thesis.final
-
Upload
selocancan -
Category
Documents
-
view
189 -
download
2
Transcript of thesis.final
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 1
Running Head: Social Exchange and Value Congruence
Interactive effects of perceived organizational support and person-organization fit on
citizenship behaviors and turnover intentions
Selin Işıl Özcan
Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany,
Rudolf Kerschreiter
Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
Dieter Frey
Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
Author Notes
We are grateful to Terrie Jarvis, Yeliz Özbay and Müfide Gülsün for their help in the collection
of data used in this article. We also thank Nika Yugay for her advice on data analysis strategies
Joana Walter, Ayleen Frete and Cynthia Marie Brown for their very helpful comments and
suggestions on the earlier versions of this manuscript. Address correspondence to: Rudolf
Kerschreiter, Institute of Psychology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Munich, Leopoldstr.
13, 80802 Munich, Germany, Phone: 0049 89 2180 2274, email: [email protected]
Date of Submission: June 2009
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 2
Abstract
Past research has focused on the differential relationships of perceived organizational support
(POS) and person organization fit (P-O fit) with attitudes and behavior. However, no
systematic effort has been undertaken yet to explore interactive effects between POS and P-O
fit to predict job withdrawal and extra-role behaviors. The relationship of support with
citizenship behaviors is proposed to be stronger for those experiencing high P-O fit. On the
other hand, the relationship of support with withdrawal is proposed to be weaker for those
experiencing high P-O fit. These hypotheses were tested and supported with 282 participants
from one German and two Turkish companies.
Key words: Perceived organizational support (POS), person-organization fit (P-O fit), value
congruence, citizenship behaviors, turnover intentions.
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 3
Interactive effects of perceived organizational support and person-organization fit on
citizenship behaviors and turnover intentions
Psychologists have shown widespread interest in the role of exchange processes in
organizations (Gould, 1979; Rousseau, 1990; Witt, 1992; Witt & Broach, 1993). A dominant
framework underpinning much of the research in this area is social exchange theory. Social
exchange theory is based on the norm of reciprocity, which obligates people to respond
positively to favorable treatment received from others (Gouldner, 1960). According to
Levinson (1965), people tend to ascribe traits or qualities to organizations through a process of
"personification" for a variety of reasons. In line with the norm of reciprocity, the employees
have a sense of indebtedness to the personified organization when they receive a favorable
treatment by the organization (Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchison, & Sowa, 1986).
Accordingly, employees are motivated to compensate beneficial treatment by showing a range
of positive employee attitudes and behaviors at work such as job satisfaction, organizational
commitment, various forms of citizenship and discretionary behavior, attendance and intentions
to stay (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002).
Consistent with this view, Eisenberger et al. (1986) developed the Perceived
Organizational Support (POS) construct, in which employees form a general perception
concerning the degree to which the organization values their contributions and cares about their
well-being. On the basis of the organization’s personification, the favourable and unfavourable
treatment is seen by the employees as an indication that the organization favours or disfavours
them (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002).
In addition to creating a felt obligation by the employees, POS might fulfil
socioemotional needs, leading workers to incorporate organizational membership and role
status into their social identity (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002). Furthermore, POS might
strengthen employees’ beliefs that they are more recognized and rewarded by their organization
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 4
because of their increased performance. As a result, these processes might have favourable
outcomes both for employees, such as increased satisfaction and positive mood, and for the
organization, such as increased affective commitment and performance and reduced turnover
(Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002).
Other than perceived organizational support, work behaviors of the employees are mainly
affacted by the fit with their organizations. This important concept which has received
extensive conceptual development and empirical investigation over the last two decades is
known as the Person-Organization Fit (P-O Fit). P-O fit theory is based on two basic
assumptions: firstly, human behavior is a function of the person and the environment; secondly,
the person and the environment need to be compatible (Kristof, 1996). Kristof (1996, p. 4–5)
defined P-O fit as ‘the compatibility between people and organizations that occurs when at
least (a) one entity provides what the other needs, (b) they share similar fundamental
characteristics, or (c) both’. This definition points out the two most investigated types of fit
between the individual and the organization: complementary (providing what is needed) and
supplementary (similarity of characteristics) fit (Kristof, 1996). Complementary fit occurs
when individuals’ characteristics fill a gap in the current environment, or vice versa. On the
other hand, supplementary fit exists when the individual and the environment are similar.
An alternative model was proposed by Schneider (1987) to explain how organizations
tend toward homogeneity with regard to employee type. In particular, Attraction – Selection –
Attrition (ASA) theory has been investigated as an explanatory framework for P-O fit. The ASA
model outlines a framework of a mechanism which is based on mutual adaptation between the
person and the organization. People are attracted to organizations that have values similar to
their own (attraction), and organizations select people who share their values (selection).
Finally, individuals who do not fit the organization will leave voluntarily or be asked to leave
(attrition). The outcome of these three processes determines the types of employees in an
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 5
organization. Schneider (1987) pointed out that “the people make the place” and argued that
over time forces within an organization operate to attract, select and retain an increasingly
homogeneous group of employees. In other words, structure, process, and culture are the
outcome of the people in an organization, not the cause of the behavior of the organization.
Most research confirms Schneider’s ASA model (Bretz, Ash, & Dreher, 1989; Cable & Judge,
1994, 1997; Edwards & Cooper, 1990; Van Vianen, 2000; Schneider, Goldstein, & Smith,
1995; De Cooman, De Gieter, Pepermans, Hermans, Du Bois, Caers, & Jegers, 2009).
These two dimensions of the P-O fit were used by organizational researchers to explain
workplace attitudes and behaviors (Fuller, Hester, Barnett, Frey, Relyea, & Beu, 2006;
O’Reilly, Chatman, & Caldwell, 1991; Ostroff, Shin, & Kinicki, 2005). Meta-analyses of P-O
fit and outcomes revealed a significant relationship with work attitudes such as intentions to
quit, job satisfaction and organizational commitment and with behaviors such as organizational
citizenship, turnover, and performance (e.g. Hoffman & Woehr, 2006; Kristof-Brown,
Zimmerman, & Johnson, 2005; Verquer, Beehr, & Wagner, 2003).
In the present study, we will firstly outline the perceived organizational support and the
person-organization fit concepts on the relationship between the individual and the
organization, particularly on job withdrawal and extra-role behavior. Then, we will explore the
interaction of social exchange and person-organization fit processes in predicting job
withdrawal and employee extra-role behavior.
