Understanding Ethics in Public Relations:Essentials for a Graduating Public Relations Major

By Caitlyn Sincerbeaux

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for a Degree in Writing

Public Relations Option

Thesis Advisor: Professor Briggs

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Thesis Abstract

This thesis project is a collection of public relations research and materials

focused on guiding recently graduated public relations majors through some of the

ethical dilemmas of the public relations career. A hypothetical scenario depicting a

client and public relations practitioner in conflict encourages the readers to place

themselves in a public relations dilemma. Knowing what one should do does not

always determine what one actually does. The thesis explores The Public Relations

Code of Ethics as it applies to agency public relation professionals. Public relations

methods are presented to give graduates a better understanding of options in their

decision-making and advising process. The advice comes from interviews with public

relations professionals and cases studies of well-known public relations challenges

such as; Tylenol, Pepsi, Toyota, Union Carbide and BP. The case studies show the

numerous options for handling a crisis.

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Introduction :

When college students graduate, they take their first step towards bettering

their lives. Many enter into the “real world” with hesitations, anxieties and self-

concerns. There has always been a right and wrong. However, differentiating between

the two in actual situations can sometimes be confusing.

This thesis is designed to help guide recently graduated public relations

majors through the difficult process of ethical decision-making. This thesis is to help

public relations graduates understand what public relations ethics are. It is to guide

them through the underlining of the rights and wrongs of the profession in uncertain

cases.

Information and skills that are valuable to a public relations practitioner will

be discussed, as well as helpful models, methods and theories that can help to guide

public relations professionals throughout their careers.

The public relations field has evolved immensely, especially over the past

twenty years. Public relations practitioners have to learn not to crumble under the

pressure of keeping their jobs and to hold onto the footings of their personal moral

foundation.

Several public relations case studies will be examined: Tylenol, Pepsi, Toyota,

Union Carbide and BP crises. The decisions that were made in each of these cases

will be discussed in order to paint a clearer picture of the challenges that a public

relations professional may face in her career.

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First, let’s consider a scenario to think about while reading the information in

this thesis. Later, we will come back to this hypothetical with a better understanding

for the workings of the public relations industry.

Scenario:

Hypothetically, let’s say you become employed by a progressive public

relations agency. You are placed in a group with other public relations professionals,

all bringing different views and opinions to the table. Your group has a new client, an

up and coming children’s toy company. Your agency is now a retainer for the Toy

Company, holding a contract with them for a 6-month period. They are a small

company, employing just around fifty people, consisting of mainly their marketing

and research departments. They have chosen to use outsourcing for both their

manufacturing and public relations divisions.

The Company, Pippo Toys, is known but not as well known as they would

like to be. In their attempt to outshine the larger well-known toy companies, your

client, Pippo Toys, has recently launched a testing distribution of their new toy. The

toy, Safi, is a small, hand-held elephant made to look and feel just like a miniature

real elephant. Safi is designed to make noise and even shoot water out from its trunk.

Over the course of several weeks, Pippo Toys’ new toy, Safi, is now one of

the most sought after items on the test market. However, during a consultation

between your agency and Pippo Toys, your agency is informed by Pippo Toys that

there is an issue with the manufacturing of Safi. Pippo Toys informs your team that

the safety and health results on Safi have come back with failing results.

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Pippo Toys discloses to your agency that they were under contact with an

overseas company in efforts to try and boost both their company and the

manufacturer’s profits. They admit that they did not use the best judgment when

making their contact/agreement and that they are now aware that it was not the

appropriate and most wise decision for their company to make.

Pippo Toys’ now knows that their manufacturer made the new toys with

polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastic.  PVC is generally considered to be the most

hazardous of plastics because it contains additives like phthalates; which can have

serious adverse health impact on the development of young children (Washington

Toxin Coalation).

Pippo Toys is now looking to your agency for assistance and guidance in the

matter. You need to take into account that it is your team that now represents your

agency. Your team’s goal is to find the best path for Pippo Toys before the matter

turns into an irreversible crisis.

You have to ask yourself and your team, does your team advise Pippo Toys to

inform the public of any hazardous materials used in the manufacturing of their

products? Do you suggest that a recall of the toy be done before any further harm can

be caused to the public? Does your team advise Pippo Toys to cut ties with their

inexpensive manufacturer? Or, should your team suggest to Pippo Toys that it is the

manufacturers’ fault, and focus on placing the blame and attention on the

manufacturer?

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You have to balance out your opinions with those involved in your team,

coming to an agreement that all team members feel is the right decision for the

agency and Pippo Toys.

Understanding the Codes of Ethics:

Since you are now part of the public relations industry it is important that you

fully understand its ethical foundation. Public relations ethics focuses on the ethical

implications of the strategies and tactics that are applied to solve the public relations

and communications problems of organizations (Parsons).

The Public Relations Society of America first introduced their Code of Ethics

in December 1950. Codes of Ethics were created to provide public relations

practitioners with guidance, guidance towards the goal of “emphasizing on serving

the public interest, avoiding misrepresentation to clients, employers and others; and to

the continuing development of public relations practitioners” (Fitzpatrick).

“We often look to professional codes of ethics to help us begin our search for

answers to ethical dilemmas, recognizing that whereas we might find a direction, we

do not expect to find the final answer” (Parsons). The PRSA Code of Ethics can only

be enforced to a certain extent. “Without punitive measures, code enforcement falls

upon the shoulders of individual practitioners who operate using ethical self-

standards” (Wright).

