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ldquoFarewell My Nationrdquo

The American History Series

Abbott Carl Urban America in the Modern Age 1920 to the Present 2d ed

Aldridge Daniel W Becoming American The African American Quest for Civil Rights 1861ndash1976

Barkan Elliott Robert And Still They Come Immigrants and American Society 1920s to the 1990s

Bartlett Irving H The American Mind in The Mid‐Nineteenth Century 2d ed

Beisner Robert L From the Old Diplomacy to the New 1865ndash1900 2d ed

Blaszczyk Regina Lee American Consumer Society 1865ndash2005 From Hearth to HDTV

Borden Morton Parties and Politics in the Early Republic 1789ndash1815

Carpenter Roger M ldquoTimes Are Altered with Usrdquo American Indians from Contact to the New Republic

Carter Paul A The Twenties in America 2d ed

Cherny Robert W American Politics in The Gilded Age 1868ndash1900

Conkin Paul K The New Deal 3d ed

Doenecke Justus D and John E Wilz From Isolation to War 1931ndash1941 4th ed

Ferling John Struggle for a Continent The Wars of Early America

Ginzberg Lori D Women in Antebellum Reform

Griffin C S The Ferment of Reform 1830ndash1860

Hess Gary R The United States at War 1941ndash45 3d ed

Iverson Peter and Wade Davies ldquoWe Are Still Hererdquo American Indians since 1890 2d ed

James D Clayton and Anne Sharp

Wells America and the Great War 1914ndash1920

Kraut Alan M The Huddled Masses The Immi grant in American Society 1880ndash1921 2d ed

Levering Ralph B The Cold War A Postndash Cold War History 3d ed

Link Arthur S and Richard L McCormick Progressivism

Martin James Kirby and Mark Edward Lender A Respectable Army The Military Origins of the Republic 1763ndash1789 3d ed

McCraw Thomas K American Business Since 1920 How It Worked 2d ed

McMillen Sally G Southern Women Black and White in the Old South 2d ed

Neu Charles E Americarsquos Lost War Vietnam 1945ndash1975

Newmyer R Kent The Supreme Court under Marshall and Taney 2d ed

Niven John The Coming of the Civil War 1837ndash1861

OrsquoNeill William L The New Left A History

Pastorello Karen The Progressives Activism and Reform in American Society 1893ndash1917

Perman Michael Emancipation and Reconstruction 2d ed

Porter Glenn The Rise of Big Business 1860ndash1920 3d ed

Reichard Gary W Politics as Usual The Age of Truman and Eisenhower 2d ed

Reichard Gary W American Politics since 1968 Deadlock and Disillusionment

Remini Robert V The Jacksonian Era 2d ed

Riess Steven A Sport in Industrial America 1850ndash1920 2d ed

Simpson Brooks D Americarsquos Civil War

Southern David W The Progressive Era and Race Reaction and Reform 1900ndash1917

Storch Randi Working Hard for the American Dream Workers and Their Unions World War I to the Present

Turner Elizabeth Hayes Women and Gender in the New South 1865ndash1945

Ubbelohde Carl The American Colonies and the British Empire 1607ndash1763 2d ed

Weeks Philip ldquoFarewell My Nationrdquo American Indians and the United States in the Nineteenth Century 3d ed

Wellock Thomas R Preserving the Nation The Conservation and Environ-mental Movements 1870ndash2000

Winkler Allan M Home Front USA America during World War II 3d ed

Wright Donald R African Americans in the Colonial Era From African Origins through the American Revolution 3d ed

ldquoFarewell My NationrdquoAmerican Indians and the United States in the Nineteenth Century

Third Edition

Philip Weeks

This third edition first published 2016copy 2016 John Wiley amp Sons Inc

Edition History Harlan Davidson Inc (1e 1990 2e 2001)

Registered OfficeJohn Wiley amp Sons Ltd The Atrium Southern Gate Chichester West Sussex PO19 8SQ UK

Editorial Offices350 Main Street Malden MA 02148‐5020 USA9600 Garsington Road Oxford OX4 2DQ UKThe Atrium Southern Gate Chichester West Sussex PO19 8SQ UK

For details of our global editorial offices for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at wwwwileycomwiley‐blackwell

The right of Philip Weeks to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988

All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic mechanical photocopying recording or otherwise except as permitted by the UK Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 without the prior permission of the publisher

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books

Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names service marks trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book

Limit of LiabilityDisclaimer of Warranty While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services and neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom If professional advice or other expert assistance is required the services of a competent professional should be sought

Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Names Weeks Philip authorTitle ldquoFarewell My Nationrdquo American Indians and the United States in the

Nineteenth Century Philip WeeksDescription Third edition | Chichester UK Malden MA John Wiley amp Sons

2016 | Includes bibliographical references and index | Description based on print version record and CIP data provided by publisher resource not viewed

Identifiers LCCN 2015039478 (print) | LCCN 2015031830 (ebook) | ISBN 9781118976791 (Adobe PDF) | ISBN 9781118976807 (ePub) | ISBN 9781118976777 (cloth) | ISBN 9781118976784 (paperback)

Subjects LCSH Indians of North AmericandashGovernment relations | Indians of North AmericandashHistoryndash19th century | Indian Removal 1813ndash1903

Classification LCC E93 (print) | LCC E93W39 2016 (ebook) | DDC 323119709034ndashdc23

LC record available at httplccnlocgov2015039478

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Cover image Charles M Russell Trail of the Iron Horse watercolor 1924 Photo Courtesy of The Coeur drsquo Alene Art Auction

Set in 1013pt Meridien by SPi Global Pondicherry India

1 2016

Over three decades ago I dedicated my first book to our son Michael when he was a little boy I am pleased to dedicate this book

probably my last to Michaelrsquos children my three grandchildren Julia Weeks and Madelyn Weeks two beautiful Southern belles

and Samuel Weeks their handsome brother You three are the most amazing things

that ever happened on Meece Bridge Road

vii

Preface ixAcknowledgments xi

1 The ldquoIndian Questionrdquo 1In Need of a Solution 1Breaching the Ohio Country Barrier 7The Shooting Star and the Prophet 18

2 The Initial Solution 35The Relocation Debate 35Tribal Strategies in the South 40The CherokeendashGeorgia Conundrum 46Removing the Southern Tribes 52The Indian Territory and Its People 65Undermining Forces 74Dashed Hopes 81

3 The Travails of Mid Century 89Western Troubles and the New Solution 89Making Way for the Railroads 98The Texas Challenge 102Whether or Not to Be a Confederate 108

