Tides of the Desert – Gezeiten der Wüste · LERNIA 1999). 1.2. Ecological setting The Messak...

Geo-Sciences in Northern Africa 403

H E I N R I C H - B A R T H - I N S T I T U T

Contributions tothe Archaeology and Environmental History of Africain Honour of Rudolph Kuper

Tides of the Desert –

Gezeiten der Wüste

Beiträge zu Archäologie und Umweltgeschichte Afrikaszu Ehren von Rudolph Kuper

Edited by Jennerstrasse 8

Jennerstrasse 8 comprises Tilman Lenssen-Erz, Ursula Tegtmeier and Stefan Kröpelinas well as Hubert Berke, Barbara Eichhorn, Michael Herb, Friederike Jesse,Birgit Keding, Karin Kindermann, Jörg Linstädter, Stefanie Nußbaum, Heiko Riemer,Werner Schuck and Ralf Vogelsang

404 Stefan Kröpelin

K Ö L N 2 0 0 2

Monographien zur Archäologie und Umwelt Afrikas

Monographs on African Archaeology and Environment

Monographies sur l'Archéologie et l'Environnement d'Afrique

14 A F R I C A P R A E H I S T O R I C A

Herausgegeben von Rudolph Kuper

UNIVERSITÄT ZU KÖLN

Heinrich - Barth - Institut für Archäologie und Geschichte Afrikas


Damage to Natural and Cultural Heritage by Petroleum Exploration andDesert Tourism in the Messak Settafet (Central Sahara, Southwest Libya)

Stefan Kröpelin

Abstract

Recent petroleum exploration in the central Sahara on the Messak Settafet (Fezzan/Southwest Libya)has led to the discovery of the giant “Elephant Field”, but caused unparalleled and mostly irreversibledamage to the natural desert environment and to the cultural heritage, which includes some of the world'smost important rock engravings and probably the largest Palaeolithic surface site of Northern Africa.Against this background, the impact of recent off-road tourism still appears negligible.

It is imperative to prevent any avoidable damage in the future. Hydrocarbon exploration in the MurzuqBasin and the imminent oil production on the Messak must take into account the unique richness ofthe region by applying a systematic damage-prevention strategy. Environmental and archaeologicalsurveys, including rescue excavations and ecological impact studies, should precede any further industrialactivities.

In this context, it is proposed to set up a scheme that combines the creation of a protected areasprogramme, a strategy for sustainable desert tourism, and the foundation of a Desert Survey and SaharanResearch Centre, which should conduct systematic surveys of southern Libya's natural and culturalheritage, aid in the damage-prevention of industrial projects and tourism, and be in charge of awarenessbuilding and training.

If only a tiny amount of the enormous petroleum revenues will be assigned to the proposed measuresas a kind of compensation for the damage to the Saharan heritage, Messak Settafet – instead of beingstigmatised as an example to be avoided at all costs – could become the heart of a pilot project withnational and international reach.

Keywords: Sahara, petroleum exploration, cultural heritage, desert tourism, preservation.

1.1. Geographical framework

The Messak plateau occupies an area of approxi-mately 350 x 80 km between the extensive dunefields of the Ubari Sand Sea to the north, theMurzuq Sand Sea to the south and east, and theIgidi Wa-n-Kassan to the west [Fig. 1]. TheMessak can be sub-divided into two plateaus: theMessak Settafet (or 'Black Plateau' because of thevery dark colour of the rock surface) in the north,and the Messak Mellet (or 'White Plateau' becauseof its sandy cover) in the south.

The Messak Settafet borders the large intracratonicMurzuq Basin and is built up by Mesozoic sand-stone mostly consisting of mixed fluvial strata(KLITZSCH 1970). It is limited to the north by anup to 160 m high cliff that dominates Wadi Irwanand the plateau's northern foreland [Fig. 2]. Theescarpments of the Messak plateaus were prob-ably formed by differential erosion under humidconditions during the Tertiary and may thereforebe considered as relict features in the modern aridenvironment (BUSCHE 1980).

The plateau culminates at an altitude of 950 ma.s.l. and declines gently in a southeasterly direc-tion with a gradient of 1 % only. Its hamada

1. Introduction


Wadi Irw

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Wad

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surface constitutes an extreme desert landscape[Fig. 3]. The dark colour of its stone coveroriginates from complex and very old rock var-nish (CREMASCHI 1996). The valleys that issueclose to the northern escarpment drain in a seriesof roughly parallel gashes into the sands of WadiBerjuj, a large interior drainage system situatedbetween the southern limit of the Messak Settafetand the northern edge of the Murzuq Sand Sea.

This part of Southwest Libya plays an impor-tant role for the reconstruction of Pleistocene andHolocene environments, climate change and theprehistory of the central Sahara. Nonetheless,apart from geological and rock art studies, it hasreceived little attention compared to the neigh-bouring area of Wadi Teshuinat which was thesubject of more detailed palaeo-environmentaland archaeological field research during the pastdecades (KANES, ed., 1969. CREMASCHI & DILERNIA 1999).

1.2. Ecological setting

The Messak Plateau is one of the last remainingSaharan regions to preserve an environment thatuntil recently was virtually intact, since it hadbeen sheltered from human impact because ofdifficult access and an absence of economic inter-est (FRISON-ROCHE 1965). With an estimatedmean annual precipitation of slightly above 20 mm,the hamada of Messak Settafet is virtually unin-habited and, with the exception of a few slightdepressions, very hostile to all forms of life.Vegetation and wildlife are constrained to thenumerous wadis and their tributaries that cutacross the plateau.

The ecosystems of these valleys are heavilydepending on the seasonal or episodic water flowoccurring after occasional winter rains. Theseecological niches support various species of plants,which are the last relicts of the central Sahara'smore humid past (SCHULZ 1987). Open wateronly subsists in some gueltas and in a fewprotected locations in the wadis [Fig. 4]. More

Fig. 1 Sketch map and Gemini XI space photograph (1966)of the plateaus of Messak Settafet and Messak Mellet withareas of recent petroleum exploration.

