CONTENTS

Chapter 1 - About translation 4

1.1. The meanings of the word translation 4

1.2. Theories corresponding to the meanings of the

word ‘translation’ 4

1.3. Background views on translation 5

1.4. Translation and the cultural equation 10

1.5. Translation as conversion 12

1.6. The translator 13

1.7. "Equivalence" in translation 17

1.7.1. Equivalence and adequacy in Translation 21

1. 8. Practical applications 22

Chapter 2 - Traps in translating literary texts 28

2.6. Practical applications 36

References 48

Chapter 1 – About translation

Chapter 1 – About translation

1.1. The meanings of the word translation

There are three distinguishable meanings for the word translation. It can refer to:

1. translation - as the abstract concept which deals with both the translating process and its product, i.e. subsuming both the activity and the entity;

2. translation - as the product of the process of translation (translating), i.e. the translated text;

3. translating - as the process, the activity performed by the translator.A definition which distinguishes the process from the result may be the

following: "The process or result of converting information from one language or language variety into another. The aim is to reproduce as accurately as possible all grammatical and lexical features of the source language (SL) original by finding equivalents in the target language (TL). At the same time, all factual information contained in the original text must be retained in the translation" (Meetham and R. Hudson 1969: 242).

1.2. Theories corresponding to the meanings of the word ‘translation’

Given the three meanings of the word translation, R. Bell (1991: 26) suggests three possible theories depending on the focus of the investigation:

1. a theory of translation as both product and process, i.e. a theory of translation and translating;

2. a theory of translation as product, i.e. a theory of translated texts, which would require a study of texts not only by means of the traditional levels of linguistic analysis (syntax and semantics), but also making use of stylistics and recent advances in text - linguistics and discourse analysis.

3. a theory of translation as a process, i.e. a theory of translating, which would require a study of information processing including perception, memory, and the encoding and decoding of messages, drawing heavily on psychology and psycholinguistics.

We should add a fourth possible theory, i.e.;4. an interpretive theory of translation, i.e. a theory of translating and

translation, which besides the integrated study of both, would lay equal stress on the interpretive process of any stretch of language, involving linguistics, psycholinguistics, semantics, pragmatics, the cultural context, communicative competence within a translation-oriented text analysis.

This would be an interdisciplinary, multilevel approach to the explanation of the phenomena of translation, interpretation for translation (i.e. translation-oriented interpretation), and interpretation as oral translation, involving a more complex internal process.

The interpretive theory of translation has much to do with:

- observing conventions of form (linguistic structure;- interpreting and translating style and register;- preserving the textual organicity, perceiving the text as a larger unit of

discourse, and laying stress on coherence and cohesion in textual clarity;

- performing the interpretive analysis closely linked with or preceding the translation oriented text analysis;

- interpretation of meaning at the word and above the word level;- the cultural context.Therefore, it requires all the components of the translational

competence.However, the interpretive theory of translation has nothing to do with the

implication that the difficulties of translation can be reduced to statistics (cf. Delisle 1988: 95). They need to be overcome by interpretation and analysis.

1.3. Background views on translation

Due to the development of culture, translation has generated a large mass of literature, although the scientific research in the field is only several decades old.

Translation has been viewed as the rendering of a source language text (SLT) into a target language text (TLT) so as to ensure that the surface meaning of the two will be approximately similar and that the structures of the source text (ST) will be preserved as closely as possible on condition they do not affect the target text (TT) structures.

This is a restricted view of translation, because it lays stress on the syntactic system of the language studied. It goes hand in hand with both the underestimation of the art and with the low status accorded to the translator. In this respect, what H. Belloc wrote long ago (1931, qtd. in S. Bassnett-McGuire 1991: 2) still proves perfectly applicable today, i.e. that the art of translation has never been granted the dignity of the original work and that this natural underestimation of its value has almost destroyed the art altogether. Thus, the corresponding misunderstanding of its character has added to its degradation: neither its importance nor its difficulty has been grasped.

Translation has been considered a secondary activity, a "mechanical" rather than a "creative" process. Moreover, it is the product only, the result of translation process that has been analysed, not the process itself.

It is true that, to a great extent, the thinking of most translation theorists (with a small number of exceptions, e.g. E. Nida, and J.C. Catford in the mid 1960s) has been dominated by Tytler' s thinking put forward in an essay written in 1791. Today's normative approach, i.e. the setting up of a series of maxims consisting of do's and don'ts, can be traced back to Tytler's rules which were normative prescriptions deriving from the subjective and evaluative description of a "good translation". He set forth three "laws".

1) the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work;

2) the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original;

3) the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.

Chapter 1 – About translationTytler argues that these rules would flow from an accurate definition of a

"good translation", i.e. the translation "in which the merit of the original is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work" (Tytler 1791: 79, quoted by Bell 1991: 11). Thus, Tytler is aware of the two extreme positions adopted in relation to translation:

- to attend only the sense and spirit of the original; therefore, it is allowable to improve and embellish;

- to convey the style and manner of writing of the original; therefore, it is necessary to preserve even blemishes and defects.

A new stage of the debate on translation was opened by J. C. Catford (1965) who tackled the problem of linguistic untranslability and suggested that the two "processes" of translation and transference must be clearly differentiated in any theory of translation, on the ground that translation is the substitution of target language (TL) meanings for the source language (SL) meanings, not the transference of TL meanings into the SL, whereas transference is an implantation of SL meanings into the TL text. This, of course, implies a narrow theory of meaning, because it is important for the linguist only. The discussion of the key-concepts of equivalence and cultural untranslability occurred much later.

Great progress has been made in translation studies since 1965, and clearly defined schools of translation studies have emerged placing their emphasis on different aspects of this very vast field.

Thus, there are four general areas of interest, with a degree of overlap between them. Two of them are product-oriented, the emphasis being laid on the functional aspects of the TL text in relation to the SL text, and two of them are process-oriented, the emphasis being on the analysis of what actually takes place during the translating process.

As S. Bassnett- McGuire (1991: 7-8) writes, the first category involves the History of Translation and investigates the theories of translation and translation criticism at different times, the methodological development of translation, and the analysis of the work of individual translators.

The second category, Translation in the TL Culture, investigates single texts or authors, the influence of a text, or author on the absorption of the norms of the translated text into the TL system and on the principles of selection which operate within that system.

