Technology Institute for MUSIC Educators

TI:ME Course 2aAdvanced Sequencing, Second Edition

Syllabus, Workbook and AppendicesRevised and Written By

Steve Cunningham and Rick Schmunk

Edited by Scott Lipscomb

Original Edition byDon Muro and Bill Purse

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Technology Institute for Music EducatorsTI:ME Course 2a, Advanced Sequencing

Introduction 3

Topic 1: Review of Basic MIDI Concepts 8

Topic 1a: DAW Basics Review 9

Topic 1b: Recording MIDI 10

Topic 2: MIDI Editing 11

Topic 3: Creating Drum Set parts and Working With MIDI Regions 12

Topic 4a: Continuous Controllers 13

Topic 4b: ReWire and Client Applications 14

Topic 5: Pattern-Based Drum Programming and Multi-Output Virtual Instruments 15

Topic 6: Using Virtual Samplers 16

Topic 7: Subtractive Synthesis 17

Topic 8: Volume Editing and Musical Sequencing 18

Topic 9: Audio Time Compression and Expansion 19

Topic 10: Mixing Fundamentals 20

Topic 11: Bounce to Disk 21

Topic 12: Composing to Picture 22

Topic 13: Non-Linear MIDI Sequencing 23

Topic 14: MIDI Sequencing in the Curriculum 24

Topic 15: Using Sequencers for Student Musical Composition and Performance 26

Topic 16: Evaluating Sequencing Software 28

Topic 17: Final Projects 30

Appendix A: The General MIDI specification (GM) 31

Appendix B: MIDI Controller Numbers 33

Appendix C: Historical Developments in Music Sequencing 36

Appendix D: Basic MIDI Concepts 38

Appendix E: Rewire and Client Applications 40

Appendix F: Multi-Output Virtual Instruments 42

Appendix G: Subtractive Synthesis Basics 44

Appendix H: Musical Sequencing 47

Appendix I: Audio Time Compression and Expansion 55

Appendix J: Mixing and Signal Processing Fundamentals 62

Appendix K: Bounce to disk 73

Appendix M: Computer DAW and MIDI Sequencing Software 83

Appendix N: Lesson Plan Guide 85

Appendix O: TI:ME 2A Advanced Sequencing Project Journal Guide 87

Appendix Q: Bibliography for Further Study 95

Appendix R: Sequencing, Computer and Music Technology Terminology 98

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TI:ME Course 2a, Advanced SequencingRevised and Rewritten by

Steve Cunningham andRick Schmunk

Introduction

Objective:The objective of Advanced Sequencing is to impart practical skills and knowledge to In-Service Teachers (ISTs) to allow them to integrate MIDI and digital audio sequencing effectively into teaching and learning. The course covers in-depth skills in sequencing, and ISTs will learn MIDI theory along with best practices and skills pertaining to sequence recording, editing, and mixing. ISTs will leave with the necessary knowledge to make critical judgments about the appropriateness of selected music software and hardware for particular educational applications and various computer platforms. The format of the course alternates presentations with class activities, many of which serve to assess student progress. Satisfactory participation in class activities and successful completion of multiple final projects are required for certification. The prerequisite for this course is basic computer skills including using a computer keyboard; using a mouse for pointing, clicking, dragging; and some exposure and experience in the use of any sequencing software. TI:ME Course 1A Electronic Instruments, MIDI Sequencing and Notation is strongly recommended as preparation for this course.

Additional Information: Advanced Sequencing is offered as either a two-credit or three-credit graduate course (includes optional topics). The instructor of the course must be approved by TI:ME and an expert in teaching music sequencing to in-service music teachers. It is strongly recommended that the class size be limited to allow for one IST per computer and no more than 16 ISTs per instructor. Additional ISTs may be accommodated if computer workstations and assistants are available. Each IST will need approximately 20 hours working alone on a workstation in order to complete class activities and final projects.

Hardware Requirements:A computer lab or classroom consisting of multimedia computers connected to MIDI keyboard controllers is the standard recommended configuration. The teacher's station should be connected to a projection device to allow the instructor's screen to be viewed by the entire class and a sound system. All workstations must have DAW applications capable of integrating MIDI, digital audio and video. When possible, a sound system connecting all MIDI devices in the room should be used to allow for class activities.

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Software Requirements:Sequencing software designed for professional musicians and educators should be used. The course exercises are provided in both Logic Studio and Pro Tools versions. In addition, some exercises use Propellerhead’s Reason to demonstrate how to setup and use client audio applications. If an alternative DAW sequencing application is substituted, it must be capable of recording, playing and editing digital audio; integrating video; and audio time compression and expansion (elastic audio, audio warping, flex-time, etc.). Demonstration versions of low-end software packages designed for young students or amateurs should be used only in presentations to demonstrate software choices that are available.

Please Note: The activities in this syllabus often specify the use of specific scores and sequences that are provided in the course materials. Instructors may substitute other similar pieces for these activities.

Required:· Instructor-specified sequencing text.· Technology Strategies for Music Education by Thomas Rudolph, Floyd Richmond, David Mash, and David Williams; published by Technology Institute for Music Education, http://www.ti-me.org.

Prerequisites: TI:ME Level One Certification, having completed a minimum of 2 courses in music technology or comparable experience using music sequencing software with a Macintosh or Windows PC. TI:ME Course 1A (Electronic Instruments, MIDI Sequencing and Notation) is strongly recommended. TI:ME course 2A is designed for the experienced computer user. The outline is designed for 25-hour units on advanced sequencing within a 2-credit graduate workshop. Optional items can be added if the course is offered for 3 graduate credits.

Introduction: The primary objective of TI:ME 2A Advanced Sequencing is to impart practical skills and knowledge to in-service teachers (ISTs) to allow them to integrate MIDI sequencing effectively into teaching and learning. The purpose of this course is to teach ISTs the basic skills in using a high-end sequencing program. The instructor will also provide ISTs with the information they need to make critical judgments about the appropriateness of selected sequencing programs for particular educational contexts. The format of this course alternates presentations with class activities, many of which serve to assess the participant’s progress. In addition to satisfactory participation in class activities, final projects in sequencing are required for certification.

Procedural Knowledge:The ISTs will be assessed via class activities, 2 final sequences and 2 lesson plans.

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The IST creates two finished sequences. One sequence should be a transcription or an arrangement of a classical work. (See Appendix P for a list of public domain works. Other scores are available at the International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP) web site—http://imslp.org. The other sequence should be in a contemporary style using contemporary sounds and drum parts. This sequence could be a popular song from a show or performing group. One sequence project of your choice must include at least two tracks of digital audio in addition to a minimum of six MIDI tracks. (Sample audio files of public domain songs are available from the TI:ME web site). The IST may sequence the Star Spangled Banner as a song to add digital audio tracks [voice(s) and or acoustic instrument(s)]. Each sequence will be a minimum of thirty-two measures.

Each sequence should include a brief journal (See Appendix O for content suggestions; two page minimum) containing a brief description of the sequence and the IST’s artistic goals, specific problems and solutions, musical decisions regarding timbres, effects, etc.).

Two Lesson Plans• The IST will create two lesson plans that integrate sequencing software to enhance teaching and learning. The lesson plans should clearly incorporate the MENC National Standards for music. (Appendix N includes a sample lesson planner).

Declarative Knowledge:The IST demonstrates skills in using a MIDI/digital audio sequencing program to create dynamic, musical sequences in any musical style. The fundamental understanding and specific skills to be acquired include the following:· Introduction to Advanced Sequencing· History of Music Sequencing

1. Review of Basic MIDI Conceptsa. MIDI In, Out and Thru portsb. MIDI channelsc. Channel voice messages (note on/off, pitch bend, aftertouch, program change,

volume, pan, sustain)d. Miscellaneous information – keyboards (multi-timbral capability, polyphony),

MIDI interfaces (simple MIDI interfaces, multi-port interfaces, USB, etc.)e. General MIDI

2. Review of Basic Sequencing Conceptsa. Types of sequencers (hardware, software, integrated)b. Sequencer tracks and MIDI channelsc. Standard MIDI Files (SMFs)d. Opening, creating, and saving sequencer filese. Transport controls (play, stop, pause, record, go to, loop, etc.)f. Track parameters (volume, mute, solo, pan, transpose, and program)g. Record modes (record, overdub, loop, punch-in, step time)h. Sequencer display views (standard music notation, piano-roll, graphic, event

list)

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3. Review of Corrective Editing Techniquesa. Correcting wrong notesb. Correcting rhythmic errorsc. Correcting dynamics

4. Creative Editing Techniquesa. Manipulating data on individual tracks (volume, velocity level, pan, brightness,

vibrato, and pitch bend)b. Using Quantization Effectively

5. Copying and pasting MIDI data6. Adding Effects to MIDI Tracks (Definition and common uses of reverberation and

chorus)7. Creating a Balanced Stereo Image8. Creating, Editing and Importing Drum Parts9. Creating Tempo Maps (conductor tracks)10. Creating a Notated Musical Score of a Sequence11. Using audio time compression and expansion to conform audio to new or different

tempos12. Adding Digital Audio to MIDI Sequences13. Adding Effects to MIDI and digital audio tracks14. Creating a Master Copy (Bounce to Disk)15. Integrating MIDI Sequences with Digital Video (3 Credit Course)16. Sequencer Applications in the Curriculum & Classroom (composition, improvisation,

arranging, orchestration, listening skills) and Performance (accompaniments, practice tapes)

Introduction:Prediction about today’s art of electronic music and sequencing dates at least back to 1624 when Francis Bacon, in his book New Atlantis, wrote…

“We have also sound-houses, where we practice and demonstrate all sounds, and their generation. We have harmonies which you have not, of quarter-sounds, and lesser slides of sound. Diverse instruments of music likewise to you unknown, some sweeter than any you have; together with bells and rings that are dainty and sweet. We represent small sounds as great and deep; likewise great sounds extenuate and sharp; we make diverse tremblings and warblings of sounds, which in their original are entire. We represent and imitate all articulate sounds and letters, and the voices and notes of beasts and birds. We have certain helps which set to the ear do further the hearing greatly. We have also diverse strange and artificial echoes, reflecting the voice many times, and as it were tossing it: and some that give back the voice louder than it came; some shriller, and some deeper; yes, some rendering the voice differing in the letters or articulate sound from that they receive. We have also means to convey sounds in trunks and pipe, in strange lines and distance.”

Overview of Music Sequencing:A sequencer is a device that records the details or parameters of a musical performance as MIDI data and not as actual sound. These parameters can include the notes that were

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played, their dynamics and a general tempo. On playback, a sequencer will feed its stored MIDI information into an instrument (or computer) capable of translating this information into a musical duplicate of the original performance. If you think of a player piano’s use of the paper roll to store a musical performance, this is similar to how a sequencer uses its computer memory to store a musical performance. A sequencer also provides easy and extensive options for editing the recorded MIDI data such as transposition, quantization, and surgical editing of note data without re-recording the source.

There are three basic types of sequencers, each with pros and cons: Software (Most common)

Pros – Easy to update, many edit and performance functions displayed simultaneously on a large computer screen, other software can be run on the computer.Cons – Requires a computer to operate the sequencer.

Integrated (MIDI Workstation)Pros – All in one design, including a MIDI Keyboard, Drum Machine, Synthesizer Sounds, and Sequencer; transportable.Cons – Includes a small display for edit and performance functions; limited song storage; generally course quantization compared to software-based sequencers.

Hardware (Least common)Pros – Easy to transport from classroom to classroom; usually inexpensive.Cons – Includes a too-small display for edit and performance functions; may have limited space for creating and storing sequences; often requires multiple disks for storage.

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Topic 1: Review of Basic MIDI Concepts

Objective:Participants will review basic MIDI concepts and MIDI devices.

Materials:The instructor may choose to display the included PowerPoint presentation as a means of organizing the presentation and discussion of the topic.

Procedures:The instructor will discuss the definition of MIDI and MIDI devices including:

MIDI is data, not audio MIDI messages MIDI cables, channels and ports MIDI controllers MIDI sound modules MIDI interfaces MIDI sequencers

The instructor will review basic synthesizer and sound module performance parameters: Voices Polyphony Multi-timbral

The instructor will review the most often used MIDI Channel and MIDI Continuous Controller messages including:

Note On/Off Velocity Pitch Bend Modulation MIDI Volume MIDI Pan

The instructor will review the basic parameters of General MIDI.The instructor will review the purpose, uses and types of Standard MIDI Files (SMFs).

Notes:

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Topic 1a: DAW Basics Review

Objective:Participants will review the basic operation of a DAW.

Materials:The instructor will use the included exercise and assets or provide an alternate exercise that includes MIDI and audio regions suitable to demonstrate the basic operation of a DAW.

Procedures:The instructor will review…

how to open a DAW application; how to open an existing DAW session or project; the DAW’s basic layout and tool set; the available track types; how to size track height and zoom in or out on MIDI and audio regions; the available MIDI views (regions, notes, velocity, MIDI editor, notation, etc.); playback controls and methods of locating the playback cursor; and the folder and file structure of a DAW session or project.

Class Activities:Participants will review and practice the basic operations of a DAW, using the included Exercise 1a: DAW Review.

Notes:

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Topic 1b: Recording MIDI

Objective:Participants will review how to create a DAW session or project and record MIDI data.

Materials:The instructor will use the included exercise or an alternative exercise that provides the participants an opportunity to record and edit MIDI data.

Procedures:The instructor will review…

how to create a DAW session or project and select the sample rate and bit depth; how to set the project tempo, meter and key; how to create a click track (if necessary), set the click parameters and options; how to create MIDI and instrument tracks; how to load virtual instruments and presets; how to record MIDI; and how to edit MIDI note pitches and rhythms (snap to grid).

Class Activities:Participants will create a DAW session or project and record a 12-bar blues that includes at least three tracks—drum set, bass and keyboards.

Notes:

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Topic 2: MIDI Editing

Objective:The participants will learn to edit MIDI note velocities, duration and how to quantize MIDI data.

Materials:The instructor will use the included exercise or an alternative exercise that focuses on MIDI editing and quantization.

Procedures:The instructor will discuss and demonstrate…

how to import a SMF into a DAW project or session; how to filter a MIDI region using the DAW’s event list filter: how to transpose a MIDI region; how to edit MIDI note durations; how to quantize MIDI notes and regions; the available quantization parameters, including quantize value, groove

quantization, quantize strength and quantize swing value; how to edit and scale velocities; how to copy and paste MIDI regions; and how to enter MIDI notes in non-real time.

Class Activities:Participants will complete Exercise 2: Editing MIDI.

Notes:

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Topic 3: Creating Drum Set parts and Working With MIDI Regions

Objective:Participants will learn to create and program drum set tracksParticipants will learn to build a song using virtual MIDI instruments and MIDI regions.

Materials:The instructor will use the included exercise and assets or provide an alternate exercise and MIDI assets that include a Standard MIDI File consisting of MIDI regions appropriate for building a pop song. The alternate materials should also include an audio file of a drum set part that the participants can use as a guide to creating an appropriate drum accompaniment.

Procedures:The instructor will demonstrate how to…

copy and paste, duplicate, repeat and loop MIDI regions; trim or change the duration of a MIDI note or region; and use loop record and its application to creating drum set parts.

The instructor will discuss… the difference between repeating and looping MIDI regions; the elements of a drum set groove; the ways in which a drum set part evolves from the start to finish of a pop/rock

song; the nature and placement of drum set fills in a pop/rock song; and the MIDI Merge function and its fundamental uses.

Class Activities:Participants will complete Exercise 3: Creating Drum Set parts and Working with MIDI Regions

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Topic 4a: Continuous Controllers

Objective:Participants will learn the purpose and methods of using MIDI Continuous Controllers.

Materials:The instructor will use the included exercise and assets or provide an alternate exercise that focuses on setting up, recording and editing MIDI Continuous Controller Data.

Procedures:The instructor will discuss and demonstrate the use of MIDI Continuous Controllers (MIDI CC) including:

Using CCs to emulate human performance characteristics (vibrato, volume modulation, pitch bend, etc.);

Standard or assigned MIDI CCs (MIDI Volume, pitch bend, modulation, etc.); Unassigned MIDI CCs; MIDI “Learn” functionality; Controlling a MIDI CC from a MIDI keyboard or MIDI controller; Recording MIDI CC data; and Creating and editing graphical MIDI CC/automation data.

Class Activities:Participants will complete Exercise 4a: MIDI Continuous Controllers

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Topic 4b: ReWire and Client Applications

Objective:Participants will learn how to setup and use host and client audio applications.

Materials:The instructor will use the included exercise and assets or provide an alternate exercise that focuses on setting up and using Reason as a ReWire client application.

Procedures:The instructor will discuss and demonstrate the use and procedures for using host and client DAW applications including…

the benefits of using client applications; the available client audio applications; the setup procedures including MIDI and audio signal routing; the correct order for starting and stopping host and client applications; the correct procedures and best practices for saving host and client sessions or

projects; sequencing in a host application vs. a client application.

Class Activities:Participants will complete Exercise 4b: Rewire

Notes:

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Topic 5: Pattern-Based Drum Programming and Multi-Output Virtual Instruments

Objective:Participants will learn to create drum set parts using pattern-based virtual drum instruments.Participants will learn to use the multi-output functionality integrated into many virtual MIDI instruments.

Materials:The instructor will use the included exercise and assets or provide an alternate exercise that uses a pattern-based virtual drum instrument (Ultrabeat, Additive Drums, Strike, EZ Drummer, BFD, etc.)

Procedures:The instructor will discuss and demonstrate…

the use of a pattern-based virtual drum instrument; the best practices of creating pattern-based drum parts; the pro and cons of mixing multiple parts (and adding signal processing) within a

virtual instrument; how to route the multiple parts of a multi-output virtual instrument to independent

tracks; and the gain structure challenges and best practices of using a multi-output virtual

instrument.

Class Activities:Participants will complete Exercise 5: Pattern-Based Drum Programming and Multi-Output Virtual Instruments

Notes:

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Topic 6: Using Virtual Samplers

Objective:Participants will learn to use virtual sampler MIDI instruments, including multiple sampled instrument articulations and a multi-output setup.

Materials:The instructor will use the included exercise and assets or provide an alternate exercise that uses a multi-output virtual sampler instrument and sample library with multiple instrument articulations.

Procedures:The instructor will discuss and demonstrate …

how to setup a virtual sampler as a multi-output virtual instrument; transposing instruments (Bb trumpet for example) and SMFs; how to transpose a MIDI region; how to transpose a track using real-time properties; how to use multiple samples and articulations to better emulate human

performance; key switching in a virtual sampler; the importance of editing MIDI note velocities to enhance musical phrasing and the

expressive use of dynamics; and the importance of editing MIDI note durations to enhance musical phrasing and the

expressive use of articulation.

Class Activities:Participants will complete Exercise 6: Virtual Samplers

Notes:

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Topic 7: Subtractive Synthesis

Objective:Participants will learn the fundamentals of subtractive synthesis and modulation.