Fig. 2 Northern escarpment of the Messak Settafet, up to160 m high. Person on top for scale.

Fig. 3 Hamada surface of the Messak Settafet plateau.

Fig. 4 Wadi Matkhendush as seen from episodic water poolnear major rock art station.


important for the vegetation, in particular for theastonishingly flush trees, is the sub-surface waterat the bottom of the sand-filled wadis [Fig. 5]. Aprovisional list of plants observed in short sec-tions of merely two wadis (Wadi Bedis, WadiMatkhendush) already includes more than 30species [Tab. 1].

Only animals specially adapted to extreme desertconditions can survive in the Messak Settafet.Even though high summer is hardly a favourabletime to make wildlife observations, some 20species were identified over a short survey. Theyinclude several occurrences of gazelle (Gazella sp.)and barbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia), which

were identified by their tracks and droppings.Dassies and hares are represented by rock hyrax(Procavia capensis) and cape hare (Lepus capensis).Brown-necked ravens (Corvus ruficollis), desertsparrows (Passer simplex saharae), spanish spar-rows (Passer hispaniolensis), white-crowned blackwheatears (Oenanthe leucopyga), sand grouse andowls figure among the rather diverse bird fauna(det. J.-L. LeQuellec, Brenessard). Other observa-tions include horned viper (Cerastes cerastes), liz-ards (Agama impalearis and cf. Acanthodactylusboskianus), scorpion (cf. Androctonus amoreuxii),beetle (Pimelia angulata), spider (cf. Galeodibusolivieri), two species of praying mantis, anteaterand various species of butterflies, moths, flies,ants and termites.

1.3. Cultural heritage

The petroglyphs on the sandstone of the MessakSettafet probably have no equivalent in the worldin terms of their number, originality and quality(LeQUELLEC 1985. MORI 1994). There are thou-sands of freezes mostly depicting pastoral andhunting scenes, which provide insights into sym-bolism and cognition of the past.

It was just the Wadi Tilizaghen in MessakSettafet where the first Saharan rock art ever wasnoted on July 5th, 1850, when the German geog-

Fig. 5 Lush acacia trees, Wadi Bedis.

Tab. 1 Provisional list of wadi flora in Messak Settafet. (Determination: F. Darius, St. Nussbaum, Köln, partly on the basis ofphotographs)

Acacia cf. niloticaAcacia raddianaAcacia seyalAerva cf. javanica (syn. A. persica)Aristida pungensAtractylis sp.Balanites aegyptiacacf. Chenopodiaceae (>2 species)cf. Colligonum sp.Desmostachia bipinnataDeverra tortuosa (syn. Pitoranthus tortuosus)Fagonia cf. arabicaFagonia cf. indicaFaidherbia cf. albida (syn. Acacia cf. albida)cf. Farsetia aegyptiaForsskaolea sp.

Heliotropium cf. ramosissimumcf. Juncus sp.Launaea sp.LiliaceaeMaerua crassifoliacf. Neurada procubensPanicum turgidumPergularia sp.PoaceaePulicaria crispa (syn. P. undulata)cf. RhusSchouwia thebaicaSolanaceaeStipagrostis sp.Zilla spinosa


rapher, historian and philologist Heinrich Barthcrossed the plateau (BARTH 1857-58). A firstsystematic study of the rock engravings in theWadi Matkhendush (previously called Wadi InHabeter) was undertaken under the guidance ofLeo Frobenius in 1932 (FROBENIUS 1937). WadiTilizaghen was subsequently the subject of pub-lications by GRAZIOSI (1942), HUARD & ALLARD-HUARD (1971), JELINEK (1985a. 1985b) and others.

The enthusiasm of geologists, desert travellersand dedicated rock art amateurs led to the dis-covery of a large number of further engravingsand rock-cut reliefs in other valleys mostly duringthe past two decades (PESCE 1968. CASTIGLIONIet al. 1986. GAUTHIER et al. 1996. VAN ALBADA& VAN ALBADA, eds., 1994. LUTZ & LUTZ 1995and others). The first comprehensive synthesis onthe rock art and prehistory of the Messak basedon extensive fieldwork was published only re-cently (LeQUELLEC 1998).

The rock engravings typically occur in themiddle section of the valleys. They are less nu-merous towards their lower parts where the cliffsare smaller in size, and next to the valley headswhere the bottom of the valleys often becomesvery chaotic. They are impressive evidence of thefull range of wild and domestic animals, whichexisted in the savannahs of the early and mid-Holocene humid phase about 11,000-5000 yearsago. The spectrum includes ecologically highlydemanding fauna such as giraffes [Fig. 6], el-ephants [Fig. 7], crocodiles [Fig. 8], rhinoceros

Fig. 6 Rock engravings of large herd of giraffes, WadiMatkhendush. White contour lines are computer-generated.

Fig. 7 Rock engraving of elephant and humans, WadiMatkhendush. Height 1.6 m. White contour lines are compu-ter-generated.

Fig. 8 Rock engraving of crocodile with young one, WadiMatkhendush. Cracks are widened in comparison to L. Frobe-nius' photo of 1932. Length 2.5 m.

Fig. 9 Rock engraving of hunted rhinoceros with animal-headed human, Wadi Mathkendush. Width 1.4 m. Whitecontour lines are computer-originated.


[Fig. 9], wild cats or guenons [Fig. 10] andbovines, e.g. Bubalus [Fig. 11]. The rock art alsoprovides detailed insights into past human behav-iour and imagination, including sexuality andmythology, and living conditions in the centralSahara. There is little doubt that many still un-discovered sites in the valleys of the Messak willenhance the evidence.

Beside the rock art, lithic artefacts and monu-ments constitute the second pillar of the culturallegacy of the Messak Settafet. Nearly the entireplateau is littered with innumerable lithic objectsthat mostly date to the Palaeolithic era (Middleand Upper Acheulian, Aterian). With its verygentle slope that prevents any major erosion oraccumulation outside the valleys, it presents avery ancient and stable surface that has notchanged much over the past hundreds of thou-sands of years. This is confirmed by the presenceof abundant prehistoric artefacts that have gen-erally stayed in situ [Fig. 12]. The Palaeolithicoccupation sites and workshops often includeextraordinarily large Levallois cores, blades andother implements [Fig. 13].