Perceived organizational support (POS) and organizational behavior
On the basis of the reciprocity norm, individuals who perceive that their organization
values their contributions and cares about their well-being are obligated to increase their extra-
role performance (Lynch, Eisenberger, & Armeli, 1999). These positive emotional associations
and the feeling of obligation to support the organization lead employees to invest more in their
organization by showing increased performance and extra-role behaviors. In addition, POS was
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 6
found to be positively related to affective organizational commitment (Eisenberger, Fasolo, &
Davis-LaMastro, 1990; Shore & Tetrick, 1991; Wayne, Shore, & Liden, 1997), help given to
co-workers (Shore & Wayne, 1993; Wayne et al., 1997; Witt, 1991), and constructive
proposals for improving the operations of the organization (Eisenberger et al., 1990).
Furthermore, Rhoades and Eisenberger’s (2002) meta-analysis on POS
included 20 performance studies and indicated that POS is highly related to
performance (e.g., Moorman, Blakely, & Niehoff, 1998; Shore & Wayne,
1993). According to this meta-analysis, the relation between POS and extra-
role performance, activities that aid the organization but are not explicitly
required of employees, was stronger than the relation between POS and
performance of standard job activities (in-role performance). Further studies
support the conclusion that there is a positive relation between POS and
extra-role performance (Byrne & Hochwarter, 2006; Wayne, Shore,
Bommer, & Tetrick, 2002).
The relation between POS and turnover intentions is of particular interest because POS
has been found to be strongly associated with turnover intentions (Guzzo, Noonan, & Elron,
1994; Wayne, et al., 1997). In their meta-analysis, Rhoades and Eisenberger (2002) found a
mean corrected correlation of -.51 between POS and turnover intentions, and a mean corrected
correlation of -.11 between POS and turnover behavior. The decision of the employees to
continue or to quit their job depends on the satisfaction level of the employees with this “give
and take” in the relationship between employee and organization. As Robinson and Rousseau
(1994) pointed out, this relationship based on reciprocity can be seen as a psychological
contract between the individual and organization. When the individuals are satisfied with the
degree of that relationship, they will be motivated to continue, and the organization may expect
individuals’ active involvement in the job. However, when individuals perceive that the
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 7
benefits received from the other party in the relationship as too low in comparison to one’s own
input in the relationship, they are more likely to leave their employers (Robinson & Rousseau,
1994) or show withdrawal behaviors, such as absenteeism, tardiness, and non-work activities
on the job (e.g., private e-mails, social talk) (Griffeth, Hom, & Gaertner, 2000).
In addition, POS motivates individuals that can potentially increase their instances of
positive mood at work. The studies indicate that such positive emotional associations with the
organization itself increase affective commitment (Eisenberger, Armeli, Rexwinkel, Lynch, &
Rhoades, 2001) and decrease turnover intentions (Mathieu & Zajac, 1990). The study of
Rhoades, Eisenberger and Armeli (2001) confirmed this linkage empirically, finding that the
POS effect on turnover was fully mediated through affective commitment.
Person-organization fit and organizational behavior
As in recent years, increasing attention has been devoted to understanding P-O fit, the
concept has been defined in a variety of ways including value congruence, goal congruence,
needs-supplies fit, and demands-abilities fit (Kristof, 1996; Munchinksy & Monahan, 1987).
However, value congruence (Kraimer, 1997), which involves the similarity between
organizational values and those of the organization’s employees, is the most frequently
assessed dimension of P-O fit (Hoffman & Woehr, 2006). Consistent to this, some researchers
pointed out that value congruence had a slightly stronger impact on turnover than other
dimensions of fit (Kristof-Brown et al., 2005; Lauver & Kristof-Brown, 2001). Thus, in the
present study we were primarily interested in the values component and specifically the level of
congruence between the values of employees and their employing organization and the relation
of value congruence to turnover intentions and extra-role behavior.
The concept of value congruence is important to organizations because
it suggests that if peoples’ values fit well with an organization, individuals
are likely to exhibit more positive attitudes and behaviors and are less
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 8
likely to leave (Chatman, 1989; Kristof-Brown, 2000). This relation is
supported by the meta-analysis Verquer et al. (2003) who found that employees with
high levels of congruence on these value dimensions reported higher levels of job and
organizational satisfactions and organizational commitment. Furthermore, these employees
reported lower turnover intentions.
Consistent with Schneider's (1987) attraction-selection-attrition (ASA) model, studies
supported that individuals are more likely to choose organizations with values that match their
own values (Cable & Judge, 1996; Judge & Bretz, 1992; Judge & Cable, 1997), be selected by
organizations with whom their values match (Cable & Judge, 1997; Kristof-Brown, 2000), and
are more likely to show withdrawal behavior if their values do not match (Cable & Parsons,
2001; Chatman, 1991; Saks & Ashforth, 1997).
In addition, employees with low value congruence are less likely to achieve high levels of
intrinsic career success. According to Erdogan, Kraimer & Liden (2004), this intrinsic
motivation is based on three mechanisms. Firstly, individuals who have different values from
the organization's values will have different standards for guiding actions and interpreting
situational events (Rokeach, 1968). Therefore, they experience difficulty in communicating and
cooperating with other organizational members (Chatman & Barsade, 1995; Kalliath,
Bluedorn, & Strube, 1999) which cause lower job satisfaction (Locke, 1976). For the same
reason, those individuals will face some problems in achieving personal career goals (Arthur &
Rousseau, 1996). Secondly, those employees with low value congruence are more likely to
experience cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1957). According to cognitive dissonance theory,
individuals feel dissatisfaction with their experiences when they behave in ways that are
inconsistent with their beliefs or values. Therefore, employees with low value congruence may
perceive cognitive dissonance and experience feelings of alienation, resentment, and
dissatisfaction (Argyris, 1957). Finally, those individuals are less likely to show identification
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 9
to their organization (Ashforth & Mael, 1989; Cable & DeRue, 2002; Dutton, Dukerich, &
Harquail, 1994; Hall, Schneider, & Nygren, 1970). Organizational identification allows
individuals to feel a sense of belonging and share in the organization's successes and failures
(Mael & Ashforth, 1995; Masterson & Stamper, 2003). Research has found that employees
who identify with the organization tend to show more extra-role behavior (Bell & Menguc,
2002; Feather & Rauter, 2004; Van Dick, Van Knippenberg, Kerschreiter, Hertel, & Wieseke,
2008) and lower turnover intentions (Harris & Cameron, 2005; Mignonac, Herrbach, &
Guerrero, 2006; Riketta, 2005).