The Public Relations Codes of Ethics, as set down by professional

associations such as the Chartered Institute of Public Relations, are really nothing

more than conventions for behavior in applying moral standards to practical

dilemmas (Parsons). These codes direct us to what the public relations world sees as

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important. “Public relations helps our complex, pluralistic society to reach decisions

and functions more effectively by contributing to mutual understanding among

groups and institutions. It serves to bring private and public policies into harmony”

(PRSA).

By viewing the important aspects of the field, we are able to form a

connection with what we see as our own ethical responsibilities. By referring back to

the Public Relations Code of Ethics you can continuously test your knowledge of it.

Force the information into your head, layering information on top of information.

Different Segments of Public Relations:

Practitioners of public relations come in four flavors; agency, corporate, solo

practitioner and government. These divisions are created to better understand the

goals of each practice.

Agency Practitioner—An employee of a public relations organization, serving

multiple corporate clients (your public relations agency representing Pippo

Toys in the hypothetical scenario).

Corporate—An employee of a corporation -- serving them alone, as in the

dedicated professionals in the employ of Tylenol, Pepsi, BP (British

Petroleum), Union Carbide and Toyota Companies.

Solo practitioner/consultant—Considered to be a “hired gun,” serving

corporate clients on demand. (these are private practitioners, small

individualized consultants.)

Government/ public affairs—An employee of an institution, serving the public

(practitioners working for State Representatives, University Affairs, etc.)

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Examples of Public Relations Crisis History

In order to get a better understanding for public relations, let’s review some

well-known public relation case studies. Keep in mind how you as a public relations

practitioner would actually handle each case differently (Baker).

Remember that during the first 1 to 2 hours of a crisis, the team needs to

assemble and gain an initial read of the facts, causes and possible responses (Gilman).

Dave Hogan, and APR / Abilene Biz contributor stated, “A cardinal rule in

crisis management is to get out in front of the problem promptly.”

Tylenol

“Johnson and Johnson’s handling of the Tylenol poisoning in 1982 is

considered the best-in-class response of modern crisis management…” (Gilman).

In 1982, the company of Johnson and Johnson was faced with an epic crisis that

will forever be embedded into public relations history. The company’s widely known

aspirin –Tylenol, had been tainted with cyanide, causing numerous deaths due to

cyanide poisoning.

When asked his personal opinion on what is the best example of ethical public

relations, Interim Associate Vice President for Institutional Advancement at Western

Connecticut State University’s Paul Steinmentz said; “Tylenol, they could have said it

was a madman, but they supported the victims and accepted the responsibility, saving

the company.” Tylenol’s objectives were to maintain credible commitment to product

quality and public safety and to minimize financial and reputational damage to

Johnson & Johnson (Simpson).

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Johnson & Johnson recalled and destroyed 31 million capsules at a cost of

$100 million. The affable CEO, James Burke, appeared in television ads and news

conferences informing consumers of the company's actions. Tamper-resistant

packaging was rapidly introduced, and Tylenol sales swiftly bounced back to near

pre-crisis levels (Crisis Management).

Then when another bottle of tainted Tylenol was discovered in a store, it took

only a matter of minutes for the manufacturer to issue a nationwide warning that

people should not use the medication in its capsule form (Crisis Management).

By Johnson and Johnson’s CEO and public relations department addressing

the crisis from the start, Tylenol took the necessary steps needed to save the

company’s reputation. They informed the public with all the information they had

obtained, keeping the communication open and truthful at all times.

BP- British Petroleum

BP’s handling of the well explosion and subsequent oil spill in the Gulf of

Mexico is going to go down as a classic case of horrible corporate public relations

(Simpson).

When asked what the worst example of ethical public relations was,

Steinmentz said, “BP. They didn’t save any money by avoiding responsibility, they

were looking for a scapegoat, and not until they were forced by the government did

they take responsibility. If that was me (the CEO of BP) I would be in a shack down

by the water till it (the oil) was all taken care of.”

Shortly after the incident a statement was released by BP stating, “This was a

tragic accident that resulted in the loss of 11 lives and impacted the communities and

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the environment along the Gulf Coast region. We deeply regret this event. We have

sought throughout to step up to our responsibilities. We are determined to learn the

lessons for the future and we will be undertaking a broad-scale review to further

improve the safety of our operations. We will invest whatever it takes to achieve that.

It will be incumbent on everyone at BP to embrace and implement the changes

necessary to ensure that a tragedy like this can never happen again” (BP Releases).

In this case, BP did not make the correct choice in their efforts to recover from

the crisis. Their efforts of taking responsibility were not at the level that they needed

to be. Rather than stepping up and admitting to the public their faults in the matter,

BP’s attention was spent finding a scapegoat for the accident. Their focus was not on

their public or safety, but rather on the alternative of delaying the truth behind the

crisis.

BP’s outgoing chief executive Tony Hayward said: “The investigation report

provides critical new information on the causes of this terrible accident. It is evident

that a series of complex events, rather than a single mistake or failure, led to the

tragedy. Multiple parties, including BP, Halliburton and Transocean, were involved”

(BP Releases).

The cost of the response to September 17 amounts to approximately $9.5

billion, including the cost of the spill response, containment, relief well drilling, static

kill and cementing, grants to the Gulf states, claims paid and federal costs. On June

16, 2010, BP announced an agreed package of measures, including the creation of a

$20 billion escrow account to satisfy certain obligations arising from the oil and gas

spill (BP Confirms).