Materials:The instructor will use the included exercise and assets or provide an alternate exercise that uses a subtractive synthesis virtual instrument (ES2, Hybrid, Moog Modular, Thor, etc.).

Procedures:The instructor will discuss and demonstrate…

oscillators and wave shapes; analog filters including the following parameters:

o Cutoff frequencyo Resonanceo Filter envelopeso Filter modulation

LFOs and envelope modulation; arpeggiators; step sequencers; and control sequences.

Class Activities:Participants will complete Exercise 7: Subtractive Synthesis

Notes:

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Topic 8: Volume Editing and Musical Sequencing

Objective:Participants will learn to use volume editing and specialized MIDI CCs to create musical MIDI sequences.

Materials:The instructor will use the included exercise and assets or provide an alternate exercise that uses a virtual sampler instrument and sample library that offers sample start as an automatable parameter.

ProceduresThe instructor will discuss and demonstrate…

how to import a .pdf or .tiff file into a music notation program; how to export a SMF from a notation program; the best practices in creating musical MIDI sequences; volume editing and its relation to musical phrasing and dynamics; the differences between linear and non-linear crescendos and decrescendos and

how to create them in a DAW; the differences between MIDI volume, MIDI expression and audio volume, as well as

best practices in their usage; specialized MIDI CCs available in full-featured sample libraries; and the use of sample start as a MIDI CC.

Class Activities:Participants will complete Exercise 8: Volume Editing

Notes:

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Topic 9: Audio Time Compression and Expansion

Objective:Participants will learn to use audio time stretching to conform and quantize audio regions.

Materials:The instructor will use the included exercise and assets or provide an alternate exercise that focuses on audio time stretching and audio quantization.

Procedures:The instructor will discuss and demonstrate

audio time compression and expansion (TCE); TCE algorithms optimized for different kinds of musical content; audio transients and their importance to audio TCE; conforming audio regions to a new tempo; and quantizing audio regions using TCE.

Class Activities:Participants will complete Exercise 9: Audio Time Stretching

Notes:

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Topic 10: Mixing Fundamentals

Objective:Participants will learn the fundamentals of audio mixing, signal routing and signal processing.

Materials:The instructor will use the included exercise and assets or provide an alternate exercise that focuses on a multi-track mix of a MIDI project.

Procedures:The instructor will discuss and demonstrate…

the best practices of track level setting and balancing audio levels in a mix; the best practices of gain structure in a mixer (analog or virtual); common practices of stereo panning; the structure and purpose of mixer inserts; the use of parametric EQ signal processor plug-ins; the use of audio filters plug-ins; the use of audio compressor signal processor plug-ins; the structure and purpose of auxiliary sends; how to create a send and return setup for time-based effects; the use of delay signal processor plug-ins; the use of reverb signal processor plug-ins;and the purpose and use of master tracks.

Class Activities:Participants will complete Exercise 10: Mixing

Notes:

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Topic 11: Bounce to Disk

Objective:Participants will learn to bounce a MIDI sequence to a stereo audio file appropriate for burning to an audio CD.

Materials:The instructor will use the included exercise and assets or provide an alternate MIDI exercise that the participants will bounce to an interleaved stereo audio file appropriate for burning to an audio CD.

Procedures:The instructor will discuss and demonstrate…

the purpose and best practices of adding dither to a digital audio bounce; the purpose and use of noise shaping; available sample rates and bit depths; consumer and industry standard sample rates and bit depths; Red Book audio file standards; available audio compression codecs and file types; and the difference between multi-mono and stereo interleaved file types and their uses.

Class Activities:Participants will complete Exercise 11: Bounce to Disk.

Notes:

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Topic 12: Composing to Picture

Objective:The Participants will learn to important video to a DAW project, sync the video to the project timeline and export a new video file with accompanying music.

Materials:The instructor will use the included exercise and assets or provide an alternate MIDI exercise that includes MIDI sequencing and video.

Procedures:The instructor will discuss and demonstrate…

Internet sites where video files can be found for student projects; applications available that can be used to rip DVD chapters to disc; the “composing to picture” process; the purpose of film and video frame rates; the purpose and use of SMPTE timecode; how to determine the frame rate of a video file; how to add a SMPTE timecode burn to a video file; how to import a video file into a DAW project; how to set the DAW project frame rate and SMPTE start time; and how to bounce a video project to a new video file.

Class Activities:Participants will complete Exercise 12: Composing to Picture

Notes:

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Topic 13: Non-Linear MIDI Sequencing

Objective:Participants will learn about non-linear MIDI sequencing and resampling.

Materials:The instructor will demonstrate an Ableton Live set of their choice.

Procedures:The instructor will demonstrate…

non-linear sequencing in Ableton Live (or Sonar) and facilitate a discussion comparing linear to non-linear sequencing;

demonstrate clips and scenes; “resampling” by recording from Session view to Arrange view in Ableton Live; MIDI mapping of clips and scenes, as well as synth and effect parameters; triggering clips and scenes from a MIDI controller; and non-linear sequencing as applied to live performance.

Class Activities:Participants will compare and contrast the differences and pros and cons of non-linear sequencing.

Notes:

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Topic 14: MIDI Sequencing in the Curriculum

Objective:Participants will learn to develop innovative ways to incorporate sequencer applications into the music curriculum.

Procedures:The instructor will provide sequenced examples and facilitate discussion about student activities and teacher strategies that use the sequencer for curriculum development.

Student activities examples: A student can… Record music in step time or real time with a MIDI sequencer; Capture musical performances for self-evaluation or evaluation by the teacher via a

MIDI sequencer; Isolate individual parts for singing practice and rehearsal; practice singing one on a

part using practice sequences; Change the timbres of one or more parts in a prerecorded MIDI sequence; Record music in step time or real time with a MIDI sequencer; Record and edit acoustic sounds using digital audio integrated into a MIDI

sequencer; and Search for MIDI Files on the Internet.

Teacher strategy examples: A teacher can… Use a MIDI sequencer to accompany a student choir or class; Select appropriate MIDI accompaniment music for students to use in live

performance; Create multi-timbral music examples using a MIDI sequencer; Create musically expressive MIDI sequences using appropriate MIDI controllers and

effects; Edit and perform complex mixing processes and integrate digital audio with MIDI

sequencers; and Record and evaluate student performances using a MIDI sequencer.

Class Activities:Additional strategies should be developed and shared by the IST and instructor. These additional activities and strategies can be incorporated into the two lesson plans the IST will submit at the end of this workshop.

Notes:

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Topic 15: Using Sequencers for Student Musical Composition and Performance

Objective:Participants will learn to develop innovative ways to incorporate sequencer applications into the music curriculum that support the development of student composition and improvisation skills.

Procedures:The instructor will provide sequencer examples and facilitate a discussion about student activities that use a sequencer for composition and improvisation development.

Student strategies: A student can… Demonstrate the elements of music using a MIDI sequencer; Compose pieces demonstrating knowledge of appropriate ranges for traditional

instruments using a MIDI sequencer; Create compositions in set forms (binary, ternary, blues, rondo) using a MIDI

sequencer Use a sequencer to develop an original or supplied compositional theme; and Record a MIDI sequence and synchronize it with a video clip or computer animation.

Compositional Development Technique Sequencer Technique

Augmentation and Diminution of Melody Scale Time 200% Aug. 50% Dim

Diatonic Inversion of Melody (reversal of intervals in diatonically)

An “invert pitch” option is an available feature in some sequencers

Symmetrical or Exact Inversion of Melody (reversal of intervals symmetrically)

Invert pitch or transpose notes up or down in sequence

Use Different Rhythms for the Melody Change the time signature, but do not adjust the barlines and modify the note values

Retrograde melody (use the original melody played backwards and invert)

A “retrograde edit” option is an available feature in some sequencers

Parallel transposition of melody Copy and paste a melody into a new track and transpose the melody either symmetrically or diatonically by an interval of a 3rd, 4th, 5th, or 6th.

Modal Alterations Apply a new key signature to the melody and hold the original notes to their original pitches except the ones effected by the key signature. Some sequencers have this option under their “transposition” command.

Octave Displacement (moving the melody notes to upper or lower octaves in relation to the original)

Humanize – Many sequencers will have a pitch range that you can set for humanizing, extend it to 5 or 6 octaves. Instant 20th century composition technique.

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Teacher Strategies: A teacher can… Create ostinatos and accompaniments for student improvisation using a MIDI

sequencer; Present the music of various cultures and historical periods using MIDI sequencers;

and Create examples for students to listen to, analyze and describe using a MIDI

sequencer.

Class Activities:Additional strategies should be developed and shared by the IST and instructor. These additional activities and strategies can be incorporated into the two lesson plans theIST will submit at the end of this workshop.

Notes:

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Topic 16: Evaluating Sequencing Software

Objective:Participants will discuss the currently available MIDI sequencing applications and learn to distinguish fundamental and advanced options (functionality).

Procedures:The instructor will facilitate a discussion about currently available MIDI sequencing applications. The following criteria can be used to guide the evaluation of the individual applications:

How much does the application cost? Is there an educational version? Is there an educational price? On what operating systems does the application run? Is it cross-platform? What are the application’s specific system requirements? Does the application facilitate both MIDI sequencing and audio recording and

editing? Is the application 32- or 64-bit? What is the resolution of the sequencer (in ticks or PPQ)? Is it variable? Does the software provide multiple ways to view MIDI data (graphic, notation, event

list, etc.)? Does the application support real-time audio scrubbing? What virtual instruments are included with the application? Are there additional virtual instruments available at additional cost? How comprehensive are the included sample and loop libraries? What 3rd party libraries is the application capable of importing or reading? What audio plug-ins are included with the application? What plug-in formats are compatible with the application? What sample rates and bit rates does the application support? What audio file formats does the application support? Is the application capable of freezing tracks? Does the application support audio TCE (Warping, elastic audio, flex-time, etc.)? What bounce and rendering options are available? What MIDI mapping options are available? Does the application support external MIDI controllers? Does the application support instant mapping? Can plug-ins be grouped in a rack? Does the application allow for both linear and non-linear sequencing? Does the application support video import? If so, what video formats does the

application support (QuickTime, Avid, Windows Media, HD, etc.)? Does the application support timecode? What sync formats are supported (MTC,

SMPTE, frame rates, word clock, etc.)?

Class Activities:Additional criteria should be developed and shared by the IST and instructor.

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Notes:

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Topic 17: Final Projects

Procedures:In order to successfully fulfill the workshop requirements, each IST will create two sequences and two lesson plans.

Sequence 1 should be a transcription or an arrangement of a classical work. (See Appendix P for a list of suggested works or download a .pdf score from the International Music Score Library Project website).

Sequence 2 should be a song or composition in a contemporary style (pop/rock, jazz, etc.), using electronic sounds and drum parts. This sequence should include at least two audio tracks and a minimum of six MIDI tracks. The audio can be voices, sound effects, an acoustic instrument, or any combination of these. An additional option for the second sequence project may be one that incorporates digital video and a synchronized score or sound design as digital audio.

Each sequence should include a brief journal (two-page minimum) containing a description of the sequence (specific sequencing problems and solutions, musical decisions regarding virtual instrument and preset choices, effects, etc.).

Turn In Two Lesson Plans that feature several ways to use sequencing software to enhance teaching and learning in the music classroom. The lesson plans should clearly incorporate the MENC National Standards for music (Appendix N includes a sample lesson planner).

Notes:

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Appendix A: The General MIDI specification (GM)

Review the information about General MIDI: Why and how it was developed Specifications (minimum)a) 24 voice polyphonyb) 16 part multi-timbral capability (with dynamic voice allocation)c) 128 instrumental sounds and one drum kit (47 drum sounds)

General MIDI organizes sounds into 16 families, with eight instruments in each family; this is sometimes referred to as octal mode. Prog# Instrument(1-8 PIANO)1 Acoustic Grand2 Bright Acoustic3 Electric Grand4 Honky-Tonk5 Electric Piano 16 Electric Piano 27 Harpsichord8 Clav

(9-16 CHROMATIC PERC)9 Celesta10 Glockenspiel11 Music Box12 Vibraphone13 Marimba14 Xylophone15 Tubular Bells16 Dulcimer

(17-24 ORGAN)17 Drawbar Organ18 Percussive Organ19 Rock Organ20 Church Organ21 Reed Organ22 Accordion23 Harmonica24 Tango Accordion

(25-32 GUITAR)25 Acoustic Guitar (nylon)26 Acoustic Guitar (steel)27 Electric Guitar (jazz)28 Electric Guitar (clean)29 Electric Guitar (muted)30 Overdriven Guitar31 Distortion Guitar32 Guitar Harmonics

(33-40 BASS)33 Acoustic Bass34 Electric Bass (finger)35 Electric Bass (pic)36 Fretless Bass37 Slap Bass 138 Slap Bass 239 Synth Bass 140 Synth Bass 2

(41-48 STRINGS)41 Violin42 Viola43 Cello44 Contrabass45 Tremolo Strings46 Pizzicato Strings47 Orchestral Strings48 Timpani

(49-56 ENSEMBLE)49 String Ensemble 150 String Ensemble 251 Synth Strings 152 Synth Strings 253 Choir Aahs54 Voice Oohs55 Synth Voice56 Orchestra Hit

(57-64 BRASS)57 Trumpet58 Trombone59 Tuba60 Muted Trumpet61 French Horn62 Brass Section

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63 Synth Brass 164 Synth Brass 2

(65-72 REED)65 Soprano Sax66 Alto Sax67 Tenor Sax68 Baritone Sax69 Oboe70 English Horn71 Bassoon72 Clarinet

(73-80 PIPE)73 Piccolo74 Flute75 Recorder76 Pan Flute77 Blown Bottle78 Shakuhachi79 Whistle80 Ocarina

(81-88 SYNTH LEAD)81 Lead 1 (square)82 Lead 2 (sawtooth)83 Lead 3 (calliope)84 Lead 4 (chiff)85 Lead 5 (charang)86 Lead 6 (voice)87 Lead 7 (fifths)88 Lead 8 (bass + lead)

(89-96 SYNTH PAD)89 Pad 1 (new age)90 Pad 2 (warm)91 Pad 3 (polysynth)92 Pad 4 (choir)93 Pad 5 (bowed)94 Pad 6 (metallic)95 Pad 7 (halo)96 Pad 8 (sweep)

(97-104 SYNTH EFFECTS)97 FX 1 (rain)98 FX 2 (soundtrack)99 FX 3 (Crystal)100 FX 4 (atmosphere)101 FX 5 (brightness)102 FX 6 (goblins)103 FX 7 (echoes)104 FX 8 (sci-fi)

(105-112 ETHNIC)105 Sitar106 Banjo107 Shamisen108 Koto109 Kalimba110 Bagpipe111 Fiddle112 Shanai

(113-120 PERCUSSIVE)113 Tinkle Bell114 Agogo115 Steel Drums116 Woodblock117 Taiko Drum118 Melodic Tom119 Synth Drum120 Reverse Cymbal

(121-128 SOUND EFFECTS)121 Guitar Fret Noise122 Breath Noise123 Seashore124 Bird Tweet125 Telephone Ring126 Helicopter127 Applause128 Gunshot

Channel 10 is typically assigned to drums and percussion.

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Appendix B: MIDI Controller Numbers

Hex Dec Controller Name

Data Range

0 0 Bank Select (coarse) 0..1271 1 Modulation Wheel (coarse) 0..1272 2 Breath Control (coarse) 0..1273 3 Continuous controller #3 0..1274 4 Foot Controller (coarse) 0..1275 5 Portamento Time (coarse) 0..1276 6 Data Entry Slider (coarse) 0..1277 7 Main Volume (coarse) 0..1278 8 Stereo Balance (coarse) 0..1279 9 Continuous controller #9 0..127

0A 10 Pan (coarse) 0=left 64=center 127=right0B 11 Expression (sub-Volume) (coarse) 0..1270C 12 Effect Control 1 (coarse) 0..1270D 13 Effect Control 2 (coarse) 0..1270E 14 Continuous controller #14 0..1270F 15 Continuous controller #15 0..12710 16 General Purpose Slider 1 0..127 11 17 General Purpose Slider 2 0..12712 18 General Purpose Slider 3 0..12713 19 General Purpose Slider 4 0..12714 20 Continuous controller #20 0..12715 21 Continuous controller #21 0..12716 22 Continuous controller #22 0..12717 23 Continuous controller #23 0..12718 24 Continuous controller #24 0..12719 25 Continuous controller #25 0..1271A 26 Continuous controller #26 0..1271B 27 Continuous controller #27 0..1271C 28 Continuous controller #28 0..1271D 29 Continuous controller #29 0..1271E 30 Continuous controller #30 0..1271F 31 Continuous controller #31 0..12720 32 Bank Select (fine) 0..127 usually ignored21 33 Modulation Wheel (fine) 0..12722 34 Breath Control (fine) 0..12723 35 Continuous controller #3 (fine) 0..12724 36 Foot Controller (fine) 0..12725 37 Portamento Time (fine) 0..12726 38 Data Entry Slider (fine) 0..12727 39 Main Volume (fine) 0..127 usually ignored28 40 Stereo Balance (fine) 0..12729 41 Continuous controller #9 (fine) 0..1272A 42 Pan (fine) 0..127 usually ignored2B 43 Expression (sub-Volume) (fine) 0..127 usually ignored

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2C 44 Effect Control 1 (fine) 0..1272D 45 Effect Control 2 (fine) 0..1272E 46 Continuous controller #14 (fine) 0..127 2F 47 Continuous controller #15 (fine) 0..12730 48 Continuous controller #16 0..127 31 49 Continuous controller #17 0..12732 50 Continuous controller #18 0..12733 51 Continuous controller #19 0..12734 52 Continuous controller #20 (fine) 0..127 35 53 Continuous controller #21 (fine) 0..127 36 54 Continuous controller #22 (fine) 0..127 37 55 Continuous controller #23 (fine) 0..127 38 56 Continuous controller #24 (fine) 0..127 39 57 Continuous controller #25 (fine) 0..127 3A 58 Continuous controller #26 (fine) 0..127 3B 59 Continuous controller #27 (fine) 0..127 3C 60 Continuous controller #28 (fine) 0..127 3D 61 Continuous controller #29 (fine) 0..127 3E 62 Continuous controller #30 (fine) 0..127 3F 63 Continuous controller #31 (fine) 0..127 40 64 Hold pedal (Sustain) on/off 0..63=off 64..127=on41 65 Portamento on/off 0..63=off 64..127=on42 66 Sustenuto Pedal on/off 0..63=off 64..127=on43 67 Soft Pedal on/off 0..63=off 64..127=on44 68 Legato Pedal on/off 0..63=off 64..127=on45 69 Hold Pedal 2 on/off 0..63=off 64..127=on46 70 Sound Variation 0..12747 71 Sound Timbre 0..12748 72 Sound Release Time 0..12749 73 Sound Attack Time 0..1274A 74 Sound Brightness 0..1274B 75 Sound Control 6 0..1274C 76 Sound Control 7 0..1274D 77 Sound Control 8 0..1274E 78 Sound Control 9 0..1274F 79 Sound Control 10 0..12750 80 General Purpose Button 0..63=off 64..127=on51 81 General Purpose Button 0..63=off 64..127=on52 82 General Purpose Button 0..63=off 64..127=on53 83 General Purpose Button 0..63=off 64..127=on54 84 Undefined on/off 0..63=off 64..127=on55 85 Undefined on/off 0..63=off 64..127=on56 86 Undefined on/off 0..63=off 64..127=on57 87 Undefined on/off 0..63=off 64..127=on58 88 Undefined on/off 0..63=off 64..127=on59 89 Undefined on/off 0..63=off 64..127=on5A 90 Undefined on/off 0..63=off 64..127=on5B 91 Effects Level 0..1275C 92 Tremolo Level 0..127

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5D 93 Chorus Level 0..1275E 94 Celeste (Detune) Level 0..1275F 95 Phaser Level 0..12760 96 Data entry +1 ignored61 97 Data entry -1 ignored

62 98Non-Registered Parameter Number (coarse) 0..127

63 99 Non-Registered Parameter Number (fine) 0..12764 100 Registered Parameter Number (coarse) 0..12765 101 Registered Parameter Number (fine) 0..12766 102 Undefined ?67 103 Undefined ?68 104 Undefined ?69 105 Undefined ?6A 106 Undefined ?6B 107 Undefined ?6C 108 Undefined ?6D 109 Undefined ?6E 110 Undefined ?6F 111 Undefined ?70 112 Undefined ?71 113 Undefined ?72 114 Undefined ?73 115 Undefined ?74 116 Undefined ?75 117 Undefined ?76 118 Undefined ?77 119 Undefined ?78 120 All Sound Off ignored79 121 All Controllers Off ignored7A 122 Local Keyboard On/Off 0..63=off 64..127=on7B 123 All Notes Off ignored7C 124 Omni Mode Off ignored7D 125 Omni Mode On ignored7E 126 Monophonic Mode On **7F 127 Polyphonic Mode On (mono=off) ignored

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Appendix C: Historical Developments in Music Sequencing

1600 Athanasius Kircher described in his book, Musurgia Universalis (1600), a mechanical device that composed music. He used numeric and arithmetic relationships to represent scale, rhythm, and tempo relations, called the Arca Musarithmica.

mid-1600s Carillons, a Middle Age invention that used pins mounted on a rotating cylinder to “pluck” the teeth of a tuned steel comb, was modified to instead play a melody, by causing hammers to strike bells in a church tower at quarter-hour intervals.