The present study
Both turnover intentions and extra-role behaviors have been explained by social exchange
theory and P-O fit theory, but they use different processes to underlie those outcomes. The
social exchange perspective expounds the withdrawal from the job as a result of dissatisfaction
with the exchange relationship between the individual and his or her exchange partner. On the
contrary, when individual perceive more support from their organization they feel an obligation
toward the organization and, as a result of the reciprocity feeling, they refrain from withdrawal
and show extra-role behaviors and higher performance. The P-O fit theory, however, argues
that people with high value congruence are likely to exhibit more positive
attitudes and behaviors and they are less likely to leave because they are
highly identified with their organization, intrinsically motivated and less
likely to experience cognitive dissonance. In addition, people with low value
congruence might face difficulties following standards for guiding actions and
interpreting situational events which might cause low job performance, goal achievements and
job satisfaction (Arthur & Rousseau, 1996). We do not see these two perspectives to be
contrary, but quite the opposite; we regard P-O fit as an alternative source of support which can
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 10
help employees cope with the challenges of low POS. Therefore, our main aim is to explain
how these processes relate to each other in determining organizational behavior.
Although these two processes are not contradictory, they have different antecedents.
Thus, they can work out differently. Positive evaluations of social exchange relationships
depend on the satisfaction level of the employees with the reciprocity in the relationship
between employee and organization (Robinson & Rousseau, 1994). According to the
organizational support theory of Eisenberger et al. (1986), POS increases when three general
forms of perceived favourable treatment (fairness, supervisor support and organizational
rewards and job conditions) are received from the organization.
On the other hand, P-O fit is based on the context-dependent perceptions of similarity
between organizational values and those of the organization’s employees (Kristof, 1996). In
general, value congruence is a very stable concept which can change very slowly. According to
the ASA framework (Schneider, 1987), the attraction-selection-attrition processes lead
organizations toward homogeneity with regard to employee type (Dickson, Resick, &
Goldstein, 2008). In the last part of that process (attrition), the individual stays or leaves the
organization depending on his or her original values. On the contrary, following socialization
theory, the individual might adapt his or her values depending on the organizational
environment (Chatman, Wong, & Joyce, 2008).
We expect that P-O fit may compensate for the negative implications of low POS for
turnover intentions and extra-role behavior by encouraging people to identify more with their
companies and experience less cognitive dissonance. Although employees with low POS are
less likely to identify with the organization, through P-O fit, they may still feel like they share
common values and characteristics with their organization. Because of the consistency with
their beliefs and values, those individuals feel satisfied with their experiences. Hence, they will
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 11
display more interaction and collaboration with other organizational members and will show
less withdrawal behaviors. Accordingly, we propose that:
Hypothesis 1: The positive relationship between perceived organizational support (POS)
and citizenship behaviors will be stronger for those experiencing high person-organization fit
(P-O fit) and weaker for those experiencing low person-organization fit (P-O fit).
Hypothesis 2: The negative relationship between perceived organizational support (POS)
and turnover will be stronger for those experiencing low person-organization fit (P-O fit) and
weaker for those experiencing high person-organization fit (P-O fit) (see Figure 1).
Method
Sample and procedure
282 respondents from three organizations completed our survey. The sample of
organizations was taken from various industries, including insurance, financial and IT. Two of
the companies were Turkish companies located in Istanbul, and the third company was the
headquarters of a German company located in Munich. The collection process was anonymous
and participation was voluntary. Of the 373 employees who received the questionnaire, we
obtained 295 responses, equivalent to a response rate of about 79 percent. The number of
usable questionnaires was 282. The mean age of respondents was 34 years (46 respondents did
not indicate their age) and 61% of the sample was male (20 respondents did not indicate their
gender). Among participants, 19% were supervisors (21 respondents did not indicate if they
were a supervisor or not). Participants were employed on average 7.0 years (31 respondents did
not indicate their organizational tenure) in their current companies and have been working on
their current positions an average of 4.1 years (34 respondents did not indicate their job tenure).
Questionnaire
POS was assessed, following Eisenberger, Cummings, Armeli, and Lynch (1997), with
the five items of the Survey of Perceived Organizational Support that loaded highest in the
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 12
Eisenberger et al. (1997) study. Items included “My organization really cares about my well-
being,” and “My organization shows little concern for me” (reverse-scored; see Appendix 1 for
the complete scale). Coefficient alpha of this scale was .86.
Person–organization fit was measured with a 3-item scale used by Cable and DeRue
(2002). Items included “My personal values match my organization’s values and culture,” and
“My organization’s values and culture provide a good fit with the things that I value in life”
(see Appendix 1 for the complete scale). Coefficient alpha of this scale was .92.
Citizenship behaviors were assessed with the 7 items used by Coleman and Borman
(2000) to measure the motivation and cooperation level of the individuals. Items included “I
give encouragement when I am approached by others who are experiencing adversity or
setbacks,” and “I can generally be persuaded to sacrifice own personal interests for the good of
the team” (see Appendix 1 for the complete scale). Coefficient alpha of this scale was .87
Turnover intentions were assessed by a 3-item scale used by Van Dick, Christ,
Stellmacher, Wagner, Ahlswede, Grubba, Hauptmeier, Höhfeld, Moltzen, and Tissington
(2004). Items included “I frequently think of quitting,” “I often study job offers in the daily
press,” and “A job with a similar salary in another company would be an interesting alternative
to my present job.” Coefficient alpha was .79.
Responses to all items were assessed on 5-point scales (1 = strongly disagree, 5 =
strongly agree). Higher scores on the composite measures indicate higher perceived support,
person-organization fit, and turnover intentions, etc. Table 1 provides intercorrelations and
descriptive statistics for each scale. All materials were presented in Turkish for the Turkish
employees and in English for the employees in the German company because of the
multicultural sample.
Control Variables
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 13
We also controlled our sample for employees’ gender, age, and organizational tenure with
the organization. Participants were asked to indicate their gender. Responses were coded 1 for
male and 2 for female. Organizational tenure was calculated in years by asking the respondent
to indicate the year they began with the business with their current company and subtracting
this from the year of the survey (2009).
Results
We conducted hierarchical regression analyses to test our hypotheses. In Step 1, we
entered supervisor support and person-organization fit, and in Step 2, we entered the
interactions between supervisor support and person-organization fit. Following Aiken and West
(1991), we standardized the predictor variables before computing the interaction terms and
entered the standardized scores. The results are presented in Table 2.
As expected, both perceived organizational support and person-organization fit were
related negatively to turnover intentions and positively to citizenship behaviors. Of most
importance to the present discussion, the interaction of perceived organizational support and
person-organization fit was significant both for turnover intentions and citizenship behaviors.