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Their approach was to wait and see what would occur next, which is not a

course of action for a public relations practitioner to advise during a crisis of this

level. Much as Exxon Mobil never completely out-ran the legacy of the Valdez oil

spill, it’s likely that BP will always be stained by how it handled this accident

(Simpson).

Toyota

Toyota had long been regarded as an example of quality in both

manufacturing and customer service. Yet, when reports first began to emerge that

there was a problem with a sticky accelerator in some models, the company basically

stonewalled. After excuses, including blaming the floor mats, Toyota ultimately

acknowledged a problem and launched a recall. But, in waiting so long to take

dramatic action Toyota lost its gold-plated reputation as being a better kind of Car

Company (Simpson).

On January 21, 2010, Toyota announced its intention to recall approximately

2.3 million select Toyota Division vehicles equipped with a specific pedal assembly

and suspended sales of the eight models involved in the recall on January

26 (Automotive Advertising Network).

Jim Lentz, president and Chief Operating Officer, TMS stated in a press

release, “We deeply regret the concern that our recalls have caused for our customers

and we are doing everything we can – as fast as we can – to make things right. 

Stopping production is never an easy decision, but we are 100 percent confident it

was the right decision.  We know what’s causing the sticking accelerator pedals, and

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we know what we have to do to fix it.  We also know it is most important to fix this

problem in the cars on the road.”

In addition, Toyota developed an effective solution for vehicles in production.

Parts to reinforce the pedals were shipped for use by dealers, and dealer training was

enforced. Many Toyota dealers worked extended hours to complete the recall

campaign as quickly and conveniently as possible, some even stayed open 24 hours a

day. The company also took the unprecedented action of stopping production of

affected vehicles for the week of February 1, 2010 (Automotive Advertising

Network).

“We are focused on making this recall as simple and trouble-free as possible,

and will work day and night with our dealers to fix recalled vehicles quickly. We

want to demonstrate that our commitment to safety is as high as ever and that our

commitment to our customers is unwavering,” stated Lentz (Automotive Advertising

Network).

The efforts of Toyota were there, but the timing was not as precise as it should

have been. Toyota should have taken immediate action in their attempt to defend their

company’s reputation. Toyota’s public relations department suggested the recall in a

last attempt to save the reputation of Toyota from being completely tarnished by their

hesitant actions. Since taking responsibility for their mistakes, Toyota has regained its

reputation with the public.

Union Carbide

In the early hours of December 3, 1984, methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas leaked

from the Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL) plant in Bhopal, India. According to

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the state government of Madhya Pradesh, approximately 3,800 people died and

several thousand other individuals experienced permanent or partial disabilities

(Bhopal “The Incident”).

The first report of the disaster reached Union Carbide executives in the United

States more than 12 hours after the incident. By 6 a.m. in the U.S., executives were

gathering with technical, legal, and communications staff at the company's Danbury,

Connecticut, headquarters. Information was sparse but, as casualty estimates quickly

climbed, the matter was soon recognized as a massive industrial disaster (Browning).

“The entire organization panicked and tight controls were placed over the

response. It was a classic non-response in the hopes that the problem would

eventually go away or media interest would subside,” stated a former worker from

Union Carbide, who wished to be unidentified.

“The first press conference was relatively short. We acknowledged that the

disaster had occurred at a plant owned by Union Carbide India Limited, in which we

had a 50.9 percent share. We explained that we were sending medical and technical

experts to aid the people of Bhopal, to help dispose of the remaining methyl

isocyanate at the plant and to investigate the cause of the tragedy. We announced our

plans to halt production at our only other methyl isocyanate plant in Institute, West

Virginia, and to convert existing supplies into less volatile compounds. We explained

that methyl isocyanate was not a common chemical and was not contained in

products generally available to the public. We also pledged to share information with

users of the chemical as we received it,” announced Jackson B. Browning, Retired

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Vice President, Health, Safety, and Environmental Programs Union Carbide

Corporation.

Shortly after the gas release, Union Carbide launched an intensive effort to

identify the cause. An initial investigation by Carbide experts showed that a large

volume of water had apparently been introduced into the MIC tank and caused a

chemical reaction that forced the chemical release valve to open and allowed the gas

to leak (Browning).

In the wake of the release, Union Carbide Corporation provided immediate and

continuing aid to the victims and set up a process to resolve their claims.

In the days, months and years following the disaster, Union Carbide took the

following actions to provide continuing aid:

Immediately provided approximately $2 million in aid to the Prime Minister’s Relief

Fund.

Immediately and continuously provided medical equipment and supplies.

Sent an international team of medical experts to Bhopal to provide expertise and

assistance.

Openly shared all its information on methyl isocyanate (MIC) with the Government

of India, including all published and unpublished toxicity studies available at the

time.

Dispatched a team of technical MIC experts to Bhopal on the day after the tragedy,

which carried MIC studies that were widely shared with medical and scientific

personnel in Bhopal.

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Funded the attendance by Indian medical experts at special meetings on research and

treatment for victims.

Provided a $2.2 million grant to Arizona State University to establish a vocational-

technical center in Bhopal, which was constructed and opened, but was later closed

and leveled by the government.

Offered an initial $10 million to build a hospital in Bhopal; the offer was declined.

Provided an additional $5 million to the Indian Red Cross.

Established an independent charitable trust for a Bhopal hospital and provided initial

funding of approximately $20 million.