The third category, Translation and Linguistics, is concerned with the comparative arrangement of linguistic elements of the SL and TL texts regarding the phonemic, morphemic, lexical, syntagmatic and syntactic levels. Therefore, it includes the problems of linguistic equivalence, linguistic untranslability, and the translation problems of non-literary texts.

The fourth category, Translation and Poetics, refers to the literary translation theory and practice.

Holmes' descriptive theory of translation includes product-oriented, function-oriented, and process-oriented descriptions (Holmes 1972, 1975: 12-14). The product-oriented description became the approach most identified with the later translation studies. It was concerned with a "text-focused"

empirical description of translations, and with larger corpuses of translations in a specific period, language or discourse type. The function-oriented description introduced a cultural component which affected the reception of the TT. The process-oriented approach was concerned with the problem of the "black box", i.e. what was going on in the translator's mind.

Lefevere (1975) prefers Holmes' second description, i.e. the one that privileges the function of the text on the original readers. His prescriptions recall Nida's and Wilss' conceptions, namely that the translator's task is to render the ST, the original author's interpretation of a given theme expressed in a number of variations by replacing the original author's variation with their equivalents in a different language, time, place and tradition (Lefevere 1975: 99). In his opinion, particular emphasis must be laid on the fact that the translator has to replace all the variations contained in the ST by their equivalents.

Another definition of translation describes it as “the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language” (Hartmann and Stork 1972: 713, qtd. in Bell 1991:22).

Translation was also defined as “the expression in the TL of what has been expressed in the SL, preserving the semantic and stylistic equivalences” (Dubois 1973, ibidem).

Wilss, a great representative of the science of translation in Germany, writes that the science of translation is not a sealed, "nomological" science but a "cognitive/hermeneutic/associative" one (Wills 1982: 16). His translation theory is based upon:

a) the concept of a universal language;b) a belief that deep-structure transfer is possible by a hermeneutic

process, andc) a qualitative ranking of texts, from a high level incorporating art and

science texts to a low level including business and pragmatic texts.In his opinion, translation research must develop a frame of reference to

view a text as a communication-oriented configuration with a thematic, functional and text-pragmatic dimension. These three text dimensions can be derived from the surface structure of the respective text. He argues that the deep structure of the language (in which he includes the sign in the context) can be determined and transformed into any language in any contemporary context. Thus, he refers to Nida' s argument that the interlingual communication is possible due to two factors:

1) that semantic similarities in languages are due to "the common core of human experience", and

2) that fundamental similarities exist in the "syntactic structure of languages, especially at the so-called kernel, or core level" (Nida 1969: 483 qtd. by Wilss 1982: 49). He ends his theory with the pronouncement that "everything can be expressed in every language", (Wills 1982: 48). This view is widespread in modern linguistics. Later on he considers that the large degree of variability in translated texts is less a fault of the well-trained translator, and more a result of the differing cultural contexts in which the translators find themselves and their subjective creative decisions. That is to say, the cultural factors do not only influence the final product, but also weigh upon the decision-making process. Consequently, he says: "I do believe that there are many

Chapter 1 – About translationaspects of translation that transcend the cultural boundaries and that they are, in fact, universal" (Wills 1989: 134).

The appearance of a collection of essays edited by Hermans in 1985, entitled The Manipulation of Literature, aroused a great deal of debate because the contributors to that volume thought that translation editing was a manipulatory process. They said that by examining what took place during the processes of reading, rewriting in another language and the subsequent reception, attention was shifted away from the ST and its cultural background. Some translators thought that their main task was to examine the impact of the translation in the target system.

In her Translation Studies: An Integrated Approach (1988), widely discussed in Europe, M. Snell-Hornby suggests a "prototypology", a more flexible Gestalt-like system with blurred edges. She offers a very complicated stratification model proceeding from a general level (macrolevel) to more particular levels (microlevels) (Gentzler 1993: 72).

However, Gentzler concludes that "whether the Snell - Hornby model achieves an integrated approach for Translation Studies remains to be seen" (idem, ibidem).

Most of these translation studies are directed primarily to teaching translators or evaluating translations, being prescriptive in nature. They rely too heavily upon very traditional dichotomies of good/ bad and faithful/ free. They also tend to be source-oriented in nature, arguing that the original embodies some sort of deep structure, which contains the information necessary for its subsequent encoding in another language to which the translator must remain faithful. Thus they are concerned only with reproducing the original. Gentzler considers that "such an approach reaffirms antiquated notions of translation, notions which view translations as second-hand, merely serving as handmaiden of a higher, more creative art. The biggest problem is that the focus of these sciences [of translation] is too narrow. They look primarily at what is a non-verifiable space - i.e. the black box of the human mind-and make large statements not only about translability but also about how that process should occur" (Gentzler 1993: 73).

Metaphors used to define translation. A study of the figurative language used by the translators in their statements about their work can tell us about the status of the translation as a textual act.

It ranges from Mounin's view of the translation as "belles infidelles", or "tower of Babel" up to the metaphor about the translator as "a tightrope walker forced to dance with his legs tied up in a sack (namely the original author's rhythm, rhyme patterns, figures of speech, etc). Many theories of translation show the difficulties-or even the impossibility-of reproducing the original (the trammelling of the sack and the difficulties of moving the legs" (Bantaş 1994: 79).

According to the metaphors used by the Dutch, French and English translators of the Renaissance, the translator is variously seen as following in the footsteps of the original author, borrowing garments, reflecting light, even searching for jewels in a casket (Bassnett - McGuire 1991: XIII).

In the eighteen century, the translation was a mirror, or a portrait, the depicted or artificial held up against the real.

In the nineteenth century, the dominant metaphors involved property and class relations. The notion of translation was based on the idea of a master-servant relationship: either the translator takes over the ST and "improves" it, or approaches it with humility and seeks to do it homage (Bassnett-McGuire 1991: XV).

In the 1980s, translation began to be referred to in figurative terms involving infidelity, unfaithfulness and reformed marriage.

The cannibalistic view of translation put forward by the Brazilian translators (with the image of the translator as a cannibal devouring the ST in a ritual which results in the creation of something completely new), involves a changed idea of the value of the ST in relation to its reception in the target culture (TC). Thus, the translation process creates an "original" text, the opposite of the traditional position whereby the "original" is the starting point.