Following Aiken and West (1991), we tested the simple slopes for respondents with higher
person-organization fit (i.e., 1 SD above the mean) and respondents with lower person-
organization fit (i.e., 1 SD below the mean) to determine the nature of the Perceived
Organizational Support X Person-Organization Fit interaction. In line with our hypothesis,
perceived organizational support was strongly and positively related to citizenship behaviors
for respondents with higher person-organization fit (b = .14 , p < .001), while the relationship
between perceived organizational support and citizenship behaviors was weaker for employees
who have lower person-organization fit (b = -.05, p < .05; see Figure 2). As we expected,
perceived organizational support was strongly and negatively related to turnover intentions for
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 14
respondents with lower person-organization fit (b = -.32, p < .001), while the relationship
between perceived organizational support and turnover intentions was weaker for employees
who have higher person-organization fit (b = -.10, p < .05; see Figure 2).1,2
General Discussion
We predicted that both the felt obligation to reciprocate induced by organizational
support and the value congruence established with the organization would introduce a
psychological threshold against job withdrawal but would aggravate extra-role behavior of the
individuals. Furthermore, we argued that evaluations of the extra-role behaviors in a social
exchange relationship would be less influential for those individuals whose values are less
congruent with the values of their organization. On the contrary, turnover intensions in that
social exchange relationship would be more influential for those individuals with low value
congruence. Based on that, we predicted that evaluations of support and value congruence
would interact in predicting job withdrawal and citizenship behaviors.
Both our hypotheses were supported. Perceived organizational support and P-O fit were
positively related to citizenship behaviors and negatively related to withdrawal. In addition,
value congruence buffered the impact of support on extra-role behaviors and withdrawal. As
we predicted, the positive relationship between perceived organizational support and extra-role
behaviors was stronger for those experiencing high P-O fit and weaker for those experiencing
low P-O fit. On the other hand, we discovered that the POS-turnover relationship was stronger
under conditions of low P-O fit than under conditions of high P-O fit. When individuals have
more value congruence with their companies, POS become a less important predictor of
turnover. POS becomes significantly more important when value congruence is nearly absent.
Employees may then seek out support from the organization itself, thereby making POS more
relevant for turnover decision-making.
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 15
Our study constitutes an attempt to examine the boundary conditions of POS. Our
findings may explain some of the weak relationships between POS and turnover intentions and
extra-role behaviors in prior research (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002) by showing that the
strength of the relations between POS-turnover intentions and POS-citizenship behaviors varies
based on the degree of the individual’s value congruence with the organization. In other words,
under conditions of high P-O fit, it is possible to underestimate the relationship between POS
and turnover intentions. In contrast, we can underestimate the relationship between POS and
extra-role behaviors only under conditions of low P-O fit.
Limitations and directions for future research
A couple of limitations of the study deserve noting. First of all, there is the potential for
common method variance given the self report nature of our data. However, some problems of
common method variance are reduced with the type of our interaction hypotheses and the use
of hierarchical regression analyses. Since the individual predictors were already controlled in
the first step of the analysis, common method variation cannot artificially increase interaction
effects in regression analyses (McClelland & Judd, 1993). Future studies might investigate the
interactive effect of POS and P-O fit also with respect to behavioral indices such as in-role
performance that is assessed with supervisory or peer ratings.
A second limitation is that the cross-sectional design of the study does not provide a test
of causality. For the same reason we could not obtain an account for the variability of value
congruence over time.
Third, our use of a Turkish sample and an international sample (from the German
organization) may have implications for our results. Riordan and Vandenberg (1994) argued
that back translation procedures may not be sufficient to ensure construct equivalence. There
can be factor structure differences and conceptualization differences across countries which are
potential causes of construct inequality. In addition, our sample from the German company
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 16
consists of employees from various countries who are able to speak perfect English although
they are non-native speakers. This can be one of the disadvantages of the sample filling out the
English version of the questionnaire. Fourth, although our sample was composed of individuals
from different cultures, we did not use any measures to compare those cultural differences.
Thus, a follow-up research using those measures would be worthwhile.
In addition, because our sample was from 3 different sectors and work settings, we had
difficulty to obtain significant results for each sample. For the further research, more
participants from several sectors can be investigated to see the differences according to various
work settings.
Lastly, although we studied the possible moderator effect of P-O fit on the POS-turnover
intentions and extra-role behavior relationship, this relationship could be analyzed differently.
For further research, it can be suggested to look for evidence that the moderation effect of POS
on the relationship between the P-O fit and various behavioral outcomes such as performance,
organizational identification, job satisfaction and organizational commitment exists.
Practical implications
Our study offers important practical implications for organizations. Previous research
suggested that perceived organizational support is related to citizenship behaviors and
employee turnover intentions. Given this finding, organizations may decide to give more
support to their employees. Research in traditional (i.e., non-virtual) work contexts suggests
that contact with the organization and exposure to organizational ceremonies, symbols and
rituals are positively related to the degree of individuals’ identification with the organizations
(e.g., Dutton et al., 1994). These factors can trigger employees’ extra-role behaviors and soften
their turnover intentions. However, virtual workers may have less exposure to these specific
features of organizational life; there may be other cues that virtual workers are exposed to that
suggest that they are part of their organization such as value congruence with their
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 17
organizations. In conclusion, given the importance of this fact, virtual organizations in
particular should consider selecting those individuals who have higher matches with the values
of the organization. We believe the increasing number of virtual workers and their importance
to the “new economy” emphasize the importance of our findings.
References
Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions.
New York: Sage.
Argyris, C. (1957). The individual and organization: Some problems of mutual adjustment.
Administrative Science Quarterly, 2, 1-24.
Arthur, M. B., & Rousseau, D. M. (1996). The boundaryless career as a new employment
principle. In Arthur M. G., Rousseau D. M. (Eds.), The boundaryless career: A new
employment principle for a new organizational era (pp. 3-20). New York: Oxford
University Press.
Ashforth, B., & Mael F. (1989). Social identity theory and the organization. Academy of
Management Review, 14, 20-39.
Bell, S. J., & Menguc, B. (2002). The employee-organization relationship, organizational
citizenship behaviors, and superior service quality. Journal of Retailing, 78, 131–146.
Bretz, R. D., Jr., Ash, R. A., & Dreher, G. F. (1989). Do people make the place? An
examination of the attraction – selection – attrition hypothesis. Personnel Psychology,
42, 561 – 581.
Byrne, Z. S., & Hochwarter, W. A. (2006). I get by with a little help from my friends: The
interaction of chronic pain and organizational support on performance. Journal of
Occupational Health Psychology, 11, 2006, 215-227.
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 18
Cable D. M., & DeRue, D. S. (2002). The convergent and discriminant validity of subjective fit
perceptions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 875-884.
Cable, D. M., & Judge, T. A. (1994). Pay preferences and job search decisions: A person –
organization fit perspective. Personnel Psychology, 47, 317 – 348.