Contents

Contents

viii

Civil War in the Indian Territory 117Unrest in Minnesota 127Colorado and Sand Creek 137

4 The Plains Wars Phase I Realizing Concentration 151Those Who Resisted An Inescapable Fate 153Indian Policy and Who Controlled It 159Defending the Powder River Country 166Dualism Peace and Force Policies 176Commotion in Kansas 180Implementing Concentration 187With the Olive Branch and the Sword 195

5 The Plains Wars Phase II Enforcing Concentration 209Again Indian Affairs and Who Controls Them 210The Grant Peace Policy 214At the Watershed 221The Red River War 228The Peace That Slipped Away 236The Great Sioux War Commences 246The Great Sioux War Concludes 259

6 The Search for a New Order 269Reforms and Jurisdictional Disputes 270Reappraising the Concentration Policy 279The Governmentrsquos Newest ldquoSolutionrdquo 293Ending ldquoOld and Injurious Habitsrdquo 301Americanization White Rationalizations and

Tribal Responses 306Dead Dreams 314

Bibliographical Essay 326Index 338

ix

The decade that has passed since publication of the second edition of this book has seen continued scholarship and popular interest in American Indians and the history of their relationship with the United States of America In preparing this edition I considered and in some cases incorporated the conclusions of the new scholarship and consulted additional primary research sources Rather than tweaking nipping and tucking the previous editionrsquos manuscript I rewrote the entirety of the book for this third edition

This work is not a definitive account of the United Statesrsquo rela-tionship with American Indians in the nineteenth century Such a study would be immense I have endeavored to highlight major events and developments in the telling of an important cultural and political story in the American national experience while providing an interpretive narrative framework to help readers understand that story better In so doing I introduce and trace the central themes that run through the history of United States governmentrsquos relations with Americarsquos first peoples

Let me close with a note on terminology An inevitable problem in dealing with the peoples I am writing about is how to refer to them The difficulty began with Christopher Columbus who demonstrated the enormous creative fertility of error Upon reaching the Caribbean Columbus mistakenly believing that he

Preface

Preface

x

was near the East Indies called the locals whom he met indios which translated from Spanish into English as Indians And this is what almost all of the native people of North America have been called by English‐speaking people ever since

In recent decades the term Native Americans has come into common usage among educators publishers the media and various other well‐intentioned and in some cases guilt‐driven folks Currently the terminology most acceptable to native people themselves is American Indiansmdashthis interestingly disquiets many white people American Indians more commonly refer to themselves by their tribal name Mohawk Cherokee Pawnee Cheyenne Hopi and so forth The term Native American has almost become lost by Indian people since a great many individuals born in the United States contend correctly that they are native Americans

An emerging trend in terminology is First Nations or indigenous Americans Native people or Indigenous Nations This reflects a growing movement for Indian studies programs looking for paral-lels and common themes among the many groups of indigenous peoples throughout the western hemisphere and in other parts of the world

I warmly thank friend and colleague Professor Dr Donald L Fixico (Shawnee Sac and Fox Muscogee Creek and Seminole) Distinguished Foundation Professor of History at Arizona State University for his advice about the preferences and sensibilities of indigenous North Americans relating to appropriate terminology for the third edition I am sincerely apologetic to anyone who is dissatisfied or worse offended with the usages I have employed in this book

xi

I am thrilled that preparing the third edition of Farewell My Nation provides me the opportunity to acknowledge my three grandchil-dren by dedicating this book to them None of them were on this Earth when the previous editions appeared I wanted to provide a point of reference for them always to remember as they progress through their lives how much their grandparents loved them It was these three extraordinary individuals in fact that gave me the incentive to undertake the rewriting of the entirety of this book Their mother and father Heather and Michael deserve a special salute of appreciation especially for raising them well and guiding them conscientiously in faith in our Lord Jesus

And Sadie we will treasure your love friendship and camara-derie always

My special appreciation is extended to Andrew Davidsonmdashpublisher editor and a gentleman of integrity in the publishing business He has been a steadfast benefactor of my work for many years While I thank you for your unceasing confidence in my books Andrew and for your wonderful editing skills I am espe-cially grateful for your friendship

I loved the phone calls I shared this past summer autumn and winter with my brother Richmdashhe lives far away from me in Gothammdashas I labored to complete the book manuscript The warmth and joy of those talks took some of the edge off of a

Acknowledgments

Acknowledgments

xii

tough demanding and exhausting job You are a good and caring man Rich one whom I greatly respect I will always particularly treasure the years when we grew up in each otherrsquos company one twin bed next to the other one Life was good for me as ldquoKingrdquo

Richrsquos youngest son and my nephew Charlie Weeks put aside his busy schedule and generously assisted me by obtaining some of the fine illustrations that complement the text in this book Dr Claudio Saunt Richard B Russell Professor in American History History Department Chair and Associate Director of the Institute of Native American Studies at the University of Georgia was very kind in permitting me to use his wonderful maps that open each chapter

At Wiley I wish to thank Victoria White for her patience and persistence in helping me secure the magnificent image for the cover of this book and Julia Kirk for working her magic to craft my manuscript into a splendid product I cannot even begin to understand what transpires behind the scene after I finish the manuscript and hit the ldquosendrdquo button but I do know and am glad that people like Julia can make amazing things happen Many thanks also to editorial assistant Maddie Koufogazos for all of her assistance

Joan Veree Ray the consummate Cornhusker fan and mother of Heather Weeks was kind enough to help me out as this enterprise neared its finish by reading the galley proofs searching for any typos that author and editors may have overlooked Joe Mumper who when a young man was severely tested as a soldier in Vietnam and who then went on to a distinguished career edu-cating middle childhood students also carefully scrutinized the galley proofs Both did a masterful job of helping me fine-tune the punctuation and prose

I am so grateful for my wife Jeanettersquos colossal assistance with this book She unfailingly stood ready to assist me as the manuscript went forward page after page day after day month after month We sat on our screened‐in porch or in our family room she at her laptop and me at mine We examined discussed debated (she more than I) and anguished (in this case more I than she) over

Acknowledgments

xiii

each sentence each paragraph that I had written earlier in the day She lightheartedly referred to herself as my ldquocritical critical in‐house editorrdquo and I am so fortunate that she indeed was that It is a far better book because of her exhaustive involvement (Writers commonly become unbearable while writing a book Her forbearance in having to deal too frequently with a prickly and snappish author merits additional appreciativeness)

All of my previous books have been dedicated to Jeanette While this book breaks that tradition with its dedication to our three grandchildren I am blessed to have one more opportunity to remind this special womanmdashyou are my love my friend my peace and my joy Thanks for always being there for me Our long dance together begun when we were just kids is still a magnificent one