1804 Panharmonium designed by Maelzel. Driven by air pressure, it reproduced the timbres of traditional instruments. Beethoven wrote Battle of Vittoira for the Panharmonium; unfortunately it was not performed due to various technical problems.

1895 Boch and Wacher developed the automatic calliope, which used metal discs with holes punched into them to produce music from the calliope’s steam- or air-driven pipes.

1897 E.S. Votey invented the Pianola, an instrument that used pre-punched, perforated paper rolls moved over a capillary bridge. The holes in the paper corresponded to the 88 keys of the piano. Openings in the paper roll sounded a note.

1920s Givelet and Coupleux’s pipeless organ used vacuum tube oscillators to create sound, and punched paper tapes to modulate it. One of the first programmable analog music synthesizers. At the same time, Seeburg, Wurlitzer and others were building the first electronic jukeboxes.

1948- Conlon Nancarrow used the player piano as a medium for original composition. He laboriously punched out rolls by hand.

1950s MUSICOMP composition language developed by Lejaren Hiller and Leonard Isaacson’s IBM Illiac 7090 computer at the University of Illinois; the first significant work was a string quartet called the Illiac Suite. In addition, the RCA Mark II synthesizer used operating codes punched on cards or paper tape.

1951-53 Eimert and Beyer (b. 1901) produced the first compositions using electronically generated pitches. The pieces used a mechanized device that produced melodies based on Markov analysis of Stephen Foster tunes.

1956 Martin Klein and Douglas Bolitho used a Datatron computer called Push-Button Bertha to compose music. This computer was used to compose popular tunes; the tunes were derived from random numerical data that was sieved, or mapped, into a preset tonal scheme.

late-1950s Raymond Scott developed the Electronium, an "instantaneous composition/performance machine" which generated rhythms and melodies in response to a composer’s requests via buttons and switches.

1963 The invention of the transistor helped Don Buchla create an analog synthesizer with the first built-in sequencer. Early models that followed came in eight- and sixteen-step versions.

1964 Robert Moog’s modular analog synthesizer became a commercial product and featured an eight-step analog sequencer with knobs per step for pitch (CV), gate time (on/off) and timing.

1974 Tom Oberheim created the DS-2, the first digital sequencer for controlling analog synthesizers like the MiniMoog. The DS-2 stored and played up to 72 notes, triggers or filter events via control voltage (CV).

1979-84 High-end analog and digital synthesizers featured built-in real time sequencing capabilities under computer control; examples included the Fairlight CMI and New England Digital’s Synclavier. By the late 1980s many keyboard synthesizers had built-in sequencers, drum sounds and effects, constituting early MIDI workstations.

1980-84 Digital drum sequencers were on the rise, from Roger Linn (LM-1, the first with digital samples), Oberheim (DMX, DX, DSX), Roland, Sequential Circuits, and others.

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1981 John Melcher wrote the first software sequencer for Passport Designs. It ran on an Apple II personal computer.

1982 Oberheim’s CV- and Gate-based System (OBX and Xa synthesizers, DMX digital drum machine, and DSX hardware sequencer) is featured on two Top 40 singles.

1983 Dave Smith’s (Sequential Circuits) Universal Synthesizer Interface specification was modified, in collaboration with Roland and Yamaha and was ratified as the MIDI 1.0 Specification.

1985-86 Software MIDI sequencers appeared for various computer operating systems: Apple Macintosh (Opcode’s Vision, MOTU’s Performer), Atari ST (Cubase and Notator; the latter became Logic) and IBM (Cakewalk).

1986-90 Multitrack MIDI sequencing was welcomed into the recording industry as a legitimate production tool, as well as for live performance. Notation was added to MIDI sequencers; shortly afterwards audio recording is integrated into sequencing.

1989 Digidesign released Sound Tools, a stereo audio editor that runs on the Apple Macintosh. In 1991, Sound Tools became Pro Tools, a software multitrack audio recording and editing package. MIDI is added in 1995.

1995 Seer Systems was granted a patent covering the first software synthesizer, Reality. The patent promotes the use of the General MIDI (GM) specification for compatibility.

1998 Rewire was released. A joint development between Steinberg (Cubase) and Propellerhead Software (Recycle), Rewire facilitates communication between different software sequencers, and allows MIDI, audio and synchronization information to be transferred between programs running on a single computer. Rewire is open for general use without a licensing fee.

2000 Propellerhead Software released Reason, a software-based virtual rack consisting of synthesizers, samplers, mixers and effects processors.

2001 Ableton Live was released, a loop-based MIDI and audio program designed for both composition and live performance. Live is popular with DJs for its ability to alter an audio clip’s tempo in real time for beat-matching effects.

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Appendix D: Basic MIDI Concepts

1. Review the definition of MIDI – MIDI is a serial digital protocol that MIDI-capable devices use to communicate with one another. In the most common usage, MIDI allows a musician to play notes on the keyboard of one MIDI instrument, while another instrument (or instruments) responds to these triggers. MIDI data communicates performance information (note on/off, MIDI pitch, velocity, patch, etc.), not sound; the synthesizer or sound module generates the signal that becomes the sound.

2. Review MIDI channels – Within MIDI there are sixteen separate channels that act as discrete streams of data. A MIDI device set to listen to a single channel will execute only data on that channel; it will ignore MIDI data on other channels. Note that the concept of MIDI channels is less used today in multitrack, computer-based sequencers that utilize software synthesizers. However, it is still useful for accomplishing specific tasks.

3. Review the MIDI IN, OUT, and THRU ports – A MIDI device receives MIDI data on its MIDI IN port and sends MIDI data via its MIDI OUT port, while the MIDI THRU port sends out precisely the data received on the MIDI IN port. Note that although MIDI is a one-way protocol, modern DAWs use USB between MIDI devices and a host computer, enabling MIDI’s one-way signals to travel over a single USB cable. Software synthesizers use virtual MIDI ports and cables to connect to host software and to other virtual MIDI devices.

4. Review a synthesizer’s basic performance parameters which are relevant to MIDI:a. Voice – A synthesizer voice consists of all modules necessary to play a single note.

This normally includes at least one tunable sound generator (an oscillator or sample) that establishes a basic timbre, plus sound modifiers including a filter and an amplifier, along with envelope generators to control the latter over the duration of a note. Other modifiers may also be included, such as an LFO for pitch modulation, and glide or portamento to make the sound generator slide between pitches.

b. Polyphony – A synthesizer’s polyphony indicates how many notes can speak simultaneously and is equal to the number of voices with which the synthesizer is equipped. A guitar can be said to be a six-voice polyphonic instrument. Modern software synthesizers often have unlimited polyphony, subject only to the processing power of the computer on which they run.

c. Multi-timbral – A synthesizer capable of playing multiple sounds of differing timbres (programs) simultaneously is said to be multi-timbral. This is not necessarily related to polyphony; a synthesizer with limited polyphony can still be multi-timbral. Programs are usually assigned within the synthesizer to receive data on different MIDI channels.

5. Review the most commonly-used MIDI Channel Voice messages:a. Note On – This causes a MIDI device to speak. A Note On message consists of the On

command plus the MIDI channel number, the Key number (determines pitch; values are C1 to G8, where middle C is C3), and the Velocity (normally determines loudness

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or brightness; values range from 1-127). Note: MIDI Note Off command is in the specification but seldom used; a Note On with Velocity=0 accomplishes the same thing. Note Off also includes a Key number and a Velocity value; the latter is sometimes visible in sequencers but seldom used.

b. Pitch bend – This is a continuous controller (CC) that “bends” a note up or down using a wheel with a center detent. The default range is typically +2 to -2 semitones or +12 to -12 semitones. Pitch bend is a 14-bit number for accuracy and smoothness, providing a total of 16,384 steps.

c. Modulation (CC#1) – This is normally used to add vibrato via an LFO, with a control range from 0 to 127.

d. Volume (CC#7) – The control range of Volume is 0 to 127. Since Volume is a 7-bit number (a total of 128 steps), it often creates an audible “stepping” sound and is unsuited for real-time volume change.

e. Pan (CC#10) – Short for “pan pot” or “panoramic potentiometer”, this controller positions a sound within a stereo field (left to right). Values go from 0-127, where 0 is hard left, 64 is center, and 127 is hard right.

f. Aftertouch – Some keyboards allow the player to apply pressure to fully depressed keys, which generates Aftertouch information ranging from 0-127. This is generally used to increase brightness or add vibrato.

g. Sustain (CC#64) – This is a switch controller with a value of either 0 (off) or 127 (on).

6. Review information about General MIDI (GM)a. 24-voice polyphonyb. 16-part multi-timbral capability with dynamic voice allocationc. 128 instrumental sounds and one drum kit consisting of 47 individual drum and

percussion soundsi. MIDI channel 10 is typically reserved for drums and percussion

d. Standardized program map (see Appendix A)

7. Understand Standard MIDI File (SMF) format and how to import ita. The SMF format allows different sequencing programs on different computer

platforms to share MIDI data.b. All essential MIDI data are stored, although some proprietary (brand-specific)

settings may be lost.c. There are three types of SMF files, each of which saves the same data.

i. Type 0 is the original SMF format, and combines MIDI data from all tracks into a single track with multiple MIDI channels.

ii. Type 1 retains all discrete MIDI tracks that exist and is the preferred format.iii. Type 2 adds pattern information per track if it exists. The use of this type of SMF

is limited primarily to hardware sequencers, and is not recommended.d. Most sequencers allow MIDI data on different channels to be split into separate

tracks for simplicity.

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Appendix E: Rewire and Client Applications

Background: Host and Client Applications

Digital audio workstations (DAWS) send and receive audio data through audio interfaces. For reasons of efficiency and retaining high audio quality, the drivers that manage the relationship between the interface and the computer’s OS do not allow multiple programs to send and receive audio simultaneously (especially DAW applications). At times, there are reasons to use a DAW in conjunction with other audio applications. For that to work, the host DAW application must have complete control of the audio interface and act as the “master” in the relationship. Other applications must route their audio output through the host DAW and act as a client or “slave” program. This master-slave relationship is achieved through Rewire, software that acts as a plug-in in the host DAW. The Rewire plug-in allows MIDI to be routed from the DAW to the client application and then receive audio routed from the client app back to the host DAW.

Why use a client application at all?The client app has virtual instruments that offer additional resources (Reason)The client app has functionality that the host app doesn’t have (Melodyne, Ableton Live)

Setup: Pro Tools example

1. Create a Pro Tools session (Pro Tools must be opened first in order for it to take control of the audio interface. If Reason is opened as a stand-alone application, it will block Pro Tools’ access to the audio driver and interface.).

2. Create a stereo Instrument track3. Insert Reason as a multi-channel instrument plug-in on the instrument track. This

will trigger both the Reason application to open and the Rewire plug-in.4. Switch to Reason. Click the Create menu and choose a virtual instrument from the

menu to create or add the instrument to the Reason session.5. Click on the Browse Patch button (or in some cases the Browse sample) and choose

a sound (patch, preset, etc.) from the menu to load the sound.6. Press the Tab key to flip the Reason rack and plug the instrument’s outputs into the

Reason audio interface outputs. The first instrument added or created in Reason will automatically cable to outputs in the Reason software audio interface. Any other instruments will need to be manually routed to the Reason interface.

7. Switch back to PTs. Set the Rewire plug-in input to correspond to the Reason outputs. Note that Mix L and R correspond to Reason outputs 1 and 2.

8. Set the Instrument track MIDI output selector to the desired Reason instrument and MIDI channel. After an instrument is created in Reason, it will appear as an available selection on the MIDI output selector of a Pro Tools Instrument or MIDI track.

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Example: Instrument track MIDI output selector

MIDI Output Selector button

Current MIDI Output Menu Options

9. Record enable the track10. Make sure that MIDI thru is checked and the fader levels are up.11. You should now be able to play and hear the Reason instrument through Pro Tools.12. Record MIDI as necessary on the instrument track in Pro Tools.13. Note: because Reason is a client application and is not part of Pro Tools, the Reason

session is not saved as a part of the Pro Tools session like other plug-ins. Yes, the Rewire plug-in and its settings are saved with the Pro Tools session. The next time the Pro Tools session is opened, the presence of the Rewire plug-in will trigger Reason to open, but it will not automatically recall the Reason session. That must be saved as an independent file. The best policy is to save the Reason session file and place it in the Pro Tools session folder.

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Appendix F: Multi-Output Virtual Instruments

Some virtual instruments are equipped with more than stereo outputs. As a group these devices are referred to as multi-output devices. The primary benefit of these devices is that the user is able to independently route signals that are easier to manage separately. For example, independently routing the components of drum machine instrument allows different signal processing to be applied to the kick drum, snare drum, hihat cymbals, etc. It’s also much easier to adjust levels on track faders rather than using volume controls in the virtual instrument. Some examples of multi-output virtual instruments include Native Instrument’s sampler Kontakt, Spectrasonic’s Omnisphere, Pro Tool’s Structure and Strike, Logic’s EXS24 and Ultrabeat, and Reason’s Redrum and NN-XT Sampler.

The setup of virtual multi-output virtual instruments varies, but can be loosely grouped into two categories:

(1) A single MIDI signal is routed to a virtual instrument. The virtual instrument separates the resulting audio into independent signals that can be routed to separate outputs. Again, a virtual drum machine would be an excellent example of this type of device. The actual setup for this type of device is fairly simple.

A) Install the virtual instrument on an instrument track. B) Set the different drum parts to independent outputs. C) Create aux tracks for each drum part and set their inputs to the corresponding virtual instrument outputs.

Example: Pro Tools Drum VI Strike in Multi-Output Setup

Virtual Drum Plug-In Aux Track Inputs Set to Plug-In OutputsOn Track Insert

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Example: Virtual Drum Instrument Set to Multiple Outputs

Drum set components set to independent outputs

(2) Other multi-output virtual instruments are capable of receiving multiple MIDI signals (on one or more MIDI channels), which are routed to multiple sounds or presets and, in turn, routed to independent outputs. Examples would include virtual samplers like Kontakt and Structure. The setup for this type of device is a bit more complex.

A) Install the virtual instrument on an instrument track.B) Load the desired sounds or presets. C) Set each sound or preset to a separate MIDI channel and output channel. D) Create MIDI tracks for the additional MIDI parts. Set the track MIDI outputs to the corresponding MIDI channels. E) Create aux tracks for each necessary output. Set the aux track input to the corresponding virtual instrument.

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Some DAWs allow for a somewhat less complicated setup for this type of device. The first three steps would mirror the above example, but would substitute instrument tracks for MIDI tracks.

A third variant should be mentioned but is not a multi-output device:

Some virtual instruments can receive multiple MIDI signals and assign them to play different patches simultaneously—they are multi-timbral—but have only one stereo output path for those sounds. When using these, the individual levels and signal processing of the different sounds must be adjusted in the plug-in.

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Appendix G: Subtractive Synthesis Basics

Subtractive synthesis employs oscillators that output a prototypical “audio waveform” (sine, sawtooth, square, triangle) from which filters act to remove (or “subtract”) frequencies from the original waveform to create the desired result. Synthesizers based on subtractive synthesis principles typically have one to three oscillators that, in combination, allow the user to create extremely rich and complex sounds.

Oscillators may output the following types of waveforms:Sine (Sinusoidal) wave: Sawtooth wave: fundamental plus all harmonics. The harmonics are in inverse proportion (2nd harmonic is ½ as loud as the fundamental, 3rd harmonic is ⅓ as loud as the fundamental, 4th harmonic is ¼ as loud as the fundamental, etc.)Square wave: fundamental plus only odd-numbered harmonics; again, in inverse proportion.Triangle wave: fundamental plus all odd-numbered harmonics. Here, the harmonics are proportional to the inverse square of their number in the series (the 3rd harmonic is 1/32 or 1/9 as loud as the fundamental, 5th harmonic is 1/25 as loud as the fundamental, etc.).