Cable, D. M., & Judge, T. A. (1996). Person-organization fit, job choice decisions, and
organizational entry. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 67,
294-311.
Cable, D. M., & Judge, T. A. (1997). Interviewers’ perceptions of person – organization fit and
organizational selection decisions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 546 – 561.
Cable, D. M., & Parsons, C. K. (2001). Socialization tactics and person-organization fit.
Personnel Psychology, 54, 1-23.
Chatman, J. A. (1989). Improving interactional organizational research: A model of person-
organization fit. Academy of Management Review, 14, 333-349.
Chatman, J. A. (1991). Matching people and organizations: Selection and socialization in
public accounting firms. Administrative Science Quarterly, 36, 459-484.
Chatman, J. A., & Barsade, S. G. (1995). Personality, organizational culture, and cooperation:
Evidence from a business simulation. Administrative Science Quarterly, 40, 423-443.
Chatman, J. A., Wong, E. M., & Joyce, C. (2008). When do people make the place?
Considering the interactionist foundations of the attraction–selection– attrition model.
In B. Smith (Ed.), The people make the place: Exploring dynamic linkages between
individuals and organizations (pp. 63–86). New York: Psychology Press.
Coleman, V. I., & Borman, W. C. (2000). Investigating the underlying structure of the
citizenship performance domain. Human Resource Management Review, 10, 25 – 44.
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 19
De Cooman, R., De Gieter, S., Pepermans, R., Hermans, S., Du Bois, C., Caers, R., & Jegers,
M. (2009). Person–organization fit: Testing socialization and attraction–selection–
attrition hypotheses. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 74, 102–107.
Dickson, M. W., Resick, C. J., & Goldstein, H. (2008). Seeking explanations in people not in
the results of their behavior: Twenty-plus years of the attraction–selection–attrition
model. In B. Smith (Ed.), The people make the place: Exploring dynamic linkages
between individuals and organizations (pp. 5–36). New York: Psychology Press.
Dutton, J. E., Dukerich, J. M., & Harquail, C.V. (1994). Organizational images and member
identification. Administrative Science Quarterly, 39, 239-263.
Edwards, J. R., & Cooper, C. L. (1990). The person – environment fit approach to stress:
Recurring problems and some suggested solutions. Journal of Organizational Behavior,
11, 293 – 307.
Eisenberger, R., Armeli, S., Rexwinkel, B., Lynch, P. D., & Rhoades, L. (2001). Reciprocation
of perceived organizational support. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 42–51.
Eisenberger, R., Cummings, J., Armeli, S., & Lynch, P. (1997). Perceived organizational
support, discretionary treatment, and job satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology,
82, 812–820.
Eisenberger, R., Fasolo, P., & Davis-LaMastro, V. (1990). Perceived organizational support
and employee diligence, commitment, and innovation. Journal of Applied Psychology,
75, 51–59.
Eisenberger, R., Huntington, R., Hutchison, S., & Sowa, D. (1986). Perceived organizational
support. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71, 500-507.
Feather, N. T., & Rauter, K. A. (2004). Organizational citizenship behaviors in relation to job
status, job insecurity, organizational commitment and identification, job satisfaction and
work values. Journal of occupational and organizational psychology, 77, 81-94.
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 20
Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Evanston, IL: Row, Peterson.
Fuller, J. B., Hester, K., Barnett, T., Frey, L., Relyea, C., & Beu, D. (2006). Perceived external
prestige and internal respect: New insights into the organizational identification
process. Human Relations, 59, 815-846.
Gould, S. (1979). An equity-exchange model of organizational involvement. Academy of
Management Review, 4, 53-62.
Gouldner, A. W. (1960). The norm of reciprocity: A preliminary statement. American
Sociological Review, 25, 161–178.
Griffeth, R. W., Hom, P. W., & Gaertner, S. (2000). A meta-analysis of antecedents and
correlates of employee turnover: Update, moderator tests, and research implications for
the next millennium. Journal of Management, 26, 463–488.
Guzzo, R. A., Noonan, K. A., & Elron, E. (1994). Expatriate managers and the psychological
contract. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, 617–626.
Hall, D. T., Schneider B., & Nygren, H. T. (1970). Personal factors in organizational
identification. Administrative Science Quarterly, 15, 176-190.
Harris, G. E., & Cameron, J. E. (2005). Multiple dimensions of organizational identification
and commitment as predictors of turnover intentions and psychological well-being.
Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science, 37, 159–169.
Hoffman, B. J., & Woehr, D. J. (2006). A quantitative review of the relationship between
person–organization fit and behavioral outcomes. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 68,
389–399.
Judge, T. A., & Bretz, R. D. (1992). Effects of work values on job choice decisions. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 77, 261-271.
Judge, T. A., & Cable, D. M. (1997). Applicant personality, organizational culture, and
organization attraction. Personnel Psychology, 50, 359-394.
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 21
Kalliath, T. J., Bluedorn, A. C., & Strube, M. J. (1999). A test of value congruence effects.
Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20, 1175-1198.
Kraimer, M. L. (1997). Organizational Goals and Values: A Socialization Model. Human
Resource Management Review, 7, 425–448.
Kristof, A. L. (1996). Person-organization fit: An integrative review of its conceptualizations,
measurement, and implications. Personnel Psychology, 49, 1–49.
Kristof-Brown, A. L. (2000). Perceived applicant fit: Distinguishing between recruiters'
perceptions of person-job and person-organization fit. Personnel Psychology, 53, 643-
671.
Kristof-Brown, A. L., Zimmerman, R., & Johnson, E. (2005). Consequences of individuals’ fit
at work: A meta-analysis of person-job, person-organization, person-group, and person-
supervisor fit. Personnel Psychology, 58, 281–342.
Lauver, K. J., & Kristof-Brown, A. L. (2001). Distinguishing between employees’ perceptions
of person–job and person–organization fit. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 59, 454–
470.
Levinson, H. (1965). Reciprocation: The relationship between man and organization.
Administrative Science Quarterly, 9, 370–390.
Locke, E. A. (1976). The nature and causes of job satisfaction. In Dunnette MD (Ed.),
Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 1297-1349). Chicago: Rand
McNally.
Lynch, P. D., Eisenberger, R., & Armeli, S. (1999). Perceived organizational support: inferior
versus superior performance by wary employees. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84,
467–483.
Mael, F., & Ashforth, B. E. (1995). Loyal from Day 1: Biodata, organizational identification,
and turnover among newcomers. Personnel Psychology, 48, 309–333.
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 22
Masterson, S. S., & Stamper, C. L. (2003). Perceived organizational membership: An aggregate
framework representing the employee-organization relationship. Journal of
Organizational Behavior, 24, 473-490.