Philip Weeks

xv

The sun rose dim on us in the morning and at night it sunk in a dark cloud and looked like a ball of fire That was the last sun that shone on Black Hawk His heart is dead and no longer beats quick in his bosom hellip

Farewell my nation Black Hawk tried to save you and avenge your wrongs hellip He can do no more He is near his end His sun is setting and he will rise no more

Black Hawk Sac and Fox

Reservations

Indian homelands

1783Acres seized since 1776

0

Map 11 1783 (Reproduced by permission of Dr Claudio Saunt httpwwwehistoryorg University of Georgia)

ldquoFarewell My Nationrdquo American Indians and the United States in the Nineteenth Century

Third Edition Philip Weeks

copy 2016 John Wiley amp Sons Inc Published 2016 by John Wiley amp Sons Inc

1

In Need of a Solution

They could now get on with the task of burying the dead For the previous three days the last three of the old year a fero-cious winter storm had pummeled the upper plains By the morning of New Yearrsquos Day 1891 the blizzard had blown itself out and the sun began to break through the gray clouds As the sky cleared a train of wagons accompanied by individuals on horseback both Sioux and Americans set out from Pine Ridge agency situated near the southwestern corner of the Siouxrsquos Pine Ridge reservation in South Dakota The partyrsquos destination was Wounded Knee Creek some twenty miles to the east There Sioux and troops of the US Seventh Cavalry had clashed on December 29 1890 leaving hundreds of Sioux either killed or severely wounded

The Sioux absorbed in distressing thoughts crossed the bleak prairie through the frigid morning air along the trail leading to where so much ended Many precious lives were lost The beautiful dream had died too Why Was there no means left to

1

The ldquoIndian Questionrdquo


2

save the old treasured ways Was all hope finally exhausted for the Indian people They remembered the spiritual path that many recently had followed with such passion It was a seduc-tive dream teeming with confident anticipation of deliverance for Indian peoples and escape from the white oppressors At the end of that intoxicating path lay not rebirth but instead this agonizing moment this appalling conclusion of death and finality

The Sioux who fell at Wounded Knee were followers of the Paiute mystic Wovoka whose message combining Indian mysticism and Christian millennialism had found a substantial following in the late 1880s among the war weary beaten‐down western tribes A dozen years had passed since the victory of the United States in the Great Plains wars that completed the Indiansrsquo subju-gation The mysticrsquos message of Godrsquos forthcoming deliverance of the Indian people raised hopes and spawned jubilation among tribes from the Pacific Northwest to Oklahoma

Wovoka described in great detail his vision and the instructions from the Divine to all who would listen God promised in the fullness of time to expel the white people and return the earth to the Indians the living as well as the deadmdashand give them back the buffalo1 Indians must learn a special dance and perform it regularly Wovoka was instructed The more often the Ghost Dance was performed the sooner God would vanquish the white people and return the earth to the Indians

News spread rapidly about Wovokarsquos vision and the possible return of old‐fashioned life Deeply discouraged by the long struggle with the United States its army and bureaucrats many Indian people turned joyously some even desperately to this forthcoming restorative event They eagerly accepted Wovokarsquos revelations as divine inspiration and for that reason faithfully performed the dance Devotees prepared themselves for their rebirth and for the vanquishing of the white man who had brought such chaos and unhappiness to their lives

Federal authorities alarmed by the mounting frenzy in the autumn of 1890 ordered the Ghost Dance halted Intimidated believers acquiesced across the West including most of the Sioux


3

the largest tribe on the Great Plains Nonetheless a significant number of Sioux refused and fled to the Dakota Badlands to con-tinue the dance faithfully Leaving their encampment on the Siouxrsquos Cheyenne River reservation and making their way peace-fully and cautiously southward toward the Pine Ridge reserva-tion Chief Big Foot and his band nevertheless were intercepted by troops of the Seventh Cavalry and taken as prisoners to the small settlement of Wounded Knee On the morning following their capture in late December 1890 soldiers moved to disarm the Indians Their resistance quickly turned into a melee between Sioux and soldiers with shots exchanged The Seventh Cavalry responded with a volley of rifle pistol and artillery fire that left hundreds of Sioux men women and children either killed or severely wounded The massacre at Wounded Knee destroyed peoplersquos confidence in Wovokarsquos promises and their faith in the Ghost Dance

Wounded Knee was the last battle as the federal government termed the event between the Indians and the United States Army although no one knew it at the time War Department annual reports throughout the 1890s indicated that the military anticipated other outbreaks of trouble Faith in Wovokarsquos mes-sage and the Ghost Dance faded quickly after Wounded Knee with all hope gone no tribe dared to rise in resistance against the United States

The full significance of Wounded Knee emerged in time it was the conclusion of a four‐century‐long struggle with Americarsquos First Nations That struggle had embroiled the United States for longer than a century and before that the European imperial powers for almost three centuries It epitomized the greatest reality of the American Indian experience during that four‐century‐long struggle the unalterable reality of white dominance over the continent and the lives and destinies of its indigenous peoples It also demonstrated the utter failure of federal Indian policy to fashion a workable and mutually acceptable solution to what whites called the ldquoIndian Questionrdquo

Wounded Knee also became an historical allegory that is at the same time artificial and accurate For many that event


4

symbolizes the tragic passing of ldquoIndian Americardquo although most tribes had experienced their own ldquoWounded Kneerdquo their own culminating episode years decades or centuries before Many view Wounded Knee as a microcosm of Indian history since the coming of the white man characterized by victimiza-tion and cultural imperialism futile resistance and absolute defeat

This theme gained a wide popular audience with Dee Brownrsquos best seller whose title Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee drew from Stephen Vincent Beneacutetrsquos poem ldquoAmerican Namesrdquo ldquoI shall not be there I shall rise and pass Bury my heart at Wounded Kneerdquo Beneacutet reminded America of its once proud and free native peoples That tragic event endures as a reminder of the dreadful human cost paid for the ldquoWinning of the Westrdquo for realizing the republicrsquos ldquoManifest Destinyrdquo for conquering the lands comprising the contiguous United States of America

Between 1776 and 1887 white conquerors would claim as their own 15 billion acres of land possessed by native peoples The expansion of the American population westward during the first century of the national experience was spectacular in its swiftness and scope Surging outward from the Atlantic seaboard and across the Appalachian chain Americans moved with intense and unyielding determination to acquire and settle a vast western domain first east then west of the Mississippi By 1850 the nation stretched from the Atlantic to the Pacificmdashldquofrom sea to shining seardquo as Americans heralded jubilantly in song Many still dreamed of adding Canada more of Mexico and various Caribbean islands such as Cuba to the expansive republic