Upon the sale of its interest in UCIL, and pursuant to a court order, provided

approximately $90 million to the charitable trust for the hospital.

(Bhopal “The Incident”)

The confidential source notes that, “The Company was so weakened by

Bhopal, layoffs, poor performance, a weak stock price and the exodus of top talent

that it needed to sell off the crown jewels in the portfolio to pay off the settlement and

debt. Many of the acquisitions were not particularly well thought out and had little to

do with the company's base chemical business. So at one point, management decided

a return to its core would be better for everyone concerned. Many of the units that left

the mother ship performed better on their own or as part of other companies.”

The source added, “Their efforts to extradite Carbide's chairman repeatedly

failed. There was a lot of ego to go around everywhere in this situation. A lot of lives

were lost, Carbide's reputation never recovered and today what's left of it is part of

Dow, a company that has as good a reputation as Carbide did when it was the class of

the chemical industry and the Dow.”

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“At the time of Bhopal, the company was rated among those manufacturers

with the best worker safety records. To a degree, they were smug about our record.

The Bhopal crisis put an end to that attitude. It spurred new cycles of process

monitoring and a fresh look at risk management. In the months and years after

Bhopal, Union Carbide focused a microscope on every operation. There was an

unprecedented search for every risk, any risk. They discovered that there was still

more that we could accomplish in maintaining safer operations. And money and staff

were committed to those objectives” (Browning).

PepsiIn 1993, the now well-known Pepsi Corporation dealt with a crisis that could

have very well tainted the name of the company. June 10, 1993, the company

received a complaint that a syringe was found in a can of Diet-Pepsi.

Once the company became aware of the crisis at hand, Craig Weatherup,

President and CEO of the Pepsi Corporation, as well as the crisis management for the

Pepsi Corporation acted immediately in efforts to investigate the cause of the syringe.

After investigation, Weatherup and his management team noticed that the two cans of

Diet-Pepsi involved were made from two different plants and months apart, flagging

more concern.

Over a period of time, a total of 55 complaints were received, placing more

pressure to fix the situation onto the Pepsi Corporation. The company simultaneously

publicly worked with the FDA during the crisis. The corporation was completely

open with the public throughout, and every employee of Pepsi was kept aware of the

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details (Crisis Management). This made public communications effective throughout

the crisis.

The public relations department had to convince the external public of the

investigation proceeding on a daily basis. This is to ensure to the public that the

problem is under control (The Diet-Pepsi Crisis).

Pepsi urged stores not to remove the product from shelves while it had the

cans and the situation investigated. The public relations department advised the

Corporation to use what is called an offensive method. By releasing the video footage

of the can tampering for public view, the Corporation placed the evidence right in

front of the public’s faces. By showing the production process to the public, it proved

that such tampering was impossible within the factories. Then, a second video was

released, of a man being arrested, followed by a third video which showed the

surveillance footage from a convenience store where a woman was caught replicating

the tampering incident (The Diet-Pepsi Crisis).

After the crisis had been resolved, the corporation ran a series of special

campaigns designed to thank the public for standing by the corporation, along with

coupons for further compensation. This case served as a design for how to handle

other crisis situations (Crisis Management).

It was because the company acted so quickly and forcefully that the Pepsi

Corporation’s name was saved and that the Pepsi Corporation still remains a well-

known and flourishing Corporation.

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Necessary and Valued Skills of a Public Relations Practitioner

Public relations is not just about involvement with the public; other skills are

required and valued within the industry.

I asked Communications Executive, Mark Misercola, what skills he feels are

necessary to use on a daily basis while working in the public relations world. He

responded, “Strong writing and problem solving skills. In fact, being able to solve

problems with communications strategies and techniques would be the top skill.”

Through communication and problem solving, issues at hand, even ethical ones, can

be easier to manage.

Misercola continued, “The profession (public relations) offers very little long-

term stability now, and to navigate the cyclical peaks and valleys graduates will need

to not only do their jobs really well, they must become especially astute at marketing

themselves and their skills. Staying employed will become as important as actually

being employed, so the ability to network and hunt for your next job will be crucial.”

When asked what he personally believes makes a successful public relations

practitioner, Misercola said, “The most successful public relations practitioners I’ve

worked with have been those who can do many things well (internally and

externally), are very politically astute and know how to positively influence those

around them. They know how to constantly reinvent themselves and actually stay one

step ahead of technology, and they have a sixth sense for finding the next job

opportunity.”

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Writing Proficiency

Anne Witkavitch, Principal of Anne W. Associates, a consulting practice

specializing in communications and change management, as well as a published

author and speaker, commented, “You need to not only write well but you need to be

a master at words and understanding the power and influence of their meaning.”

As a practitioner you need the ability to articulate what you want to through

words. Make your voice heard and understood so that the information you give out is

as complete as it can be, Witkavitch continued.

Misercola believes, “Writing is critical to public relations and

communications roles. The more styles you master the more valuable you will

become.”

Communication

Keep your public just as informed as you are. This allows for a flow of

communication.

Paul Steinmentz Interim Associate Vice President for Institutional

Advancement and University Relations at Western Connecticut State University says,

the key to success is, “communicating in all ways, being able to speak intelligently,

speaking loud. When I came here (Western Connecticut State University) I found

deans, directors, whoever I could find and would offer my help to them. This way my

name was known, and whenever they needed something, they would come find me.”

You need to be able to interview well and make connections. Learn how to

pitch and keep perfecting it throughout your career. Gain experience in crisis

communication, stated Anne Witkavitch.