Neolithic sites and objects are also present. Incontrast to the Palaeolithic remains, they almostexclusively occur along the banks of the valleys,or near caves, abris and other sheltered places,and are often associated with rock art sites. Thematerial evidence includes pottery, fragments ofostrich-eggshells, arrowheads, upper and lowergrinding stones, pestles, and polished axes. As anexception, the so-called “stones of Ben Barur”

Fig. 10 Rock engravings of wild cats or guenons, WadiMatkhendush.

Fig. 11 Half relief of head of Bubalus, Wadi Bedis. Diameter10 cm.

Fig. 12 Acheulean hand-axe in upright in-situ position on theMessak Settafet plateau. Scale 10 cm.

Fig. 13 Palaeolithic workshop withlarge Levallois cores and decime-tres-long blades, above Wadi Bedis.Scale 10 cm.


occur predominantly on the plateau. This sup-ports their interpretation as trapping stones forcatching large game on the plains, which is alsoindicated by depictions in Wadi Bedis where atrapped bovine attached to a grooved stone isdisplayed (CASTIGLIONI et al. 1986: Cat. 8).

The pre-Islamic lithic monuments are alsomainly situated in the vicinity of wadis. Theyinclude up to a few metres high burial mounds,stone circles and numerous monuments with oneor two satellite constructions that can reachseveral tens of metres in length [Figs. 14; 15].More recent occupation of the area is indicatedby a number of “desert mosques” and Islamictombs.

Before the arrival of the British oil companyLASMO Grand Maghreb Limited (LGML), whichacted as the operating company of a consortiumincluding the Italian AGIP-ENI and five compa-nies from South Korea, in the Messak NC174concession area in 1990, two other companies hadalready undertaken hydrocarbon exploration inthe area. The impact of these (unsuccessful)operations had been relatively slight, having beenessentially limited to the laying out of superficialparallel tracks at intervals of 4 km for seismicoperations. In 1993, LASMO extended the tracksto a square grid of seismic lines on a 4 by 4 kmbasis for a more sophisticated two-dimensional(2D) geophysical exploration.

In October 1997, this exploration led to thediscovery of the most important Libyan oil fieldin two decades in the area of Wadi Bedis, thediscovery well flowing 7,500 barrels of oil per day(bopd; 1 barrel = 159 litres) of sweet 38 degreesAPI crude. This major breakthrough in the so-called “Elephant Field” triggered the beginning ofthe three-dimensional (3D) seismic explorationusing a much finer grid.

Following a four well appraisal programmeand the acquisition of the 3D seismic survey, thefield was declared commercial in February 1999.The estimated 560 million barrel “Elephant Field”on license block NC174 is operated by LASMOwith a 33% interest (www.lasmo.com, May 2001).

The major discovery and initial developmentof the giant “Elephant Field” has greatly increasedinterest for the area's potential. Many petroleumgeologists and companies now believe that theMurzuq basin may well develop into a new majorhydrocarbon province which will significantlycontribute to Europe's energy needs in the nextdecades (SOLA & WORSLEY 2000).

At the same time, the increase in seismic lines,re-used as tracks, has facilitated the access to theMessak region for off-road tourism. An increasingnumber of individual travellers familiar withdesert conditions and interested in rock art beganto venture out onto the Messak Settafet since 1993.Over the past few years, organised and grouptourism has been growing significantly. Groupsof tens of cars, lorries and motorbikes traverse the

Fig. 14 Circular lithic construction on the plateau. Diameterc. 1.5 m. Sign posted by petroleum company to raise attentionof truck drivers.

Fig. 15 One of the numerous monuments with satelliteconstructions that are tens of metres long.

2. Recent oil exploration and off-roadtourism


plateau and valleys, both on the tracks and offthem. The consequences of this development areof course more severe than those previouslycaused by individual travellers.

Another key factor for the sharp increase ofdesert tourism in general was the arrival of easilyavailable and inexpensive satellite positioningdevices based on the Global Positioning System(GPS) about a decade ago that enormously facili-tates the navigation in desert regions lackingreliable maps. In combination with internet sitesand guide books (e.g. GANDINI 1994-1999) thatare circulating extensive lists with track logs ofroutes and precise geographical positions of pointsof interests, including prehistoric and rock artsites, even the less experienced but well equippedoff-road traveller can now reach remote places.

The recent petroleum exploration on the MessakSettafet has caused major damage to the naturalheritage (landscape, fauna, flora, hydrology) andto the cultural heritage (lithic material, monu-ments and structures, rock art). Against thisbackground, the actual harm to the area by off-road tourism still appears secondary.

3.1. Impact on the natural environment

The original seismic grid of the recent explorationinvolved the bulldozing of seismic lines acrossmost of the Messak Settafet over the entire11,300 km2 NC 174 concession area but these werea few kilometres apart. The most important dam-age to the Messak Settafet only emerged from thebulldozing of a close grid of seismic lines to allowthe operation of the heavy seismic vehicles for the3-dimensional geophysical exploration of the sub-surface structural geology of the petroleum res-ervoirs.

Over the “Elephant Field”, an area of 240 km2,there are some 50 north-south seismic lines of25 km in length and spaced at 200 m intervals,and about 30 east-west lines of 10 km in length[Fig. 16]. Each line is about 4 m wide, correspond-ing to the blade width of the bulldozers, and oftenseveral decimetres deep to remove the loose

rubble and to expose the hard rock for betterseismic signals.

The length of these seismic lines sums up toabout 1,500 km. Their impact on the naturalenvironment of the central Messak Settafet is yetmuch more severe because of their geometricpattern which results in the complete graphicdisorganisation of the landscape.

