetthebiologicaljobdone,butit’shardtocomeupwithabetteralternative.

Ultimately,asmanyastrobiologistsargue,thequestionoflifeinspacemightbeassimpleasathree-partformula:chemistryplusenergyplustime.McKaylikestocitewhat’sknownasthezero-one-infinityrule,whichappliesinalotofscientifictheoriesbutespeciallyinthesearchforlife.Weknowthatthenumberofplanetsintheuniversewithlifeisnotzero.Weknowsofarthatit’satleastone.Ifwedofindanother,itmakesnochemicalormathematicalsenseforthetotalpotentialfigurenottobeunlimited.“Sowhatwe’researchingfor,”saysMcKay,“istwo.”Thatsearchisasbigastheuniverse—butsoisthepromiseitholds.

HOMECOMING

WITHTHEWORLDWATCHING,SCOTTKELLY,MIKHAILKORNIENKOANDSERGEYVOLKOVMADEAPICTURE-PERFECTTOUCHDOWNINKAZAKHSTANONMARCH2

Expedition46touchesdownsoutheastofthetownofDzhezkazganinKazakhstan.

DATES,RAISINSANDSWEETENEDDOUGHwouldsurelylookgoodtoaspace-stationcrewmemberwhohasjustputintheaveragesix-monthhitchinorbit—tosaynothingofScottKellyandMikhailKornienkoafternearlyafullyear.Butitwouldtakeabraveastronauttoeatthedates,raisinsandsweeteneddoughtheyservedupduringthewelcome-homeceremonyatZhezkazganAirportinKazakhstan.That’sbecausewhatanastronaut’sstomachsaysandwhatanastronaut’sotolithssayaretwodifferentthings.Andwhenyou’rebackonEarthandfeelingthetugofgravityafteralongperiodinweightlessness,it’stheotoliths—thelittlestonesoffloatingcalciumintheinnerearthatgovernbalanceandpreventmotionsickness—thatrule.Forthatreason,nobodyateabiteasKelly,KornienkoandRussiancosmonautSergeyVolkov,whoonlytwohoursearlierhadlandedinthesteppeintheirSoyuzspacecraft,werehelpedtotheirchairsintheairportreceivingarea.WhileKazakh,RussianandAmericandignitariesapplauded,afusilladeofcamerasflashedandfouryoungwomenintraditionalKazakhcostume—long,bright,yellow-and-greendresseswithbrightgreenheadpieces—broughtinthe

yellow-and-greendresseswithbrightgreenheadpieces—broughtinthetraditionalfoods.Therewereothergifts,too,forthemenwhohadbeguntheirday250milesoverhead,circlingtheplanetonceevery88minutes.TherewasamedalforVolkov,whohadcommandedthespacecraftonitsreturn.TherewereRussiannestingdollswiththelikenessofeachastronautpaintedonthefront.AndforKelly,whohasnowflownfourmissionsandholdstheAmericanrecordforlongestunbrokenstayinspace,therewastheinevitablequestion:“Wouldyouconsidergoingback?”Hisanswerwassuccinct.“Iwouldalwaysconsiderflyinginspace,”hesaid,“noquestion.”

ThearrivaloftheSoyuzTMA-18MonMarch2,2016.

Thatmayjustbeastronautbravado,thoughyouwouldn’thaveknownittolookatKelly.Volkoventeredtheroomattheairportwiththetelltalegaitofapersonjustbackfromspace—backstraight,headupright,eyeslockedahead.Hedarednotturntolookatsomeonewithoutrotatinghisentirebody,sincepivotinghishead—or,muchworse,flickinghiseyes—wouldbringonadizzy,sicklyswoon.Kornienkolookedbetter,thoughhewasdrawnandclearlyfatigued.Kelly,however,nodded,turned,smiledandjokedandlookedeverybitlikea

Kelly,however,nodded,turned,smiledandjokedandlookedeverybitlikeamanwhohadspentthepast340daysonEarth,notcirclingandcirclingaboveit.“What’swithalltheovercoats?”heaskedtherescuerswhoextractedhimfromthecapsuleinthefrigidwindofthefrozensteppe.“Thisfeelsgreat.”Achesandpainskickedinafewdayslater,buttheycouldnotdetractfromtheinitialexhilarationofreturningsafelyfromayearinspace.TheentireprocessofrescuingaSoyuzcrewisanactofhumancaretakingonamassivescale.Ittakesamonthofplanning,thecoordinationofthreecountries,andthechessboard-likedeploymentofthreeseparateteamsofhelicopters,all-terrainvehicles,snowmobilesandrescuersinagreattriangleinnorthernKazakhstanboundedbythecitiesofKaraganda,ZhezkazganandArkalyk.Poorweatherinonecornerofthevastfieldwouldmeanshiftingpartofthedeploymenttoanother.Ashallow—orballistic—reentrywouldhavemeantsprintingfarsouthofallthreecitiesforanemergencyrescueataless-certainsite.Thatjobcompleted,nextwillcomethebiomedicalworkthatwastheentirepurposeofthemission.Themoretimesastronautsgotospace,thebettertheyadapttotheotherworldlystateofzero-Gandreadapttotheleadenfeelofagravityfieldwhentheyreturn,whichhelpedexplainKelly’sapparenteaseintheairport.