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Your involvement in Morals and Ethics:

“Good character is more to be praised than outstanding talent. Most talents are, to

some extent, a gift. Good character, by contrast, is not given to us. We have to build it

piece by piece—by thought, choice, courage and determination”

John Luther, American Lawyer.

Think About It

This is a list of questions that you should be asking yourself?

Questions for creating your personal code:

1) What kind of values did your parents try to install into you as a child? Your church?

School? Individual teachers? Mentors?

2) Which ones stuck with you?

3) What experience in your childhood altered the way you value things in your life?

4) What experiences as an adult (both personal and professional) have had an impact on

what you value?

5) To whom are you loyal? (Consider yourself, your employers/clients, your family, your

profession, and society for starters.)

6) What kind of ethical style do you have? Virtuous? Intuitive? Empathetic? Darwinian or

Machiavellian?

7) What have you done in your past when faced with ethical dilemmas?

(Parsons)

Moral development

It is important, especially when dealing with public relations to take into

account one’s own moral development. Moral development refers to the way in

which we as individuals formulate a sense of morality as we develop as human beings

(Parsons).

“If you don’t have a strong moral base, you will probably make mistakes that

will destroy you,” says Steinmentz.

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While many scholars have contributed to the theory of moral development, it

is Harvard psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg’s six stages of moral development that

are most widely used (Coleman).

(1) Obedience and punishment- we all begin our lives at this stage, by obeying those in

authority, or, more precisely, to those with the power to punish.

(2) Individualism and reciprocity- right or wrong decisions are made on the basis of what is

best for the person making the decision, though some negotiation with others may be

necessary to attain what I want.

(3) Interpersonal conformity- right or wrong is determined by what others close to us expect

of us. The expectations of others are our guidelines.

(4) Social system/ Law-and -order- an individual has a part to play in a society, which is to

do one's duty and to obey the rules and laws. There are fixed rules and duties that one

must honor.

(5) Social contract- the utilitarian appeal of "greatest good for the greatest number" often is

invoked in this stage. Thus, one believes that there are moral values/rights that may be

independent of society's laws.

(6) Universal ethical principle- Concerns such as respect for the dignity of each person, basic

equality for all, and treating people as ends not means are prevalent concepts in this

stage.

(Kohlberg)

Today, Kohlberg’s original six stages were divided into three broad categories

—Preconventional, Conventional and Postconventional, which correspond to the new

model of three schemas, but with slightly different names (Coleman). Understanding

these stages can allow you to better understand your own moral development. By

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understanding yourself, you can better understand the individuals that will be

surrounding you.

Three primary levels of Moral Development:

Preconventional Stage- now known as the Personal Interest schema is defined by

rules that are delivered by authority and are inviolable. Breaking rules result in

punishment, and adherence to rules is either to avoid punishment or gain rewards

(Coleman).

This level or moral development is defined by simple, self-interested

obedience to the rules—following rules primarily when it is in one’s own interest

to do so (Coleman).

Applying the Preconventional Stage to the hypothetical:

If it were found that Pippo Toys was aware of the hazardous PVC toxicants in

its toys and continued distribution, your agency would be inclined to notify higher

authorities of such actions. By your agency doing so, they are refusing to take part in

any criminal actions.

Conventional Stage- now referred to as the Maintaining Norms schema, this stage

is where rules begin to be respected for their own sake and are eventually seen as

serving society. Rules are necessary for maintaining social order and can be

changed if all agree (Coleman).

At this level, one’s moral reasoning is dominated by “doing one’s duty” and

maintaining social order for its own sake. Thinking at this stage acknowledges the

role of duty (Coleman).

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Applying the Conventional Stage to the hypothetical:

By suggesting a recall, your agency and Pippo Toys would be sending a “We

Care” message to the public.

Postconventional Stage- still called Postconventional in the schema model. In the

Postconventional stage or schema, laws and rules are respected only so far as they

appeal to universal ethical principles. Rules are the result of intellectual reasoning

and they should achieve full reciprocity. That is, the rules themselves should not

favor one group over another. Right and wrong, and the value of rules and laws,

are determined by their appeal to mutuality and universality (Coleman).

Applying the Postconventional Stage to the hypothetical:

At this stage as a public relations practitioner, you should be aware of all

parties involved. The practitioner should not place Pippo Toys’ interest as a priority

over the publics’ interest.

Moral Behavior

Models are designed to assist practitioners of advocacy to arrive at decisions

about morally appropriate and justifiable courses of action. Sometimes, however,

knowing what one should do does not always determine what one actually does

(Baker).

Moral psychologist James Rest has proposed a theory of the determinants of

moral behavior. He writes that there are four psychological components that must be

in place for people to behave ethically. Review these models, testing yourself and

your knowledge of your own moral behavior.

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One must have enough moral sensitivity to recognize an ethical issue when

it presents itself, such as a situation or communication that could cause harm to

others.

(1) Moral Sensitivity- awareness of possible lines of action, and of how our

actions might affect other people.

An example referring to the Hypothetical:

By choosing to defend Pippo Toys’ name and their decision to take the toy off

the market, think about the effect you will have on the public.

(2) Moral Judgment- the ability to use moral reasoning to determine what

behaviors are morally justifiable. One must also have the moral judgment or

moral reasoning skills to be able to decide the right thing to do.

