Thomas A. Holm

Authorized Reprint from Standard Technical Publication 169C (!) Copyright 2001ASTM INTERNATIONAL, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box ClOO, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959

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HOLM ON LIGH1WEIGHT CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES 523

TABLE l-Lightweight Aggregate (LWA) Concrete Classified According to Use and Physical Properties."

Type of LightweightAggregate used in

Concrete

Typical Range ofLightweight Concrete

Unit WeightTypical Range of

Thermal ConductivitiesTypical Range of

Compressive StrengthClass of LightweightAggregate Concrete

Structural-gradeLWA C 330

Either structural C 330or insulating C 332or a combinationof C 330 and C 332

Insulating-grade L W AC 332

(1440 to 1840)90 to 115 air dry

(800 to 1440)(50 to 90) air dry

Structural

Structural/Insulating

(>17) (>2500) not specified in C 330

(3.4 to 17) (500 to 2500) C 332 from (0.22) (1.50)to (0.43) (3.00) ovendry

(0.7 to 3.4) 100 to 500 C 332 from (0.065) (0.45)to (0.22) (1.50) ovendry

Insulating (240 to 800)(15 to 50) oven dry

"Unit weights are in (kg/m') (Iblft'), compressive strengths in (MPa) (psi), and thermal conductivity in (Wlm .OK) (Btu .in.1h .ft2 .OF).

moisture content will increase unit weight by an equiva-lent 1% but may increase thermal conductivity by as muchas 5 to 9% [2]. Use of oven-dried specimens provides anarbitrary basis for comparison but clearly does not dupli-cate in-service applications. The controlled test conditionsserve to permit classification of materials and to providea standardized reference environment.

(0/16 in.) screen with a dry loose bulk density less than 1120kg/mJ (70 Ib/ftJ). Four coarse aggregate gradations are pro-vided for use in structural lightweight concrete with maxi-mum dry loose bulk density limited to 880 kg/mJ (55 lb/ftJ). Combined fine and coarse aggregate formulationsmust not exceed a maximum dry loose unit weight of 1040kg/mJ (65 Ib/ftJ). Tests are conducted in accordance withASTM Test Method for Unit Weight and Voids in Aggre-gate (C 29) using the shoveling procedure. STRUCTURAUlNSULAnNG

LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATECONCRETES

INSULA nNG-GRADE LIGHTWEIGHTAGGREGATES AND INSULATINGLIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETES

Widespread industrial applications that call for "fill"concretes require modest compressive strengths with den-sities intermediate between the structural- and insulating-grade concretes. These concretes may be produced withhigh air mixes with structural-grade lightweight aggre-gate, with sanded insulating lightweight aggregate mixes,or with formulations incorporating both structural- andinsulating-grade lightweight aggregates. Compressivestrengths from 3.4 to 17 MPa (500 to 2500 psi) are notuncommon with thermal resistance less than concretescontaining only insulating-grade lightweight aggregate.

UGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATEPROPERnES

Internal Structure of Lightweight Aggregates

Lightweight aggregates develop low particle specificgravity because of the cellular pore system. Cellular struc-ture within the particles is normally developed at hightemperatures by formation of gases due to the reactionof heat on certain raw material constituents coincidentwith incipient fusion causing gas expansion to be trappedin the viscous, pyroplastic mass. Strong, durable light-weight aggregates are produced when small-size, well-dis-tributed, noninterconnected pores are enveloped in acontinuous, crack free, vitreous phase [3] (Fig. 1).

Very light nonstructural concretes, employed primarilyfor high thermal resistance, incorporate low-density low-strength aggregates such as vermiculite and perlite. Withlow unit weights, seldom exceeding 800 kg/mJ (50 Ib/ftJ),thermal resistance is high. These concretes are notintended to be exposed to the weather and generally havea compressive strength range from about 0.69 to 6.89 MPa(100 to 500 psi).