There is a school of thought now that considers translation as the rewriting of texts across linguistic boundaries, the rewriting taking place in a very clearly inscribed cultural and historical context. For example, Lefevere (1975, qtd. in Bassnett - McGuire 1991) has done a lot in this field.

As opposed to the translation-as-a-mirror conception involving reflection, the refraction theory (Lefevere' s term refraction has been coined to replace the old terminology of "influence") involves changes of perception. We consider it a much more suitable image used to describe what happens when a text crosses the culture boundaries.

We consider that translation is a complex task, involving, a great deal of skill, preparation, knowledge and intuitive feeling for texts.

As opposed to Tytler' s list of do's and don'ts, translation is no longer referred to in terms of what a translator "should" or "should not" do. This kind of evaluative terminology is used with pedagogical implications, where translation has a very precise and narrowly defined role, and is an intrinsic part of the foreign language teaching process (Levitchi 1986).

According to the Romanian School of thought, i.e. Leviţchi, Duţescu, Bantaş, translation can be taught, that is translators can also be made not only born. We should add that this may hold true except for the truly born God chosen poetry translators as the three mentioned above are.

According to Leviţchi, whose remarks on translation came from his extremely vast experience, the translator, a "hardworking labourer in a noble field", follows the way from the smallest detail and deepest subtlety up through the larger and larger units (Leviţchi 1975, 1993: 5). In his opinion, "everything can be translated but only with efforts and pains" (Leviţchi 1988), the possibility of translation being scientifically proved by the universality of the linguistic categories (Leviţchi 1975: 9, 1993:6).

In his Guide Book for Translators (1975, 1993), Leviţchi writes that to translate well means to render the meaning, the logical structure and the emotional content of the SLT so faithfully that the translated text can have the same effect as the original does upon the reader. He calls it a total translation, i.e. the translation which transfers as many meanings and overtones as possible from the ST to the TT.

According to Bantaş, a faithful translation, well guided by the translation-oriented text analysis (TOTA) "through revealing in the SL the most adequate linguistic and literary means for meeting the same requirements, structures,

Chapter 1 – About translationpatterns and peculiarities to which the author himself had submitted in creating the original [...] tends to change into a shunt or transfer to a parallel line, into the ensurance of continuity" (Bantaş 1988:18).

In Duţescu's (1988) opinion, "the faithfulness-beauty antinomy is a false problem", because he considers translations "both faithful and beautiful".

Referring to the "no loss, no gain" principle in translation (Leviţchi 1975, 1993), Kohn considers that if any losses occur, they can be "made up for", thus rejecting two opposite theses, i.e. the impossibility of translation and absolute translability (Kohn 1983, Graur 1980).

To conclude, translation is closely linked with the context, and any assessment of a translation can only be made by taking into account both the process of creating it and its function.

What translation brings to the linguist's work is an opportunity of seeking the universal through the particularity of languages, drawing in the comparisons and equivalences sought by the translator in his work. Moreover, translation gives the linguist the opportunity to understand how texts are constructed and how to go about making meanings. In this respect, the negotiation of the meaning of the ST and TT is a psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic matter.

However the translation may turn out, other translations are always possible, not better or worse, but different, depending upon the initial choices made by the translator and the points when the languages interlock and begin to develop not in the SL or TL, but in "that grey area in between", as Gentzler (1993: 101) puts it.

Of all the theories mentioned and discussed above, we have adopted the "no loss, no gain" principle, including the possibility of "making up for" some loss, on condition it does not affect the TT.

For a translation to be successful, we consider the translation-oriented text analysis very useful.

1.4. Translation and the cultural equation

Translation is a disparity between language cultures (LCs). The act of translation includes a cultural equation or meaning-inducing tension between the system of representation (SR). It does not involve a process of transferring signification but a commitment to the disparity of two cultures under consideration. That "tension" will be revisable according to historical and socio-cultural factors.

Each cultural element is not simply seen in respect of LC1, but viewed as being the ground of a potential difference, distinction or tension. The cultural equation concerns the translator's conception of translation and its role in cross-cultural relationship.

The cultural equation should be taken into consideration whenever we have to appreciate the choices made in any situation of translation and when we propose our own choices.

The fact must be added that the translator's very particular reading strategies are completely different from those of the "normal reader". It is the

potential translation difficulties which tend to catch his attention, especially when the STs are hard to translate, i.e. when they do not conform to received norms of "textual beauty", acceptability, etc. and when they are obscure, poorly, or differently expressed, etc..

Thus, it is obvious that the theoretical problems of translation can be understood and explained only within a certain macrolinguistic context, to which "the essential element of the translation process is not the linguistic system as an abstract concept, but the text as a speech unit" (Kohn 1983: 7).

A satisfactory theory of translation must describe the cultural features relevant to a given text because the cultural element is central to a theory of translation.

According to the cultural view, even whole texts are too small units in translation when they are taken in isolation. Thus, in Lefevere and Bassnett' s (1990: 8) opinion, culture becomes the operational "unit" of translation.

The unit of translation (UT) was defined by Newmark as "the smallest segment of an SL text which can be translated, as a whole in isolation from other segments. It normally ranges from the word through the collocation to the clause. It could be described as 'as small as possible and as large as it is necessary', though some translators would say that it is a misleading concept, since the only UT is the whole text" (Newmark 1988: 285).

The fact that culture becomes the operational unit of translation leads to a tendency to very abstract notions, such as the "universe of discourse" which Lefevere defines as" the knowledge, the learning, but also the objects and the customs of a certain time" (Lefevere 1985: 233).

According to Snell - Hornby' s "Gestalt" conception of a text, it is not an entity reducible to the "mere sum of its parts", it should not be considered "simply as a sequence of sentences, these themselves each a string of grammatical items" (Snell - Hornby 1987: 93).

Thus, the translator has to detect the "particular elements" in the text of the culture concerned, because he does not deal with the totality of a culture.

The cultural approach is valid only if it probes deep enough into the cultural context which affects the translation.

According to Crisafulli (1993: 205), the distinction between the cultural and the linguistic approach is fictitious because the cultural values are embodied in language, and the relationship between language and society is so close that they cannot be separated.

As a conclusion, we could emphasize the importance of the cross-cultural knowledge for the translator as a mediator between cultures. The translator has to know about the culture-specific behaviour patterns in general, and must not restrict his abilities merely to linguistic spheres.