Other variants that may be available:Synchronized: an oscillator outputting a waveform is slaved to a master oscillator. Each time the master oscillator completes a cycle; the slave oscillator is reset and starts the beginning of its cycle. The master oscillator’s pitch is not heard and the slave oscillator’s pitch is not changed. However, the waveform of the slave oscillator is altered in a way that often results in aggressive and expressive “sounds.” Cross Modulated: Similar concept to the sync type, but the pitch of a sawtooth wave is modulated by a triangle wave.Pulse Width Modulation: A square wave in which the positive and negative portions of the wave are not equal. In a 20% pulse wave, for example, the positive section lasts only 20% of the wave’s period, while the negative section occupies the remaining 80%.Sub-oscillator: generates a second waveform one octave below the pitch of the oscillator being processed. Noise generator: sets the amount of white or pink noise added to a signal

Audio Filters

Audio filters are devices that divide the frequency spectrum into two or more regions and then allow some frequencies to pass through the device uneffected while others are attenuated. The frequency regions that are uneffected are said to be in the pass band and the frequency regions that are attenuated are said to be in the stop band. The dividing point between a pass and stop band is called the cutoff frequency. The example below shows a diagram of a low pass filter.

Example: High Pass Filter

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The example above shows that at the cutoff frequency, frequencies in the stop band are not immediately attenuated to a zero output. Instead the output level of frequencies in the stop band is gradually reduced the further you move into the stop band frequency range. The rate at which the frequencies are attenuated is referred to as the filter slope, commonly stated as a negative number of decibels per octave.

Common filter types include:Low pass (high cut): passes frequencies below the cutoff frequency, attenuates frequencies above the cutoff frequency.High pass (low cut): passes frequencies above the cutoff frequency, attenuates frequencies below the cutoff frequency.Band pass: combines a low and high pass filter to create a frequency range in the “middle” that is allowed to pass, while attenuating frequency below the low-end cutoff frequency and above the high-end cutoff frequency.Band reject (notch): again combines low and high pass filters but, this time creates a frequency range (usually narrow) that is attenuated, while frequencies below and above that range are allowed to pass.All pass (phase shift): an interesting variant that allows all frequencies to pass, but not at the same rate. The small amount of time delay introduced to some frequencies results in phase cancellation, which is perceived as a “whooshing” sound (phase shifting or flanging).

Other common filter parameters:Cutoff frequency: sets the frequency that divides the filter’s pass and stop bandsFilter slope: sets the rate of attenuation. Typical settings are 3 to 24 dB per octave.Resonance: accentuates the frequencies that surround the cutoff frequency to create a more noticeable effect.

Modulation

By themselves, oscillators and filters often create a sound that is static and sometimes not very interesting. A good example is a violinist who plays without any vibrato or dynamics.

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So, to create a sound that is interesting or more “human,” a method or process is needed to alter the sound in real time. Synthesizers typically use two additional devices to manipulate sound in this manner—low frequency oscillators (LFOs) and envelopes.

A low frequency oscillator is a device that outputs a very low frequency (.1 to 20 Hz). The LFO frequency is not added to the resulting audio signal but, instead, is used to change or modulate a sound in real time. Because the LFO frequency is very low, it vibrates at a rate slow enough to mimic vibrato or other human performance characteristics. An envelope is a device used to mimic or manipulate the shape of a note. Envelopes typically have four sections—the attack, decay, sustain and release (ADSR). In a synthesizer the envelope can be used to shape the time-variant characteristics (amplitude, filter settings, etc.) of a note. LFOs and envelopes can be used individually or in combination. For example:

Filter Envelope: An envelope that modulates the filter cutoff frequency Amplifier Envelope: Controls the dynamic shape of a note or sound Velocity envelope: modify envelope parameters by MIDI velocity. The harder a note

is struck the more it increases the loudness of a sound, the intensity of modulation, the attack time, envelope time, etc.

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Appendix H: Musical Sequencing

Objectives: Discuss techniques for making MIDI sequences more musical

MIDI sequences often sound artificial and unmusical. How can a sequencer be used to emulate the idiosyncratic expressive characteristics of human performance and the natural behavior of acoustic instruments? This article will discuss orchestration techniques and tips for using automation and continuous controllers to mimic phrase shaping, dynamics and other aspects of human musical performance.

MIDI sequences referred to as “mock-ups” are often a composer’s only method of evaluating a composition’s orchestration, form and balance. Most film producers want to review a MIDI mock-up before granting approval to release funds for a recording project to move forward. Therefore, it is critical that a composer have the tools to musically express their compositions and arrangements in the form of a MIDI sequence.

Creating musical and effective MIDI sequences starts with a basic knowledge of music. Many poor MIDI recordings are result of a lack of background or attention to orchestration and musical style. A MIDI sequencing program can’t take into account an instrument’s range or what happens when an instrumentalist plays louder or when they play in the extreme ranges of their instrument. Yes, a trumpet sample is going to sound squeaky, sound wrong when played out of the instrument’s range. So, good sequences start with creating parts that are realistic, that a real musician can actually play.

MIDI can be recorded in step-time (non-real time), notes can be added with the “pencil tool” and sequencing software can be set up to snap events to a grid. Sections of a piece that are chordal, or more homophonic in nature, can be recorded pianistically on a single track using a “section” sample. However, all of these techniques (bad habits) lead to mechanical, unmusical sequences and can be avoided by following these guidelines.

Record parts in real time. Rerecord a part until you can’t do any better. Record section parts one part a time. If there are five trumpet parts, create and

record 5 tracks. This will add subtle differences in articulation, rhythm, note length, etc. to each part. These differences are a natural part of any real ensemble performance.

Record unison lines one part at a time and avoid using “section” samples. Where possible, use different samples for the different members of a section. You

wouldn’t expect all the members of a section to play an instrument of the same brand and vintage. Using samples from multiple libraries will create a more realistic and more complex timbre.

Where possible, replace lead part(s) with a real performance (audio recording) Don’t expect that using a single sound per part will create as complex a timbre as a

real instrument. Doubling parts with other sampled or synthesized instruments will create a more complex sound just as if would if you were orchestrating for real, acoustic instruments.

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Doubling a part at the octave can enhance thin or wimpy sounds. A MIDI part can also be enhanced by simply duplicating the track—two is better

than one. Then try delaying or offsetting the duplicated track by a 20-50 milliseconds to create a doubled effect.

MIDI Editing: QuantizingQuantization is often the most frequently used (and misused) MIDI editing feature. Quantization allows a user to correct the rhythmic performance in a MIDI sequence using a grid based on the bar, beat structure of a piece and the locations of the recorded MIDI events in the sequence. Any competitive, modern MIDI sequencing program gives the user control over the resolution of the grid, what parameter(s) will be quantized (note start, note duration, note release, etc.), and how strictly the chosen material will be quantized. In addition, special accommodations are made for quantizing music with a swing feel. For example, Pro Tools allows a user to switch on or off the swing characteristic. When enabled, a swing percentage of 100% will yield a triplet feel—in an 8th note passage, notes not on the beat will move to the third 8th note of an 8th note triplet. Settings of less than 100% will result in a less dramatic swing feel while settings of more than 100% will gradually make the feel closer to a dotted 8th and 16th feel.

Example: Unquantized MIDI Notes Against a Triplet Grid

Example: Quantized MIDI Notes Against a Triplet Grid

8th notes quantized with a swing feel at 100%

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So, again it is important to listen to and analyze real performances and recordings and put that knowledge to use in your MIDI sequences.

The rhythmic resolution of MIDI is measured in ticks. The actual resolution varies from program to program, but a higher number of ticks per quarter note results in a more accurate rendering of a performance. It is very important to know what a note’s rhythmic value equals in ticks so that you can understand how much a note is early or late in respect to the rhythmic grid. For example, in Pro Tools the resolution is 960 ticks per quarter note. Consequently an 8th note is equal to 480 ticks, and 8th note triplet is 320 ticks and a 16th note is worth 240 ticks. Therefore, a quarter note quantized exactly to the grid starts at 0 ticks, 8th notes start at 0 or 480 ticks, or an 8th note triplet notes start at 0, 320 or 640 ticks. Moving a note 5 – 20 ticks before or after the related grid point – though inaccurate in an absolute, mathematical sense – won’t harm the perceived rhythmic accuracy of a musical passage but, it will allow you to subtly alter the feel or add life-like nuance to the rhythmic performance. As suggested earlier, misuse of quantizing can yield very bland results. Some suggestions to avoid this quandary are provided below …

Avoid the wholesale snapping to grid of any notes that don’t “visually” look right! Always set the quantize value to the smallest rhythmic value in the selection to be

quantized. Use the strength parameter when quantizing. Passages that are 85 to 90% quantized

still retain some of the original performance and will not sound as “mechanical.” Quantize small sections at a time Instead of quantizing everything, select a note and use the Nudge feature to move it

5-10 ticks. This improves the rhythmic accuracy but, at the same time, retains some of the human element.

Velocity or MIDI Volume

The MIDI protocol allows for a resolution of 128 (0 – 127) steps or degrees for volume. While this resolution is small when compared to our ability to hear changes in volume, it has served well since the inception of MIDI. Many times, the problems in a poor sequence relate to uneven or unmusical note velocities. This issue is often related to a person’s piano skills or to recording a sequence using a non-weighted controller. But, velocity problems can easily be edited using the event list editor or velocity editor in a DAW. After viewing the velocity information on a track, common sense can direct decisions about where and how to edit MIDI velocity.

Many sample libraries and virtual instruments are made more realistic by using velocity information to trigger different samples. This makes a MIDI performance more realistic because, as instruments get louder, their timbre usually gets brighter (and the opposite when they get softer). Also, in addition to this timbral variation, as wind or brass instrumentalists play louder, they tongue harder which results in a more aggressive articulation. Modern sample library manufacturers often sample each note of an instrument 10 – 15 times to capture these subtle differences. The resulting samples are mapped to velocity ranges or “layers.” For example, the softest sample is mapped to the

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velocity range 0 – 10. At the juncture of the ranges, crossfades are added between samples so that it is very difficult to tell when you move from one velocity layer to the next.

MIDI sequences can be improved substantially with this knowledge of MIDI velocity and the specific setup of a sample library. Musical accents can be highlighted or the desired timbre can be triggered by increasing the velocity of a note and, as a result, switching to a more appropriate sample in a different velocity range or layer. Also, a legato passage can be made more effective by slightly reducing the velocity for any notes that are slurred and not individually articulated. In the example below, the velocity of each note is represented by the vertical “stalk” at the beginning of the note.

Example: Unedited Velocity “Stalks”

Example: Velocity stalks Edited to Enhance the Line Contour and Legato Phrasing

Articulations and Key Switching

Sample libraries often include alternate samples for different articulations—sustained, staccato, muted, etc. Effective sequences can be created by either using multiple MIDI or instrument tracks for each instrument and articulation or by switching between articulations on the same track. Some instruments in sample libraries are set up with low register keys assigned to send program or patch change information. Playing or recording a MIDI note from one of these keys embeds program change messages in the sequence, which results in the instrument switching articulations or, in the case of the Garritan Jazz library, to muted versions of an instrument or, in the saxes, to woodwind doubles.

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Instrument setups, with samples allocated to multiple velocity layers and key switching to alternate articulations, place a big load on a DAW’s ability to function and can result in reduced track count and other CPU-related problems. Where multiple articulations are unnecessary, it’s a good idea to choose a non-key switching preset.

Note Duration

Often, problems with articulation and phrasing can be resolved by editing the length or duration of a note. Staccato and related articulations and accents can be adjusted by editing or trimming a note’s duration. Use your ear and musical experience to judge the correct note length. Another issue related to note duration is legato phrasing, which is often difficult to achieve when using a non-weighted MIDI controller. This issue is more easily resolved by using the MIDI editing capabilities of a MIDI sequencer than by repeated efforts at recording the part. For example, in Pro Tools the Change Duration dialog box has a legato setting that will extend the duration of selected notes to overlap with the next note(s) by a user-defined amount. Overlapping by a small amount (5 – 10 ticks) won’t be perceived as notes sounding simultaneously, but it will result in a more legato-sounding phrase. Sample libraries, such as the Garritan Jazz and Big Band library offer additional help for this issue. When notes overlap and sustain pedal (CC 64) information is recorded, “the attack of the sample is removed to … more closely emulate the sound of a slur.” (Garritan, 2007, p. 39)

Example: MIDI Note Durations Set to Overlap

Durations set to overlap and enhance legato phrasing

Continuous Controllers and Human Performance

The above suggestions offer simple, effective ways to begin creating more musical sequences but, the real pay-off results from becoming familiar with and using continuous controllers (referred to as CCs). CCs offer the best method of emulating the continual changes in dynamics, timbre and pitch that are part of human musical performance. For example, a brass or woodwind instrumentalist will not perform a sustained note with unchanging pitch while a sample player or virtual instrument can do so indefinitely. The implementation of CCs varies by manufacturer. Typically, there are 128 CCs and controllers such as modulation (CC #1), volume (CC #7), pan (CC #10) and sustain (CC #64) are

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standard, while many others are left open for manufacturers to use as they choose. (Most books on MIDI will contain a discussion and a list of CCs).

Using continuous controllers the first time can be tricky and frustrating, so a brief discussion here will be time well spent. Remember that controller information can be sent and recorded, but, if the manufacturer did not implement the controller or used it in a non-standard manner, the controller information won’t trigger anything or it will trigger something unexpected. It’s a good idea to become familiar with the standard CCs and their implementation in the library in use. There are two primary methods of accessing and adding controller information to a sequence.

(1) MIDI control devices come with pre-programmed continuous controllers such as the modulation wheel, pitch wheel and, possibly, a sustain pedal. There also might be additional knobs or sliders that are user-programmable, continuous controllers. In modern sequencing programs and virtual instruments, programming these “knobs” can be very simple. For example, in the host sequencer (Logic, Pro Tools, DP, etc.) right-click on the desired parameter and choose “Learn or Assign MIDI CC,” then move the desired knob or slider on the keyboard controller. Look at the desired on-screen parameter as you move the “knob” and you should see the values change. When this functionality is not implemented in a DAW, assigning controllers can be more of a task. For example, the CC knobs on an M-Audio Oxygen 8, can be programmed to control a continuous controller using the following instructions…

To assign a CC Controller to the Oxygen 8 CC Knobs:1. Press the MIDI/Select button 2. Press the Set CTRL key3. Use the number keys to enter the desired CC Knob number4. Press the Enter key5. Use the number keys to enter the desired MIDI controller number 6. Press the Enter key7. Use the number keys to enter the MIDI channel that the controller should send on

(probably channel 1)8. Press the Enter key9. Press the MIDI/Select button to finish the controller assignment.

Controller data can be recorded in real-time by putting the track in record and moving the assigned wheel, knob or slider during recording. If the controller information is being recorded in a 2nd pass (after the note information was recorded), make sure that the MIDI Merge function is enabled; otherwise, any previously recorded information on the track will be overwritten. After the automation or controller data are written, they can be edited in the same manner that any MIDI or automation data are edited.

(2) The second method of accessing and recording continuous controllers is via the automation feature in a sequencing program such as Logic (or Pro Tools, Cubase, DP, etc.). The advantage here is that the controller information can be added and edited in non-real

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time and can be seen on screen. The following describes how to access and assign controllers in Pro Tools (9.x).

All automatable parameters are accessed via the track view selector found on track headers in the Edit window. In addition to volume, pan and mute found on audio tracks, MIDI and Instrument tracks also offer programmable “playlists” for several standard MIDI CCs as well as a method to access less frequently used CCs. To add controller information, click the track view selector on the desired track and choose the desired controller from the available list. In the track playlist area, a related automation line graph will appear.

Example: Track View Selector and Automated MIDI Controllers Dialog Box

Track View Selector Assignable Controllers Dialog BoxController Automation

Track Header Unassigned Controllers Assigned Controllers

Automation/controller information can be written in real time as discussed above. It can also be written in non-real time using the grabber, pencil and trimmer tools. Choose the desired controller from the track view selector list. Click the associated line graph with the grabber or pencil tools to add “break points.” Click and drag these break points up or down to change the controller values. Option-click a break point with the grabber to delete it. Use the selector tool to select a range of automation/controller data then use the trimmer tool to raise or lower that section while retaining the current contour. Automation/controller data can also be copied and pasted or a selection can be nudged a user-definable amount using the plus and minus keys on your computer keyboard.

Accessing less frequently-used controllers is simple. Click the track view selector and, at the bottom of the list, choose Controllers and then Add/Remove Controller. In the Automated MIDI Controllers dialog box that appears, available controllers are shown in a

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column on the left. Choose the desired controller, then click the Add button. This will move the desired controller to the right column that displays the active controllers. Click the OK button to close the dialog box. The controller is now available in the Track View List.

The following is a brief list of the most common controllers and their standard assignment.

Controller

Purpose/Function

1 Modulation: Pre-programmed to the Mod wheel on most controllers. Usually set to control vibrato but can be assigned to control other CCs.

7 MIDI volume level (0 -127)10 Pan: 64 = center, 0 = totally left and 127 = totally right.11 Expression: Most often is assigned as a pre-master volume control. In this case,

it scales by percentage the value set by CC #7. When using both controllers for volume, the suggested method is to use expression (CC #11) to add volume automation and then use CC# 7 to lower and raise the overall volume of a track (Pejrolo, p. 11). CC #11 is used by some manufacturers for other parameters. Make sure you read the available information about continuous controller assignments when you start using a new sample library or virtual instrument.

Bibliography:

Bergersen, T. (December/January 2007). Sequencing Samples, Part 1. Virtual Instrument Magazine, Los Angeles, CA.Bergersen, T. (April/May 2007). Sequencing Samples, Part 2. Virtual Instrument Magazine, Los Angeles, CA.Garritan, G. (2007). Jazz and Big Band Library Manual, Garritan Corp: Orcas, WA.Pedergnana, D. (March 2005). Subtle Gestures. Electronic Musician, Emeryville, CA.Russ, F. (April/May 2006). MIDI Mockup Microscope. Virtual Instrument Magazine, Los Angeles, CA.Pejrolo, A. (2005). Creative Sequencing Techniques for Music Production, Focal Press: Oxford, England.

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Appendix I: Audio Time Compression and Expansion

Since the inception of digital audio, engineers and users alike have searched for ways to manipulate audio files in order to “play” them at different tempos without a shift in pitch (which was not possible with tape-based audio). The earliest methods for accomplishing this were, made commercially available from Propellerhead (Recycle), Spectrasonics (Groove Control) and Sonic Foundry (Acid), were useful, but did not actually use time compression or expansion (TCE). Instead, they separated audio files at the transient, grouped the separated regions so that they were perceived as one unit by the user, and associated a MIDI note with each component region. Then, because MIDI can be time stretched without pitch artifacts, the MIDI notes could be manipulated to fit a new tempo and to trigger the associated regions—a very clever method to solve a complicated problem.