ASTM Specification for Lightweight Aggregates forInsulating Concrete (C 332) limits thermal conductivityvalues for insulating concretes to a maximum of 0.22 W/m.K (1.50 Btu .in. ./h .ft2 OF) for concrete having anoven-dry density of 800 kg/mJ (50 Ib/ftJ) or less, and to0.43 W/m .K (3.0 Btu .in. ./h .ft2 OF) for those weighingup to 1440 kg/mJ (90 Ib/ftJ). Lighter concretes are thosemade with Group I aggregates (perlites and vermiculite),while higher unit weights result from the use of Group IIaggregates (expanded shales, expanded slags and naturallightweight aggregates).

Thermal conductivity values may be determined inaccordance with ASTM Test Method for Steady-StateThermal Performance of Building Assemblies by Meansof a Guarded Hot Box (C 236) and ASTM Test Methodfor Steady-State Heat Flux Measurements and ThermalTransmission Properties by Means of the Guarded-Hot-Plate Apparatus (C 177). Oven-dried specimens are usedfor both thermal conductivity and unit weight tests onthe insulating concretes. Moisture content of insulatingmaterials directly affects both the thermal conductivityand unit weight, but to varying degrees. A 1% increase in

PARTICLE SHAPE AND SURFACETEXTURE

Depending on the source and the method of production,lightweight aggregates exhibit considerable differences in

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HOLM ON LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES 525

of stockpile moisture contents is that with lightweightaggregates the moisture is largely absorbed into the inte-rior of the particles whereas in normal-weight aggregatesit is primarily surface adsorption. Recognition of thisessential difference is important in mix proportioning,batching, and control. Rate of absorption of lightweightaggregates is dependent on the characteristics of pore size,connection, and distribution, particularly those close tothe surface. Internally absorbed water within the particleis not immediately available for chemical interaction withcement as mixing water, but extremely beneficial in main-taining longer periods of curing essential to improvementsin the aggregate/matrix contact zone. Internal curing willalso bring about reduction of permeability by extendingthe period in which additional products of hydration areformed in the pores and capillaries of the binder.

1400- 7701400 = 0.45

For this example, total porosity (pores and voids) wouldthen equal

[0.45 + (0.44 X 0.55)] = 0.69

GRADAnON

MODULUS OF ELASnCITY OFLIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE PARTICLES

The modulus of elasticity of concrete is a function ofthe moduli of its constituents. Concrete may be consideredas a two-phase material consisting of coarse aggregateinclusions within a continuous "mortar" fraction thatincludes cement, water, entrained air, and fine aggregate.Dynamic measurements made on aggregates alone haveshown a relationship corresponding to the function: E =0.008 p2, where E is the dynamic modulus of elasticity ofthe particle in MPa and p is the dry mean specific gravityin kg/mJ [4] (Fig. 2). Dynamic moduli for usual expandedaggregates have a range of 10 to 16 GPa (1.45 to 2.3 x106 psi), whereas the range for strong ordinary aggregates

E -0008 p2 (MPa)

WHERE p= DRY PARTICLE

DENSITY (kg/m'3)

Gradation requirements are generally similar to thoseprovided for normal-weight aggregate with the exceptionthat lightweight aggregate particle size distribution per-mits a higher weight through smaller sieves. This modifi-cation recognizes the increase in specific gravity typicalfor the smaller particles of most lightweight aggregates,and that while standards are established by weights pass-ing each sieve size, ideal formulations are developedthrough volumetric considerations.

An exception to the procedures of ASTM Method forSieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates (C 136)requires reduction of the weight of fine aggregate sampletested according to the lightweight aggregate's unit weight,and sieving time not to exceed 5 min.