1.5. Translation as conversion

Concerning translation as conversion, the fact must be underlined that the finality of conversion strategies should be to establish a meaningful tension

Chapter 1 – About translationbetween the original and the translation, in valid texts converted in inter - and intralingual communication.

Conversion should be considered as a meta - text or a text constructed upon another text. It can be established in various degrees of "equivalence" with the original according to the objectives and intentions of the converting operators.

Translation or interlinguistic conversion should be considered as the complex interplay between a source text (ST), a mediator, and alternative formulations in a different language culture (LC).

The fact must be added that the converting principle can no longer be analogy, or differences in likeness, but homology, or likeness in fundamental difference as Jakobson considered (1966: 233), and in keeping with Benjamin's intuition that "kinship does not necessarily involve likeness" (1969: 74).

Thus the initial text becomes the ST and is no longer a co-negotiated "act" of reference, it becomes an object, as Ladmiral (quoted by Hewson and Martin 1991) rightly considered: "Translation is a meta-communication, a second-degree communication which, from one language to another, is brought to bear on the first-degree communication which it takes as its object. Which means that translation proceeds to an objectification of the SL communication which it globalizes in order to make it the content of the message it has to translate into the TL" (Ladmiral 1987:144).

Its function is now to serve as the basis for the construction of another situation of communication. It is the "complete set of paraphrases that must be reconstructed in order to account adequately for the initial SL sequence when considered as translation input", as Hewson and Martin define it (1991:31).

Translation consists in sets of homologically related paraphrases constructed on the initial ST. Interlinguistic conversion is only one aspect of translation, the other being the insertion of the converted text or rather text potentialities into a different LC.

A homologon is strictly related to a variation range. The homologon involvement does not produce translations but variation ranges in LC2. The homologon or verbal equation of the ST serves as the basis for variations (not equivalents, much less translations) in a different LC. Homological generation consists only in sets of paraphrastic related items.

These variations are the TL paraphrastic sets. Therefore, homology is the relation established between two variation ranges.

Thus, conversion into a new system of representation (SR) means adapting to an entirely different set of norms-discursive, situational and sociological.

No transfer or equivalence of meaning can be achieved across languages. There can be only homologies between paraphrastic sets, i.e. between the SL paraphrastic set "framing" the ST and LC2 paraphrastic sets comprising the translation options. The nature of the homological link needs to be investigated beyond the simple provisional reference to Jakobson's notion of

"resemblance in difference". In order to approximately reach it, Steiner (1975) suggests a "reshaping process" referring to topology.

Thus, in his opinion "topology is the branch of mathematics which deals with those relations between points and those fundamental properties of a figure which remain invariant when the figure is bent out of shape ... The relations of invariance within transformation are, to a more or less immediate degree, those of translation" (1975: 425).

To sum up, translation involves selecting the appropriate terms in keeping with an explicitly defined target context (the contextualization of homologies, i.e. a certain number of determining factors).

1.6. The translator

Starting from Steiner' s striking assertion that "inside or between languages, human communication equals translation" (Steiner 1975: 47), one could say that all communicators are translators. This is possible because as receivers (whether listeners or readers), they face essentially the same problem: they receive signals (in speech or writing) containing messages encoded in a communication system which is not identical with their own. We consider matters do not stand like this with the translator.

According to Steiner (1975: 45), "any model of communication is at the same time a model of translation of a vertical or horizontal transfer of significance". No two historical epochs, social classes, localities use words to signify exactly the same thing, and neither do two human beings.

This underlies particular views of reading according to which making sense of a text means is to deconstruct it and then to reconstruct it (Norris and Benjamin 1988, quoted after Bell 1991:14).

A question may arise regarding the difference between the translator (or the interpreter) and the normal communicator. It is the re-encoding process which makes the translator differ from the normal communicator. This is rooted in the definition given to the translator as a bilingual mediating agent between monolingual communication participants in two different language communities (House 1977: 1). It means that the translator decodes messages transmitted in one language and encodes them in another.

If it is, in any sense, true what Newmark (1969: 85) said that "any fool can learn a language ..., but it takes an intelligent person to become a translator", then the investigation of what this "intelligence" implies is worth making.

First, the translator is an applied linguist who has certain obligations to the furthering of our understanding of language and of our ability to explain the acts of communication in which we are continually engaged.

Secondly, as translation "lato sensu" is one of the most powerful means of negociation between communication partners, the translator has meta-communicational status, being a sort of a third party to the initial communication

Chapter 1 – About translationon the one hand, and having to establish a hypothetical situation of communication in the LC2 on the other.

He is a mediator between intercultural situations of communication. This is based on his personal perception of the Cultural Equation and on cultural competence. This competence is objective, i.e. based on interlinguistic techniques accumulated through practice and instruction, and subjective, i.e. the mediator creates both the translation options and the conditions in which they are to be inscribed.

He mediates between two situations; he "will take it upon himself to define the norms and options that need to be established between two Language Cultures", as Hewson and Martin mention (1991: 27).

Thirdly, at first sight, it seems that the translator, called the Translation Operator (TO), explores LC2 with the aim of finding the "equivalent" to what he has discovered in LC1.

The TO's attention must be drawn to the LC1 - specific elements of the text, as his reading is always situated at the level of difference. He will pay special attention to certain elements which take on a particular importance when considering the text from the LC2 perspective.

One of the translator's major problems is to analyse the surface syntax of the ST with its explicit clause structures coming to the implicit, underlying, universal meaning carried by the propositions, given the fact that there is no simple one-to-one relationship between the syntactic and the propositional structure.

It is obvious that the translator needs:- syntactic knowledge, i.e. how clauses are used to carry propositional content

and how they can be analysed to retrieve the content embedded in them;- semantic knowledge, i.e. how propositions are structured;- pragmatic knowledge, i.e. how the clause can be realized as information

bearing text and the text decomposed into the clauses.Lack of knowledge in any of these areas affects the translator's

competence.As a communicator, the translator must possess the knowledge and

skills which are common to all communicators.The professional (technical) translator, as Johnson and Whitelock (1987:

137, quoted in Hewson and Martin 1991) underline, has access to five distinct kinds of knowledge:

1) SL knowledge;2) TL knowledge;3) text-type knowledge;4) subject area, and cultural knowledge;5) contrastive knowledge.In addition, he needs the decoding skills of reading and encoding skills

of writing, all of them making up the translator's competence.The fact must be added here that it is important to point out the danger

of working at a micro - textual level. The temptation is to divide the ST into very

small units and to look for "equivalents" for each and every unit. Although equivalence does have a certain use it prevents one from clearly seeing what the operations involved in the translating process are. This is very dangerous for students who tend to work at the level of the word anyway. The only option open to the TO is to try to judge the overall effect of the use of words and thus to solve the problem at a macro - textual level.