The big breakthroughs in TCE began in 2001 with the introduction of Ableton Live. Live’s audio warping functionality proved to be effective, extremely popular and led competitors to integrate similar capabilities. Some of the TCE functions found in current DAWs include Logic’s “Flex Time,” Pro Tools’ “Elastic Audio,” Sonar’s “AudioSnap,” and so on. Like the earlier methods, real audio time compression and expansion begins with an analysis of the audio file to determine where the transient attacks are located. That information is then used to determine the tempo, meter and length of the audio file in bars and beats. Where transient attacks are regular and recurring (as is the case with drum set or percussion files), the TCE process has proven to be very successful, both accurately analyzing audio files and then time stretching the files to fit different tempos. When the audio files are more complex, different algorithms are used. For example, most of the previously mentioned DAWs have algorithms optimized for vocals or bass (monophonic), keyboards or guitar (polyphonic), and drums (rhythmic). It should be noted that current TCE algorithms operate in real time, which places considerable demand on a computer’s CPU, especially when slowing down an audio file. In this case, the process not only needs to decrease the file’s tempo, but also fill the gaps that result between transients as the “audio waveform” is stretched apart. All of the DAWs mentioned above offer a method to render the TCE audio files at the new tempo. This will alleviate any CPU choke that results from using real time audio TCE.

In addition to conforming audio files to a new tempo, the TCE functionality in Logic, Pro Tools and Ableton Live includes capabilities that allow the audio files to be quantized much like MIDI. For example, in Pro Tools, you would enable elastic audio on a track, select an audio region and then open the Event Operations > Quantize dialog. There, you would select a quantize value or a groove template (or other quantization parameters) against which the transient locations in the audio file are quantized.

Pro Tools Example:

A. Enabling Elastic Audio on a track using the Conform to Tempo Command1. Create an audio track

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2. Set the Time Base selector to Ticks.3. Click the Elastic Audio Plug-in Selector button (on the track header) and

choose an appropriate plug-in4. Place an audio region on the track. The audio region will go offline briefly as

the region is analyzed.5. Select the region and then from the Region menu select Conform to Tempo.

Example: Track Header

Track ViewSelector

Time BaseSelector

Real-Time orElastic Audio Rendered Processing IndicatorPlug-in Selector

Current Elastic Audio Plug-in Indicator

B. Viewing and Editing Elastic Audio in the Edit Window1. There are two new ways to view audio in the Edit window.2. Select Analysis or Warp from the Track View Selector3. Analysis view

a) After Pro Tools analyzes an audio file, an Event marker is placed at each detected transient. Event markers mark places in the audio file where the audio can be quantized or the audio can be stretched or contracted (Warped).

b) Switch to Analysis view to see and edit Event markers.4. Editing event markers

a) Adding Event Markers(1) Click a location with the Pencil tool or…(2) Double-click a location with the Grabber tool

b) Move an Event Marker(1) Drag an Event marker with the Pencil or Grabber tool(2) Select one or more Event markers with the Selector tool and press the

Delete key.c) Delete an Event Marker

(1) Option-click an Event marker with either the Grabber or Pencil tool(2) Select one or more Event markers with the Selector tool and press the

Delete key.

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5. Warp viewa) In Warp view, Warp markers can be added to event markers. Warp

markers can then be moved to stretch or contract audio between Warp markers.

6. Creating and editing warp markersa) Automatically adding warp markers

(1) Place an audio file on a tick-based audio track with elastic audio enabled.

(2) Select the audio region and quantize it.b) Manually adding Warp markers

(1) Switch to Warp view(2) Click an Event marker with the Pencil tool or(3) Double-click an event marker with the Grabber tool

c) Moving Warp markers without warping audio(1) Control-click and drag a Warp marker using either the Pencil or

Grabber tools.d) Deleting Warp markers

(1) Option-click a Warp marker with either the Grabber or Pencil tool(2) Select one or more Warp markers with the Selector tool and press the

Delete key.

Example: Event and Warp Markers (Warp view)

Warp Markers Event Markers

C. Quantizing Elastic Audio1. Select a region(s) on a tick-based, elastic audio-enabled track2. Select the Event menu > Event Operations > Quantize (Option-3)3. Select Elastic Audio Events (in the What to Quantize section)4. Select a rhythmic increment or groove template as the quantize reference5. Set other options desired and click apply.6. In Warp view notice that Warp markers have been added to each event

marker.D. Conforming or Rendering Elastic Audio

1. Real-time elastic audio places great demand on CPU resources, so, once an audio file has been conformed to a session tempo and edited as necessary, any elastic audio can be rendered as new audio file and region.

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2. Click the Elastic-Audio plug-in selector menu3. Set the Elastic Audio plug-in to “None-Disable elastic Audio”4. In the Commit Dialog box, click the Commit button; this will render a new

audio file(s) and reduce CPU useage.

Logic Example:

A. Enabling Flex and Generating Transient Markers1. When Flex View is enabled, all audio track headers show the Flex Mode

selector, which defaults to Off (no Flex). Choosing a Flex Mode enables Flex for all regions on that track, and each region is analyzed for transients. Logic places a light gray transient marker at each found transient.

2. When an audio file or region is placed on a track where Flex is active, that audio is immediately analyzed for transients and the transient markers appear.

3. To disable Flex for specific regions on an enabled Flex track, select the region and un-check the Flex checkbox in the Region Inspector.

Example: Track HeaderFlex View Enable Button

Flex Enable per Region Flex ModeTransients

B. The Six Flex Modes (see Example at right)1. Slicing

a) Best for cutting drum tracks into multiple regions for audio quantization. May leave silence gaps between regions.

b) Adjust Transients (see item C. below), then right-click region, and and choose Slice at Transient Markers.

2. Rhythmic

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a) Best for quantizing drums and percussion without slicing.3. Monophonic

a) Best for quantizing solo instruments, especially bass, vocals and single-line guitar parts

4. Polyphonica) Best for complex music tracks and chordal instruments including piano,

rhythm guitar and instrumental sections.5. Tempophone

a) Mimics an early device similar to a tape machine, with a cylinder upon which are mounted multiple playback heads. The cylinder turns as tape moves across it; allows independent pitch or tempo change, but with strong artifacts.

6. Speeda) Allows the creation of “fades” that actually speed up or slow down

playback. Good for “dying turntable” effects.C. Editing Transient Markers

1. Select the first region in the Flex-enabled track and open the Sample Editor. Enable the Transient Editor Mode button and check for false or missing transient markers.a) Use the “+” or “-“ buttons to have Logic add or subtract transients.b) Click and drag a transient to move it. Command-click to manually add a

transient or double-click to remove one. 2. When only the essential transients remain and are correct, close the Sample

Editor.

Example: Transient Editor Mode

Transient Editor Mode ButtonFewer Transients More Transients

D. Conforming Regions to Tempo with Flex Markers1. Using the Arrow Tool or Flex Tool, place a single Flex Marker at the beginning

of the region to be conformed. This Marker will act as an anchor.2. Click in the upper right corner of the region (the cursor will look like Trim

with waveforms instead of arrows), and stretch or shrink the region to the

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desired new endpoint. Changes of less than 20% give the best results. Listen for artifacts indicating too much stretch or shrink.

3. Quantize the region as needed; Flex will quantize the Transients as if they were Flex Markers, stretching or shrinking the audio between markers as needed.

Example: Flex and Transient MarkersFlex Markers

Transient Markers

E. Adjusting Notes Within a Region using Flex Markers1. Occasionally it is not possible to create accurate Transient Markers, especially

with complex, sustaining instruments. In these cases, Flex Markers can be placed manually to allow accurate conforming and quantization. Using the Flex Tool in the Arrange window, place Flex Markers as needed.a) Clicking on a Transient in the upper half of the waveform display will

place a single Flex Marker on that Transient.b) Clicking on a Transient in the lower half of the waveform display will place

three Flex Markers: The center one will be on the targeted Transient, and the left and right ones will be on the nearest Transients on either side of the target. The outside Flex Markers will act as anchors as the center one is moved.

c) Clicking while not on a Transient will create either a single or triple Flex Marker, depending on whether the upper or lower area is clicked.

2. To remove a Flex Marker, double-click it. To change the position of a Flex Marker without effecting the audio, Option-click and drag it.

F. Quantizing Flexed Tracks and Regions1. Select a track or region, and then select an appropriate quantization value

from the Region Inspector. Groove Templates work well here.2. To quantize a portion of a whole file, we recommend that you separate the

portion into its own region and then quantize it.

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G. Making Conformed Audio Permanent1. Audio that has been conformed using Flex Time will remain conformed only if

Flex View and Flex Mode are left enabled. There are two ways to make Flex Time changes permanent:a) Select the entire track. From the local Track menu, select Bounce in Place

(right-clicking on the region(s) also reveals the Bounce in Place menu). In the dialog box, choose a Destination for the bounced audio, along with how effects and normalization should be handled, and then click Bounce. A new audio file will be created per the specifications selected in the dialog.

b) To avoid the above dialog altogether, select a region or regions and then use the local Region menu to access Merge > Regions. This will create a new audio file that will replace the previous one, with conforming intact. Note that the Merge function works only on multiple regions. If a conformed track consists of a single region, it must be sliced to allow access to the Merge function.

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Appendix J: Mixing and Signal Processing Fundamentals

Many who are unfamiliar with recording, mixing and editing assume that the job of an engineer is solely technical. In reality, it is a complicated job that requires equal parts of technical knowledge and “musical” ability (an art and a science). A great engineer, like Al Schmitt for example, is as much an artist as the musicians with whom he works (e.g., Sam Cooke Jefferson Airplane, George Benson, Chet Baker, Henry Mancini, Steely Dan, and Diana Krall). That said, mixing is like any other musical endeavor, it takes practice, and it helps to observe those who do it well. The following notes summarize the basic knowledge and concepts that should help you better understand the process.

Setting Levels

The first step in mixing a MIDI or audio project is to set basic levels for the tracks in the project. If nothing else, this will provide clarity so that the mix can be evaluated to check how the components complement each other. It’s important to understand that, when the signals from several tracks are added or mixed together, the level of the resulting composite signal will be louder than the individual tracks by themselves. The following methods help to avoid clipping or distortion in a pop/rock mix:

1. Start by setting the kick drum at -5 to -10 dB. Then, balance the other drum tracks to the kick drum. Add and balance the bass track, then continue this process with the other tracks. This method will not only solve the output level problem, but should ensure that the level on individual tracks doesn’t clip (nor should you run out of fader headroom).

2. A similar method: start by placing the fader on the master track at -6 dB. Then, begin balancing the drum tracks (or other preferred tracks) and gradually add and balance the other tracks. Experience has shown that this method can be problematic, causing you to run out of headroom on individual tracks.

Alternatively, some engineers start by working with the most important track(s) in a project. For example, the lead vocal track in a pop/rock mix is commonly the most important track. So, begin by setting the lead vocal level and add the desired or necessary equalization, compression and reverb. Then, balance the other tracks to support the vocal track, while still taking care not to overload the master track.

Pan Positions

A pan pot (panoramic potentiometer) is used to place a track’s output in a stereo sound field. When the pan knob is at it’s center position, the track’s output is distributed equally to both left and right speakers. This results in the impression that the signal from the track emanates from a phantom center position between the left and right speakers. As the pan knob is turned to the left, the signal gradually gets louder in the left speaker and softer in the right speaker yielding the perception that the signal moves toward the left side of the

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stereo sound field; a similar perception occurs in the opposite direction, when the knob is turned to the right.

There are as many panning strategies as there are audio engineers, but here are some “common sense” thoughts that provide a good place to start.

1. The instruments in a classical or jazz recording are often panned to create the perception that the instruments are on stage for a live performance. For example, when panning the instruments in a string quartet mix, the 1st violin would be placed on the far left, the 2nd violin approximately 30 degrees to the left, the viola 30 degrees to the right and the cello on the far right.

2. In a pop/rock mix the primary melodic and rhythmic elements are placed in or around the center (lead vocal, kick, snare, bass and instrumental solos). The drums are panned in stereo—kick and snare center, toms appropriately right-to-left across the sound field and ride and crash cymbals hard left and right. Other rhythm instruments, including guitar and keyboard parts, are panned to the sides.

3. Low frequency elements in a pop/rock mix are usually panned center. This practice started when stereo records were cut to keep the needle from jumping out of the groove and because low frequencies require more power, it also balances the power used to drive the left and right speakers.

3. Stereo tracks don’t have to be panned in stereo. In fact, for MIDI projects in which all tracks can be stereo, it’s important to maintain a balance of stereo and mono panning. Otherwise, the resulting mix won’t have a perceived stereo identity. In some DAWS, stereo tracks have two pan knobs (or sliders). This allows the track’s output to be panned in stereo (hard left or right), to a region (position the two pan knobs at the left and right edges of the intended range), or in mono (place the two pan knobs in the same position).

4. Balance the stereo image. Too many instruments to one side will make the mix appear lopsided. Too much activity on one side of the mix is distracting. Panning most of the low or high frequencies to one side is equally distracting. So, distributing instruments, musical activity and frequency evenly across the mix is key to creating a resulting sound that will be perceived as balanced.

Signal Routing I: Inserts:

An insert is an audio patch point on a track, which allows a signal processor to be placed in the signal path of an audio signal. The audio signal path on the track is interrupted, allowing the user to route a track’s entire signal to a plug-in (virtual) or an external hardware signal processor. A processor placed on a track insert effects only the signal on that individual track. The most common signal processors used on track inserts are equalizers, filters, compressors, limiters and noise gates.

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Example: Insert Signal Path

DAWS allow for 5 to 10 inserts per track, while mixing consoles only allow for one (analog mixing consoles often have dedicated dynamics and EQ on each track and don’t need 10 inserts). Track inserts are wired in series. This means that the signal is routed through the first insert and associated plug-in and then routed to the second insert and so on.

Example: Series Configuration of Track Inserts

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Signal Processing

Signal processors are audio devices that change some characteristic of an audio signal. There are four primary categories of signal processing devices—spectrum, dynamic, time and noise processors.

Spectral Processors

Spectral processors are used to change the frequency response or tone color of an audio signal. They can be used to make the signal from a track sound “better” or more often, help the signal “fit” in a mix. The two main spectral processors are parametric equalizers and filters.

Parametric EQs:

Parametric EQs feature adjustable “bands” that can be used to boost or cut a range of frequencies. Typical devices have from three to ten frequency bands that are generically labeled “Lows, Low Mids, Mids, High Mids, etc.” Each band of a parametric EQ typically has the following adjustable patterns.

Center frequency: Sets the center frequency of a frequency range (band)Q/Contour: Set the width of the frequency range around the selected center frequency. In some cases the Q is fixed and not adjustable, most often in the low or high frequency bands.Boost/cut: Sets the amount of boost or reduction to applied to the given frequency range

Using a parametric EQ device can be a bit intimidating at first, so some general guidelines would include the following:

Select a frequency band that matches the general frequency area that needs adjustment.In order to locate the specific area that needs work, set a significant amount of boost; try around 10 dB to start.Next, while listening to the track, sweep the center frequency parameter up and down until the frequency related problem(s) “sticks out.”Decide if you need to boost or cut the selected range.Finally, open and close the Q setting to determine (then set) the width of the frequency range.

Determining the frequencies that need to be adjusted can also be intimidating at first, so this is a good time to briefly review tone color (timbre). All acoustic instruments produce complex waveforms, consisting of multiple frequencies. The pitch that we perceive is, most often, the lowest (and loudest) of those frequencies and is referred to as the “fundamental” frequency. The other frequencies that are produced are (usually) integer multiples of the fundamental frequency and are referred to as “harmonics.” We perceive different

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instruments as having unique timbral qualities because different instruments produce harmonics in differing proportions and intensities. This is due to many factors—the materials used in the manufacture of an instrument, chambers or columns of differing lengths, single coil or humbucking pickups, differing mouthpieces, etc. When we EQ an instrument, knowledge of its timbral characteristics needs to be linked to the frequency areas in which its strengths and weaknesses lie. Audio engineers often refer to these areas as the “magic frequencies.”Example: Timbral character of selected instruments (mostly taken from The Mixing Engineers Handbook by Bobby Owinski).

Instrument Magic FrequenciesKick Drum Fundamental around 80 Hz, Mid-range honk: 200 – 400 Hz, Snap: 2 -

3 kHzSnare drum Low end: 120 – 240 Hz, Boing: 900 Hz, Crispness: 5 kHz, Snap: 10 kHzCymbals Clang: 200 Hz, Sparkle: 8 – 10 kHzBass Low end: 50 - 80 Hz, Attack: 700 Hz, Snap: 2 - 3 kHzElectric guitar Fullness: 240 – 500 Hz, Presence: 1.5 – 2.5 kHz, To simulate the sound

of 4 x 12 cabinet, reduce at 1 kHzAcoustic guitar

Fullness: 80 Hz, Mid-range: 240 Hz, Presence: 2 – 5 kHz

Piano Fullness: 80 Hz, Presence: 2 – 5 kHz, Honky-tonk: 2.5 kHzVocals Fullness: 120 Hz, Boominess: 240 Hz, Presence: 5 kHz, Sibilance: 5

kHz, Air: 10 – 15 kHzBrass Fullness: 120 – 240 Hz, Piercing: 5 kHzStrings Fullness: 240 Hz, Scratchiness: 7 – 10 kHz

Audio Filters

Audio filters are simple spectral processor devices, often used to clean up the low or high frequency areas in a mix. Audio filters divide the frequency spectrum into two or more regions and then allow some frequencies to pass through the device uneffected while others are attenuated. The frequency regions that are uneffected are said to be in the pass band and the frequency regions that are attenuated are said to be in the stop band. The dividing point between a pass and stop band is called the cutoff frequency. The example below shows a diagram of a low pass filter.

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Example: High Pass Filter

The example above shows that above the cutoff frequency (user adjustable), frequencies in the stop band are not immediately attenuated to a zero output. Instead the output level of frequencies in the stop band is gradually reduced the further you move into the stop band frequency range. The rate at which the frequencies are attenuated is referred to as the filter slope, commonly stated as a negative number of decibels per octave. Typical filter slopes reduce the frequencies in the stop band at a rate (slope) of 3, 6, 12, 18 or 24 dB per octave.

Use examples:1. In pop/rock mixes high pass filters (HPFs) are used to clean up the low end of the mix.

For example, to clear the way for the kick drum or bass, HPFs are placed on guitar, keyboard and some drum tracks. In such a situation, you would begin by setting the filter cutoff frequency at 100 – 400 Hz depending on the track, then adjust until you find the right cutoff frequency.

2. HPFs might also be used to remove noise from a signal. If noise from a ground problem is present it can be reduced by passing the signal through a HPF with a cutoff freq set above the frequency of the noise. In this example, the cutoff frequency would be set just above 60 Hz.

3. Low pass filters (LPFs) are used less frequently. Some microphones manufactured today have a significant boost in the higher frequency range. If the resulting signal sounds too “brittle,” a low pass filter can be used. To avoid a drastic reduction of frequencies above the cutoff frequency, try using a shallow slope (e.g., 3 dB/octave).

4. Low pass filters are sometimes used to help create the effect of someone talking though an “old fashioned” telephone. In this case, the cutoff frequency would be set quite low (500 – 700 Hz) with a very steep slope.