Producers of structural lightweight aggregate normallystock materials in several standard size formulations ofcoarse, intermediate, and fine aggregate. By combiningsize fractions or by replacing some or all of the fine frac-tion with a normal-weight sand, a wide range of concreteunit weights may be obtained. The aggregate producer isthe best source of information for the proper aggregatecombinations to meet fresh unit weight specifications andequilibrium unit weights for dead load design considera-tions.

Normal-weight sand replacement will typically increaseunit weight from about 80 to more than 160 kg/m3 (5 to10 Ib/ft3). Using increasing amounts of cement to obtainhigh strengths above 35 MPa (5000 psi) concrete willincrease air dry density from 32 to 96 kg/m3 (2 to 6 Ib/ft3).

.

ABSORPnON CHARACTERISTICS

Due to their cellular structure, lightweight aggregatesabsorb more water than their normal-weight aggregatecounterparts. Based upon a 24-h absorption test, con-ducted in accordance with the procedures of ASTM TestMethod for Specific Gravity and Absorption of CoarseAggregate (C 127) and ASTM Test Method for SpecificGravity and Absorption of Fine Aggregate (C 128), struc-tural-grade lightweight aggregates will absorb from 5 tomore than 25% by weight of dry aggregate. By contrast,normal-weight aggregates generally absorb less than 2%of moisture. The important difference in measurements

.

.

500 1000 1500 2000

MEAN PARTICLE DRY DENSITY

(kg/m3)

FIG. 2-Relatlonshlp between mean particle density and themean dynamic modulus of elasticIty for the particles of lIght-

weight aggregate [12].

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HOLM ON LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES 527

exceed :!:2%, an adjustment in batch weights may berequired to restore specified concrete properties. To avoidadverse effects on durability, strength, and workability,air content should not vary more than:!: 1.5% from speci-fied values.

DENSITY OF STRUCTURALLIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE

Well-proportioned structural lightweight concretes can beplaced and screeded with less physical effort than thatrequired for ordinary concrete. Excessive vibratationshould be avoided. as this practice serves to drive theheavier mortar fraction down from the surface where itis required for finishing. On completion of final finishing.curing operations similar to ordinary concrete shouldbegin as soon as possible. Lightweight concretes batchedwith aggregates having high absorptions carry their owninternal water supply for curing within the aggregate andas a result are more forgiving to poor curing practices orunfavorable ambient conditions. This "internal curing"water is transferred from the lightweight aggregate to themortar phase as evaporation takes place on the concretesurface. thus maintaining continuous moisture balance byreplacing moisture essential for an extended continuoushydration period determined by ambient conditions andthe as-batched lightweight aggregate moisture content.

Lightweight aggregates may absorb part of the mixingwater when exposed to increased pumping pressures. Toavoid loss of workability. it is essential to raise the presoakabsorption level of lightweight aggregates prior to pump-ing. Presoaking is best accomplished at the aggregate pro-duction plant where uniform moisture content is achievedby applying water from spray bars directly to the aggregatemoving on belts. This moisture content can be maintainedand supplemented at the concrete plant by stockpile hoseand sprinkler systems.

Presoaking will significantly reduce the lightweightaggregates. rate of absorption. minimizing water transferfrom the mortar fraction that. in turn. causes slump lossduring pumping. Higher moisture contents developed dur-ing presoaking will result in increased specific gravity that.in turn, develops higher fresh concrete unit weight. Higherwater content due to presoaking will eventually diffuseout of the concrete. developing a longer period of internalcuring as well as a larger differential between fresh andequilibrium unit weight than that associated with light-weight concretes placed with lower moisture contents.Aggregate suppliers should be consulted for mix designrecommendations necessary for consistent pumpability.

Although there are numerous structural applicationsof all lightweight concretes (coarse and fine lightweightaggregate), usual commercial practice in North Americais to design sanded lightweight concretes where part orall of the fine aggregates used is natural sand. Long-spanbridges using concretes with three-way blends ( coarse andfine lightweight aggregates and small supplemental natu-ral sand volumes) have provided long-tenn durability andstructural efficiency (density/strength ratios) [14]. Earliestresearch reports [5,6,15,16] compared all lightweight con-cretes with "reference" norrnal-weight concrete while laterstudies reported in Refs 13,17-19 supplemented the earlyfindings with data based upon sanded lightweight con-cretes.