Applying this to the Hypothetical:

Pippo Toys has the option to remove the product, product recall, mitigating a

crisis and taking responsibility. Advise Pippo Toys to change manufacturers to

prevent any harmful reoccurrences and redistribute the toy at a later time.

(3) Moral Motivation- the desire to prioritize moral values over competing values.

One must have the motivation to prioritize and act on moral values, even when

those values come into conflict with other cherished values and priorities such

as economic gain or career success.

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Company’s profit vs. public’s well being, which holds a stronger meaning to

your personal views? Does keeping your client satisfied out weigh the public’s

safety?

Applying this to the Hypothetical:

Pippo Toys has the ability to “call out” their manufacturer for cutting corners

during the manufacturing process of their toy, therefore, placing blame onto their

manufacturer.

(4) Moral Character- having the courage and ego strength to do the right thing,

despite the costs and difficulties in doing so. One must also have enough “ego

strength, perseverance, backbone, toughness, strength of conviction, and

courage” under pressure to do the right thing (Baker).

Applying this to the Hypothetical:

If your agency believes Pippo Toys should recall their product, and Pippo

Toys does not agree to do the recall, do you have the capability to disregard the

public’s well being?

Ethical Responsibility

Potter Stewart, Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court states

that, “Ethics is knowing the difference between what you have a right to do and what

is right to do.”

Respecting others is fundamental to our ability to make good ethical

decisions, so that means that if we are able to be somewhat modest, although not in a

false way, we can develop a kind of dignity that respects both ourselves and others.

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From that respect comes trust and trustworthiness. What kind of person would you

like to be and, perhaps even more telling, what kind of person would you prefer to

work with? (Parsons)

“Beliefs about ethics and ethical problems or situations are formed by

values. Ethics themselves are founded upon moral principles. When you are

measuring your public’s view of your ethics, you are asking if they think you

deserve to exist” (Newsom, Scott and Vanslyke).

Ethical Dilemmas:

The three most important aspects of the realities of ethics are recognizing,

facing and dealing with ethical dilemmas in our everyday practice of public relations

and corporate communications (Parsons).

Ethical dilemmas have good and right arguments to commend them on all

sides of the situation. They require careful moral reasoning to arrive at the most

appropriate action. Right-versus-wrong issues, on the other hand, are moral

temptations. They do not require deep philosophical or ethical analysis because they

are simply wrong from the outset (Baker).

Applying this to the hypothetical:

Keeping the recent information about the hazardous toxicants contained in the

toys between your agency and Pippo Toys would obviously be a poor decision. It

may prevent any immediate possible loss of profit for Pippo Toys, but the overall

outcome could be catastrophic to Pippo Toys and the public.

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Assuming that a genuine ethical dilemma (not a moral temptation) has presented

itself, Kidder writes that there are four value sets that are so fundamental to the right-

versus-right choices all of us face that they can be called dilemma paradigms.

These four paradigms are (1) truth versus loyalty (2) individual verses community

(3) short-term versus long-term and (4) justice versus mercy. Kidder says these are

the classic tensions in most ethical dilemmas (Baker).

(1) Truth versus Loyalty -- sets honesty in opposition with allegiance, fidelity,

and promise keeping.

The public is skeptical of the truth of what is communicated to them and we

really don’t have a right to clog up the channels of public communication with

more untruths or half-truths (Parsons).

Hypothetical: Truth to the public regarding whose actions caused the toxins vs. the

loyalty to your client, Pippo Toys, if they wish not to disclose that information.

(2) Individual versus Community -- pits “self” or “us” against “them” or “others”.

Hypothetical: Your agency’s or Pippo Toys’ reputation vs. the manufacturer’s

reputation.

(3) Short-term versus Long-term-- short-term is concerned with immediate needs

and desires (the now) as opposed to long-term which is concerned with future

goals or prospects (the then).

Hypothetical: For short-term, the agency could advise Pippo Toys to do a product

recall and only take a short loss. Or for the long-term, place blame on the

manufacturer for the products faults and face the possibility of embarrassment, loss of

their reputation, along with any other future conflicts.

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(4) Justice versus Mercy- justice is concerned with fairness and equity, which

sometimes comes into opposition with compassion and empathy (Baker).

Hypothetical: Having Pippo Toys’ manufacturer take responsibility and proper

action vs. Pippo Toys wanting to solve the issue before it turns into a crisis.

In the practice of public relations, for example, the truth versus loyalty dilemma

spills over into the “us” versus “them” dilemma. Should practitioners and decision

makers engage in partial truths in their own self-interest (an emphasis on “us”), or

should their concerns be with receivers of their persuasive messages (an emphasis on

“them”) in providing others with the truthful information they need to make rational

decisions about an issue? Similarly, with regard to short-term versus long-term

considerations, is long-term interest served best by truth or by loyalty, by emphasis

on us or on them? (Baker)

It is up to the individual or corporation to decide which should take

precedence in any given situation, and to be able to justify their decision (Baker) .

Kidder acknowledges that neither side of the dilemma invariably is right.

Nevertheless, he argues that all things being equal (when both sides of the argument

have equal weight or good arguments to support them), he would choose truth over

loyalty, community or individual, long-term over short-term, and mercy over justice

(Baker).

Methods, Models, Practices and Principles

Throughout your experience in the public relations industry, there may be

times in which you are unsure of which actions to take, for example, the hypothetical

presented in the beginning. These methods, models, practices and principles are here

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to offer you a type of outline for your focuses and concerns along the way. By

understanding and learning them you can make better decisions that best suit each

situation and each client’s needs.