Each year Americans filled in the frontier until finally in the late nineteenth century the superintendent of the census for the United States declared that the American frontier had ceased to exist A Census Bureau bulletin in 1890 concluded ldquoUp to and including 1880 the country had a frontier of settlement but at present the unsettled area has been so broken into by isolated bodies of settlement that there can hardly be said to be a frontier linerdquo In a twist of irony the announcement came in the same year as the massacre at Wounded Knee


5

The vast locales acquired and settled by Americans were home to various native groups First reports of the white invaders may have caused indifference or simple curiosity among Indians but soon they judged these strangers a threat The newcomers moved with a firm resolve to displace them regulate them and occupy their patrimony The staggering migration of people acquisition of territory and settlement of the frontier was the foremost source of a near constant state of friction and hostility between the United States government its citizens and the Indians In the face of this aggressive drive westward the pattern most represen-tative of United StatesndashIndian relations was set early Over the many years it was subject to the ebb and flow of events and to differing views of policy but through it ran a strain of unremit-ting determination to dislodge the indigenous inhabitants of the western lands Government might from time to time relent Americans wanting land never did In 1879 a Wyoming news-paper foretold an inevitable outcome ldquoThe same inscrutable Arbiter that decreed the downfall of Rome has pronounced the doom of extinction upon the red men of America To attempt to defer this result by mawkish sentimentalism hellip is unworthy of the agerdquo

One central overriding concern confronted the managers of the nationrsquos westward expansion from the birth of the republic in 1787 onward what should be done with the American Indians Most whites considered them a dangerous impediment to the republicrsquos territorial cultural and economic aspirations The interracial tensions caused by expansion and the persistent demands from citizens for protection against Indian attacks meant that the United States had to solve the ldquoIndian Questionrdquo

Many answers to this question were advanced both in and out of government Some proposed creating a geographic boundary that would separate Indian lands from that of American land much as the British had done in their proclamation of 1763 Great Britain had designated a frontier line along the Appalachian Mountains with Indian lands to the west and American territory to the east of the boundary line If the United States government adopted a comparable solution advocates argued Indians might


6

maintain their accustomed way of life on land of their own in the trans‐Appalachian West free from white encroachment

Others suggested that culturally transforming the American Indians into ldquoIndian Americansrdquo then assimilating them into the dominant society was the wisest course Indians were well aware of the existence indeed the predominance of this kind of thinking on the part of Americans although as Brian W Dippie states in The Vanishing American ldquoThis gift of civilizationmdashthe ultimate gift to the whitesrsquo way of thinking hellip always seemed to please the donor more than the recipientrdquo

Still others such as Montana Territorial governor James M Ashley urged extermination ldquoThe Indian race on this continent has never been anything but an unmitigated curse to civilization while the intercourse between the Indian and the white man has been only evilrdquo Ashley asserted in 1870 It will remain so he stressed ldquountil the last savage is translated to that celestial hunting ground for which they all believe themselves so well fitted and to which every settler on our frontier wishes them individually and collectively a safe and speedy transitrdquo

Abundant suggestions prudent and foolish mean‐spirited and generous were offered because most Americans thought that a solution to the Indian Question was needed Indian Commissioner John Quincy Smith in 1876 at the conclusion of the Plains Wars observed ldquoFor a hundred years the United States has been wres-tling with the lsquoIndian questionrsquordquo And try as it may the lasting resolution so urgently sought remained sorely elusive General William T Sherman in a comment to General John M Schofield reflected the exasperation this produced in generations of Americans ldquoThe whole Indian question is in such a snarl that I am utterly powerless to help you by order or advicerdquo

This problem of what means would solve the Indian Question shaped and reshaped the relationship of the republic with Americarsquos native peoples The United States was a half‐century old in the 1830s when federal bureaucrats settled upon the initial solution however the Indian Question had roots stretching back to colonial times


7

Breaching the Ohio Country Barrier

Americans had initiated an experiment with their Revolution the likes of which the world had never seen before establishing a nation on the principle that liberty was a human right an unalien-able right from Godmdashnot the monarch nor the president nor legislators Liberty was not license to act as irresponsibly as one chose Liberty was acting in any manner a person wished as long as it did not interfere with the exercise of the rights of others Above all liberty to Americans meant freedom from a big powerful intrusive national government (like the British government) that would be kept out of the peoplersquos lives and possessions For so many Americans heading west meant heading to lands where life could be lived at its freest with minimum restrictions However the impending movement of liberty‐minded Americans into the nationrsquos first West would spawn with terrible irony life‐altering intrusion into the lives and liberty of native populations

White settlers as soon as the American Revolution ended planned to press forward into the western lands for which they had fought so hard against the British and the Indians A great many were veterans of the Revolution compensated by their debt‐ridden state and national governments for their time in the military with land grants in the Ohio Country It was an appealing prospect Available lands were no longer plentiful in New England where families averaged seven living children The South with its slave economy was not attractive either particularly to those with little or no capital for start‐up money The best bet especially for the young lay across the Pennsylvania corridor and into the Ohio Country in search of homes where acreage was abundant and inexpensive However a very serious problem existed for them although Great Britain granted these lands to the United States when the Revolutionary War ended the native peoples who had thought for centuries that the land beyond the Appalachian Mountains was their own to keep forever were determined to resist


8

The United States government hoped both to promote west-ward expansion and minimize hostilities with tribes by the wise management of Indian affairs It fell principally to the United States Congress to fashion the agenda for achieving these objec-tives The Articles of Confederation initially and then the Constitution for the United States granted Congress regulatory power over commerce and treaty making Those powers allowed the legislative branch to exercise sweeping control over Indian

At l

an

t ic

O

ce

an

Ohio

RR

R

Vaguely defined region

N O R T H

SPANISH

T E R R I T O R Y

V I R G I N I A

N J

N E W YO R K

O H I O

C O U N T R Y

O H I OPENN

C O U N T R Y

D E L

R l CONN

MASS

MAINE

CANADA

VT

NH

N e w Yo r k

B o s t o n

B R I T I S H S T LAW

R E N C E RI V

E R

River

River

R

Del

awar

e

Hud

son

Mohawk

Mic

higa

n

RR

L a k e

La

ke

E r i eDetroit

PittsburghPittsburgh

L a k e O n t a r i o

known as the ldquoOhio Countryrdquo

Ke

nlucky

Lake S u p e r i o r

La

ke H

uro

n

FLORIDA

S O U T H

M D

Maumee R

Sciolo R

N O R T H W E S T

G E O R G I A

C A R O L I N A

C A R O L I N A

Phila -d e l p h i a

Ala

bam

a R

James

Wab

ash

R

Map 12


9

affairs which Congress attempted to manage using two tools the passage of legislation and the negotiating of formal treaties with the various tribes