The fresh unit weight of lightweight aggregate concretesis a function of mix proportions, air contents, waterdemand, and the specific gravity and moisture content ofthe lightweight aggregate. Decrease in density of exposedconcrete is due to moisture loss that, in turn, is a functionof ambient conditions and surface area/volume ratio of themember. Design professionals should specify a maximumfresh density for lightweight concrete, as limits of accept-ability should be controlled at time of placement.

Dead loads used for design should be based upon equi-librium density that, for most conditions and members.may be assumed to be reached after 90 days. Extensivetests conducted during North American durability studiesdemonstrated that despite wide initial variations of aggre-gate moisture content, equilibrium density was found tobe 50 kg/m) (3.1 lb/ft)) above oven-dry density (Fig. 3).European recommendations for in-service density aresimilar [ 4].

When weights and moisture contents of all the constitu-ants of the batch of concrete are known, an approximatecalculated equilibrium density may be detenninedaccording to ASTM C 567 from the following equation

E = 0 + 50 kg/m) (E = 0 + 3lb/ft3) (1)

LABORA TORY AND FIELD CONTROL

Changes in lightweight aggregate moisture content, gra-dation, or specific gravity as well as usual job site variationin entrained air suggest frequent checks of the fresh con-crete to facilitate adjustments necessary for consistentconcrete characteristics. Standardized field tests for con-sistency, fresh unit weight, and entrained-air contentshould be employed to verify conformance of field con-cretes with design mixes and the project specification.Sampling should be conducted in accordance with ASTMPractice for Sampling Freshly Mixed Concrete (C 172)and ASTM Test Method for Air Content of Freshly MixedConcrete by the Volumetric Method (C 173). The ASTMTest Method for Unit Weight of Structural LightweightConcrete (C 567) describes methods for calculating the in-service, equilibrium unit weight of structural lightweightconcrete. In general, when variations in fresh density

where

O = A + 1.2W,E = calculated equilibrium unit weight, kg/mJ (lb/ftJ);O = approximate oven-dry weight, kg/mJ (lb/ftJ);A = weight of dry aggregates in batch, kg (Ib);W = weight of cement in batch, kg (Ib); and

1.2 = weight of hydrated water of hydration (estimated at20% by weight of cement).

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

Compressive strength test procedures for structurallightweight aggregate concretes are similar to those for

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HOLM ON LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES 529

ft3) and within normal strength ranges may be assumedto follow the formula [1,4]

E = 33 pl.5 Jf. E = 0.04 Ji)3f; (2)

ASTM C 330 limits shrinkage of structural lightweightconcretes to less than 0.07% after 28 days of drying in acuring cabinet maintained at 37.8°C ( 100°F) at a relativehumidity of 32%. Concrete mixtures used in the specimenprisms are prepared with a cement content of 335 kg/mJ(564 Ib!ydJ) with water contents necessary to produce aslump of 50 to 100 mm (2 to 4 in.) and air content of 6:t 1 %. Specimens are removed from the molds at one day,and moisture cured until seven days at which time theaccelerated drying is initiated.

Shrinkage of block concrete is limited to 0.10% whendetennined in accordance with procedures outlined inASTM C 331. The ASTM Test Method for Length Changeof Hardened Hydraulic Cement Mortar and Concrete (C157) is followed using fixed proportions of one part cementto six parts aggregate by dry loose volumes, with sufficientwater to produce a slump of 50 to 76 mm (2 to 3 in.).Initial length measurements are made after seven daysmoist storage with final shrinkage measurements at theage of 100 days after storage in laboratory air at 23°C(73.4°F) and 50% relative humidity.

whereE = denotes the secant modulus in psi (MPa),p = the density in kg/mJ (lb/ftJ), andfc = the compressive strength in MPa (psi) of a 150 by

300 mm (6 by 12 in.) cylinder (100 mm cube).

