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Virtue Theory:

Aristotle is commonly associated with virtue theory.

He believed everything in life has a goal or telos For example, the goal of a knife is to cut.

In striving for ones goal, one finds fulfilment and happiness

Aristotle used the words Eudaimoniawhich can be translated to

happiness or a life well lived.

Unlike popular conceptions of vanity, Aristotle emphasises that the

journey of happiness starts with self-love. Virtue can be construed as a character trait that enables you to

reach your telosor goal.

For example, for a knife to cut well, virtues like sharpness of the

blade, durability and firmness of the grip would be considered

characteristic that would enable the knife to reach its goal.

But how do we know what our virtues should be? Aristotle starts off with arguing that every individual has their own

natural inclinations or dispositions.

These dispositions can be controlled by rational thought.

If we exercise our rational thought we can control these natural

dispositions in which can be called our second nature.

The characteristics of our second nature are our virtues andshould be maintained throughout life. So like the Hilux add,

happiness is a journey, not a destination.

Natural dispositions may cause us to be inclined to do something

in excess or in deficiency.

Aristotle then advises us to aim for the midpoint between

excessive and deficient which he calls the mean.

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For example if the mean is courage, the excess would be rashness

and its deficiency cowardice. Can you give me other examples?

Shyness Modesty Shamelessness

Take note: Every individual has their own unique dispositions and

therefore their own journey. Its not about what actions are good,

but how we can cultivate our virtues and gain a life well lived in the

process.

Deontological ethics:

The classical representative of this theory is Immanuel Kant.

He insists that there are objective ethical standards of behaviours

that everyone should respect.

In contrast with Aristotle, Kant shifts the focus away from the

quality of agents to the quality of actions.NBNBNB Test question. He believed that the only reliable source of moral guidance resdes

in our own independent thinking or rationality.

Deontology can be translated as the study of duty and obligations.

Kant here argues that we should follow this standard of behaviour

that we have discovered through rationality, irrespective of wheter

we personally benefit from it.

He calls this standard a good will

In his search for this objective standard of ethics, he discovered an

objective moral law against which all actions could be judged

which he called the categorical imperative.

The categorical imperative states that an action can only be

ethical if one can allow for all to perform the same action. In other

worlds all your action should be universalisable.

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He further argues that before any action, we should consider that

action as becoming a universal law which he calls the principle of

universalisability.

For example, if you consider cutting into traffic, you should picture

a world where its the law that everyone cuts into traffic. Such a

world would not allow us safe passage and therefore that action is

unethical.

Kant further lists three types of actions: Actions from duty,

immediate inclination and those impelled by some other inclination.

Action from duty simply follows the categorical imperative which

pertains to the universal moral law, no other considerations

necessary.

Action by immediate inclination are actions that one performs out

of our natural inclinations. Life saving example for respect.

Actions impelled by some other inclination are actions which seem

to conform to duty but is done as a means to an end. Exampleshopkeeper.

Kant expands his categorical imperative and states that we should

treat other people only as an end and never as a means to an end.

This is the only of treating others with respect.

Utilitarian ethics:

Similar to dentological ethics, it focuses on actions.

Classical representative is J.S Mill.

The ultimate goal: Happiness, similar to Aristotle.

Greatest happiness principle: Actions are right in proportion as

they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce

the reverse of happiness. By happiness is intended pleasure and

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the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain or the privation of

pleasure.

That means whenever we are deliberating an action, we simply

have to calculate which of our alternatives for action would result

in the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of

people. Or what later utilitarians calls cost/benefit analysis: The

choice that would produce the most happiness and the least

amount of pain.

Mills claims that people are motivated to do the right thing

because of sanctions. He lists two types: External and internal

External sanctions are external power that are able to influence

ones moral behaviour. Judgement by other people and God. It

pertains to external consequences.

Internal sanctions reger to the sense of duty, which is present in

human consciousness. It pertains to internal consequences.