Press Agentry/ Publicity Model

This exemplifies the first historical stage of public relations in which the aim

is to “publicize the organization, its products, and its services in any way possible.”

This model is involved only in a one-way communication, dedicated to “help the

organization control the publics that affect it” (Newsom, Scott, and Vanslyke).

Applying this to the Hypothetical:

Your concerns would lie within Pippo Toys and their decisions. You would

simply aid them in whatever they wanted to do.

Social Responsibility Model

This model instructs the public relations practitioner to enact public relations

campaigns while serving a broader public interest and communal good (Baker).

Applying this to the Hypothetical:

Your focus would be on the interest of the public and their safety. Making

them aware of the hazardous toxicants presented in the toy.

Social responsibility provides a kind of ethical framework for achieving

organizational goals. Planning for public relations programming requires both an

understanding and an appreciation of the concept (Parsons).

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Public Information Model

This model is used primarily by government agencies, nonprofits and

associations. This model, “seeks to disseminate information to the public as

truthfully and accurately as possible” (Newsom, Scott, and Vanslyke).

Applying this to the Hypothetical:

Take notice that there is a problem at hand and work with Pippo Toys in an

effort to inform the public of the issue(s), including revealing that there are harmful

toxicants in the toy.

Persuasion Models:

The Reputation Protection Model

RPM is the lens that impacts all aspects of crisis preparation and responses. It

adds a lens that views crisis preparation as an investment in an organization’s long-

term reputation in the eyes of its most important stakeholders.

Applying this to the Hypothetical:

By advising Pippo Toys, it will show your agency’s dedication to their client’s

long-term interest. By representing your client, Pippo Toys, your agency becomes the

voice and informer to the public. Through taking the time to view Pippo Toys’

reputation as a priority, your agency focuses on the long-term as well as the short-

term outcomes for your client, Pippo Toys.

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The Mirror Principle

This states that an organization must hold up the looking glass to its own

issues and culture. This simple test of an ethical solution comes down to something

very simple and very personal. Look in the mirror and ask yourself: what kind of

person do you want to see? (Parsons)

Applying this to the Hypothetical:

As a representative of your agency, how do you want to be perceived by the

client, Pippo Toys? And, as your agency advises Pippo Toys, how will the public

view the information in which your agency is providing them with? Is the advice and

written communication that your agency is providing Pippo Toys with correct, or do

you hold a different opinion from your agency? If so, is that opinion strong enough to

make known to your agency or Pippo Toys? Are you willing to take any

consequences that may come along with presenting your own opinion on the matter?

If not, will you be able to handle the pressure of keeping your opinions to yourself?

TARES Test

Created by Sherry Baker and David Martinson, TARES, outlines the ethical

expectations for the public relations practitioner to consider while enacting a

persuasive communication campaign. TARES is an acronym designed around the five

interconnected factors of ethical consideration; Truthfulness, Authenticity, Respect,

Equality and Social responsibility.

A sincere and well- intentioned consideration of all elements and principles of

the TARES Test should lead practitioners of advocacy and persuasion to morally

justifiable decisions (Baker). By adopting the TARES method, or any of the other

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models, methods, practices or principles public relations practitioners can better

prepare themselves for multiple circumstances.

Truthfulness- The truth should be properly presented to the public, allowing them as

the audience to receive enough information to make their own informed decision on

the issue being presented.

Is the message factually accurate and also truthful? Does it deceive overtly or

covertly? Does it lead people to believe what I myself do not believe? Does it satisfy

the listener’s information requirements? (Baker)

Authenticity- It is important to clarify the authenticity of the persuader. The agency

and practitioners should question the motives behind the communication message to

make sure that all parties involved are not being misrepresented and that the message

communicates what the client wishes.

By questioning the motives, the public relations practitioners must then ask

themselves if the message they are representing will benefit someone other than their

client, such as the public.

Am I acting with integrity? Do I endorse this message? Would I take personal

responsibility for it? Would I persuade those I care about to do this? Do I believe that

people will benefit from this? (Baker)

Applying this to the Hypothetical:

If Pippo Toys voices their concerns about their manufacturer with your

agency, and still chooses to keep that manufacturer, think about the hidden motives, if

any, that your agency should be concerned with.

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Respect- There needs to be a respect for the persuadee and communicators should

perceive their targeted audience as “human beings.” The message(s) being

communicated should be shaped or transmitted with appropriate respect towards that

audience.

Have I respected the interests of others? Have I given them substantially

complete information so they can make good decisions? Have I made them aware of

the source of this message? (Baker)

Applying this to the Hypothetical:

By having your client, Pippo Toys release a press statement with a toy recall,

both your agency and your client, Pippo Toys demonstrate respect to the public.

Equality- There is a responsibility that the public relations practitioner has to her

audience. It is the public relations practitioner responsibility to avoid communication

that is directed towards taking advantage of certain vulnerabilities, i.e. the trust that

the public holds for your agency, the faith that your client, Pippo Toys has in your

agency, etc.

Is this campaign fair? Does it take unfair advantage of the message that is

received? Is it fair to targeted or vulnerable audiences? Have I made the

communication understandable to those to whom it is directed? Have I fairly

communicated the benefits, risks, costs, and harms? (Baker)

Applying this to the Hypothetical:

If Pippo Toys and your agency inform the public of the toxicants in the toy,

how much information is disclosed?