Dynamic Processing:

Dynamic processors are used to control the dynamic range of a signal. The most commonly used type of dynamic processor is the compressor—a device that reduces the dynamic range of a signal. Additionally, compressors can be used to help a vocal stand out against the backing tracks in a mix, smooth the attacks in a rhythm guitar or funk bass part, or add

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punch to a kick drum or snare drum part. The standard parameters on a compressor include:

Threshold: a user-definable level above which the compressor will proportionately reduce the signal level. Below the threshold the compressor is inactive.Ratio: Sets the amount that the input signal needs to increase to cause a one-decibel increase at the compressor’s output. For example, with a 5:1 ratio, for every 5dB that the signal exceeds the threshold, the output will increase 1 dB. So, if the threshold is set at -10dB and the signal actually “hits” 0dB, the compressed signal level is -8dB.Attack time: sets the amount of time it takes a compressor to start working after a signal exceeds the threshold. Fast attack times can alter the perceived frequency response of a signal. Since much of the high frequency content is contained in the attack of a sound envelope, compressing the attack can result in a dull sound. Try starting with longer settings and gradually moving to a shorter attack time.Release time: determines the amount of time it takes the compressor to return a signal to unity gain (i.e., to stop attenuating) after the signal drops below the threshold.Makeup gain: Once the dynamic range of a signal has been reduced, the overall signal can be increased (if desired) without causing clipping distortion. Check the compressor’s gain reduction meter and set the makeup gain at the average level shown on the meter.

Signal Routing II: Sends

A send (sometimes referred to as an auxiliary send) is an audio device that copies a signal or a portion of a signal from a track to a bus—an audio path that connects a destination to one or more sources. In this case, the destination is a processor and the sources are any tracks that need processing. Note that the signal path through the track is not interrupted by a send; instead, a user-defined portion of the track’s signal is copied to a bus. Multiple tracks can have a send set to the same bus in order to share the processor. This is optimal for delays and processor-intensive devices such as reverbs.

Pro Tools example:

1. To create a send, click on a track send and set the output to the desired bus (or interface output if using an external processor)a. Create sends on any additional tracks that are to share the processor and set to

them to the same bus.b. To create a send simultaneously on all tracks, Option-click a send and set it to

the desired bus.c. To name a send right-click the send and choose the rename option

2. In order for the different tracks to get differing amounts of processing, the send on each track has a fader that allows the user to adjust the amount of signal that is

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copied to the bus. The more signal that is copied from the send to bus, the more obvious the effect will be.

3. Create an Aux track (because plug-ins can only be placed on track inserts).a. Set the Aux track input to the same bus as the Sendb. Place the desired processor on one of the Aux tracks inserts

4. The Aux track fader functions as the master effect return control.5. Note that, when processing on inserts is referred to as series processing, the use of

Sends is different. In this case the unprocessed (“dry”) signal is routed out the respective source track outputs. The signal gathered through the sends is processed by the signal processor inserted on the “return” aux track, which (in most cases) only returns 100% processed or “wet” signal. This is called parallel processing.

Example: Sends and Parallel Processing

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Time-Based Signal Processing

The “aux” send and return structure described in the previous section are primarily used to integrate time-based effects into a mix, including delay, delay effects (like flanging and chorusing), and reverb. These effects are added via a “send” because this method allows multiple tracks to share the same effect. This is both an effective use of computer processing power (critical with reverb devices that are typically processor intensive) and can help to place the tracks in the mix in the same sonic environment.

Delay Effects

Delays are devices that delay or hold a copy of a signal for user-defined amount of time. When the delay signal is mixed with the unprocessed signal it adds a sense of depth and dimension. Delays can create several types of effects, primarily based on the amount of delay time. Delay effects with a delay time that ranges from 1 to 50 milliseconds are perceived as part of the original signal and not as a discrete repeat or echo. Representative effects include:

Flanging: 1-15 milliseconds of delay time, which results in a type of phase cancellation called comb filteringPhase shifting: 1-15 milliseconds of delay time, which results from running the delayed signal through an all-pass filter (a device that passes all frequencies, but just not at the same rate). When the delayed signal is combined with the unprocessed signal, phase cancellation occurs.Doubling: 15-50 milliseconds of delay time, which results in a sense of fullness similar to a vocal track that is recorded twice and then played back simultaneously.Chorusing: 15-50 milliseconds of delay time with pitch modulation. Using the example of a vocalist, the delay and pitch detuning that are part of a chorusing effect create the perception that the performer is more like a choir than a single vocalist.

When the delay time is more than 50 milliseconds, the delayed signal is perceived as a discrete event. Echo is the best known of these delay effects. The parameters commonly found in delay effects include:

Delay time: in millisecondsModulation: delay by itself can create a static, uninteresting effect (especially when the delay times are less than 50ms). Modulating the delay time can change the nature of the effect much like a violinist who adds vibrato to a performance. Modulation is added to a delay effect by using a Low Frequency Oscillator (LFO). The LFO oscillates at a very slow rate and is used to control the rate of change in the delay time or other parameter.Rate: The speed at which the LFO causes the delay time to shiftWidth: The range of drift in the set delay time

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Feedback (regeneration): The amount of delayed signal that is rerouted to the input of the delay. Increasing the feedback will increase the intensity of the effect or, in the case of echo-like effects, it will increase the number of repeats. With echo, increasing feedback beyond a certain point may create an infinite loop of repeats, and possible distortion.Wet/dry mix: This determines the ratio of processed to unprocessed signal output. Higher percentages will result in the output of more delayed or “wet” signal. When a delay (or reverb) is setup as a “bus” effect, the wet/dry mix is always set to 100% wet. It is not uncommon to find delay effects directly placed on an audio or instrument track. When that is the case, the wet/dry mix parameter on the delay effect is set by “ear” to achieve the desired effect.Repeating delay: One whose delay time is set to seconds or milliseconds. This time may still be modulated by an LFO.Tempo or Tap delay: A delay effect synchronized to the musical tempo of a song, either by entering a rhythmic value, or by tapping the tempo on the computer keyboard key, foot pedal or MIDI controller. Normally this delay time cannot be modulated further.

Reverb

Reverb is defined as multiple echoes (closely spaced and random) that reflect within an acoustic space. These echoes are packed together so densely that they are not perceived as discrete events but instead as one decaying signal (ambience). This natural effect can be reproduced by a virtual reverb plug-in to add a sense of dimension and warmth to a recording. Typical reverb parameters include:

Pre-delay: the time between the arrival of direct sound (no reflections) and the first reflections at the listenerEarly reflections: The first reflections that arrive at the listener. They reflect a single time off the primary boundaries of an acoustic space (room) before arriving at the listener. Early reflections give the strongest impression of an acoustics space’s dimensions and construction.Delayed reflections: A multitude of reflections that are so closely spaced that they are perceived as one single decaying signal.Mix: the ratio of unprocessed to processed signal. Because reverb plug-ins are typically used in a send and return setup, the output is set to 100% wet.EQ: The construction materials in a room greatly effect the resulting reverb. Spaces with highly reflective surfaces produce brighter, longer reverbs. Those with absorptive surfaces tend to produce warmer (if not duller) reverb. EQ parameters like high frequency roll-off help to simulate different types of spaces.

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Master (Fader) Tracks

Purpose: As the audio signals from tracks in a session are combined, the resulting composite signal gets louder. To ensure that distortion doesn’t occur as part of this process, master fader tracks can be used (inserted) at the point where the signals are combined. The fader on the master track can be lowered to prevent distortion. Note that the master track fader should not be lowered to adjust listening levels as that would result in a change in the signal-to-noise ratio of the overall mix. Instead, adjust the monitor level control on the audio interface.

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Appendix K: Bounce to disk

When a MIDI project is finished, it’s likely that you’ll want to generate a stereo audio file that can be burned to disc or played on an MP3 player. To accomplish this, most DAWs follow a similar process referred to as a bounce to disk. The next few paragraphs will discuss basic “bounce” procedures and parameters including dither, bit rates, file types and file formats.

Dither

Quantization error is an undesirable byproduct of the process of digitizing an analog audio signal or changing the bit rate of a digital audio signal. Like tape hiss, quantization error is primarily a concern when the audio signal level is soft enough that it doesn’t mask the noise that results from quantization error. Unlike tape hiss, though, this noise is not perceived as an artifact separate from the audio signal. Instead it is perceived as being correlated to the audio signal, and has the harmonic characteristics of a distorted square wave as the least significant (smallest value) bit fluctuates in an ordered pattern between zero and one. In order to solve this problem the signal is dithered, which is a process that causes the signal level to randomly fluctuate at the least significant bit. The result of dithering the signal is that the noise resulting from quantization error is converted into a more palatable pink noise with more of a sine wave shape, and the noise is perceived as decorrelated from the actual audio signal.

A common point at which the bit rate of a digital audio signal might be changed is during the bounce to disk process. Since one the biggest improvements in digital audio quality is to work at the highest bit rate possible, DAW users might choose to create 24-bit sessions, even if they are solely using virtual MIDI instruments. In the end, though, the resulting bounce will need to be 16-bit in order to burn it to an audio CD, etc. How dither is added to a bounce depends upon the DAW program. In Pro Tools and Sonar for example, the bounce is dithered by loading a dither plug-in on one of the master track inserts. As a policy, dither should always be the last plug-in insert and the last process performed. That way if any other plug-ins are used on the master track the dithering won’t be “undone.” In some other programs (Logic or Ableton Live), dither is added and configured in the bounce to disk dialog box.

Dither parameters are few and not that complicated. First, remember that dither is not required on a bounce where the bit rate is not being changed. If changing the bit rate, the target bit rate will need to be set—most likely to 16-bit. Next, there may be noise shaping options. The noise shaping process attempts to move noise out of the human hearing range. While noise shaping can be an effective tool, it often creates the impression that a bounce has been equalized. So, our recommendation is to bounce a project multiple times using different bounce options and choose the one that either sounds the best or has the most transparent effect on the original multi-track mix.

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Example: Pro Tools Dither Plug-In

Example: Logic Bounce Dialog

Bounce Preparation

DAW programs have different methods for setting a bounce length. In most programs you can set the duration by making a selection of the desired length in the program’s “arrange” window (Edit window in Pro Tools). In other cases the bounce duration can be set in the DAWs Bounce or Export Audio dialog box—in Logic or Ableton Live, for example. Additionally, all track solo and mute buttons should be disabled, or it is possible that the bounce will not include all the desired tracks.

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Bounce Options

The last step in bouncing a project is to set the bounce options. Depending on the DAW, this can be found under the File menu and titled Bounce to Disk or Audio Export. The fundamental parameters found here include the following:

File Type: The most important consideration is whether the bounce will result in a compressed or uncompressed audio file. Standard file types include…

BWF (Broadcast Wave File): uncompressed, Red Book CD standard, most common uncompressed file typeAIF (Apple Interchange File Format): uncompressed, Red Book CD standardMP3: most common compressed file type. Depending on the DAW program, the encoding parameter might also be available; if so, the Constant Bit Rate (CBR) can be set, which largely determines the audio quality. While the standard setting is 128kbps, we recommend that you use a CBR of at least 256kbps.

Sample Rate: 44.1kHz is the consumer standard rate for CDs, etc. If the bounce is being sent to a mastering studio, they will want the bounce at the original sample rate.

Bit rate: 16-bit is the consumer standard for CDs, etc. If the bounce is being sent to a mastering studio, they will want the bounce at the original bit rate.

File format: The standard is an interleaved file. This means that the left and right sides of a stereo (or 5.1) signal are contained in one data stream, which is later decoded by the CD or MP3 player. A stereo interleaved bounce will result in a single file. DAW programs also offer a multi-mono bounce option. This will result in two files—one each for the left and right sides. This is useful if the files are brought back into the DAW for further editing, but useless if an audio CD is the desired result.

Example: Pro Tools Bounce Dialog

The last step in the bounce process is to set the save location and name the file. As a best practice, we recommend that the bounce be saved in the project folder. Lastly, some DAWS bounce in real time (Pro Tools), while others are capable of a non-real time bounce (Logic, Digital Performer, Adobe Audition, Sonar, and others).

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Appendix L: Composing to Picture Basics

Objectives: Discuss and demonstrate the scoring process Demonstrate the functionality in a DAW program that supports scoring to picture

Scoring Process OverviewIn a professional setting, the following steps are part of the process that takes place as a Film or TV production team collaborates with a composer to create and add music to a film or video.

The Spotting Session is a meeting in which the film director (or TV producer) and the composer review a preliminary version of a project and determine the musical needs for each scene. Usually, the project’s music editor is also present at the meeting taking notes, which include…

The SMPTE start and end points for each musical cue or scene The dramatic and musical goals for each cue Type of usage: Underscore, source music, pre-existing song, or new song.

Music Production…Composers in film or high budget TV score to picture. Composers for lower budget TV shows sometimes compose without ever seeing any video. As part of the process, composers and their teams create a mockup of the eventual score in a DAW using virtual instruments and sample libraries. Some elements (sometimes many) created in this pre-production process might actually be used in the final product. In preparation for the scoring session, those elements will be edited, mixed and rendered as “prelays” that can be included in the headphone cues during the subsequent recording. Depending on the project, live musicians are added on top of the MIDI mockup. For a large budget film, this could include 80-100 orchestral musicians. For a TV show, this might only be a single guitarist. Following the recording session(s) the music is edited and submixed into a group of tracks called stems, to reduce the total number of tracks for easier mixing.

The Dubbing Session…is when all of the project’s elements are merged into the final product. These elements include the final edits of the film and the three areas of audio—dialog, sound effects and video. The dubbing session is attended by the project’s director (producer in TV), and audio mixers for the three audio areas. The music editor attends and represents the composer’s interests.

Preparing and Importing Video Into a DAW Session

The production company will make a copy of the project available to the director. Each cue is given a window burn that displays the current SMPTE (Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers) timecode value directly on the video. Historically, timecode was an audio track that was printed to the film. The timecode signal recorded to this track was distributed to the audio and video machines in use and enabled them to synchronize during

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playback. Today timecode is “burned” into an overlay window in the video file. In order to sync multiple devices, two things are needed; (1) positional reference (here’s where I am) and (2) speed reference (this is how fast I’m going). SMPTE does that by giving timecode location (positional reference) and frame rate (speed reference). Timecode reads as Hours:Minutes:Seconds:Frames or 00:00:00:00.

There are several frame rates in use for different situations: US Theatrical Film: 24fps US black and white TV or audio only sessions: 30fps US color TV and video: 29.97fps European film or video: 25fps

Timecode can be added to an existing video in Final Cut Pro using the following instructions.

1. Open the application2. Import the video file into a new project

a. File > Import > Files…(Command-I)b. Or drag and drop from finder window to the Final Cut Browserc. Or drag and drop directly to a track

3. If the video file (or clip) does not have the same properties as the project, an error message will appear and advise you to change the project (sequence) settings to match the clip—you will definitely want to click “Yes.”

4. Double-click the video clip on the timeline so that it shows in the viewer window.5. Click the Browser’s Effect tab…

a. Open the Video Filters tabb. Find the Timecode Generator filterc. Drag and drop the filter on the selected video track in the timelined. Click the Viewer’s Filters tabe. Set the Filter parameters

i. Label = blank or perhaps the composer’s initialsii. Set the frame rate to the video clip frame rate. If you don’t know the file’s

frame rate, select the video file in the browser then scroll to the right and find the frame rate column!

iii. Hour offset: if the cue starts at 1 hour then the offset should be set to 1, etc.iv. Frame offset: if the cue starts “off the hour,” add the necessary number of

frames. For example, if the clip starts at 1 hour and 3 minutes, enter 1 into the hour offset field and enter 5400 (3 minutes x 60 seconds x 30 frames) into the frame offset field.

6. To see the added timecode field, the video clip will need to be rendereda. Select the video clipb. Select Sequence > Render Selection > Video

7. Export the edited video clipa. Select File > Send to > Compressorb. In the Compressor Settings Window, click the Settings Tab

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c. Navigate the folder structure and select a video format. We suggest QuickTime H.264 as a good compromise.i. DAW programs will all import QuickTime videos

ii. H.264 video looks good and results in fairly small file sizesd. In the Compressor Settings window, click the Destinations tab

i. Select a save location for the resulting file.e. If necessary, adjust the format settings in the Inspector. If the video includes

production audio (dialog, sound effects) that you want to consider while writing to picture, set the audio format to Linear PCM, 48kHz sampling rate and 16-bit.

Videos for class projects can be found online at the following websites Internet Movie Archive: http://archive.org Film Archives Online: http://filmarchivesonline.org Entertainment Magazine: http://emol.org/movies Movie Trailers: http://apple.com/trailers Audio from films: http://classicmovies.org

Videos or scenes from a video can be ripped from a DVD using a free program called Handbrake. (http://handbrake.fr/)

Pro Tools Video Basics

The following outline gives basic information about how video can be integrated into a Pro Tools session.

E. Pro Tools Video Requirements1. PTs LE (in comparison to the full PTs Complete Production Kit or PTs HD

product) only allows QuickTime-related video in a PTs session.a) You must have QuickTime loaded on the computerb) HD systems also allow Avid video

2. Number of video tracks allowed per sessiona) PTs only allows one video track with one video regionb) PTs LE with Complete Production Kit and PTs HD allow multiple video

tracks, video regions and playlists.F. The Main Video track

1. Pro Tools only allows video playback from one track at a time. This track is referred to as the Main Video track.

2. The Main Video track is either the first video track in the session or the video track with the Online button enabled.

G. Video Engine Rate (VER) and Frame Rate 1. A session’s video engine rate is automatically selected when you import video

into a PTs session. If you’re operating an HD session (or LE equipped with DV Toolkit 2) it’s set when the first video is imported into the session.

2. The VER is equal to the frame rate of the imported video.3. The VER displays in white on the track header unless it doesn’t match the

session’s frame rate. In that case the VER displays in red.

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Example: Video Track Header

Video Type (QuickTime or Avid)

Track View selectorOnline/Offline toggle button

Video Engine Rate

H. Session Frame rate1. Background

a) The session’s frame rate should be set to match the Video Engine Rate. This will allow the grids and rulers to align correctly with the frames of the video file.

b) Film or video frame rates relate to SMPTE timecode which displays time in hours, minutes, seconds and frame in two digit fields separated by colons.(1) For example, 1 hour, 12 minutes, 4 seconds and 20 frames displays as

01:12:04:20(2) When drop frame rates are used, the separator between the minutes

and seconds field is a semicolon, for example: 01:12:04;202. Set the session’s frame rate in the Session Setup window (Command-2)3. Supported Frame Rates include:

a) 23.976 FPS: Used to convert HD video to NTSCb) 24 FPS: US film (theatrical release) frame ratec) 25 FPS: PAL/EBU frame rate, used in Europe and other countries that

adhere to PAL standards.d) 29.97 FPS: NTSC frame rate, used in the US for color videoe) 29.97 FPS Drop: NTSC video rate, used in the US for color video. Drop

frame is used to enable sync between “hour of the day clock” and video. It still runs at 29.97 fps, but two frame numbers are dropped at the beginning of every minute except minutes divisible by 10.

f) 30 FPS: NTSC frame rate used with black and white video and audio only sessions

g) 30 FPS Drop: Misleading, not a real frame rate. Only used to correct errors in existing timecode.