Mathieu, J. E., & Zajack, D. M. (1990). A review and meta-analysis of the antecedents,
correlates, and consequences of organizational commitment. Psychological Bulletin,
108, 171–194.
McClelland, G. H., & Judd, C. M. (1993). Statistical difficulties of detecting interactions and
moderator effects. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 376-390.
Mignonac, K., Herrbach, O., & Guerrero, S. (2006). The interactive effects of perceived
external prestige and need for organizational identification on turnover intentions.
Journal of Vocational Behavior, 69, 477-493
Moorman, R. H., Blakely, G. L., & Niehoff, B. P. (1998). Does perceived organizational
support mediate the relationship between procedural justice and organizational
citizenship behavior? Academy of Management Journal, 41, 351–357.
Muchinsky, P. M., & Monahan, C. J. (1987). What is person environment congruence.
Supplementary versus complementary models of fit. Journal of Vocational Behavior,
31, 268–277.
O’Reilly, C. A., Chatman, J., & Caldwell, D. F. (1991). People and organizational culture: a
profile comparison approach to assessing person–organization fit. Academy of
Management Journal, 34, 487–516.
Ostroff, C., Shin, Y., & Kinicki, A. J. (2005). Multiple perspectives of congruence:
Relationships between value congruence and employee attitudes. Journal of
Organizational Behavior, 26, 591–623.
Rhoades, L., & Eisenberger, R. (2002). Perceived organizational support: A review of the
literature. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 698–714.
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 23
Rhoades, L., Eisenberger, R., & Armeli, S. (2001). Affective commitment to the organization:
The contribution of perceived organizational support. Journal of Applied Psychology,
86, 825–836.
Riketta, M. (2005). Organizational identification: A meta-analysis. Journal of Vocational
Behavior, 66, 358–384.
Riordan, C. M., & Vandenberg, R. J. (1994). A central question in cross-cultural research: Do
employees of different cultures interpret work-related measures in an equivalent
manner? Journal of Management, 20, 643-671.
Robinson, S. L., & Rousseau, D. M. (1994). Violating the psychological contract: Not the
exception, but the norm. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 15, 245–259.
Rokeach, M. (1968). Beliefs, attitudes, and values: A theory of organization and change. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Rousseau, D. M. (1990). New hire perceptions of their own and their employer's obligations: A
study of psychological contracts. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 11, 389-400.
Saks, A. M., & Ashforth, B. E. (1997). A longitudinal investigation of the relationships
between job information sources, applicant perceptions of fit, and work outcomes.
Personnel Psychology, 50, 395-426.
Schneider, B. (1987). The people make the place. Personnel Psychology, 40, 437–453.
Schneider, B., Goldstein, H. W., & Smith, D. B. (1995). The ASA framework: An update.
Personnel Psychology, 48, 747 – 773.
Shore, L. M., & Tetrick, L. E. (1991). A construct validity study of the survey of perceived
organizational support. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, 637–643.
Shore, L. M., & Wayne, S. J. (1993). Commitment and employee behavior: Comparison of
affective commitment and continuance commitment with perceived organizational
support. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 774–780.
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 24
Van Dick, R., Christ, O., Stellmacher, J., Wagner, U., Ahlswede, O., Grubba, C., Hauptmeier,
M., Höhfeld, C., Moltzen, K., & Tissington, P. A. (2004). Should I stay or should I go?
Explaining turnover intentions with organizational identification and job satisfaction.
British Journal of Management, 15, 351-360,
Van Dick, R., Van Knippenberg, D., Kerschreiter, R., Hertel, G., & Wieseke, J. (2008).
Interactive effects of work group and organizational identification on job satisfaction
and extra-role behavior. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 72, 388-399.
Van Vianen, A. E. M. (2000). Person – organization fit: The match between newcomers’ and
recruiters’ preferences for organizational cultures. Personnel Psychology, 53, 113 –
149.
Verquer, M. L., Beehr, T. A., & Wagner, S. H. (2003). A meta-analysis of relations between
person-organization fit and work attitudes. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 63, 473–
489.
Wayne, S. J., Shore, L. M., Bommer, W. H., & Tetrick, L. E. (2002). The role of fair treatment
and rewards in perceptions of organizational support and leader-member exchange.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 590–598.
Wayne, S. J., Shore, L. M., & Liden, R. C. (1997). Perceived organizational support and
leader–member exchange: A social exchange perspective. Academy of Management
Journal, 40, 82–111.
Witt, L. A. (1991). Exchange ideology as a moderator of job attitudes–organizational
citizenship behaviors relationships. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 21, 1490–
1501.
Witt, L. A. (1992). Exchange ideology as a moderator of the relationships between importance
of participation in decision-making and job attitudes. Human Relations, 45, 73-85.
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 25
Witt, L. A., & Broach, D. (1993). Exchange ideology as a moderator of the procedural justice-
satisfaction relationship. Journal of Social Psychology, 133, 97-103.
Footnotes
1The effects of all interaction terms remained significant when controlling for gender and
tenure. However, the interaction results were affected for both of the regression analyses when
age was included in the regressions (see Table 3 and 4).
2 For the first company (German company), both our hypotheses were supported (see
Table 6, Figure 3 in Appendix 2). When we controlled for age, gender and organizational
tenure, the effect of the interaction term remained significant for our second hypothesis but not
for our first hypothesis (see Table 7 in Appendix 2). Descriptive statistics, reliabilities, and
scale intercorrelations are presented in Table 5 in Appendix 2.
For the second company (Turkish company 1), we could only support our second
hypothesis (see Table 9, Figure 4 in Appendix 2). When we controlled for age, gender and
organizational tenure, the effect of the interaction term remained significant (see Table 10 in
Appendix 2). Descriptive statistics, reliabilities, and scale intercorrelations are presented in
Table 8 in Appendix 2.
For the third company (Turkish company 2), we could not find any significant results for
either of the hypothesis, neither with control variables (see Table 12 in Appendix 2) nor
without control variables (see Table 13, Figure 5 in Appendix 2). Descriptive statistics,
reliabilities, and scale intercorrelations are presented in Table 11 in Appendix 2.
The insignificant result of the moderating role of P-O fit can be explained with the
missing data when we controlled for age, gender and organizational tenure. Because of the high
level of missing data for the control variables, we faced the power problem which could
possibly impede to obtain significant results for our interaction analysis.