What is more, in consequence of the heavytraffic associated with the exploration works, thedrivers of trucks and other heavy machinery leftthe seismic lines and the main tracks to avoidrocky or soft passages or to directly reach theirdestination. This led to the progressive enlarge-ment of many tracks and an almost complete

Fig. 16 SPOT image of the central Messak Settafet showingdense grid of bulldozed seismic lines in the so-called “ElephantField”. The seismic lines are 4 m wide, spaced at 200 m inter-vals and have a total length of 1,500 km. Note the vast destruc-tion of the natural surface around test well drill sites (whitecircles) and service areas. Equidistance of cross marks 5 km.

3. Nature and scope of damage

F2-NC174

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devastation of the natural surface around the mostfrequented areas such as the service areas ordrilling sites of the test wells [Fig. 17]. In additionto this, turning points, loops, shortcuts and de-tours have been bulldozed at each intersectionwith the dense network of valleys [Fig. 18].

The surface deposits of the less rocky sectorsof the plateau are composed of porous palaeo-soilformations, on average ten centimetres thick, andprotected by a thin sealing layer from erosion anddeflation by the everyday winds that cross theplateau. The destruction of the protective layer bytraffic or construction works has caused theemission of large quantities of dust into theatmosphere resulting in a significant increase indust clouds and whirls over the region [Fig. 19].

In spite of all efforts by the operating oilcompany to clean up the four test well sites,remnants of oil spills and other pollutants havebeen noticed which hint at the risks of pollutionto the plateau once the petroleum production isin full operation [Fig. 20].

Summarising the overall impression of theindustrial impact on the plateau, it is evident thatthe surface of the Messak Settafet can hardly everregain its original state, even if the exploitationhas not even started.

The impact on the wadi floors and slopes, eventhough these are much more limited in terms ofextent, is just as alarming as the one upon theplateau surface because it directly affects animaland plant life. Because of their low topographicposition, the wadis act as catchall for any drainageor spill of liquids from the plateau, be it sewagefrom the service centres or possible oil spills. Forexample, remnants of heavy mud from a drill sitehave been observed in a tributary and in a wadisection near a test well in spite of the carefulremoval of most of the toxic substance by thecontractors of the petroleum company [Fig. 21].

The damming of valleys or drainage lines bydebris bulldozed at the wadi crossings, and theincrease of accumulated fluvial sediments due tothe surface degradation along the valleys haveimpeded and even interrupted the run-off in somewadis, and hence the water distribution along thevalleys after the rare but intense rains [Fig. 22].These changes in the hydrological system dimin-ish or prevent the recharge of the local near-surface groundwater and thus put on risk the

Fig. 17 Aerial view of seismic lines, tracks and ravaged areasin the “Elephant Field”, central Messak Settafet.

Fig. 18 Aerial view of bulldozed seismic tracks and turningpoints along valley in the “Elephant Field”, central MessakSettafet.

Fig. 19 Progressive enlargement of tracks causing emissionof dust, e.g. along the main track to the “Elephant Field”.


existence of trees and other plants down thevalley that on their part are vital for the survivalof the wildlife. The numerous wadi crossings havealready disordered the migratory routes of wildanimals.

There is no doubt that many animals havealready fled from the operations and that mostwild species will vanish from the area as soon asthe planned Gas-oil Separation Plant (GOSP) andthe wells, camps and routes are in operation. Itis obvious that the major part of the insectpopulation of the entire Messak Settafet will burn– possibly to extinction – in the flares of theproduction wells and the GOSP which will bevisible over a radius of tens of kilometres.

The obvious surface damage to the plateau andthe valleys should not distract from the veryimportant risks of invisible damage, particularlythose concerning the subsoil and the aquifer,which, in this very arid region, constitutes themost important but non-renewable resource. Thegravity of ecological, sanitary and economic risksassociated with the intended extraction and re-injection of groundwater for pushing up thepetroleum should not be underestimated. Theyimply the possible exhaustion or contamination ofthe groundwater with incalculable effects on thefreshwater supply of the local population in thesurrounding regions and for agricultural schemessuch as the agricultural farms in Wadi Berjuj.

Compared to the above mentioned damagecaused and likely to be caused by the petroleumindustry, the impact of recent desert tourism tothe natural environment seems almost negligible,even if any off-road vehicle inevitably adds to thedegradation of the unspoilt surface left, camp firescontribute to the exhaustion of wood, and rubbishis a blot on the landscape.

3.2. Impact on lithic material, monuments andstructures

The Messak hamada is characterised over most ofits surface by sandstone rocks that are more orless silicified and occasionally bearing silicifiedwood. The prehistoric population of the entireregion, in the large sense of that term, came thereto collect lithic raw materials, which they workedin situ in the course of nomadic or sedentary stays

Fig. 20 Oil waste in flare pit, test well drill site F1, central“Elephant Field”.

Fig. 21 Disturbed wadi bed after the removal of heavy mudfrom drill site spill, Wadi Bedis.

Fig. 22 Bulldozed material at wadi crossing impeding down-valley water flow after the rare rains, Wadi Bedis.


while benefiting from the luxuriant valleys andthe plentiful game which provided the resourcesfor living (DI LERNIA et al. 1997). The passage ofthese people is attested from the Lower Palaeolithicto the Neolithic, and it is by virtue of this factthat the Messak is crucial for the study of theevolution of techniques in which the raw mate-rials were exploited (LeQUELLEC 1998).

The exploratory works have been most dam-aging to this kind of archaeological evidence,above all in the 3D seismic survey area, along themain tracks, around the test wells and the campsand air strips (cf. Fig. 19).

Numerically, the 1,500 km long seismic lineshave only destroyed about 6 km2 or around 2.5 %of the surface of the “Elephant Field”. Taking intoaccount the main tracks serving the wells, thenumerous loops and detours that accompany eachwadi intersection, the areas of the air strips, ofthe living area and that of the future treatmentplant (GOSP) as well as that of the wells andpipelines, an area of about 8.5 km2 has to beadded. The same applies to a further 50 km2 inthe area between the main airstrip and the wellswhich has been disturbed to such a degree thatit hardly retains any archaeological interest (cf.Fig. 17).

Fig. 23 Lower Acheulean site with numerous chopping toolsexposed in a bulldozed gravel pit close to main airstrip, centralMessak Settafet. Scale of chopping tool 10 cm.