4. Session Start Timea) PTs also allows the user to specify a session start time.b) Note that 00:00:00:00 is not used. Starting playback before that location

would require machines to roll back past “midnight” to 23:59:59:59. This often causes problems with other machines that may be synchronized to PTs and should be avoided.

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Example: Session Setup Window

Session Start Time (note the drop frame format)

Frame Rate (Timecode Rate)

I. Importing Video and Managing Video tracks1. Importing QuickTime Video

a) Import Video Command(1) Choose File > Import > Video(2) In the Select Video File to Import dialog box, select the desired video

file(3) Click Open(4) Set parameters as desired in the Video Import Options dialog box and

click OK.b) Drag and drop methods

(1) Drag from a Finder window to the Regions List a track or Track List or…

(2) Drag from the Workspace Browser…(3) The Video Import Options dialog box will appear, etc.

2. Video tracksa) Creating video tracks and placing video regions on video tracks is similar

to working with audio regions.

Example: Video media in the Region List

Video Region

3. Viewing QuickTime video in PTs4. Video tracks have two View options…

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a) Frames(1) Shows key frames of the video(2) The more the track is zoomed out, the larger the number of

“thumbnails” that are displayed(3) Processor-intensive so, if performance seems compromised, try

switching to Blocks viewb) Block

(1) Video regions are displayed as colored boxes.Example: Frames View and Block Views

J. The Video Window1. To display the Video window, choose Windows > Video (or Command-9)2. To resize the Video window…

a) Move the cursor to the lower left hand corner. When the resize cursor appears, click and drag the window to the desired size.

b) Right-click (Control-click) the Video window and choose the desired size from the pop-up menu.

Example: The Video Window

Resize Pop-Up menu (Right- or Control-click)

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K. Importing Audio from a QT Video1. Choose File > Import > Audio2. Navigate the Import Audio dialog and select the QT movie from which you

wish to import the audio.3. In the Regions column, select the audio region to be imported and choose Add,

Copy or Convert as is appropriate.4. Click Done.5. Choose to Import the region to the Regions List or to a new track.6. The QT movie’s audio will automatically be imported at using the current

session parametersL. Editing a Video Region: Video Editing is only available on HD systems and Pro

Tools LE systems equipped with Complete Production Kit. Simple edits like trimming can be performed.

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Appendix M: Computer DAW and MIDI Sequencing Software

Software available for TI:ME 2A Computer Music Sequencing. This is not an exhaustive list, but contains some of the most popular computer sequencing software available. Keep in mind that there is no such thing as “the best DAW” application. Each has strengths and weaknesses. This appendix is a starting point for available options and possible demonstration downloads. Most downloadable demos have all of the software’s features available but you cannot save your work or they will run as a demo for only a “trial period.” Note that several manufacturers offer different versions or levels of a sequencer application. Therefore, you can start out with a basic version and upgrade to a more powerful version without having to learn a new interface. Also, many manufacturers offer the same software for both the Macintosh and Windows platforms. For a lab situation, you may want to investigate lab pack and site license pricing packages; such information is typically available from the manufacturer’s web site.

The applications in the following table are industry leading digital audio and sequencing programs. The table lists which OSs the application runs on; whether the application supports MIDI, digital audio, or video import and export; and if it supports audio time compression and expansion (TCE).

Application Manufacturer OS MIDI Audio Video TCELogic Pro Studio Apple Mac x x x xPro Tools Avid Mac/PC x x x xReason Propellerhead Mac/PC xRecord Propellerhead Mac/PC x xReaper Cockos Mac/PC x x xFL Studio FL Studio Mac/PC x x x xAbleton Live Ableton, AG Mac/PC x x x xCubase Steinberg Mac/PC x x x xNuendo Steinberg Mac/PC x x xSonar Cakewalk PC x x x xDigital Performer MOTU Mac x x x xAudition v3+ Adobe Mac/PC x x x xSound Forge Sony PC x x x

DAW Website URLs: Logic Studio: http://www.apple.com/logicstudio/ Pro Tools: http://www.avid.com Propellerhead: http://www.propellerheads.se/ Reaper: http://www.reaper.fm/ FL Studio: http://www.flstudio.com/ Ableton Live: http://www.ableton.com Steinberg: http://www.steinberg.net Sonar: http://www.cakewalk.com/ Digital Performer: http://www.motu.com/ Audition: http://www.adobe.com/products/audition.html Sound Forge: http://www.sonycreativesoftware.com/soundforge

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Third Party Virtual Instruments and Sample Library URLs: Native Instruments (Kontakt, Komplete, etc.): http://www.native-instruments.com Spectrasonics (Omnisphere, Stylus RMX, etc.): http://www.spectrasonics.net/ EastWest/Quantum Leap (Hollywood Brass, Goliath, etc.):

http://www.soundsonline.com/ Vienna Symphonic Library (Vienna Special Edition, Vienna Instruments Pro, etc.):

http://www.vsl.co.at/en/ Synthology (Ivory Pianos): http://www.synthogy.com Piano TEQ (The Grand Pianos): http://www.pianoteq.com/ FXpansion (BFD): http://www.fxpansion.com/ Toontrack (EZ Drummer): http://www.toontrack.com/ Xln audio (Addictive Drums): http://www.xlnaudio.com/ Drumagog: http://www.drumagog.com/ Celemony (Melodyne): http://www.celemony.com Arturia (MoogModular, Arturia Prophet, etc.): http://www.arturia.com/ Big Fish Audio (Loops, instruments, etc.): http://www.bigfishaudio.com/

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Appendix N: Lesson Plan Guide

Short Answer Worksheet for creating Computer Notation Software Lesson Plans

Sequencer Software and the MENC National Standards• Which national standard(s) can be addressed using Sequencing Software?___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

• What specific ways can Sequencing be used to address these standards?___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

MENC Standards:1. Singing, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music.2. Performing on instruments, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music.3. Improvising melodies, harmonies, and accompaniments.4. Composing and arranging music within specified guidelines.5. Reading and notating music.6. Listening to, analyzing and describing music.7. Evaluating music and music performances.8. Understanding relationships between music, the other arts, and disciplines outside

the arts.9. Understanding music in relation to history and culture

Now, review the Teaching Strategies listed in the TI:ME Technology Strategies document.

See Appendix A of the Technology Strategies for Music Education (published by TI:ME). Select at least three teaching strategies and briefly describe how you could apply that in your own classroom; then, describe three or more ways that you could use Sequencing in your teaching situation:

TI:ME Tech. Strat. # Teaching Application__________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________

List three ways that Sequencers can be used in your teaching:___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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Sample Lesson Planner

I. ADVANCE PLANNINGA. GRADE LEVEL AND SUBJECT

For what grade or age is the plan?How long does each class session last? How many times do you meet per week?Where are the students developmentally?

B. MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENTWhich books (include title and specific page numbers) are needed for the plan?Which song materials are needed?Which visual aids (PowerPoint presentation, flashcards, photos, charts, etc.) are needed?Which aural aids (MP3s, CDs, etc.) Are needed?Which instruments are needed? Do they need to be tuned ahead of class time?Which equipment (Whiteboard, Smart Board, sketchpad, etc.) is needed?Is an LCD projector, tape recorder or DVD player needed?Which props are needed?Does the plan require open space for movement?

C. Specific Program ObjectivesList several objectives for the year to meet in the activities of singing, playing, reading, moving, creating, or listening.List several objectives for the year to meet teaching goals based on music elements (melody, rhythm, harmony, form, expression, and timbre).

D. Lesson ObjectivesList several specific music objectives for this particular class. The objectives will answer, in sentence form: Who, What Specific Activity (Active Verb), What Music Is Used, How Well That Goal is Accomplished.

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Appendix O: TI:ME 2A Advanced Sequencing Project Journal Guide

IST Name ________________________________ email __________________________________Sequencer Project Musical Material: Song Title __________________________________________Composer __________________________________________Date ___________________ File Name ________________________________________________Goal(s) for realizing the song as a sequence (selections of sound, artistic recording and editing) ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Equipment List: Sequencer or DAW, etc. ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Tempo Settings __________ Meter Settings __________ Key Settings __________Sequencer Track Sheet1: Track type, name, virtual instruments, signal processors and additional important information ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________2: Track type, name, virtual instruments, signal processors and additional important information ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________3: Track type, name, virtual instruments, signal processors and additional important information ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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4: Track type, name, virtual instruments, signal processors and additional important information ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________5: Track type, name, virtual instruments, signal processors and additional important information ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________6: Track type, name, virtual instruments, signal processors and additional important information ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________7: Track type, name, virtual instruments, signal processors and additional important information ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________8: Track type, name, virtual instruments, signal processors and additional important information ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________9: Track type, name, virtual instruments, signal processors and additional important information ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________10: Track type, name, virtual instruments, signal processors and additional important information ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Digital Video Information (AVI – QuickTime) Name of video and additional important information:________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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Appendix P: An Abridged Public Domain List from the Music in the Public Domain Site for Sequencing Source Materials (http://www.pdinfo.com/list.php)

This list is intended only as a starting point to assist in researching public domain materials and should not be considered definitive proof that the music listed is, in fact, in the public domain.

AA-Hunting We Will Go - TradAdeste Fideles - 1782Afternoon of a Faun - Debussy 1895Air for the G String - c1700Alouette - 1879Amazing Grace - John Newton c1800America, My Country 'Tis of Thee - tune 1744, words Rev Samuel Francis Smith 1832America the Beautiful - 1895Angels We Have Heard On High - 1800sArkansas Traveler - 1851Ash Grove, The - trad WelshAssembly (bugle call) - trad.Au Clair de la Lune - 1811Auld Lang Syne - music 1687, words verses 2&3 Robert Burns 1711Aura Lee H - 1861Ave Maria Gounod - 1859Ave Maria Schubert - 1826Away in the Manger - 1887

BBaa Baa Black Sheep - 1765Bach Johann Sebastian (1685-1750)Barbara Allen - 1666Barber of Seville - Rossini 1813Battle Hymn of the Republic - Julia Ward Howe 1862Beautiful Dreamer Foster - 1864Beethoven Ludwig v (1770-1827)Berlioz, Hector (1803-1869) Bill Bailey Won't You Please Come Home - 1902Bizet, Georges (1838-1875) Blue Bells of Scotland, The - 1885Borodin, Alexander (1834-1887) Brahms Johannes (1833-1897) Bridal Chorus, Lohengrin - 1885British Grenadiers - 1750

CCamptown Races - Foster 1850Can Can - Offenbach 1858Careless Love - (probably trad) 1895Carnival of Venice - Bellak 1854Chopin Frederic (1810-1849) Chopsticks - 1877Clementine - 1884Cockles and Mussels - 1750Columbia the Gem of the Ocean - 1843Come All Ye Faithful Reading - 1885

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Comin' Thru the Rye - 1796Concerto for Piano #2 - Rachmaninoff 1901Couperin , Francois (1668-1733) Czerny, Carl (1791-1857)

DDance Macabre - Saint-Saens 1872Death and Transfiguration- R Strauss 1891Deck the Halls - 1784Did you Ever See a LassieDown by the Riverside - 1865Drink to Me Only with Thine Eyes - music 1780, words 1616Drunken Sailor, The - 1891Dufay Guillaume (c1400-1474) Dunstable John (1370?-1453)

EEast Side, West Side (see "Sidewalks of New York")Entertainer The - Joplin 1902Eroica Symphony - BeethovenEspana Tango - Albeniz 1890Evening Hymn - Tallis 1890Eyes of Texas Are Upon You, The - 1903

FFantasie Impromptu - Chopin 1855Farmer in the Dell - 1883Fifteen Miles on the Erie CanalFirst Call (bugle call)First Nowel, The - 1833Fisher's Hornpipe - 1849Flight of the Bumble Bee - Rimsky-Korsikov 1900Flying Dutchman Overture - Wagner 1844For He's a Jolly Good Fellow - 1783Frankie and Johnny - 1869Frere Jacques - 1811Frog Went A'Courtin' - 1580From the New World - Dvorak 1893Funeral March - Chopin 1840Funeral March of a Marionette - Gounod 1872Fur Elise - Beethoven 1810Fux Johann Joseph (1660-1741)

GGit Along Little Dogies - 1893Give My Regards to Broadway - 1904Go Tell Aunt Rhody - 1844Go Tell it on the Mountain - 1865God Rest You Merry Gentlemen - c1770Golden Slippers - 1879Goober Peas - 1864Good King Wenceslas, music Swedish, 1582 words 1853-67Good Morning to All (tune of Happy Birthday) - 1893Goodnight Ladies - 1853Gottschalk, Louis Moreau (1829-1869)Gounod, Charles Francis (1818-1893)Grand March (Aida) - VerdiGrande Valse Brilliante - Chopin 1834

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Grandfather's Clock - Henry Work 1876Greensleeves - 1580Guido of Arezzo (d 1050 AD)Gypsy Chorus (Carmen) – Bizet 1873Gypsy Music, - Liszt

HHabanera (Carmen) – Bizet 1873Hail to the Chief - Scott 1812Hallelujah Chorus - 1741Handel, George Frederick (1685-1759)Happy Farmer, The - Schumann 1849Hard Times Come Again No More - Foster 1855Hark the Herald Angels Sing - 1855Haydn Franz Joseph (1732-1791)Here We Go Round the Mulberry Bush - 1857Hey Diddle Diddle - 1765Hickory Dickory Dock - 1765Home on the Range - 1873Humoresque - Dvorak 1894Hungarian Dances - Brahms 1859-1869Hungarian Rhapsodies, Liszt

II Gave My Love a Cherry - 1850I Saw Three Ships Come Sailing - 1765I'm a Yankee Doodle Dandy - 1904I've Been Working on the Railroad - 1894In the Good Old Summertime - 1902Invitation to the Dance - Weber 1821Irish Washerwoman - 1792It Came Upon a Midnight Clear - 1850

JJingle Bells - 1857John Henry - 1873Johnny Has Gone for a Soldier, Irish trad.Joshua Fit the Battle of Jericho - 1865Josquin Des Pres (c1450-1521)Joy to the World Handel - 1839

KNo songs or composer last names beginning with K.

LLa Boheme - Puccini La Donna e Mobile (Rigolette) - VerdiLargo (New World Symphony) - DvorakLiebestramme - Liszt 1847Liszt, Franz (1811-1886)Little Boy Blue (Mother Goose) - 1765Little Brown Jug Joe Winner - 1869Little Jack Horner - 1765London Bridge - 1744Londonderry Air - 1855Long Long Ago - Bayly 1843Lord's Prayer, The - 1885Lullabye, Brahms

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Lully Jean Baptiste (1633-1687)

MMan on the Flying Trapeze, The - 1868Maple Leaf Rag - 1899March of the Toys, The - 1903March Slav - Tchaikovsky 1876Marriage of Figaro, The - Mozart 1786Mary Had a Little Lamb - Sarah Josepha Hale 1866Meet Me in St Louis, Louis - 1904Mendelssohn-Bartholdy Felix (1809- 1847)Messiah, The - Handel 1741Michael Row the Boat Ashore - 1867Mighty Fortress Is Our God, A - 1529Minuet in G - Beethoven 1796Monteverde Claudio (1568-1643)Moonlight Sonata - Beethoven 1802More, Sir Thomas (1478-1535)Morely, Thomas (1557-1602)Mousorgsky, Modeste (1835-1881)Mozart, Wolfgang A (1756-1791)My Bonnie Lies Over the Ocean - 1881My Old Kentucky Home Foster -1853

NNew World Symphony - Dvorak 1893Night on Bald Mountain, A - Mussorgsky 1887Nocturne op. 9 no. 2 - Chopin 1832Norwegian Dance, The - Grieg 1881Now I Lay Me Down To Sleep - 1866Nutcracker Suite, The - Tchaikovsky 1891-2

OO Holy Night - 1843O Little Town of Bethlehem - 1868O Tannenbaum – music trad, words Ernst Anschutz 1824Obrecht Jacob (1430-1505)Offenbach, Jacques (1819-1880)Oh Susannah - Foster 1848Oh Them Golden Slippers - James A Bland 1879Old Folks at Home, The - Foster 1851Old MacDonald Had a Farm – music 1859, words 1706Orpheus in the Underworld - Offenbach

PPat-a-Cake (Mother Goose)Pathetique Sonata - Beethoven 1799Pavanne for a Dead Infanta - Ravel 1899Peer Gynt Suite - Grieg 1888Peter and the Wolf – Prokoviev 1936Peter Peter Pumpkin Eater - 1765Piano Concerto #1 - Tchaikovsky 1875Piano Concerto #2 – Rachmaninoff 1901Piano Concerto - Grieg 1873Pictures at an Exhibition - Mussorgsky 1887Pirates of Penzance - Gilbert & SullivanPizzicato Polka - StraussPolly Wolly Doodle - Foster 1885

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Polonaise Militaire Chopin 1840Polovetsian Dances Borodin ©1888Pomp and Circumstance Elgar ©1902Pop Goes the Weasel ©1853Prelude in C# Minor Rachmaninoff ©1893Prelude op 28 no 7 Chopin 1839Purcell, Henry (1658-1695)

QQuantz, Johann Joachim (1697-1733)

RRameau, Jean Philippe (1683-1764)Red River Valley, The - 1896Reverie - Debussy 1895Riddle Song, The - 1850Robert BurnsRock of Ages - Hastings 1832Rock-a My Soul - 1830Romeo and Juliet - Tchaikovsky 1871Rossini, Gioacchimo Antonio (1792-1868)Rousseau, Jean Jacques (1712-1778)Row Row Row Your Boat - words 1852 music 1881Rub-a-Dub-Dub (Mother Goose)

SSailing Sailing (Over the Bounding Main) - 1880Sailor's Hornpipe - 1795St Matthew's Passion – Bach 1727Scarlatti, Alessandro (1659-1725)Scarlatti, Domenico (1685-1757)Scheherazade - Rimsky-Korsikov 1890Schubert, Franz Peter (1797-1828)Schumann, Clara Josephine Weick (1819-1896)Schumann, Robert (1810-1856)Semper Fidelis - Sousa 1888Serenade - Schubert 1824She'll Be Comin' Round the Mountain - 1899Shenendoah - 1826Shoo Fly Don't Bother Me - 1869Silent Night, Holy Night – music Franz Gruber 1818, words anon., translation Josef Mohr Silver Moon - 1849Simple Simon - 1765Slavonic Dances - Dvorak 1887Sleeping Beauty Waltz - Tchaikovsky 1890Sonatas of III Parts - Henry Purcell 1683Song of India - Rimsky-Korsikov 1897Song of the Volga Boatman - 1867Sorcerer's Apprentice, The - Dukas 1897Spring Song - Mendelssohn - 1844Star Spangled Banner - 1812Stars and Stripes Forever March - 1897Strauss, Joseph (1827-1870)Streets of Laredo 1860Summer is Icumen In - 1226Swan The Saint Saens - 1887Swing Low Sweet Chariot - 1872

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TTa Ra Ra Boom De Ay - 1891Tales from the Vienna Woods J Strauss - 1868Tallis, Thomas (1505-1585)TapsTarantella (Italian trad )Tchaikovsky, Peter Illich (1840-1893)Teleman, Georg Philipp (1681-1767)Tenting Tonight on the Old Camp Ground - Kittredge 1864There is a Tavern in the Town - 1883There Was A Crooked Man (Mother Goose)There Was an Old Woman Who Lived in a Shoe - 1765Three Blind Mice - 1609Till Eulenspiegel - R Strauss 1895Toreador Song (Carmen) - Bizet 1873Toyland - Herbert 1903Tramp!Tramp!Tramp! - Root 1864Trois Gymnopedies – Satie 1888Turkey in de straw - 1834Twinkle Twinkle Little Star - 1765

UUnfinished Symphony - Schubert

VVerdi Giuseppe (1813-1901)Vivaldi, Antonio (c 1680-1743)

WWagner, Wilhelm Richard (1813-1883)Waltz of the Flowers (The Nutcracker Suite) - Tchaikovsky 1891Waltzing Matilda - 1903We Three Kings of Orient Are - 1857Weber, Carl Marie von (1786-1826)Wedding March A Midsummer Night's Dream - Mendelssohn 1844Wedding March (Lohengrin) - Wagner 1852Wedding March – Mendelssohn 1844Well-Tempered Clavier 1 - Bach 1722When Johnny Comes Marching Home - Lambert 1863When the Saints Go Marching In - 1896Wildwood Flower (I'll Twine Mid the Ringlets) - Maude Irving & JD Webster 1860William Tell Overture - Rossini 1829Wolf, Hugo (1860-1903)XNo songs or composer last names beginning with X.YYankee Doodle - 1775Yellow Rose of Texas - 1853

ZNo songs or composer last names beginning with Z.