ThelandingsiteasviewedthroughthewindowofaRussianMI-8helicopterarrivingonthescene.

CommanderKellyrestsafterasafelandingat10:26a.m.localtime.“What’swithalltheovercoats?”Kellyaskedtherescuers.“Thisfeelsgreat.”

Butthephysicalinsultsofspacetravel—thetollweightlessnesstakesonallofthebody’ssystems,nottomentionthedamagetheconstantbathofhighradiationcandototheDNA—maybecumulative.Aloneweekinspacecoulddomuchlessdamagethananadditionalweekheapedontopofthe49Kellyspentthere.Thegreattwinsexperiment,withKelly’sbrotherMarkservingasageneticallyidenticalcontrolsubject,willhelpscientistsdeterminewhichofthechangesthatScott’sbodyunderwentinthepastyearareindeedattributabletohistimeinorbitandwhicharetheresultofnothingmorethana51-year-oldmanlivingtheyearthatturnshim52.Findingthoseanswerswillbecriticaltodiscoveringwhetherhumanbeings,whobrashlytalkaboutmakingatwo-orthree-yeartriptoMarsandbackoneday,actuallyhavethebodiestobackupthatboast.Thatwillmeanmoreone-yearastronauts,possiblyquiteafewmore.

KellyshortlyafterheexitedtheSoyuzTMA-18M.

Crewmates(fromleft)MikhailKornienko,SergeyVolkovandKellyrestafterlanding.

“We’relookingatasmanyas10,”saysDougWheelock,aNASAastronautandtheincomingdirectorofNASA’sofficeatStarCity,theRussianspaceagency’sheadquartersoutsideMoscow.“Andtogetagooddataset,weneedagoodmixofsubjects,whichmeanswomenandmen,oldercrewmembersandyoungerones,veteransandfirst-timers.There’salotwehavetolearn.”Thatisnotcheeringnewsforspacepartisansmissingthegoldeneraofthemoonlandings,wearyofmorethan40yearsofrowingincirclesinlow-Earth

orbitandanxioustoflyoffandkickupsomeMarsdustalready.Butambitioncan’tsprintaheadofsafety—andthere’ssomethingtobesaidforthepokierpaceoftodaycomparedwiththeheadlongrushofthemoonera.Thespaceracethenmayhavebeenfueledbyambition,visionandacommitmenttodreamupthemostdifficult,outrageous,improbablethingwecould,togiveourselvesadeadline—beforetheendofthe1960sandnotadaylater!—andthengooffanddoit.Butitwasfueledbyother,lesslovelythingstoo.Itwasaverybigpieceofaverycoldwar,abattleofarmies,ideologiesandnucleararmsbetweentheU.S.andthenow-vanishedU.S.S.R.,andaflagonthemoonforonesidewasmeantasafingerintheeyetotheother.Halfacenturyon,alittleceremonycanbeheldinanairportloungewithroomforthreeflagsandthreeinterpretersspeakingthreedifferentlanguages.Andaroundthemcanbemenandwomeninthelight-bluejumpsuitsofNASAandthedark-bluejumpsuitsofRoscosmos,withtheAmericanstarsandstripesortheRussiantricolorstitchedtotheirshouldersandnoonereallycaringmuchwhowaswearingwhat.KellyandKornienko,representativesofthosecountries,flewtogetherinthesameway,andiftherewillbeamedicalpricetopayfortheirlongyearinspace,theywillpayittogethertoo.Butthebenefits—asthetwoofthemsurelyknewbeforetheywent,ortheywouldn’thavegoneatall—willbelongtoourquesting,spacefaringspeciesasawhole.