The total area irremediably lost from an archaeo-logical point of view is therefore in excess of23 km2, or about 10 % of the surface of the“Elephant Field” (LeQUELLEC et al. 1999). Thispercentage is considerable, and proportionatedamage to the near-surface or exposed and there-fore fragile archaeological heritage has to beassumed, the great majority of which has beenconserved without disturbance over tens or hun-dreds of millennia. A lower Acheulean site withnumerous chopping tools exposed in a bulldozedgravel pit on the serir near the main airstrip mayserve as an example [Fig. 23].

Lithic monuments and structures count amongthe archaeological remains for which theconcessionaire has drawn up protection measures(LASMO 1999). In the area of the “Elephant Field”,some circular monuments, one of which with astele, have been marked by sign posts with theintention of preventing their accidental destruc-tion, even if the entire surroundings are alreadyravaged (cf. Fig. 14).

Large monuments such as the grave moundsand the numerous satellite constructions are easilyidentifiable on the plateau. Linear structures oc-curring at the edge of the northern escarpmentprobably constitute ancient outposts or lines ofdefence. Burial sites situated on the bottom ofvalleys in stony areas prove to be more difficultto recognise, as is the identification of the largenumber of isolated circular structures on theplateau because of their similarity with naturalphenomena. Some even more vestigial stone struc-tures of human origin can hardly be identified onthe uniform ground level.

In consequence, even if no direct damage tolithic structures in the 3D seismic survey area wasnoted (but certainly in the 2D area), it can be takenas statistically certain that ground-level structureswere affected by the extensive operations thathave devastated large segments of the hamada.

In the situation described above, it is practicallyimpossible to distinguish potential damage to thematerial heritage by tourism from that caused bythe petroleum exploration. There is, alas, reliableindication that foreign tourists, tour operators,staff and commercial traders have illegally col-lected huge quantities of prehistoric artefacts(including pottery, milling and grinding stones,hand axes and other lithic implements), fossils,


cracks. A comparison of the actual state of someof the major stations (cf. Figs. 8; 9) with the photo-graphs taken by Leo Frobenius in 1932 (FROBENIUS1937: Pls. XVII; LIV) indicates the widening ofsome fissures. The repeated vibrations caused bybulldozers and 20-ton seismic trucks cannot beexpected to have improved their condition.

What has been stated on the impact of touristson the natural environment and the lithic heritagealso applies to that on rock art, i.e. that the presentdamage caused by tourists, rock art “hunters” andother visitors is dwarfed by the exploration works.

In some locations, however, white marks havebeen observed which result from the widespreadpractice among some enthusiasts of rock art to rubchalk across the engravings or to pencil thecontours in order to increase the contrast forphotography. They ignore the fact that this accel-erates the erosion process and eventually leads tothe degradation of the petroglyphs. Unpreparedtravellers who, in lack of chalk, use whatever rockcomes to their hand for the same ends cause evenworse effects.

Traces of plastic material used for taking castsof the engravings have been recorded at severalstations. The plastic remains smudge the surfaceswhile the lifting-off of the plastic film has oftenremoved the fine patina of the engravings whichexposes them to erosion. Bullet holes on some ofthe most beautiful freezes (cf. Fig. 6) and thelighting of campfires near engravings rather origi-nate from non-tourist visitors.

minerals and meteorites in southwestern Libyaand smuggled them out of the country during thepast decade.

In some cases, special lightweight vehicles(quadbikes) were brought on mid-sized trucksand used for systematic collections in the mostdifficult locations such as the central dune areasof the Murzuq Sand Sea. It is to be feared thattons of prehistoric material have been illegallyshipped to Europe and Northern America. As aconsequence, often unique archaeological remainsare lost for the country's cultural heritage, itsmuseums and for scientific study.

3.3. Impact on rock art

When informed of the existence of rock engrav-ings in the survey zone, those responsible for theseismic exploration attempted to minimise theimpact of their operations. Instructions were is-sued to the drivers of vehicles to stay at least 50 mfrom the edges of the cliffs in order to avoid anyrock fall that could damage engraved surfaces inthe wadis.

Nevertheless, there are numerous rock slopesand rock walls near the tracks crossing the val-leys, notably in Wadi Bedis, which are buried bybulldozed boulders and debris. It is out of thequestion to state a posteriori whether or not therehad been engravings before the cutting of thetracks. Along Wadi Bedis, for example, some ofthe finest rock art stations have been partiallyburied or hidden by heaps of sands bulldozedfrom the wadi floor [Fig. 24].

Even in areas where no engravings have beendirectly affected, the dense network of tracks hascaused a far-reaching graphic disorganisation oftheir surroundings. Rock art cannot be reducedto the aesthetic contemplation of works isolatedfrom their contexts. It is embedded into a specificunit of a landscape, e.g. a promontory betweentwo valleys, and the intentions of the carvers canhardly be fully understood if certain elements ofthe ancient arrangement are missing. Such de-struction is unfortunately to be observed almosteverywhere where the tracks descend into thevalleys.

Many engravings (for example those at WadiMatkhendush) are veined with a network of

Fig. 24 Rock walls with numerous petroglyphs partly buriedor hidden by heaps of bulldozed sand, Wadi Bedis.


In some cases it is hard to decide whether naturalweathering or wilful damaging have caused theflaking-off of engraved sandstone slabs during thelast decades (BERGER 1998). Isolated, less weightyengraved rocks which are often to be found in theloose sand on the bottom and at the banks of thewadis can be – and by hearsay have been –removed without a trace because of the lack ofany inventory.

Though the removal and theft of prehistoricpetroglyphs cannot but be considered as a crimi-nal act by everyone, both in moral and in legalrespect, it is to be feared that the number ofunrecorded cases is high [Fig. 25].

Regarding the many aspects of destruction anddegradation by past and future petroleum explo-ration and production as well as by tourism, andbeing aware of the importance of the natural andcultural legacy of the Messak Settafet and theneighbouring regions, the application of a set ofmitigating and preventive actions is crucial for theconservation of Libyan and world heritage(LeQUELLEC et al. 1999. KRÖPELIN 2000). Theexisting Libyan legislation – when respected orapplied properly – offers a sufficient legal basisfor the prevention of damage and for sanctioningany infringement (LAW NO. 3/1424).