The TO does not look for an "equivalent", but he seeks to express the "same" reality through LC2, although a "full" cultural context is replaced by one which is virtually empty, and differently structured anyway. He has to analyse very minutely the various elements which go to make up the overall effect of the ST, such as he comes to interpret it. After this analysis, he is faced with what might be called the "concave - mirror effect" of trying to express such elements through another culture. This is explained by: 1) the distorting effect produced by the changing cultures, and 2) by the automatic series of connections which are made within the second culture, and which interfere with the network of connections originally operating in LC1, as Hewson and Martin point out (1991: 152).

The translator (TO) needs to have bilingual and bicultural competence. The production of homologous sets in LC2 is closely related to the translator's bilingual and bicultural competence. His contribution is decisive because it clarifies the difference between what is acquired and what is generated in the translating process, between competence and production. Homologizing procedures are useless without bicultural competence. Homologies correlate structures by establishing global correspondences of factors within different relational systems, as Hewson and Martin (1991: 49) point out. They also consider that concerning lexical problems, the syntagmatic or "definitional" paraphrase enables the translator to pass over the arbitrary boundaries between lexis and syntax. Their opinion is also shared by Leviţchi (1975, 1993: 6)

No reformulation is conceivable without a reformulator or mediator. Besides his function as the vehicle of a certain cultural equation, his specific intervention can be defined according to two different lines of consideration.

He represents a distinctly psycho-socio-cultural stance which he reflected in his productions. That is why translations are bound to be renewed in keeping with the cultural changes; they also bear the imprint of the translator.

TO's position. The TO must be competent in two LCs, that is he must have the knowledge and practice of two independently developing entities. He must have a position from which he can compare and convert from one LC into the other. The area he occupies is a no-man's land whose boundaries, LC1 and LC2, are changing shape and size, because the LCs evolve and influence each other.

However the translator is not midway between the two. He is always anchored, to a greater or lesser extent, in one LC. His being in the middle ground involves competence.

Chapter 1 – About translationThe TO's position was represented by Hewson and Martin (1991:135)

as follows:

1.6. The area occupied by the translator (source Newson and Martin 1991:135)

Consequently, the TO's competence is measured by his ability to analyse, compare and convert two cultural systems, while respecting both the conflicting forces within one LC, and the interplay of these forces as the LCs are brought into contact.

As regards the translator's position towards the writer, his work is harder than that of the latter. Leon Levi]chi compares the translator with Ariel in "The Tempest" after having come out of the split of the oaktree trunk beginning to work for Prospero (Leviţchi 1988, our translation).

Taking into consideration that everything is translation, i.e. from one code into another, from one domain into another, from thinking to feeling and words, Leviţchi says that "the writer translates himself, turning his imagination into words, thus keeping faithful to himself, whereas the translator must be faithful to the writer, to the tradition from which he translates, to the language into which he translates and to many other canons" (ibidem, our translation).

Thus, the translator has to overcome language, cultural and time boundaries.

According to Bantaş, the translator, as the first receiver of the text in a foreign language, must become conscious of the author's intentions and try to preserve as many of them as possible: "he must discern the author's general as well as specific intentions, his reference to proverbs, etc., other meta-textual, inter-textual allusions, etc. (a point in which the dynamic contextual analysis as well as intertextuality ought to help him, alongside his general background, all-round culture, etc.)" (Bantaş, 1988: 7).

The translator must be aware of the difficulties in grasping or feeling the intentions, in identifying the allusions, in achieving the equivalence besides overcoming the resistance opposed by the tradition of non-translation (Bantaş, 1994: 81).

Therefore, it is by undertaking the dynamic contextual analysis (DCA) (cf. Slama -Cazacu 1988) that the translator is able to evaluate the original right and come to a moment of choice.

The translator's position is, as Bantaş puts it, "similar to that of a producer who prepares to stage a play, or to make a film, or perhaps to that of a performer, or a conductor preparing to play a piece of music: having taken stock of whatever there is in the respective work, he has also to take stock of the means at his disposal, of the technical facilities, of the public he addresses, of the critics who will analyse his achievement, etc. and here is where all the theories of reception and DCA come in" (Bantaş 1988: 8, 1994: 79).

As a conclusion, we could say that we agree with A. Bantaş who both as a translation theorist and as a professional translator, suggests that translators should be bound by their obligation as servants of two masters: selling to customers (readers or spectators) the original product (the writer's work) without cheating in either quantity, or in its original form, including colours, musicality, etc. He adds that "to push the metaphor further, translators should pack coffee without decoffeinizing it and also preserve its full flavour" (Bantaş 1994: 81).

Consequently, translation depends upon the interpretive as well as linguistic, semantic and creative ability and cultural knowledge of the translator.

1.7. "Equivalence" in translation

The new translation theory is no longer concerned with defining one or several translated "equivalents" to any given source text (ST), but with producing a variation range in the other language culture (LC2) corresponding to the reconstituted range framing the ST.

The theory of "partial communication" seems to be the basis of most contemporary translation studies. According to this theory, communication does not transfer the total message. The same holds true for the translating process: it does not transfer the totality of what is in the original.

It is apparent, as Bell rightly points out (1991: 6), that "the ideal of total equivalence is a chimera. Languages are different from each other; they are different in form having distinct codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language and these forms have different meanings". Further, he adds that "there is no absolute synonymy between words in the same language, so why should anyone be surprised to discover a lack of synonymy between languages?" That is why something is "lost", the translator being accused of "betraying" the author's intentions. Hence the traitorous nature ascribed to the translator by the famous Italian proverb "traduttore traditore". He must always choose between translating word-for-word (literal translation), or meaning-for-meaning (free translation). In case he picks the former, he is criticized for the "ugliness" of a "faithful" translation; in case he picks the latter, he is criticized for the inaccuracy of a "beautiful" translation.