Employing its legislative power Congress created new laws to regulate white settlement on Indian lands and manage the pur-chase and sale of tribal lands by private speculators Other laws addressed a devastating and injurious problem among Indians by trying to control white trade in liquor with them Trade and Intercourse acts hoped to keep unscrupulous dealers away from Indians by establishing a network of government‐operated trading houses called ldquofactoriesrdquo to try and ensure fair business dealings with tribes

Congress would use its second power that of treaty making to extinguish Indian title to tribal lands Only another sovereign country can enter into a treaty with the United States An immediate question that arose after the Revolution was what would be the practice with Indian tribesmdashwas each one its own nation with which to enter into a treaty In this matter the Americans looked to the British example for direction Great Britain throughout the colonial period had recognized tribes as sovereign nations holding title to land by right of occupancy The British concluded numerous treaties with tribes based on this principle The new United States government adopted this principle and for almost 100 years dealt with American Indian tribes within the borders of the United States as sovereign nations by means of formal treaties2

As soon as the Revolutionary War ended in 1783 American commissioners conducted numerous councils with the Indian tribes of the South typically staunch allies of the British in the late war The commissioners wanted to make peace with these tribes and establish official relations between them and the new United States Another equally important objective was to begin defining tribal territories and secure Indian land forfeitures to promote continued white settlement In 1785 and 1786 commissioners negotiated initial treaties at Hopewell South Carolina with three of the most powerful southern tribes the Cherokee Chickasaw and Choctaw Other treaties with other southern tribes followed


10

The United States hoped these steps would keep the peace in the South Southerners were not impressed by the new national governmentrsquos activities In fact its actions upset the states of the South Regional leaders charged that the US treaties violated statesrsquo sovereignty and undermined their exclusive right to handle affairs with those Indians residing within their borders Disregarding the national governmentrsquos objectives and desires agents from Virginia Georgia and North and South Carolina kept Indian affairs stirred up as they doggedly continued to acquire more and more Indian land using means ethical and unethical peaceful and violent

At the same time other United States commissioners were busy preparing to deal with the western tribes residing above the Ohio River The national government needed them to be suc-cessful and as quickly as possible Congress had already crafted a plan for expansion into the western wilderness the unorga-nized national lands west of the original thirteen states and east of the Mississippi River The new national government was determined that such expansion would not be haphazard but orderly because it planned to use the land north of the Ohio River as its frontier lab Policies and procedures would be tested and perfected in this laboratory in order to arrive at the best methods for settling the West

The United States Congress passed land ordinances in 1784 1785 and 1787 establishing the vast unorganized area beyond the Ohio River into the Northwest Territory The three land ordinances detailed procedures for the orderly survey sale and settlement of land as well as the establishment of government in this frontier test site The legislation specified that three to five new states would eventually be fashioned from the Northwest Territory All was prepared and ready to go except for Indian concerns and United States commissioners were under intense pressure to get the tribes out of the way as soon as practicable

The Ohio Country the southeastern portion of the new Northwest Territory was to be developed first and systematically fashioned into a state of the Union guided by the three land


11

ordinances However even before the first safe settlement could begin treaties with the various Ohio tribes had to be secured in order to open up the Ohio Country Commissioners would meet with these tribes at three different councils where they achieved success after intense negotiations too frequently assisted by using questionable aids

The first council in October 1784 was with the League of the Iroquois at Fort Stanwix located in the Leaguersquos territory at Rome New York The American Revolution had shattered the Leaguersquos unity and its representatives came to the deliberations in a vulnerable position They were informed that the United States intended to terminate the Leaguersquos longstanding claims to the lands west of Fort Pitt and north of the Ohio River The American commissioners told the Iroquois bluntly ldquoYou are a subdued peoplerdquo and the United States will take ldquobut a small part [of your territory] compared with their numbers and wantsrdquo By the terms of the Fort Stanwix treaty the Iroquois Leaguersquos claims to the Ohio Country and beyond were extinguished

Their opening work successfully completed the pleased com-missioners journeyed to western Pennsylvania and Fort McIntosh situated near the confluence of the Ohio River and the Beaver River in what is now Beaver Pennsylvania The second council got under way in January 1785 as the United States opened negotiations with 400 representatives of four Ohio tribes the Wyandots Delawares Chippewas and Ottawas The American delegation thought poorly of the behavior and attire of the natives regarding them as ldquoa very motley crewmdashan ugly set of devils allrdquo The inflexible Shawnees and Miamis refused to attend this council Afterward these two tribes would anger the American government because they refused to be bound by the terms of the treaty that they never signed

The commissioners presented their demands for Ohio land forfeiture to the assembled Indians and justified their demands by a theoretical ldquoright of conquestrdquo from the Revolutionary War After all they pointed out the Ohio Indians had fought on the side of the British and the British had lost the war The shocked Indians protested that Great Britain may have lost to the United


12

States but the Indians never had been conquered by the Americans The Indian representatives then advanced their own arguments and claims for damages done to their people and vil-lages by American frontiersmen during the war The commis-sioners rejected their claims dismissively asserting ldquobecause we claim the [Ohio] country by conquest [you are here] to give not to receiverdquo

Soon the harsh winter weather became difficult to bear and the cold American negotiators decided that the deliberations with the stubborn Indians had dragged on too long without resolution And so they employed an additional aid The Americans plied the Indians with food and large quantities of liquor until tribal representatives badly inebriated signed away vast areas of their homeland The Fort McIntosh Treaty reserved land in north-western Ohio for the Ohio tribes It took for the United States the remaining 30 million acres of Indian lands in the southwestern southern and eastern parts of the Ohio Country

Most Ohio Indians ignored the Fort McIntosh Treaty They felt no obligation to honor a treaty signed by their drunken represen-tatives especially one based as they saw it on the specious justi-fication of right of conquest of them by the United States in the Revolutionary War

The Fort McIntosh deliberations intended to facilitate white settlement by producing peaceful relations with tribes living above the Ohio River instead set those relations on fire In light of the Americansrsquo obvious plans to take their lands tribal leaders realized that they must confer with one another and make plans for the defense of the Ohio Country For assistance in these important preparations they looked to old friends and allies up at Fort Detroit