Fig. 25 Petroglyph removed by tourists and confiscated atElawen control post. Scale 10 cm.

4.1. Archaeological surveys and rescue excava-tions

Even if the most affected parts of the “ElephantField” are damaged to such a degree that anysurveys and rescue excavations seem useless, itis not too late to preserve less affected areas andto limit to the minimum the impact of the forth-coming petroleum production and further explo-ration.

For this purpose, it was proposed to proceedat the swiftest possible pace with a systematicarchaeological survey of the most endangeredareas, i.e. along the roads that will serve the“Elephant Field”, on the construction site of thegas-oil separation plant (GOSP), on the habitationarea and along the path of the pipeline (LeQUELLECet al. 1999). The fact that most of the artefacts lieon the surface allows the application of rapidsurvey methods. Selected representative and co-herent sites, in terms of chronology, environmen-tal setting and occupation type, should be inves-tigated in systematic rescue excavations.

Outside of the areas selected for more detailedinvestigations, significant lithic items should becollected after precise positioning and be placedin the collections at the national museums ofTripoli, Jerma and elsewhere to serve as a refer-ence base for future archaeological studies in theMessak and surrounding regions.

Another priority is a systematic and detailedinventory of all the Messak engravings, commenc-ing with the petroglyph stations located in thedamaged zone, taking account of their situationin the now disorganized landscape. Detailed sur-veys of the valleys and wadi crossings will alsopermit a rough estimate of the scope of impacton the engravings by the bulldozers and seismicoperations. They should also include regular in-spections of cracks in, and damage to, the engrav-ings to assess the impact of future industrial andtourist activities.

The archaeological surveys, the rescue ex-cavations and all the environmental and ecologi-cal studies should be carried out by specialistsin African archaeology and natural scienceswith substantial experience in this kind of terrainunder the supervision of the Libyan Depart-ment of Antiquities and renowned foreign insti-tutions.

4. Suggestions for action


4.3. Constructions

It goes without saying that the intented construc-tion works should only be undertaken under thestrictest damage-prevention schemes to avoid anydestruction of still unharmed areas. This concernsabove all the surface-consuming constructions ofthe 0.75 km2 gas-oil separation plant (GOSP), the1 km2 habitation and service area for up to athousand people, the airstrip extensions, the pro-ducing and groundwater injection wells, but alsothe linear constructions or extensions of the spinaland secondary roads, pipelines and power lines.

To reduce dust emission and to stop theenlargement of the tracks, it would be functionalto use tarmac for the spinal axis between the maininstallations, which would allow natural proc-esses to at least partly reseal the exposed surfaces.According to an option forwarded by the oilcompany, the main pipeline should terminatesome distance before the northern escarpment andthan follow a straight (drilled) subterranean courseto avoid long circuits or the opening-up of a bigtrench in the cliff which would spoil the scenery.

The serir areas that are covered with whitequartz gravel hold a high archaeological interestbecause of very ancient Acheulean artefacts occur-ring only slightly beneath the surface. Therefore,no more gravel pits or foundations for pylons etc.should be opened up before archaeological in-spection and rescue excavations if required.

Special care should also be attributed to thetreatment of sewage from the camps to minimisedamage to the wadis. In the vicinity of suchsensitive ecosystems, and in the interest of thepersonnel, the highest environmental standardswith regard to water, dust, fumes, noise, lights,etc. that are operational in the home countries ofthe oil companies should be respected.

4.4. Restoration work

It appears useless and even detrimental to envis-age the restoration of the damaged parts of theplateau by any “cosmetic” measures that havebeen proposed in this regard, e.g. to recover theseismic tracks with material bulldozed from thesides, or to dye the light-coloured seismic linesblack using paint sprayed from aircraft.

4.2. Monitoring and research

All monitoring and scientific activities aim at acomprehensive documentation of the entire natu-ral evidence in the affected areas for futuregenerations and to facilitate proper managementof the Messak region.

The database should be designed to include allkinds of field data and analyses and be regularlyupdated. Based on a Geographical InformationSystem (GIS) and high-resolution satellite imagery,it will allow the production of accurate and actualmaps at various scales, including topographic,geomorphologic, ecological, hydrographical, geo-logical and, of course, archaeological sheets.

A survey of the diverse regional flora and thefauna (mammals, reptiles, arthropods, birds,aquatic animals etc.) has to be conducted in allvalleys of the 3D and 2D seismic areas. Selectedsites should be the object of detailed inventoriesand long-term monitoring to determine the im-pact of operations on animal and plant life. Onlya complete inventory will allow assessing futurechanges.

Detailed and independent studies of thehydrogeological situation are vital to determinethe impact of the planned extraction and re-injection of groundwater for oil production to theregional aquifer. Impact studies should elucidatethe risks from toxic materials that could contami-nate the surrounding agricultural areas, threatenthe regional flora and fauna, harm the rockengravings or cause respiratory illnesses. Perma-nent meteorological stations should be installedin order to monitor micro- to meso-climatic changescaused by the operations, in particular increasesin dust whirls, storms and fogs.

In order to achieve a better degree of scientificcoherence, future research in natural and culturalsciences should be extended to the Murzuq SandSea, which bears witness of close links with theMessak since prehistoric times.

To give just one example, some of the richNeolithic sites there include mobile grinding stonesdecorated with engravings in the most beautifulstyle of the Messak. The destruction of these siteswould definitely ruin a major opportunity ofdating the period of activity of the Messak engrav-ers and understanding the organisation of theirseasonal activities.


One of the more useful measures is the restorationof the bottom of the valleys in such a way thatthe hydrological and plant life systems retrievetheir original state as far as possible. The waterflow at road crossings must not be hamperedduring floods by using culverts or other instal-lations. The bulldozed heaps of sand should becarefully removed from the vicinity of rock artstations and trees along the banks of Wadi Bedisand other wadis.