Chapter 1 – About translationTraditionally, the two texts involved in translation are said to be

equivalent. Jakobson's (1959) use of the word equivalence for the relationship between formally different texts involved in translation has been criticized on the ground that the relationship between a SLT and the corresponding TLT is not fully symmetrical and reversible. The best argument to be brought forward in this respect is the fact that the back-translation does not bring us back to the source language text (SLT).

Catford's (1965) definition of translation equivalence in terms of textual interchangeability in a given situation can be easily dismissed. Reiss and Vermeer (1984: 127) among others, criticized it on the ground that a translation is not interchangeable with its source text in a given situation; source texts and translations operate in different language communities. As Jakobsen (1993: 161) puts it, "The information they convey may be felt and judged to be equivalent, and the situations they communicate in may be felt to be interculturally comparable (or equivalent), but they are not the same". Therefore, translational equivalence cannot be tested by the interchangeability in a given situation and cannot be defined in terms of it.

Bassnett-McGuire (1991) subscribes to the conception that the interpretation of translation should be based on the comparison of the text's "function" as original and as a translation. As Gentzler (1993) mentions, her use of the term function is so broad that almost any deviation, addition, deletion could be labelled a "functional equivalent". Unlike Holmes who tries to preserve the sound, the sense, the rhythm, the textual "material" and recreate those specific sensations-sound, sense and association - despite inherent limitations in the TL, Bassnett leaps to the central theme and meaning, grasps the "original function" and allows the replacement of much of the text, with all its particular resonance and associations, with something new and completely different, but which theoretically affects the reader the same way (Gentzler 1993: 101).

According to Holmes (1974: 78), translation establishes a hierarchy of correspondences which depend upon certain initial choices, which in turn predetermine subsequent choices. That is to say, the translator's choices will ultimately restrict and determine the kind of correspondences available during the translation of the rest of the text.

Van den Broeck (1978) begins his essay The Concept of Equivalence in Translation Theory in agreement with Holmes and concludes that "we must by all means reject the idea that equivalence relation applies to translation" (Broeck 1978: 33). In his opinion, all the speculations on defining equivalence contain many different and contradictory equations, especially when applied to such complex phenomena as poetry in translation. He redefines and recuperates "equivalence" for his own concept of "true understanding" of how one should regard literary translation (Broeck 1978: 29).

His definition of equivalence is based upon the semiotics of Pierce, the philosophy of Stevenson, and the linguistics of Catford. Thus, he shifts the focus from a "one-to-one" to a "many-to-one" notion of correspondence (Broeck

1978: 34), and defines meaning as the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic form. He adopts Catford’ s definition of translation equivalence. For Broeck, those relevant features have nothing to do with the semantic reference, and everything to do with the textual reference, arguing that both texts must be relatable only to the functionally relevant features of the communicative situation.

However, in contrast to Broeck, Catford considers the functionally relevant features as being relatively indeterminate and more a matter of opinion. Catford distinguishes between situational features which are linguistically relevant, and those which are functionally relevant in that they are relevant to the communicative function of the text in that situation. Therefore, for translation equivalence to occur, "both the SL and the TL text must be relatable to the functionally relevant features of the situation. A decision, in any particular case, as to what is functionally relevant in this sense must in our present state of knowledge remain to some extent a matter of opinion (Catford 1969:94, emphasis in the original).

In agreement with Lefevere (1975), Broeck (1978) considers that the original author's intention and the function of the original text can be determined and translated so that the TT will be equivalent to the ST and function accordingly. A translation can only be complete if and when both the communicative value and the time-place-tradition elements of the ST have been replaced by their nearest possible equivalents in the TT (Lefevere 1975: 102, Broeck 1978: 39).

According to Neubert, the text has a kind of a "mosaic" quality, an elasticity that allows it to be translated into a variety of "relative" TTs. He introduces the term "translational relativity" in the reconstruction process, allowing for a "creative" process of transfer from the ST to the TT. This relativity derives from an inherent multiplicity of structural possibilities in the original (Neubert 1986: 97). He refers to text equivalence in terms of a "macroproposition, which corresponds to the semantic content of the ST and which is then broken down into a fabric of words mapped on to syntactic structures" (Neubert 1986: 95).

By considering translation from the point of view of the target culture (TC), Toury (1980) argues that translation equivalence is not a hypothetical ideal, but becomes an empirical matter. Thus, the actual relationship between the ST and TT may or may not reflect the postulated abstract relationship.

The translated texts are still viewed by Translation Studies theorists as one kind of metatext, measured and evaluated in comparison with the ST or some idealized interpretation of that initial version.

Nevertheless, in Toury' s opinion, the translated text exists as a cultural artefact for the replacement of a ST by an acceptable version in the TC. Toury considers that it is only by analysing the translated texts from within their cultural-linguistic context that one can understand the translation process.

Therefore, translations are subject to different social, cultural and literary contextual factors. He sets forth a TT theory for translation, focussing not on a

Chapter 1 – About translationnotion of equivalence as postulated requirements, but on the "actual relationships" between the ST and its "factual replacement" (Toury 1980: 39).

The following aspects of Toury' s theory have contributed to the development of translation theory:

1) the abandonment of one-to-one notions of correspondence and the possibility of literary/linguistic equivalence;

2) the involvement of the literary tendencies within the TC in the production of any translated text;

3) the destabilization of the notion of an original message with a fixed identity;

4) the integration of both the ST and TT in the semiotic web of intersecting cultural systems.

Translation theory in Toury' s conception can be defined as a theory of possible translations, and as a theory of how these possible types of equivalence may function in different systemic conditions.

It is an established fact in Translation Studies that there may be as many variants of a translation as there are translators. Yet somewhere among those many versions, there will be what Popovič (1976) calls the "invariant core" of the original. This invariant is that which exists in common between all existing translations of a single work. It is part of a dynamic relationship and should not be confused with speculative arguments about the "nature", the "spirit" or "soul" of the text; the "indefinable quality" that translators are rarely supposed to be able to grasp.

The fact must be added that instead of prescribing a technique which can eliminate losses and smooths over changes, Popovič accepts that losses, gains and changes are a necessary part of the translation process because of the inherent differences of intellectual and aesthetic values in the two cultures.

The dynamic relationship cannot but remind us of Nida' s (1969) two types of equivalence: formal and dynamic equivalence. The formal equivalence focusses attention on the message itself, in both form and content, while the dynamic equivalence is based on the principle of equivalent effect, i.e. that the relationship between receiver and message should aim at being the same as that between the original receivers and the SL message.