The British had refused to vacate many of its forts in the Great Lakes area at the conclusion of the Revolutionary War These strongholds sat on land that was now United States soil and Fort Detroit was one of them These forts were a statement of British defiance and scorn for the new United States a nation that was too weak to force Great Britain off its own sovereign territory The British at Detroit welcomed the Indian leaders

ldquoFarewell My Nationrdquo
















































Third Edition

Philip Weeks






















1 2016





vii





Contents

Contents

viii







ix




Preface

Preface

x





xi





Acknowledgments

Acknowledgments

xii






Acknowledgments

xiii



Philip Weeks

xv




Reservations

Indian homelands


0





1




1



2







3






4






5





6







7





8


At l

an

t ic

O

ce

an

Ohio

RR

R


N O R T H

SPANISH

T E R R I T O R Y

V I R G I N I A

N J

N E W YO R K

O H I O

C O U N T R Y

O H I OPENN

C O U N T R Y

D E L

R l CONN

MASS

MAINE

CANADA

VT

NH

N e w Yo r k

B o s t o n


R E N C E RI V

E R

River

River

R

Del

awar

e

Hud

son

Mohawk

Mic

higa

n

RR

L a k e

La

ke

E r i eDetroit




Ke

nlucky


La

ke H

uro

n

FLORIDA

S O U T H

M D

Maumee R

Sciolo R

N O R T H W E S T

G E O R G I A

C A R O L I N A

C A R O L I N A


Ala

bam

a R

James

Wab

ash

R

Map 12


9






10






11






12





















































Third Edition

Philip Weeks






















1 2016





vii





Contents

Contents

viii







ix




Preface

Preface

x





xi





Acknowledgments

Acknowledgments

xii






Acknowledgments

xiii



Philip Weeks

xv




Reservations

Indian homelands


0





1




1



2







3






4






5





6







7





8


At l

an

t ic

O

ce

an

Ohio

RR

R


N O R T H

SPANISH

T E R R I T O R Y

V I R G I N I A

N J

N E W YO R K

O H I O

C O U N T R Y

O H I OPENN

C O U N T R Y

D E L

R l CONN

MASS

MAINE

CANADA

VT

NH

N e w Yo r k

B o s t o n


R E N C E RI V

E R

River

River

R

Del

awar

e

Hud

son

Mohawk

Mic

higa

n

RR

L a k e

La

ke

E r i eDetroit




Ke

nlucky


La

ke H

uro

n

FLORIDA

S O U T H

M D

Maumee R

Sciolo R

N O R T H W E S T

G E O R G I A

C A R O L I N A

C A R O L I N A


Ala

bam

a R

James

Wab

ash

R

Map 12


9






10






11






12



























1 2016





vii





Contents

Contents

viii







ix




Preface

Preface

x





xi





Acknowledgments

Acknowledgments

xii






Acknowledgments

xiii



Philip Weeks

xv




Reservations

Indian homelands


0





1




1



2







3






4






5





6







7





8


At l

an

t ic

O

ce

an

Ohio

RR

R


N O R T H

SPANISH

T E R R I T O R Y

V I R G I N I A

N J

N E W YO R K

O H I O

C O U N T R Y

O H I OPENN

C O U N T R Y

D E L

R l CONN

MASS

MAINE

CANADA

VT

NH

N e w Yo r k

B o s t o n


R E N C E RI V

E R

River

River

R

Del

awar

e

Hud

son

Mohawk

Mic

higa

n

RR

L a k e

La

ke

E r i eDetroit




Ke

nlucky


La

ke H

uro

n

FLORIDA

S O U T H

M D

Maumee R

Sciolo R

N O R T H W E S T

G E O R G I A

C A R O L I N A

C A R O L I N A


Ala

bam

a R

James

Wab

ash

R

Map 12


9






10






11






12










vii





Contents

Contents

viii







ix




Preface

Preface

x





xi





Acknowledgments

Acknowledgments

xii






Acknowledgments

xiii



Philip Weeks

xv




Reservations

Indian homelands


0





1




1



2







3






4






5





6







7





8


At l

an

t ic

O

ce

an

Ohio

RR

R


N O R T H

SPANISH

T E R R I T O R Y

V I R G I N I A

N J

N E W YO R K

O H I O

C O U N T R Y

O H I OPENN

C O U N T R Y

D E L

R l CONN

MASS

MAINE

CANADA

VT

NH

N e w Yo r k

B o s t o n


R E N C E RI V

E R

River

River

R

Del

awar

e

Hud

son

Mohawk

Mic

higa

n

RR

L a k e

La

ke

E r i eDetroit




Ke

nlucky


La

ke H

uro

n

FLORIDA

S O U T H

M D

Maumee R

Sciolo R

N O R T H W E S T

G E O R G I A

C A R O L I N A

C A R O L I N A


Ala

bam

a R

James

Wab

ash

R

Map 12


9






10






11






12






Contents

viii







ix




Preface

Preface

x





xi





Acknowledgments

Acknowledgments

xii






Acknowledgments

xiii



Philip Weeks

xv




Reservations

Indian homelands


0





1




1



2







3






4






5





6







7





8


At l

an

t ic

O

ce

an

Ohio

RR

R


N O R T H

SPANISH

T E R R I T O R Y

V I R G I N I A

N J

N E W YO R K

O H I O

C O U N T R Y

O H I OPENN

C O U N T R Y

D E L

R l CONN

MASS

MAINE

CANADA

VT

NH

N e w Yo r k

B o s t o n


R E N C E RI V

E R

River

River

R

Del

awar

e

Hud

son

Mohawk

Mic

higa

n

RR

L a k e

La

ke

E r i eDetroit




Ke

nlucky


La

ke H

uro

n

FLORIDA

S O U T H

M D

Maumee R

Sciolo R

N O R T H W E S T

G E O R G I A

C A R O L I N A

C A R O L I N A


Ala

bam

a R

James

Wab

ash

R

Map 12


9






10






11






12






ix




Preface

Preface

x





xi





Acknowledgments

Acknowledgments

xii






Acknowledgments

xiii



Philip Weeks

xv




Reservations