The proposed closure of the access to some ofthe most endangered wadis would probably notprevent determined drivers of four-wheel-drivevehicles from finding a way around the road-blocks. This initiative would only encourage driv-ers to create new tracks causing further damage.

In fact, in the most-damaged area of the 3Dseismic survey area, the increase in seismic lineshas created a veritable 'labyrinth' of tracks, that,far from easing access like in the 2D area, rathercomplicates navigation and access for tourists.

4.5. Petroleum production and future exploration

Realising the immense environmental problems,LASMO began to change its plans for the exploi-tation of the oil deposits of the “Elephant Field”by proposing to reduce the number of wells byway of a technology as yet applied in offshoreproduction and in Saudi Arabia only. By this newmethod it would be possible to drill laterally fromthe four already existing wells which wouldreduce the number of wells from more than 40as originally planned to only five, and minimizethe number of roads, power-line pylons andpipelines that serve them. This very positiveapproach would have diminished the direct im-pact on the plateau by at least 2.5 km2.

According to the latest announcements, how-ever, the first phase of development is supposedto start the production in 2002 already by usingseven or eight production wells instead to pro-duce 50,000 bopd. The oil shall be exported viaa 75 km long 20 inch pipeline to the El Shararafield in the Messak's northern foreland and thenin a 780 km long 30 inch pipe to the Zawairefinery near the Mediterranean coast. In the fullproduction of the field, Phase 2 will even involvesome 30 producing wells and up to 20 water

injection wells with a production of 150,000 bopd(www.lasmo.com/Development/Libya/; Decem-ber 2001).

In contrast to the very positive approachmentioned above which included only five pro-ducing wells, this withdrawal from the earlierplans cannot but discredit the companies' serious-ness about the environment and provoke consid-erable concern for the future of the MessakSettafet. It is obvious that the forthcoming exploi-tation will imply additional destruction to theenvironment and to the cultural heritage, particu-larly in the second phase of production.

Moreover, major extensions of oil prospectingare envisaged by several international petroleumcompanies or are already in progress to the westof the giant “Elephant Field” in the tell-tale so-called “Golden Block” which is promising evenmore important oil finds (cf. Fig. 1), and to thesouth in the Murzuq Sand Sea (www.lasmo.comand personal communications).

From a conservationist's point of view, noextension of the 3D seismic survey area shouldbe permitted as long as the same methods areapplied that have led to the present situation inthe “Elephant Field”. Now that the Libyan au-thorities and those responsible in the oil compa-nies are aware of the irreversible damage to theMessak Settafet, it is only to be hoped that asystematic damage-prevention strategy will be setup in all future prospecting.

Hydrocarbon exploration is also intended eastof the Murzuq Sand Sea, in particular in thenorthern foreland of the Tibesti Mountains and inthe Kufra basin. It is evident that the natural andcultural heritage of a major part of southern Libyais therefore at risk.

Future management plans for the Messak plateaushould take into account the ensemble of thegeographical and cultural province of the Murzuqbasin including the Murzuq Sand Sea and theTardrart Acacus because of their intimate naturaland cultural interrelationship.

The sustainable management of such a largearea can only be achieved in close cooperationwith all institutions and persons involved through

5. Coherent overall strategy


a period of awareness building and education. Allpersonnel in industry and land-management,tourist agencies and tour operators as well aspolicy-makers and the local population shouldparticipate in such a programme and be madeaware of their specific responsibilities in thedevelopment of the region.

5.1. Harmonising expectations

The future of the Messak region raises questionsthat do not stand alone but generally apply to anyongoing and future industrial and tourist exploi-tation of the Sahara and other deserts. They aimat an approach that, at the same time, permitsindustrial economic development; allows thedevelopment of a quality cultural and eco-tourismfor nationals and foreigners; warrants the bestpossible conservation of the environment and thecultural assets; and allows scientific research fora better understanding of the unwritten past ofthe desert.

The coordination of these contrasting catego-ries of utilization is far from simple, above all inregions where important economic interests are atstake. In the case of the Messak, these issues canbe specified to the problems whether the respectof the prehistoric heritage can be reconciled withpetroleum exploration and production; in whichway the Messak can be opened up for tourismbefore a complete inventory of its cultural herit-age has been established; and to which degree thepreservation of its fragile natural environment iscompatible at all with the development of indus-try and tourism (ANONYMUS 1999).

5.2. Establishment of a protected area

The advocacy of a protected areas programme inthe Messak region appears to be the best optionresponding to the objectives stated above evenif it does not solve the immediate problemscaused by the industrial impact (LeQUELLEC etal. 1999). According to this option, the irreplace-able heritage of the area would not be fullysurrendered to the industrial development whichitself is compliant to political and economicalfactors.

Independently arriving at the same results, aproposal to create an “Archaeological Park” in-cluding the Messak Settafet has been broughtforward from the perspective of the neighbouringTardrart Acacus where tourist impact is the majorproblem (LIVERANI et al. 2000). In spite of the factthat the Acacus is a UNESCO World Heritage Sitesince 1985 and spared from industrial activities,increasing tourist activity has led to anoverexploitation of trees and water, and thepollution and alteration of the archaeologicallandscape during recent years.

A joint endeavour to achieve the status of aNational Park, which includes the highest level ofprotection, for parts of the Messak and the Acacusmust not appear unrealistic, if the Libyan authori-ties are decided to reconcile the need of industrialdevelopment with the conservation of their coun-try's heritage. As an outcome of an initiative toprotect the natural and cultural heritage in thesoutheastern Sahara of northern Sudan, a Nation-al Park centred at the Nile's once most importanttributary from the Sahara, has been officially de-clared in 2001 (“Wadi Howar National Park”;KRÖPELIN 1993. 1996). Covering more than100,000 km2, it is the largest protected area on earth.

The conflict between the benefits and theeffects of eco-tourism, especially to desert regions,is a matter of discussion (ARBEITSGRUPPE ÖKO-TOURISMUS 1995. ELLENBERG et al. 1997). Whilerecognising its potential as a factor for social andeconomic development, and in spite of goodintentions of most visitors, off-road tourism iscausing increasing damage to the cultural andnatural resources of desert landscapes that shouldbe minimized by appropriate park design.