Most theories to date can be characterized as theories of (what is allegedly) the only legitimate or genuine kind of translation (Delabastita 1991:143).

The genuine concept of translation can be defined in positive terms, i.e. "to render the SL message with the closest TL equivalent ... is, we believe, the only possible way leading to fidelity" (Shen 1989: 234, emphasis in the original). It can also be defined in negative terms, i.e. "literalism has indeed little claim to theoretical validity as an approach to "total translation" (Shen 1989: 224).

Some later theories allow greater flexibility, and accept variations in the techniques of ideal translation according to concrete circumstances and communicative requirements. For example, translation is seen as an act of

communication across cultural boundaries, the main criteria being determined by the recipient of the translation and its specific function (Snell- Hornby 1988: 47).

Now the translational relationships between the ST and TT are replaced by networks of relationships and concepts of intertextuality (Toury 1986, Lambert 1989, Gentzler 1993).

Translation scholars in England and USA like Bassnett - McGuire, Levefere, Lloyd and Tymoczko seem to adopt more of a cultural studies model.

Therefore, there is a tendency to consider translation less as an empirical fact a concrete text as defined by the TC - and more as a complex set of translational relations in any given situation (Gentzler 1993: 143).

The translator's task is to strive for the highest possible degree of "matching" or "equivalence" between the SL and the TL text, i.e. the TL text must try to achieve a similar effect on the foreign reader as the SL text does on the native reader (Wekker and Wekker 1991: 221, qtd. in Gentzler 1993). The TL text must be equivalent to the SL text on both a linguistic and a socio-cultural level.

It is obvious that the language variety chosen for the TL discourse will play a very important role in creating the desired effect on the reader / listener.

1.7.1. Equivalence and Adequacy in Translation

According to Reiss and Vermeer (1984: 133, quoted by Jakobsen 1993: 158), in a number of translations, e.g. translations for teaching purposes and philological translations, the function of the TLT is different from that of the SLT. In this case, the principle governing the translation process is adequacy.

Adequacy is described by Reiss as the appropriate selection of linguistic signs in the TL in view of the dimensions selected in the ST. An adequate TT is one in which the TT matches a relevant dimension of the ST, because the translator does not aim at producing a full textual equivalent of the ST but focusses on a certain dimension of the ST.

Adequacy is a more general concept than equivalence. Equivalence involves matching not just one dimension, but all dimensions of the ST. It results that an equivalent TT will always satisfy the criterion of adequacy. Therefore, equivalence is a special case of adequacy which can be found in communicative translation where there is full semantic, pragmatic and cultural adequacy and where the TT reads like an original TLT.

Nida (1976: 64) considered that the relative adequacy of different translations of the same text "can only be determined in terms of the extent to which each translation successfully fulfils the purpose for which it was intended" (Nida 1976: 64).

Now it is obvious that progress has been made in turning from a more theoretical approach to a discourse or text-typological one, e.g. Hatim (1984),

Chapter 1 – About translationHatim and Mason (1992), Reiss (1971, 1984 Jakobsen) among many others. They point out the need for an analytical framework to identify the discourse features of various text-types or genres and of the nature of those discourse features (social, cultural and/or personal).

Much translation work is aimed at a more appropriate end-product.In this sense, adequacy, as defined by Reiss and Vermeer (1984: 80), is

a function of the relationship between means and end and is, therefore process-oriented; adequacy is appropriateness, and "appropriateness is not an absolute standard but must always be considered in context with action".

Equivalence, on the other hand, reflects the correlation between two products, the ST and the TT.

1. 8. Practical applications

1.8.1. Consider the following sentences paying special attention to the paraphrases underlined. Point out the translation difficulties and give their ‘equivalents’ in Romanian:

1. When I entered the library I found her putting her books in a certain order on the shelf.

2. He was resting (in a horizontal position) on the grass in the orchard, happy to hear the birds singing.

3. The next day some journalists attacked (with words) the general manager for having made such a stupid mistake.

4. He feared them for he knew they would attack him physically as soon as they caught him.

5. The girl was so unhappy because her horse was not able to walk properly because of a hurt leg.

6. I’m sure he will make a fool of himself with such an excuse that is hard to believe.

7. The old woman suffered a lot when she heard that her youngest son was experiencing difficulties and needed to be helped.

8. Everything was getting worse and worse and we all knew that he was a president whose period in office was coming to an end.

9. How could such a beautiful woman marry that narrow-minded guy?10.Madeleine was broken down when she heard that the last hard battle

had caused Orrin not to be able to walk properly.11.After a two months’ voyage the whole crew was happy to reach the

shore.12.At an early age she fell in love with a man living in an imaginary place

of impossible dreams and perfection.13.They decided to send him there a few days before just to try and grasp

the state of affairs/ see how matters stood.14. (spoken, humorous) I’m so glad to see you have recovered.15. I wonder why most people are now thinking of Canada as the place

where life is very easy and pleasant.16. (fig.) He was jumping with joy thinking that he had caught the big fish/

had been very lucky.17. (informal) She was so proud that her brother had won the big prize.

18.He saw red every time she managed to get out of any difficult situation.

19.He had never imagined that one day he would find himself without board and house.

20. It was too late when she realized that she had caused her friend to get into trouble.

21.We all knew that he was tangled in that fishy affair and that it would bring him in a very embarrassing situation.

22.As the owner’s sons were not getting on well with one another, the company finally got to a very bad situation.

1.8.2. Give the paraphrases of the following troublesome words and phrases and translate them into Romanian:

1. Living among such people he couldn’t but lapse into a lot of nasty habits.

2. We heard her grandfather had been a lapsed protestant.3. We knew he was away, but we were amazed to see him there, as

large as life.4. Every time she came across him she looked through him though he

was larger than life.5. The kids hid her handbag for a lark and she couldn’t pay for the milk.6. (BrE, spoken)Gather all these papers and do the room right now?

Blow/ sod that for a lark! 7. The waiter brought me chicken soup again; I couldn’t stand that eating

lark any more.8. She went to sleep early but was up with the lark every morning.9. The kids lurked behind the old nut-tree waiting for their neighbour to

leave; they wanted to steal the apples she had put on the bench.10. (informal)When he saw his car damaged he lashed himself into a

terrible fury. 11.When the old woman saw the glass broken she started lashing out at

the kids playing in the yard.12.The last dish was delicious; it was pie with lashings of apple and nuts.13. I thought it foolish of him to go up there himself, to say the least.14.Nobody knew where he had been, least of all his wife.15.She knew what was going on but didn’t say anything; she was thinking

that least said, soonest mended.16.He used to be a plain man, but this time he felt there was something

wrong so he kept what he knew for himself; he thought that the least said, the better.