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 26
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics, Reliabilities, and Scale Intercorrelations
M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 Sex 1.39 .49 -
2 Age 34.35 7.31 -.03 -
3 Tenure 7.04 6.24 .08 .75** -
4 POS 3.10 .95 -.17** -.30** -.40** .86
5 P-O fit 3.33 .96 -.04 -.19** -.22** .57** .92
6 Turnover intentions 1.78 .92 .01 .03 -.07 -.32** -.37** .79
7 Citizenship behaviors 4.08 .58 .02 .13 -.03 .25** .36** - .24** .87
Notes.
N = 282
Sex: 1=male, 2=female
Cronbach’s Alphas in diagonal;
* p < .05, ** p < .01
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 27
Table 2
Results of Hierarchical Regression Analysis with only company as a control variable
Citizenship behaviors Turnover intentions
Step 1 Step 2 Step 1 Step 2
Variable B SE B B SE B B SE B B SE B
Company -.02 .04 -.03 .04 -.27** .06 -.28** .06
POS .04 .04 .03 .04 -.19** .06 -.21** .06
P-O Fit .18** .04 .20** .04 -.26** .06 -.24** .06
POS x P-O Fit .08* .03 .11* .05
Notes.
N = 280, Sex: 1=male, 2=female
* p < .05, ** p < .01
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 28
Table 3
Results of Hierarchical Regression Analysis with control variables (company, gender and
tenure)
Citizenship behaviors Turnover intentions
Step 1 Step 2 Step 1 Step 2
Variable B SE B B SE B B SE B B SE B
Company -.07 .05 -.07 .05 -.23** .08 -.24** .08
Sex .04 .07 .05 .07 -.11 .11 -.09 .11
Tenure .00 .00 .00 .00 -.00 .00 -.00 .00
POS .05 .05 .05 .05 -.22** .07 -.22** .07
P-O Fit .19** .04 .22** .04 -.27** .06 -.24** .06
POS x P-O Fit .08* .04 .11* .05
Notes.
N = 243, Sex: 1=male, 2=female
* p < .05, ** p < .01
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 29
Table 4
Results of Hierarchical Regression Analysis with control variables (company, gender, age and
tenure)
Citizenship behaviors Turnover intentions
Step 1 Step 2 Step 1 Step 2
Variable B SE B B SE B B SE B B SE B
Company -.06 .06 -.06 .06 -.23** .08 -.24** .08
Sex .08 .08 .08 .08 -.06 .11 -.05 .11
Age .03** .01 .03** .01 .01 .01 .01 .01
Tenure -.00 .00 -.00 .00 -.00 .00 -.00 .00
POS .05 .05 .05 .05 -.23** .07 -.23** .07
P-O Fit .20** .04 .22** .05 -.26** .07 -.23** .07
POS x P-O Fit .07 .04 .10 .06
Notes.
N = 228, Sex: 1=male, 2=female
* p < .05, ** p < .01
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 30
Figure Captions
Figure 1. Hypotheses: The proposed moderating role of P-O fit on the relationships
of POS and citizenship behaviors and POS and turnover intentions.
Person-organization fit
Perceived Turnover intentionsOrganizational Support Citizenship behaviors
Panel B)Panel A)
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 31
Figure 2. Citizenship behaviors and turnover intentions as a function of perceived
organizational support and person organization fit.
3
4
5
low POS high POS
citiz
ensh
ip b
ehav
iors
low P-O Fit
high P-O Fit
1
2
3
4
low POS high POS
Turn
over
inte
ntio
ns
low P-O Fit
high P-O Fit
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 32
Appendix 1: Measures of Perceived Organizational Support and Person-Organization Fit and
Citizenship Behaviors
Perceived Organizational Support
My organization is willing to help me if I need a special favor.
My organization strongly considers my goals and values.
My organization shows little concern for me.
My organization really cares about my well-being.
My organization cares about my opinions.
Person-Organization Fit
My personal values match my organization’s values and culture.
My organization’s values and culture provide a good fit with the things that I value in my life.
The things that I value in my life are very similar to those which my organization values.
Citizenship Behaviors
I can generally be persuaded to consider others’ ideas.
I can generally be persuaded to accept others’ leadership when appropriate.
I can generally be persuaded to sacrifice own personal interests for the good of the team.
I cooperate with others by informing others of events or requirements that are likely to affect
them.
I motivate others by applauding their achievements and successes.
I give encouragement when I am approached by others who are experiencing adversity or setbacks.
I motivate others by showing confidence in their ability to succeed.
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 33
Appendix 2: Results individual for the companies
Company 1: German company
Table 5
Descriptive Statistics, Reliabilities, and Scale Intercorrelations
M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 Sex 1.52 .50 -
2 Age 31.67 7.42 -.14 -
3 Tenure 4.13 4.51 -.18 .69** -
4 POS 3.09 .86 -.25* -.20 -.14 .86
5 P-O fit 3.26 .84 -.12 -.13 -.07 .52** .92
6 Turnover intentions 2.06 .98 -.00 .17 .07 -.37** -.39** .79
7 Citizenship behaviors 4.11 .44 .05 .41 .23* .00 .04 .00 .77
Notes.
N = 85, Sex: 1=male, 2=female
Cronbach’s Alphas in diagonal;
* p < .05, ** p < .01
Of the 85 participants, we obtained 84 responses for gender (response rate = 98.8); 82
responses for age (response rate = 96.5) and 85 responses for organizational tenure (response
rate= 100). Of the 115 employees who received the questionnaire, we obtained 89 responses,
equivalent to a response rate of about 77 percent. The number of usable questionnaires was 85.
The questionnaires were distributed by one of the authors and the filled questionnaires
were sent in a closed envelope to the same person via internal post. The name of the sender was
not mentioned on the envelope; therefore the procedure was completely anonymous.
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 34
Table 6
Results of Hierarchical Regression Analysis
Citizenship behaviors Turnover intentions
Step 1 Step 2 Step 1 Step 2
Variable B SE B B SE B B SE B B SE B
POS -.01 .06 .01 .06 -.25* .13 -.21 .12
P-O Fit .03 .07 .11 .07 -.29* .13 -.13 .14
POS x P-O Fit .17* .06 .34** .13
Notes.
N = 84, Sex: 1=male, 2=female
* p < .05, ** p < .01
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 35
Table 7
Results of Hierarchical Regression Analysis with control variables (gender, age and tenure)
Citizenship behaviors Turnover intentions
Step 1 Step 2 Step 1 Step 2
Variable B SE B B SE B B SE B B SE B
Sex .13 .10 .13 .10 -.17 .21 -.17 .20
Age .03** .01 .03** .01 .01 .02 -.01 .02
Tenure -.00 .00 -.00 .00 -.00 .00 .00 .00
POS .04 .06 .05 .06 -.27 .13 -.24 .13
P-O Fit .05 .06 .11 .07 -.32* .13 -.15 .15
POS x P-O Fit .11 .07 .33* .15
Notes.