5.3. Creation of a Libyan Desert Survey andResearch Centre

For several years now, Libyan authorities andUNESCO have been considering to establish aSahara Museum in southern Libya in view of thefact that there is not a single museum or docu-mentation and information centre on the earth'sunrivalled desert, in spite of constantly growingpublic interest and tourism.

The Messak region with its unique collectionsof petroglyphs, its abundant Palaeolithic sites and


its exceptional natural environments appears to bethe right location for the museum and relatedmulti-disciplinary Saharan studies.

In this context, it is suggested that a DesertSurvey and Saharan Research Centre be created,possibly in Murzuq, that could be attached to theSahara Museum and affiliated to the Departmentof Antiquities. In co-operation with relevant for-eign institutions and specialists, such a “LibyanDesert Survey” (LDS) would notably have the taskto conduct systematic surveys, as much concern-ing archaeology as the natural environment, inLibya's remote desert regions, and to aid indamage-prevention by developing a strategy forsustainable industrial exploitation and tourism inthe Sahara.

The Desert Survey and Research Centre shouldalso implement training programmes, as muchtheoretical as fieldwork-oriented, to diminish thelack of specialised human resources in this inno-vative field. It should also promote a code ofconduct, specially conceived for desert landscapesand prehistoric sites, among foreign and local touroperators, and establish a recognition systemendorsed by Libyan conservation agencies,UNESCO and the World Tourism Organisation(WTO) for those adhering to the agreed principles(WHC 2001).

Last not least, the Desert Survey and ResearchCentre should be in charge of awareness buildingand the information of all those responsible orinvolved in industrial or tourist activities in thedesert. Without their cooperation, it will hardlybe possible to accomplish any effective and sus-tainable conservation of endangered areas such asthe veritable open-air museum of the MessakSettafet.

The Messak Settafet contains the richest assem-blage of rock engravings on the African continent,and possibly in the world. In respect of the lithicmaterial, it is probably the largest Palaeolithic siteof Northern Africa. The ensemble of the Messakplateau thus presents a cultural landscape of greatcoherence, from ancient Palaeolithic times to theIslamic period, and is a candidate for the listingin the World Heritage Convention.

The petroleum exploitation in the NC174 conces-sion area has caused damage that is most likelywithout parallel in the entire Sahara. Most of thedamage to the exceptional relict ecological system(surface, fauna, flora, hydrology) and to the ar-chaeological material (lithic material, rock art, pre-and proto-historic monuments) is irreversible.More damage is anticipated from the imminentoil production and further exploration.

In comparison to the industrial impact, thedamage caused by uncontrolled off-road deserttourism in the Messak Settafet still is negligible.From experience in other parts of Libya such asthe Tardrart Acacus and elsewhere in the Sahara,however, increasing damage is foreseeable andappropriate measures have to be taken in timebefore another Saharan domain gets lost.

It would be naïve to believe that the naturaland cultural heritage of the Messak Settafet willget a priority above petroleum exploration andproduction in view of the huge investments andthe enormous expected benefits which for the“Elephant Field” alone are supposed to lie in thescale of 100,000 million euros. Europe's energyneeds as well as the Libyan state rely on such oilfields.

From an environmental and cultural, less eco-nomic perspective, however, it is imperative tominimize any unavoidable damage and to pre-vent any unnecessary harm to the environmentand to the cultural heritage in the future, be itby petroleum exploration and production or byoff-road tourism.

It finally rests in the hands of the Libyangovernment to decide on the best options how tosave and preserve the National and World Her-itage in its desert lands. If nothing is done in thevery near future to protect the natural and cul-tural heritage in the Messak and other endangeredSaharan regions by establishing protected areasprogrammes, then this era will see the irreversibledestruction of many important natural and cul-tural resources to humanity.

The conflict between economy and ecology inthe Sahara was aptly formulated by the Britishdesert explorer Ralph Bagnold: “[… ] There is, inthis wonderful desert, unlimited scope for manymore scientific expeditions [… ] But for the sakeof posterity it is to be hoped (I fear probably invain) that mankind’s craving for exploitation will

6. Conclusions


not lead to the exhaustion of the accumulatedpast, whether of water or of archaeology, in thesame way as is now happening in the case offossil fuels” (BAGNOLD et al. 1989).

If only a tiny amount of the giant revenuesfrom the petroleum production on the MessakSettafet will be assigned to the proposed measuresas a kind of compensation for the damage to theSaharan heritage, much can be achieved. In thisway, far from being stigmatised as an exampleto be avoided at all costs, the Messak couldbecome the heart of a pilot project with nationaland international reach.

Acknowledgements and dedication

I am indebted to Jean-Loïc LeQuellec for providing hisexperience and profound expertise that were crucial in thefact-finding mission, which took place under the auspices ofUNESCO in July 1999. Much of the reasoning in this papergoes back to his intimate acquaintance with the Messak. I amalso grateful to Serge Maury for advice on Palaeolithicartefacts, and to Guima Anag, Libyan Department of Antiq-uities, and Mustafa Salem, of the National Oil Council, fortheir commitment and competence, and the most productiveand friendly cooperation both in Tripoli and in the desert.

This contribution is personally dedicated to RudolphKuper. His first mission in the Sahara in the winter 1962/63led him on the footsteps of Heinrich Barth to southwest Libyato assist Hans Rhotert in the recording of rock art in the wadisErtan and Tarhoscht near Ghat (RHOTERT & KUPER 1981).Hans Rhotert then told him about his expeditions with LeoFrobenius and Ladislaus Almásy in the Libyan Desert ofwestern Egypt and northwestern Sudan. It was in this lineof tradition that he established and directed the large-scalemultidisciplinary research projects B.O.S. (1980-1993) andACACIA (from 1995 on) and founded the Heinrich-Barth-Institute at the University of Cologne (1989). Beside hisimposing scientific initiatives and achievements, his personalinterest and concern have always aimed at the protection ofthe Saharan heritage to save the past for the future.

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