This or any other formula should be considered as onlya first approximation, as the modulus is significantlyaffected (:!:25%) by moisture, aggregate type, and othervariables. The formula clearly overestimates the modulusfor high-strength lightweight concretes where limiting val-ues are determined by the modulus of the lightweightaggregate. When design conditions require accurate elas-tic modulus data, laboratory tests should be conductedon specific concretes proposed for the project accordingto procedures of ASTM Test Method for Static Modulusof Elasticity and Poisson's Ratio of Concrete in Compres-sion (C 469).

Tests to determine Poisson's ratio by the static methodfor lightweight and sand-and-gravel concrete gave valuesthat varied between 0.15 and 0.25 and averaged 0.20.Dynamic tests yielded slightly higher values [6]. A valueof 0.20 may be assumed for design purposes for both typesof concretes.

CREEP

Time-related increases in concrete strain due to sus-tained stress can be measured according to procedures ofASTM Test Method for Creep of Concrete in Compression(C 512). Creep and shrinkage characteristics on any con-crete type are principally influenced by aggregate charac-teristics, water and cement content (paste volumefraction), age at time of loading, type of curing, andapplied stress-to-strength ratio. Other second-level vari-abies also influence creep and shrinkage but to a lesserdegree. As creep and shrinkage strains will cause increasein long-time deflections, loss of prestress, reduction instress concentration, and changes in camber. it is essentialfor design engineers to have an accurate assessment ofthese time-related characteristics as a necessary designinput. ACI Committee 213 [11] demonstrates wide enve-lopes of one-year specific creep values for low-strengthall-Iightweight, normally cured concretes. Test results forhigher-strength, steam-cured sanded-Iightweight con-cretes have a range of values that narrows significantly andclosely envelopes the performance of the normal-weight"reference" concrete. These values are principally basedupon the results of the comprehensive testing program ofShideler [5]. Long-term investigations by Troxell [23] onnormal-weight concretes report similar wide envelopes ofresults for differing natural aggregate types so compari-sons with "reference" concretes should be based upon dataspecific to the concretes considered.

Additional large-scale creep testing programs are re-ported in Refs 7 and 19, and Valore [10] has provided acomprehensive report that also includes European dataon structural as well as insulating-grade lightweight con-cretes.

SHRINKAGE

As with ordinary concretes, shrinkage of structurallight-weight concretes is principally determined by(a) shrinkage characteristics of the cement paste fraction,(b) internal restraint provided by the aggregate fraction,(c) the relative absolute volume fractions occupied by the

shrinkage medium (cement paste fraction) and therestraining skeletal structure (aggregate fraction). and

(d) humidity and temperature environments.Aggregate characteristics influence cementitious binderquantities (the shrinking fraction) necessary to producea required strength at a given slump. Particle strength,shape, and gradation influence water demand and directlydetermine the fractional volume and quality of the cementpaste necessary to meet specified strength levels. Oncethat interaction has been established, it is the rigidity ofthe aggregate fraction that restrains shrinkage of thecement paste. When structural lightweight aggregate con-cretes are proportioned with cementitious binder amountssimilar to that required for normal aggregate concretes,the shrinkage of lightweight concrete is generally, but notalways, slightly greater than that of ordinary concrete dueto the lower aggregate stiffness. The time rate of shrinkagestrain development in structural lightweight concrete isslower, and the time required to reach a plateau of equilib-rium is longer when the as-batched, lightweight-aggregateabsorbed moisture is high. Maximum shrinkage strainsof high-strength lightweight concretes are slightly greaterthan high-strength normal-weight concretes containingsimilar binder content [22].

.