CREDITSCOVERMarcoGrobTITLEPAGENASACONTENTSNASABLASTINGINTOTHEFUTURE4MarcoGrob7NASA/RobertMarkowitz8NASA/BillIngalls10MartinGee11MarcoGrobLIFTOFF!12–13NASA/BillIngalls14NASA/BillIngalls15NASA/BillIngallsTHEGREATTWINSTUDYBEGINS16–17MarcoGrob18CourtesyoftheKellyFamily/NASA19CourtesyoftheKellyFamily/NASA20MarcoGrob21NASAATHOMEABOVETHEWORLD22–23NASA24–25NASA(3)LANDSCAPEMODE26–31NASA/ScottKelly(3)GETTINGTHEWORKDONE32–33NASA34NASA35NASA(2)36–37NASA(3)LABSANDLEISURETIME38NASA/ScottKelly;NASA39NASATHESPACESHOT40–41NASA43NASA/ReganGeeseman45ESA/NASAWHYSALADINSPACEMATTERS46NASA(2)47NASADOCKINGMANEUVERS48–49NASA50NASA(2)ARECORD-BREAKINGWOMAN52–53ESA/NASA54NASA/BillIngalls55NASAWATERWORLD56–61NASA/ScottKelly(6)SHUTTLINGSCIENCE62–63NASA65CourtesyVirginiaBeachCityPublicSchoolsTIMEFORAWALK66–67NASA(3)FIFTEENYEARSAND...68NASA70–71NASA/GaryDaines;NASA72NASA/CharlesBabir73–74APPhoto/JohnRaoux;NASA/ScottKelly;NASACITIESFROMABOVE74–79NASA/ScottKelly(3)EMERGENCYSPACEWALK80–81NASA82–83NASA(2)SOCIALSKILLS84–85NASA/ScottKellyTHESEARCHFORLIFE86NASA,ESAandtheHubbleHeritageTeam(STScI/AURA)HOMECOMING90–91NASA/BillIngalls92–93NASA/BillIngalls(3)94NASA/BillIngalls(2)

EditorNancyGibbsCreativeDirectorD.W.PineDirectorofPhotographyKiraPollack

AYEARINSPACEInsideScottKelly’sHistoricMission—IsTraveltoMarsNext?EditorsCourtneyMifsud,EileenDaspinWriterJeffreyKlugerDesignerAnne-MichelleGalleroPhotoEditorHeatherCaseyCopyEditorJosephMcCombsEditorialProductionDavidSloan

AYEARINSPACE:THEDOCUMENTARYSERIESDirectorShaulSchwarzCo-DirectorMarcoGrobProducerJonathanD.WoodsEditorAndreyAlistratovCinematographersChristinaClusiau,MarcoGrob,ShaulSchwarzAssistantProducerHeatherCaseyExecutiveProducersMikeBeck,JeffreyKluger,IanOrefice,KiraPollackSoundMixDanDzulaTitle-SequenceComposerJeremyTurner

TIMEINC.BOOKSPublisherMargotSchupfAssociatePublisherAllisonDevlinVicePresident,FinanceTerriLombardiVicePresident,MarketingJeremyBiloonExecutiveDirector,MarketingServicesCarolPittardDirector,BrandMarketingJeanKennedyFinanceDirectorKevinHarringtonAssistantGeneralCounselAndrewGoldbergAssistantDirector,ProductionSusanChodakiewiczSeniorManager,CategoryMarketingBryanChristianBrandManagerKatherineBarnetAssociatePrepressManagerAlexVoznesenskiyProjectManagerHillaryLearyEditorialDirectorStephenKoeppCreativeDirectorGaryStewartDirectorofPhotographyChristinaLiebermanEditorialOperationsDirectorJamieRothMajorSeniorEditorAlyssaSmithAssistantArtDirectorAnne-MichelleGalleroCopyChiefRinaBander

AssistantManagingEditorGinaScauzilloAssistantEditorCourtneyMifsud

SpecialThanksNASA,BradBeatson,NicoleFisher,ErinHines,KristinaJutzi,SeniquaKoger,KateRoncinske,KrystalVenableCopyright©2016TimeInc.BooksPublishedbyTimeBooks,animprintofTimeInc.Books225LibertyStreet•NewYork,NY10281Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthisbookmaybereproducedinanyformorbyanyelectronicormechanicalmeans,includinginformationstorageandretrievalsystems,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher,exceptbyareviewer,whomayquotebriefpassagesinareview.TIMEandtheRedBorderdesignareprotectedthroughtrademarkregistrationintheUnitedStatesandintheforeigncountrieswhereTIMEmagazinecirculates.

eISBN:978-1-68330-356-5WewelcomeyourcommentsandsuggestionsaboutTimeBooks.Pleasewritetousat:TimeBooks,Attention:BookEditors,P.O.Box62310,Tampa,FL33662-2310.IfyouwouldliketoorderanyofourhardcoverCollector’sEditionbooks,pleasecallusat800-327-6388,MondaythroughFriday,7a.m.–9p.m.CentralTime.

BEHINDTHECAMERAS

AteamofTIMEjournalistsandcontributorsworkedfornearlytwoyearstoproducethedocumentaryseriesAYearinSpace,thebasisforanhourlongTIMEandPBSfeature.TheteamgatheredinHoustoninDecember2014withastronautScottKelly(atrear)inamock-upoftheInternationalSpaceStation,whereastronautstrainfortheirmissionsaboardtheISS.WithKelly,fromleftincenterrow,aredocumentaryproducerJonathanWoods,executiveproducer

JeffreyKlugerandco-directorMarcoGrob.AtfrontisdirectorShaulSchwarz.WatchTIME’svideoseriesattime.com/space.Forinformationonviewingthefull-lengthdocumentary,gotopbs.org/yearinspace