Indian homelands


0





1




1



2







3






4






5





6







7





8


At l

an

t ic

O

ce

an

Ohio

RR

R


N O R T H

SPANISH

T E R R I T O R Y

V I R G I N I A

N J

N E W YO R K

O H I O

C O U N T R Y

O H I OPENN

C O U N T R Y

D E L

R l CONN

MASS

MAINE

CANADA

VT

NH

N e w Yo r k

B o s t o n


R E N C E RI V

E R

River

River

R

Del

awar

e

Hud

son

Mohawk

Mic

higa

n

RR

L a k e

La

ke

E r i eDetroit




Ke

nlucky


La

ke H

uro

n

FLORIDA

S O U T H

M D

Maumee R

Sciolo R

N O R T H W E S T

G E O R G I A

C A R O L I N A

C A R O L I N A


Ala

bam

a R

James

Wab

ash

R

Map 12


9






10






11






12






Preface

x





xi





Acknowledgments

Acknowledgments

xii






Acknowledgments

xiii



Philip Weeks

xv




Reservations

Indian homelands


0





1




1



2







3






4






5





6







7





8


At l

an

t ic

O

ce

an

Ohio

RR

R


N O R T H

SPANISH

T E R R I T O R Y

V I R G I N I A

N J

N E W YO R K

O H I O

C O U N T R Y

O H I OPENN

C O U N T R Y

D E L

R l CONN

MASS

MAINE

CANADA

VT

NH

N e w Yo r k

B o s t o n


R E N C E RI V

E R

River

River

R

Del

awar

e

Hud

son

Mohawk

Mic

higa

n

RR

L a k e

La

ke

E r i eDetroit




Ke

nlucky


La

ke H

uro

n

FLORIDA

S O U T H

M D

Maumee R

Sciolo R

N O R T H W E S T

G E O R G I A

C A R O L I N A

C A R O L I N A


Ala

bam

a R

James

Wab

ash

R

Map 12


9






10






11






12






xi





Acknowledgments

Acknowledgments

xii






Acknowledgments

xiii



Philip Weeks

xv




Reservations

Indian homelands


0





1




1



2







3






4






5





6







7





8


At l

an

t ic

O

ce

an

Ohio

RR

R


N O R T H

SPANISH

T E R R I T O R Y

V I R G I N I A

N J

N E W YO R K

O H I O

C O U N T R Y

O H I OPENN

C O U N T R Y

D E L

R l CONN

MASS

MAINE

CANADA

VT

NH

N e w Yo r k

B o s t o n


R E N C E RI V

E R

River

River

R

Del

awar

e

Hud

son

Mohawk

Mic

higa

n

RR

L a k e

La

ke

E r i eDetroit




Ke

nlucky


La

ke H

uro

n

FLORIDA

S O U T H

M D

Maumee R

Sciolo R

N O R T H W E S T

G E O R G I A

C A R O L I N A

C A R O L I N A


Ala

bam

a R

James

Wab

ash

R

Map 12


9






10






11






12






Acknowledgments

xii






Acknowledgments

xiii



Philip Weeks

xv




Reservations

Indian homelands


0





1




1



2







3






4






5





6







7





8


At l

an

t ic

O

ce

an

Ohio

RR

R


N O R T H

SPANISH

T E R R I T O R Y

V I R G I N I A

N J

N E W YO R K

O H I O

C O U N T R Y

O H I OPENN

C O U N T R Y

D E L

R l CONN

MASS

MAINE

CANADA

VT

NH

N e w Yo r k

B o s t o n


R E N C E RI V

E R

River

River

R

Del

awar

e

Hud

son

Mohawk

Mic

higa

n

RR

L a k e

La

ke

E r i eDetroit




Ke

nlucky


La

ke H

uro

n

FLORIDA

S O U T H

M D

Maumee R

Sciolo R

N O R T H W E S T

G E O R G I A

C A R O L I N A

C A R O L I N A


Ala

bam

a R

James

Wab

ash

R

Map 12


9






10






11






12






Acknowledgments

xiii



Philip Weeks

xv




Reservations

Indian homelands


0





1




1



2







3






4






5





6







7





8


At l

an

t ic

O

ce

an

Ohio

RR

R


N O R T H

SPANISH

T E R R I T O R Y

V I R G I N I A

N J

N E W YO R K

O H I O

C O U N T R Y

O H I OPENN

C O U N T R Y

D E L

R l CONN

MASS

MAINE

CANADA

VT

NH

N e w Yo r k

B o s t o n


R E N C E RI V

E R

River

River

R

Del

awar

e

Hud

son

Mohawk

Mic

higa

n

RR

L a k e

La

ke

E r i eDetroit




Ke

nlucky


La

ke H

uro

n

FLORIDA

S O U T H

M D

Maumee R

Sciolo R

N O R T H W E S T

G E O R G I A

C A R O L I N A

C A R O L I N A


Ala

bam

a R

James

Wab

ash

R

Map 12


9






10






11






12






xv




Reservations

Indian homelands


0





1




1



2







3






4






5





6







7





8


At l

an

t ic

O

ce

an

Ohio

RR

R


N O R T H

SPANISH

T E R R I T O R Y

V I R G I N I A

N J

N E W YO R K

O H I O

C O U N T R Y

O H I OPENN

C O U N T R Y

D E L

R l CONN

MASS

MAINE

CANADA

VT

NH

N e w Yo r k

B o s t o n


R E N C E RI V

E R

River

River

R

Del

awar

e

Hud

son

Mohawk

Mic

higa

n

RR

L a k e

La

ke

E r i eDetroit




Ke

nlucky


La

ke H

uro

n

FLORIDA

S O U T H

M D

Maumee R

Sciolo R

N O R T H W E S T

G E O R G I A

C A R O L I N A

C A R O L I N A


Ala

bam

a R

James

Wab

ash

R

Map 12


9






10






11






12






Reservations

Indian homelands


0





1




1



2







3






4






5





6







7





8


At l

an

t ic

O

ce

an

Ohio

RR

R


N O R T H

SPANISH

T E R R I T O R Y

V I R G I N I A

N J

N E W YO R K

O H I O

C O U N T R Y

O H I OPENN

C O U N T R Y

D E L

R l CONN

MASS

MAINE

CANADA

VT

NH

N e w Yo r k

B o s t o n


R E N C E RI V

E R

River

River

R

Del

awar

e

Hud

son

Mohawk

Mic

higa

n

RR

L a k e

La

ke

E r i eDetroit




Ke

nlucky


La

ke H

uro

n

FLORIDA

S O U T H

M D

Maumee R

Sciolo R

N O R T H W E S T

G E O R G I A

C A R O L I N A

C A R O L I N A


Ala

bam

a R

James

Wab

ash

R

Map 12


9






10






11






12









1