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Appendix Q: Bibliography for Further Study

Books on MIDI and SequencingAllen, Corey • Arranging in the Digital World • Berklee Press • 2000Bergersen, T. • Sequencing Samples, Part 1. Virtual Instrument Magazine • December/January 2007Bergersen, T. • Sequencing Samples, Part 2. Virtual Instrument Magazine • April/May 2007Hewitt, Michael • Composition for Computer Musicians • Course Technology • 2009Miles-Huber, David • The MIDI Manual • Focal Press • 2007Pedergnana, D. • Subtle Gestures • Electronic Musician March • 2005Pejrolo, Andrea • Creative Sequencing Techniques for Music Production, 2nd Edition • Focal Press • 2011Pejrolo, Andrea and DeRosa, Richard • Acoustic and MIDI Orchestration for the Contemporary Composer • 2007Russ, F. • MIDI Mockup Microscope • Virtual Instrument Magazine • April/May 2006

Videos on MIDI, Recording and Music ProductionVideo tutorials are available on a number of Internet-based training sites. Subscriptions to the websites and video series can be purchased, or, in some cases, the videos (in DVD or tape format) can be purchased.Groove3: http://www.groove3.comLynda.com: http://www.lynda.comMacProVideo.com: http://www.macprovideo.com

Books on Digital Audio and RecordingBartlett, Bruce • Practical Recording Techniques, Fifth Edition • Focal Press • 2008Izhaki, Roey • Mixing Audio: Concepts, Practices and Tools • Focal Press • 2008Katz, Bob • Mastering Audio: The Art and the Science • Focal Press • 2007Miles-Huber, David and Runstein, Robert • Modern Recording Techniques, Seventh Edition • Focal Press • 2009Owsinski, Bobby • The Mastering Engineer’s Handbook • Thomson Course Technology • 2007Owsinski, Bobby • The Mixing Engineer’s Handbook • Thomson Course Technology • 2006Owsinski, Bobby • The Recording Engineer’s Handbook • Thomson Course Technology • 2009Purse, Bill • Home Recording Basics (Ultimate Beginner Tech Start Series) • Warner Bros. Publishing • 2000

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Books on Digital Audio and MultimediaMash, David Ultimate Beginner Tech Start Series – Musicians and Multimedia • Warner Bros. • 1999Holman, Tomlinson • Sound for Film and Television, Third Edition • Focal Press • 2010Holman, Tomlinson • Surround Sound, Second Edition • Focal Press • 2007Shepherd, Ashley • Pro Tools for Video, Film and Multimedia • Muska & Lipman Publishing • 2003Tozzoli, Rich • Pro Tools Surround Sound Mixing, Second Edition • Hal Leonard • 2011

Books on Technology and Music EducationAflred Publishing Staff • Integrating Technology with Music Instruction • Alfred Publishing • 2009Burns, Amy • Technology Integration in the Elementary Music Classroom • 2008MENC • Spotlight on Technology in the Music Classroom • Rowman & Littlefield Education • 2003Rudolph, Tom and Richmond, Floyd and Mash, Dave • Technology Strategies for Music Education, Second Edition • TI:ME Publications • 2005Rudolph, Tom • Teaching Music With Technology • GIA Publications • 2004TI:ME, Edited by Scott Watson • Technology Guide for Music Educators • Artist Pro • 2005Williams, David and Webster, Peter • Experiencing Music Technology • Schrimer • 2008

Music Technology & Music ReferencesFrankel, James • The Teacher’s Guide to Music, Media and Copyright Law • Hal Leonard • 2009Gallagher, Mitch • The Music Tech: A Glossary of Audio-Related Terms and Technologies • Course technology • 2008Holmes, Thom • The Routledge Guide to Music Technology • Routledge • 2006

PeriodicalsThe following periodicals are popular sources of information about current sequencer technology. These publications include product reviews, announcements of updates, and advertisements by leading hardware and software manufacturers.Electronic Musician: http://www.emusician.comEQ Magazine: http://www.eqmag.com/Future Music Magazine: http://www.musicradar.com/futuremusicKeyboard: http://www.keyboardmag.comMusic and Computers: http://www.musicradar.com/computermusicRecording Magazine: http://www.recordingmag.comSound on Sound: http://www.soundonsound.com

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Useful Web Links

International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP): http://imslp.org/MIDI Manufacturers Association: http://www.midi.org

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Appendix R: Sequencing, Computer and Music Technology Terminology

If this is your first experience with sequencing software or the dedicated sequencer and MIDI workstation, you should take some time to learn the essential vocabulary. It is for this reason that the following glossary of important computer and sequencing terms is included. Each should be understood or assimilated and will apply to all available computer software.

A/D Converter – Analog-to-digital converter. This is a device that encodes a continuously varying (analog) audio signal into a string of discrete (digital) numeric values. Each of these numbers represents a measurement of the amplitude of the analog signal at a particular instant in time. A converter’s resolution is specified in bits (binary digits), typically 8-, 12- 16- or 24-bits. The greater the bit resolution, the less distortion of the original signal will occur in the conversion process. The rate at which the analog signal is converted is called the sample rate. Typical sample rates used in MIDI audio sequencers are 44.1 (CD quality), 48, 88.2, or 96 thousand times per second. The highest frequency a digital system can reproduce is equal to one-half of the sample rate of the A/D converter (known as the Nyquist limit).ADSR – Attack, Decay, Sustain and Release. These are the four most commonly used segments of an envelope generator. An example: When an envelope generator is used to control a synthesizer’s note volume over time, Attack controls the time it takes the volume to reach an initial level, while Decay governs the time it takes for the volume to transition to a steady “sustain” level. Sustain controls the time the volume will remain static, and Release controls the time it takes for the volume to fade out once a “note off” command is received. Envelope generators are most commonly found in synthesizers, but can be simulated (see Envelope).After Touch – A MIDI parameter that describes the intensity of modulation applied to a note after it has been played and before a note off is generated. With MIDI keyboard controllers, after touch sensors in the keyboard measure the pressure applied at the bottom of key travel, and can generate polyphonic after touch (individual MIDI values are generated for each note pressed) or monophonic (one MIDI value is generated for all notes pressed).Aliasing – A highly audible form of digital distortion that manifests as a modulated whistling sound. It is caused when an audio signal is introduced into a digital system (A/D converter) that is higher then one-half of the sample rate.All Notes Off – A MIDI message that turns all the notes off in a MIDI network. Helpful if you have a “stuck” MIDI note, as can occur when an instrument did not get a MIDI message to turn off the note when the unit was switched off.Arpeggiator – A feature on some sequencers that retriggers notes within a held chord and changes the order in which they are heard. Typical note orders include Up, Down, Up and Down, Random, and As Played. Most arpeggiators can be programmed to alter MIDI data for pitch, duration, timing, and velocity of notes, and some are capable of creating guitar strumming effects or drum patterns.

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Autolocate – The ability to locate and/or set specific temporal locations available in some sequencers, allowing the user to instantly return to one of these predefined locations.Autocorrect – See Quantization.Bank – A container in memory that can store multiple sounds, samples, patterns, etc. An individual MIDI bank can hold up to 127 items, most commonly synthesizer patches. MIDI allows individual banks to be selected using ‘Bank Select' command.Binary – A numbering system consisting of only the numbers 0 and 1, binary is the basis of all computer languages including MIDI. Bit – A contraction of “binary digit”, a bit is the basic unit of information in MIDI and in computer systems in general. A bit can have only one of two values—zero and one. Eight bits constitute a byte, and a byte can contain 128 unique values (from 0 to 127 in decimal). MIDI messages are generally transmitted in bytes.Buffer – An area of RAM used for temporary data storage. When MIDI is copied, the copy resides in a buffer, usually until it is replaced.Byte – Eight bits (see Bit).Channel – A term applied to MIDI for one of its 16 available software transmission lines over which MIDI data can be sent or received.Channelize – A term used for assigning MIDI data to a particular MIDI channel.Click Track – A metronome track generated by the sequencer to which a performer may listen as they record overdubs. This will help to maintain rhythmic cohesiveness during the course of recording a sequence.Clock – A master timing reference used by a sequencer to maintain a tempo. MIDI clock, which substitutes MIDI messages for the master clock’s electronic pulses, may be sent to other time-based MIDI devices, including other sequencers and some effects, to synchronize them to the master sequencer.Contiguous – Items that are immediately next to each other; in sequencing this usually refers to adjacent MIDI regions (see antonym Non-Contiguous).Continue – A MIDI message that tells a sequencer or drum machine to continue playing from the current location if stopped by a previous MIDI Stop message.Continuous Controller – A MIDI parameter that generates data over a range of values, as opposed to a switch controller that has only two possible states: on or off.Controller #7 – The controller number assigned to effect MIDI volume changes.DAC – Digital-to-analog converter; a circuit that accepts a stream of digital data which represents the amplitude of a sound wave, and produces a corresponding analog voltage at its output that can be fed to a speaker or headphone system. DAW – Digital Audio Workstation; a software program that provides recording, editing, and playback facilities for both MIDI and digital audio.Default – when several options are available within a computer program and you do not explicitly pick one, then one is automatically assigned by default. Using the program’s “Preferences” (Mac) or “Options” (Win) settings, you can assign personal default settings for options when you launch a program.

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Default Window – A computer- or user-assigned window that appears when a program is first launched.Dialog Box – A box on the screen requesting information or a decision from you.Digitize – To convert an analog audio signal into a digital code that represents that signal (see A/D Converter).Disable – To turn off a function in a sequencer, as in “disable the track arm button.”Double-clicking – positioning the pointer and then quickly pressing and releasing the button on the mouse twice.Dynamics – Fluctuations in volume; also refers to the class of processors that effect volume levels, including compressors and limiters.EQ – Short for equalizer, a device or plug-in that allows attenuation or emphasis of frequencies in an audio signal. Bass and treble controls on a radio represent a simple form of EQ.Enable – To turn on a function in a sequencer, as in “enable real time quantization.”Envelope – A term that describes how a sound changes over time with respect to volume, timbre, or pitch (see ADSR).Event – In MIDI, this refers to a single and complete MIDI message. Note on, note off, or pitch bend messages may each be referred to as a MIDI event, and displayed in a sequencer in a numeric, chronological format within a window called the Event List.Field – A box in a dialog window into which you type information, such as word or numerical data.File Format – Refers to how digital data is organized and stored such that it is available for use in other software applications. There are file formats for digital audio (WAV and AIFF) as well as for MIDI (SMF or Standard MIDI File format).Graphic Editing – An editing option that shows and manipulates data pictorially, as opposed to using numbers or text.Hard Disk Recording – The process of recording digital audio signals directly to a hard drive for storage and playback. Modern sequencers often include hard disk recording features, turning them into full-fledged DAWs.Hexadecimal – A numbering system based on sixteen values, as opposed to the decimal system’s ten values, with the letters “A” through “F” providing the additional six values. MIDI code is often expressed in hexadecimal, because it is compact and easy to differentiate from decimal.Humanize – To add minute variations in a sequencer’s data to create a more expressive performance.Interface – A device that allows for the transfer, input, or viewing of information. The computer screen is an interface that displays information. The way in which software is designed to accept data would be its interface.Launch – Double-clicking on a computer application’s icon to start the program.Local Control – A MIDI feature that determines whether a keyboard’s voice generators are controlled by the unit’s keyboard (Local On) or by the MIDI In port (Local Off).

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LFO – Low-Frequency Oscillator. An oscillator whose frequency is below the range of human hearing, generally from 0 to 20Hz. LFOs are used to modulate other oscillators with regard to pitch, volume, or timbre.Loop – Describes a portion of a music sequencer’s tracks that repeat for a specified number of times or indefinitely.Macros – A combination of commands that may be executed after one computer command or keystroke(s).Menu – A list of functions available in a computer program or part of a computer program. May have pull-down options (submenus) when a menu item is selected with a mouse.Menu Bar – A strip, usually located at the top of a window, used to select an option or command from a menu.MIDI File – A shortened version of Standard MIDI File or SMF (see Appendix D).MIDI Interface – A device that converts MIDI data into a format that can be understood by a computer. With the advent of USB-equipped MIDI devices, the separate MIDI Interface is nearly extinct.MIDI Merge – A process whereby a MIDI device accepts multiple MIDI sources and combines them into one. In a sequencer, MIDI Merge is a function that allows recording of new MIDI data over existing data without altering the latter.MMC – MIDI Machine Control: Refers to a group of MIDI commands that provide transport control (start, stop and record) to other MIDI devices, including some older MMC-equipped tape recorders.MTC – MIDI Time Code: Refers to MIDI messages that contain the information embedded in SMPTE timecode, allowing MIDI devices to operate in synchronization with SMPTE-driven devices.Nibble – Four bits constitute a nibble, a value used to describe command and channel information within a MIDI byte (See Bit).Non-Contiguous – Items that are not directly adjacent next to each other; in sequencing this usually refers to non-adjacent MIDI regions (See antonym Contiguous).Pan – Short for panorama, a control that places the audio signal at a specific point within the stereo field of two speakers.Patch – See Preset.PPQ (Pulse Per Quarternote) – The number of clock (sync) pulses into which a sequencer or drum machine subdivides a quarter note as a rhythmic reference. The higher the PPQ number, the finer will be the resolution of the sequencer. This number must be divisible by three to allow triplets. The most common PPQ available in DAW applications is 960 (see Tick).PPQN – See PPQ (Pulse Per Quarternote).Preset – Specific settings stored in a synthesizer to create a particular sound. A preset will be assigned to a specific MIDI standard program number to facilitate MIDI Program Change commands.Program Change – A MIDI message that instructs the receiving MIDI device to switch to a different preset/patch. If not accompanied by a Bank Select command, a Program Change

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command will change to another program within the current bank. Program Change commands are MIDI channel-specific.Punch In – To initiate recording at a specific point on a particular track in a composition with a sequencer. Punching in will either erase existing material recorded starting a the punch in point, or it can add new material on top of existing material (sound on sound).Punch Out – To exit the recording process after initiating a punch in.Quantization – All sequencers allow the user the ability to correct timing to a specified rhythmic value (i.e. eight notes, sixteenth notes, eight note triplets, etc.). This should be used sparingly as it makes sequencer tracks sound perfect or robotic in nature.RAM – Random Access Memory is computer memory that is used repeatedly to temporarily store data. Both computer applications and documents are located into RAM as you work. Work in progress must be regularly saved from RAM to a hard drive since, when you turn off your computer, all data in RAM is lost.Real Time Recording – To record data into a sequencer’s memory as it is being played on a keyboard or other controller. In early computer programs, a composition had to be entered one note at a time (see Step Time).Scroll View – the music is viewed as a continuous horizontal band on the computer screen. The computer redraws the screen quickly in Scroll View.Sampler – A device that records and stores digital representations of actual sounds into its digital memory to be played back on command from a keyboard, MIDI controller or sequencer.Sampling – The act of recording sound into a sampler or computer memory.Sampling Rate – The rate at which a signal is digitized into samples (i.e., the number of samples per second). Reading back the samples at the same rate reproduces the original sound, while playing back at at a higher or lower rate varies the pitch on playback.SMPTE – A time-based code that originated at NASA for logging telemetry data that was later adopted and modified by the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE) to label each frame of a video tape by recording a unique piece of digital data on that frame. For the American standard (NTSC), each second of SMPTE timecode is divided into 29.97 frames. A complete timecode address includes hours:minutes:seconds:frames = 00:00:00:00.Song Position Pointer – A MIDI message that describes where a sequencer or drum machine is (or should locate to) in reference to the beginning of the composition.Start – A MIDI message that tells the sequencer or drum machine when to start and follow MIDI timing messages.Status Byte – A byte used in MIDI to identify the particular message type to which subsequent data bytes relate.Step Time – To enter notes into a sequencer or drum machine one note or chord at a time. Usually, a note value resolution is selected beforehand and the pitch information is supplied by the controller or keyboard.Stop – A MIDI message that tells sequencer or drum machine when to stop playback or record.

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Sysex – System Exclusive Messages: MIDI messages that are unique to a particular manufacturer. These allow the manufacturer to send data (e.g., presets) that relate only to their specific products and models.Template – A file that does not contain any note data but is pre-formatted for special layouts, such as projects preloaded with tracks, virtual instruments, presets and customized track inputs and outputs, etc. You can use the pre-made templates that come with your software package or design your own as a time saver when you create a project, session or score.Tick – A contemporary term for the smallest increment of a beat; its value is dependent upon the available resolution of the MIDI device (see PPQ).Toggle – A computer command option that allows you move between two possible states like a toggle switch; for example, on or off, page view or scroll view, etc. Track Shift – To shift or slide a sequencer track ahead or behind in time, usually in small increments.

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