N = 79, Sex: 1=male, 2=female
* p < .05, ** p < .01
Panel B)Panel A)
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 36
Figure 3. Citizenship behaviors and turnover intentions as a function of perceived
organizational support and person organization fit.
3
4
5
low POS high POS
citiz
ensh
ip b
ehav
iors
low P-O Fit
high P-O Fit
1
2
3
4
low POS high POS
Turn
over
inte
ntio
ns
low P-O Fithigh P-O Fit
Company 2: Turkish company (1)
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 37
Table 8
Descriptive Statistics, Reliabilities, and Scale Intercorrelations
M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 Sex 1.18 .38 -
2 Age 30.53 5.48 -.12 -
3 Tenure 2.25 1.37 -.15 .65** -
4 POS 3.59 .83 .18 -.07 -.01 .85
5 P-O fit 3.76 .86 .31 .00 .02 .51** .90
6 Turnover intentions 1.62 .77 -.10 .13 .09 -.48** -.50** .77
7 Citizenship behaviors 4.14 .52 .18 .24 .14 .42** .52** -.35** .85
Notes.
N = 98, Sex: 1=male, 2=female
Cronbach’s Alphas in diagonal;
* p < .05, ** p < .01
Of the 98 participants, we obtained 80 responses for gender (response rate = 81.6); 60
responses for age (response rate = 61.2) and 67 responses for organizational tenure (response
rate= 68.4). Of the 113 employees who received the questionnaire, we obtained 103 responses,
equivalent to a response rate of about 91 percent. The number of usable questionnaires was 98.
The questionnaires were distributed by the Human Resources department of the
participant company. The filled questionnaires were returned anonymously to a closed box
which was provided by the Human Resources department.
Table 9
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 38
Results of Hierarchical Regression Analysis
Citizenship behaviors Turnover intentions
Step 1 Step 2 Step 1 Step 2
Variable B SE B B SE B B SE B B SE B
POS .12* .06 .08 .06 -.27** .09 -.38** .09
P-O Fit .24** .06 .21** .06 -.29** .09 -.38** .08
POS x P-O Fit .11 .06 .27** .08
Notes.
N = 97, Sex: 1=male, 2=female
* p < .05, ** p < .01
Table 10
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 39
Results of Hierarchical Regression Analysis with control variables (gender, age and tenure)
Citizenship behaviors Turnover intentions
Step 1 Step 2 Step 1 Step 2
Variable B SE B B SE B B SE B B SE B
Sex .02 .15 .02 .15 .22 .24 .24 .23
Age .03 .01 .03 .01 .00 .02 .01 .02
Tenure .00 .00 .00 .01 .01 .01 .01 .01
POS .17* .08 .14 .09 -.33** .12 -.44** .13
P-O Fit .32** .07 .30** .08 -.25* .12 -.35** .12
POS x P-O Fit .05 .08 .24* .11
Notes.
N = 56, Sex: 1=male, 2=female
* p < .05, ** p < .01
Panel B)Panel A)
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 40
Figure 4. Citizenship behaviors and turnover intentions as a function of perceived
organizational support and person organization fit.
3
4
5
low POS high POS
citiz
ensh
ip b
ehav
oirs
low P-O Fithigh P-O Fit
1
2
3
4
low POS high POS
Turn
over
inte
ntio
ns
low P-O Fit
high P-O Fit
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 41
Company 2: Turkish company (2)
Table 11
Descriptive Statistics, Reliabilities, and Scale Intercorrelations
M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 Sex 1.45 .50 -
2 Age 39.12 5.40 -.04 -
3 Tenure 12.78 4.93 .15 .69** -
4 POS 2.62 .90 -.09 -.07 -.26* .77
5 P-O fit 2.96 .98 .03 .07 .07 .48** .92
6 Turnover intentions 1.69 .95 -.03 -.07 -.12 -.21* -.31** .81
7 Citizenship behaviors 4.00 .72 -.06 .08 -.04 .22* .38** -.35** .92
Notes.
N = 99, Sex: 1=male, 2=female
Cronbach’s Alphas in diagonal;
* p < .05, ** p < .01
Of the 99 participants, we obtained 98 responses for gender (response rate = 99.0); 94
responses for age (response rate = 94.9) and 99 responses for organizational tenure (response
rate = 100). Of the 150 employees who received the questionnaire, we obtained 105 responses,
equivalent to a response rate of about 70 percent. The number of usable questionnaires was 99.
The questionnaires were distributed by the manager of the Administrative Affairs
department of the participant company. The filled questionnaires were sent in a closed
envelope to the same person via internal post. The name of the sender was not mentioned on
the envelope; therefore the procedure was completely anonymous.
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 42
Table 12
Results of Hierarchical Regression Analysis
Citizenship behaviors Turnover intentions
Step 1 Step 2 Step 1 Step 2
Variable B SE B B SE B B SE B B SE B
POS .05 .08 .05 .08 -.10 .11 -.10 .11
P-O Fit .25** .08 .24** .09 -.24* .10 -.22 .12
POS x P-O Fit -.02 .07 .03 .09
Notes.
N = 97, Sex: 1=male, 2=female
* p < .05, ** p < .01
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 43
Table 13
Results of Hierarchical Regression Analysis with control variables (gender, age and tenure)
Citizenship behaviors Turnover intentions
Step 1 Step 2 Step 1 Step 2
Variable B SE B B SE B B SE B B SE B
Sex -.07 .15 -.08 .15 -.04 .18 -.03 .19
Age .02 .02 .02 .02 -.00 .02 -.00 .02
Tenure -.00 .00 -.00 .00 -.00 .00 -.00 .00
POS .01 .10 .01 .10 -.15 .12 -.15 .12
P-O Fit .27** .08 .25* .10 -.24* .10 -.22 .12
POS x P-O Fit -.04 .08 .03 .10
Notes.
N = 91, Sex: 1=male, 2=female
* p < .05, ** p < .01
Panel B)Panel A)
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 44
Figure 5. Citizenship behaviors and turnover intentions as a function of perceived
organizational support and person organization fit.
3
4
5
low POS high POS
citiz
ensh
ip b
ehav
iors
low P-O Fithigh P-O Fit
1
2
3
4
low POS high POS
Turn
over
inte
ntio
ns
low P-O Fit
high P-O Fit
Social Exchange and Value Congruence 45
Appendix 3: Plagiarism Statement
I, Selin Işıl Özcan, hereby confirm that I completed this Master's thesis independently, that I
have not heretofore presented this thesis to another department or university, and that I have
listed all references used, and have given credit to all additional sources of assistance.
____________________________ ________________________ Selin Işıl Özcan Date