1



2







3






4






5





6







7





8


At l

an

t ic

O

ce

an

Ohio

RR

R


N O R T H

SPANISH

T E R R I T O R Y

V I R G I N I A

N J

N E W YO R K

O H I O

C O U N T R Y

O H I OPENN

C O U N T R Y

D E L

R l CONN

MASS

MAINE

CANADA

VT

NH

N e w Yo r k

B o s t o n


R E N C E RI V

E R

River

River

R

Del

awar

e

Hud

son

Mohawk

Mic

higa

n

RR

L a k e

La

ke

E r i eDetroit




Ke

nlucky


La

ke H

uro

n

FLORIDA

S O U T H

M D

Maumee R

Sciolo R

N O R T H W E S T

G E O R G I A

C A R O L I N A

C A R O L I N A


Ala

bam

a R

James

Wab

ash

R

Map 12


9






10






11






12







2







3






4






5





6







7





8


At l

an

t ic

O

ce

an

Ohio

RR

R


N O R T H

SPANISH

T E R R I T O R Y

V I R G I N I A

N J

N E W YO R K

O H I O

C O U N T R Y

O H I OPENN

C O U N T R Y

D E L

R l CONN

MASS

MAINE

CANADA

VT

NH

N e w Yo r k

B o s t o n


R E N C E RI V

E R

River

River

R

Del

awar

e

Hud

son

Mohawk

Mic

higa

n

RR

L a k e

La

ke

E r i eDetroit




Ke

nlucky


La

ke H

uro

n

FLORIDA

S O U T H

M D

Maumee R

Sciolo R

N O R T H W E S T

G E O R G I A

C A R O L I N A

C A R O L I N A


Ala

bam

a R

James

Wab

ash

R

Map 12


9






10






11






12







3






4






5





6







7





8


At l

an

t ic

O

ce

an

Ohio

RR

R


N O R T H

SPANISH

T E R R I T O R Y

V I R G I N I A

N J

N E W YO R K

O H I O

C O U N T R Y

O H I OPENN

C O U N T R Y

D E L

R l CONN

MASS

MAINE

CANADA

VT

NH

N e w Yo r k

B o s t o n


R E N C E RI V

E R

River

River

R

Del

awar

e

Hud

son

Mohawk

Mic

higa

n

RR

L a k e

La

ke

E r i eDetroit




Ke

nlucky


La

ke H

uro

n

FLORIDA

S O U T H

M D

Maumee R

Sciolo R

N O R T H W E S T

G E O R G I A

C A R O L I N A

C A R O L I N A


Ala

bam

a R

James

Wab

ash

R

Map 12


9






10






11






12







4






5





6







7





8


At l

an

t ic

O

ce

an

Ohio

RR

R


N O R T H

SPANISH

T E R R I T O R Y

V I R G I N I A

N J

N E W YO R K

O H I O

C O U N T R Y

O H I OPENN

C O U N T R Y

D E L

R l CONN

MASS

MAINE

CANADA

VT

NH

N e w Yo r k

B o s t o n


R E N C E RI V

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River

River

R

Del

awar

e

Hud

son

Mohawk

Mic

higa

n

RR

L a k e

La

ke

E r i eDetroit




Ke

nlucky


La

ke H

uro

n

FLORIDA

S O U T H

M D

Maumee R

Sciolo R

N O R T H W E S T

G E O R G I A

C A R O L I N A

C A R O L I N A


Ala

bam

a R

James

Wab

ash

R

Map 12


9






10






11






12







5





6







7





8


At l

an

t ic

O

ce

an

Ohio

RR

R


N O R T H

SPANISH

T E R R I T O R Y

V I R G I N I A

N J

N E W YO R K

O H I O

C O U N T R Y

O H I OPENN

C O U N T R Y

D E L

R l CONN

MASS

MAINE

CANADA

VT

NH

N e w Yo r k

B o s t o n


R E N C E RI V

E R

River

River

R

Del

awar

e

Hud

son

Mohawk

Mic

higa

n

RR

L a k e

La

ke

E r i eDetroit




Ke

nlucky


La

ke H

uro

n

FLORIDA

S O U T H

M D

Maumee R

Sciolo R

N O R T H W E S T

G E O R G I A

C A R O L I N A

C A R O L I N A


Ala

bam

a R

James

Wab

ash

R

Map 12


9






10






11






12







6







7





8


At l

an

t ic

O

ce

an

Ohio

RR

R


N O R T H

SPANISH

T E R R I T O R Y

V I R G I N I A

N J

N E W YO R K

O H I O

C O U N T R Y

O H I OPENN

C O U N T R Y

D E L

R l CONN

MASS

MAINE

CANADA

VT

NH

N e w Yo r k

B o s t o n


R E N C E RI V

E R

River

River

R

Del

awar

e

Hud

son

Mohawk

Mic

higa

n

RR

L a k e

La

ke

E r i eDetroit




Ke

nlucky


La

ke H

uro

n

FLORIDA

S O U T H

M D

Maumee R

Sciolo R

N O R T H W E S T

G E O R G I A

C A R O L I N A

C A R O L I N A


Ala

bam

a R

James

Wab

ash

R

Map 12


9






10






11






12







7





8


At l

an

t ic

O

ce

an

Ohio

RR

R


N O R T H

SPANISH

T E R R I T O R Y

V I R G I N I A

N J

N E W YO R K

O H I O

C O U N T R Y

O H I OPENN

C O U N T R Y

D E L

R l CONN

MASS

MAINE

CANADA

VT

NH

N e w Yo r k

B o s t o n


R E N C E RI V

E R

River

River

R

Del

awar

e

Hud

son

Mohawk

Mic

higa

n

RR

L a k e

La

ke

E r i eDetroit




Ke

nlucky


La

ke H

uro

n

FLORIDA

S O U T H

M D

Maumee R

Sciolo R

N O R T H W E S T

G E O R G I A

C A R O L I N A

C A R O L I N A


Ala

bam

a R

James

Wab

ash

R

Map 12


9






10






11






12







8


At l

an

t ic

O

ce

an

Ohio

RR

R


N O R T H

SPANISH

T E R R I T O R Y

V I R G I N I A

N J

N E W YO R K

O H I O

C O U N T R Y

O H I OPENN

C O U N T R Y

D E L

R l CONN

MASS

MAINE

CANADA

VT

NH

N e w Yo r k

B o s t o n


R E N C E RI V

E R

River

River

R

Del

awar

e

Hud

son

Mohawk

Mic

higa

n

RR

L a k e

La

ke

E r i eDetroit




Ke

nlucky


La

ke H

uro

n

FLORIDA

S O U T H

M D

Maumee R

Sciolo R

N O R T H W E S T

G E O R G I A

C A R O L I N A

C A R O L I N A


Ala

bam

a R

James

Wab

ash

R

Map 12


9






10






11






12







9






10






11






12







10






11






12







11






12







12






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