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Social Responsibility- Public relation practitioners have a social responsibility

towards the common good.

Think about whether or not the cause I am promoting will result in benefiting

or harming individuals or society? Is this cause responsible to the best interests of the

public? (Baker)

Applying to the Hypothetical:

Advise your client, Pippo Toys to tell the public what the agency feels is

appropriate -informing the public of the use of any hazardous materials used in the

making of the toy. Do that and the social responsibility of the agency is fulfilled.

Understanding Crisis:

“A crisis is an event that is a game changer. It’s the emergency that escalates

to a business disruption, a fatal or serious injury from a product, employee deception

or fraud, a factory that explodes. Most often an emergency becomes a crisis through

public exposure via the traditional media and/or social media” (Gilman).

Communicating During a Crisis

“In developing a communication plan, remember that employees are going to

talk to neighbors and to casual acquaintances whether authorized to do so or not. As a

result, you need to be sure that your communication plan includes strong internal as

well as external communication” (Newsom, Scott, and Vanslyke).

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“Consider all the options and then discuss it with those around you who are in

a position to know or advise, before making a decision. The key is to not act alone,”

says Misercola.

In planning for a crisis, you need to be able to anticipate the communication

climate by predicting how management is likely to act and react as the drama of a

crisis unfolds. According to Robert L. Dilenschneider, president of Hill & Knowlton,

Inc., an organization in crisis needs to go public in the first three to six hours after the

news breaks or you’re dead” (Newsom, Scott, and Vanslyke).

“When severity ramps up, involve more people, drop everything and work on

this, the problem,” says Steinmentz.

Three key elements that communicating in a crisis depend upon are (1) the

existence of a communication plan with the overall crisis plan (2) the ability to

assemble a crisis team when a crisis occurs (3) the use of a single spokesperson

during the crisis (Newsom, Scott, and Vanslyke).

The following are six steps towards positive crisis resolution:

1) Preparation is key

2) Make sure you have all the facts

3) Take immediate action to minimize danger to human life

4) Tell the truth

5) Show you care and be sincere

6) Never outlook the power of common sense (Serphos)

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While no one can predict a crisis, appropriate foresight and thought can mean

the difference between maintaining a stellar corporate reputation and the dreadful

alternative (Serphos).

Revisiting the Scenario:

Now that you have read the materials that I have provided for you, look back

at the scenario from the beginning.

Remember the issue at hand. Pippo Toys’ has informed your agency that there

is a problem with the manufacturing of their new toy, Safi. Their manufacture has

made their new toys with polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastic. They have told your team

that Safi failed the safety and health tests. Your agency now has to help with

assistance, guidance and an overall resolution.

After reading about ethics, necessary skills, values, stages and methods and

models, what courses of action is in the best interest for your final resolution?

If you paid attention to the information collected, you would choose to focus

on the following:

o Communicate with the Pippo Toys on a professional and informative level, help

Pippo Toys involve many parties.

o Remember that your agency represents your client, Pippo Toys and guiding them

towards an effective resolution will secure your reputation as a reliable public

relations agency.

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o Advise your client, Pippo Toys to do an immediate product recall. By doing so

will make Pippo Toys a more credible company and be seen as acting in the

public’s best interest.

o Suggest to your client, Pippo Toys, that a product recall will allow the public to

become aware of the hazards of the toy and Pippo Toys may only take a short-

term loss rather than a long-term loss.

o Work with your client, Pippo Toys to keep the public informed at all times of the

product recall. Inform them of information updates, provide hotlines, etc. You

will gain a more effective reputation.

o Advise your client, Pippo Toys, to cut ties with their manufacturer. By making

that step, Pippo Toys can show the public that they no longer have a relationship

with the manufacturer, preventing any future conflicts.

o If your agency does decide to advise your client, Pippo Toys that blame should

be placed onto the manufacturer, your agency and client need to be fully

prepared for the amount of attention that will be received from both the public

and the media.

o Advise Pippo Toys that they should not try to shift the blame. However, they will

be most reliable if they accept the major share of the responsibility themselves.

Future for Public Relations Practitioners

“Future challenges for United States practitioners include what may seem

obvious: exploiting the potential of constantly changing technology, especially

communication technology; hiring bright, well-educated practitioners (and educators)

37

who embrace professional norms and can take the place of the aging leadership of this

field…” (Grunig, Grunig).

Misercola was asked his thoughts on the job outlook for upcoming public

relations majors, he commented; “Job situations will remain tenuous for all public

relations professionals until the economy improves and the cycle is far enough along

that company’s feel confident enough to add support staff (so it’s going to be a

while). That being said, there’s always room for the cream of the crop and new grads

have one thing going for them—they cost less to employ than experienced

professionals.”

Most importantly, Misercola adds, “Public relations should be important

regardless of the health of the economy. Given how many public relations

professionals have lost their jobs in this economy you could make a case that business

does not value public relations as much as it should in a down economy, and public

relations’ ability to play a vital role in enhancing society’s morals.”

“Industry has become much rougher, security has gone from little to none,

and in the current environment new jobs are very hard to come by,” Misercola added.

We are at some midpoint in the United States—well beyond our rudimentary

beginnings yet well short of our goal of truly global, truly professional, truly strategic,

truly empowered, truly responsible, truly ethical, and truly effective public relations

practice” (Grunig, Grunig).

You owe it to yourself, to your employers and clients, to your profession and

to society to be competent to act in the capacity of a public relations practitioner

(Parsons).

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