~

DURABILITY

Numerous accelerated freeze/thaw testing programsconducted on structural lightweight concrete in North

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HOLM ON LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES 531

observed in tests conducted on 70-year-old marine andmore than 30-year-old lightweight concrete bridge decks.

Panel Thickness, Inches

4 52 3 6 75

~~

Popouts may result from delayed disruptive expansionscaused by the slow hydration of particles of hard-bumedlime or magnesia, calcium sulfate, or unstable iron com-pounds. To test for the presence of these materials, con-crete bars prepared by methods similar to those used forthe shrinkage tests are cured and tested according to theprocedures of ASTM Test Method for Autoclave Expansionof Portland Cement (C 151). No popouts are permitted byASTM C 331 and C 330 since this disruptive expansionwould cause unacceptable aesthetic blemishes on exposedconcrete and masonry.

~~~~

POPOUTS Lightweight too pcf (1602 kg/m3)

4

I 3

8"cm~-0cw4).~ 2u.

ABRASION RESISTANCE

Abrasion resistance of concrete depends on strength,hardness, and toughness characteristics of the cementpaste and the aggregates, as well as on the bond betweenthese two phases. Most lightweight aggregates suitablefor structural concretes are composed of solidified glassymaterial comparable to quartz on the Moh scale of hard-ness. However, due to its porous system, the net resistanceto wearing forces may be less than that of a solid particle ofmost natural aggregates. Structural-Iightweight-concretebridge decks that have been subjected to more than 100million vehicle crossings including truck traffic showwearing perfonnance similar to that of nonnal-weightconcretes [33]. Limitations are necessary in certain com-mercial applications where steel-wheeled industrial vehi-cles are used, but such surfaces generally receive speciallyprepared surface treatments. Hoff [34] reports that spe-cially developed testing procedures that measured iceabrasion of concrete exposed to arctic conditions demon-strated essentially similar perfonnance for lightweightand nonnal-weight concretes.

~

050 100 125 150

Panel Thickness, mm

FIG. 4-Flre endurance (heat transmission) of concrete slabsas a function of thickness for naturally dried specimens [11].

75 175

rials (E 119), structural lightweight aggregate concreteslabs. walls, and beams have demonstrated greater fireendurance periods than equivalent thickness membersmade with nonnal-weight aggregates (Fig. 4). Superiorperfonnance is due to a combination of lower thennalconductivity (lower temperature rise on unexposed sur-faces). lower coefficient of thennal expansion (lowerforces developed under restraint). and the inherent ther-mal stability developed by aggregates that have beenexposed to temperatures greater than 1093°C (2000°F) dur-ing pyroprocessing.

BOND STRENGTH AND DEVELOPMENTLENGTH

Field performance has demonstrated satisfactory per-formance for lightweight concrete with respect to bondand development length. Because of the lower particlestrength, lightweight concretes have somewhat lowerbond splitting capacities than normal-weight concrete.Usual North American design practice (ACI 318 StandardBuilding Code for Reinforced Concrete) is to dispense withconcepts of bond and require slightly longer embedmentlengths for reinforcement in lightweight concretes thanthat required for normal-weight concrete.

AcknowledgmentsThe principal sources of infonnation for this chapter

include the Guide for Strnctural Lightweight Aggregate con-crete (ACI 213) [II], ACI 318 Building Code Requirementsfor Reinforced Concrete [1], the CEB-FIP Manual ofDesign and Technology: Lightweight Aggregate Concrete[4], and the Handbook of Strnctural Concrete [7]. Refer-ences to specific building codes and national standardsare incorporated because these recommendations haveresulted in the satisfactory field service of structurallight-weight concrete structures.

FIRE RESISTANCE REFERENCES

[J] "Standard Building Code for Reinforced Concrete," ACICommittee 318, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, MI,1989.

When tested according to the procedures of ASTMMethod for Fire Tests of Building Construction and Mate-

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