17.Though late in life, she was a good-looking woman.18. If you take care of yourself now, you will be healthy in later years.

1.8.3. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the troublesome words and phrases. Give their English paraphrases:

1. Membrii comitetului au dirijat discuţia către neînţelegerile referitoare la bugetul necesar realizării proiectului de cercetare.

2. Ne-a povestit că în cele şase luni cât a stat la tatăl său vitreg a avut o viaţă foarte grea/ o viaţă de câine.

Chapter 1 – About translation3. Le părea rău că bunicul lor era foarte bolnav, dar ştiau că în

tinereţe avusese/ dusese o viaţă foarte dezordonată/ frivolă/ de plăceri.

4. Nu puteau să-şi cumpere nici măcar o casă mică; erau foarte săraci şi trăiau de azi pe mâine.

5. Toată lumea ştia că cei doi nu se înţeleg şi că duc o viaţă dublă.

6. Avocatul apărării a obiectat împotriva faptului că acuzarea pune martorului întrebări tendenţioase.

7. Ne-am săturat de mofturile lui. Ne-a scos peri albi/ ne-a dat atâta bătaie de cap/ ne-a făcut zile fripte tot timpul cât a stat la noi.

8. Nu-mi place deloc faptul că este meschină şi îi face pe toţi să joace după cum le cântă ea. Păcat că mulţi au încredere în ea.

9. Cum poate un om ca el să se lase dus de nas?10. Cred că idila lui cu Ioana l-a schimbat de câtva timp, l-a făcut

să se abată de la drumul lui/ de la preocupările sale.11. Soţul ei a avut mai multe aventuri în tinereţe iar acum ea îi face

viaţa un infern/ imposibilă/ zile fripte.12. Sora mea vitregă ne-a făcut viaţa un calvar în ultimele luni din

cauza fâşiei de pământ pe care a moştenit-o de la bunicul.13. Echipa din care făcea el parte a fost în frunte timp de doi ani,

dar acum doi jucători foarte buni au fost excluşi/ lăsaţi pe dinafară şi echipa nu mai este cum era.

14. Comentariile pe care le-a făcut cu privire la rezultatele obţinute au picat foarte pros t .

15. Se vedea clar că ceea ce spunea era doar o scuză care nu ţinea/ era cusută cu aţă albă şi au rugat-o să termine cu minciunile/ să nu se mai prefacă.

16. Dacă aş fi în locul tău aş fi mai prudent în ceea ce îl priveşte.17. Toţi îşi dădeau seama că este cam viclean şi că nu se pot baza

pe el.18. Îşi propusese să-l aducă în faţa instanţei dar ştia că trebuie să

consulte un avocat.19. Contabilul a refuzat să semneze contractul deoarece şi-a dat

seama că afacerea nu este legală.20. Concluzia firească la care au ajuns toţi a fost că nu-l interesau

deloc rezultatele cercetărilor de laborator.

1.8.4. Translate into English paying special attention to the troublesome words and phrases. Give their synonyms and paraphrases in English:

1. Nu l-am invitat înăuntru pentru că era mare dezordine în cameră.2. Trebuie să-ţi amintesc că a avut de câteva ori ocazia să-şi

dovedească tăria de caracter.3. Mă aşteptam să facă un scandal îngrozitor, dar spre marea mea

surprindere era blând ca un mieluşel.4. M-am bucurat mult că am avut vreme bună, pentru că am putut săpa

toată grădina.5. Nu putem spune că am avut o iarnă grea; chiar a fost o iarnă blândă.6. I-a făcut doar câteva reproşuri cu blândeţe, dar tot s-a supărat pe ea.

Aşa-s bărbaţii.7. Mi-a plăcut brânza aceea; nu era sărată.8. Deşi era foarte nervoasă, el i-a răspuns cu blândeţe că nu vrea să fie

o povară pentru ea.

9. M-am gândit că nu se cade să spun ceea ce aveam eu pe suflet, că ar fi complet deplasat/ că n-ar fi deloc potrivit.

10.Nu i-au oferit decât câteva nenorocite de lire pentru produsele acelea care ar fi costat destul de mult.

11.Are câteva amintiri confuze cu privire la tot ce s-a întâmplat.12.Nu cred că se cuvenea să faci asemenea glume când erau şi femei de

faţă.13.Părinţii lui nu suportau să-l vadă într-o companie/ societate dubioasă.14.Să ai o fire deschisă este bine în unele privinţe, rău în altele.15.Nu ne-a venit să credem când am auzit că este amestecat în afacerea

aceea dubioasă.16.Mi-a fost tare milă de el! Mi-am dat seama că este un copil

traumatizat.17.Cred că s-a făcut o încurcătură în ceea ce priveşte rezervarea locurilor

la restaurant.18.Asta s-a întâmplat din cauza harababurii/ zăpăcelii de la sfârşitul

conferinţei.19. În fiecare dimineaţă îl auzeam bombănind că are de făcut multe

treburi.20.Nu mai suporta să audă gemetele răniţilor.21.Astă-noapte nu a fost lună; nu vedeai nimic pe întuneric.22.Mi-e milă de Donna; îşi pierde vremea explicându-i soţului ei că face

foarte multe greşeli. E ca şi cum ar lătra un câine la lună.23.Era în al nouălea cer că se mărită.24.Pretinde că este prietenul nostru iar el vine pe la noi din an în Paşte/

din Paşte în Crăciun.25.Cum poate fi atât de meschin? A uitat că atunci când a avut nevoie de

ea i-a promis şi luna de pe cer.26.Mai bine nu-i lua în seamă şi ai grijă de profesia ta/ de treburile tale.

Câinii latră, caravana trece.27.Mă săturasem până peste cap să-l aud plângându-şi de milă toată

ziua.28.Eram frânt de oboseală; am condus aproape zece ore iar traficul

fusese foarte intens.29.Toate bunurile lui mobile le-au revenit nepoţilor.30.Nu am fost deloc surprinşi când ne-au spus că ea a fost cea care a

iniţiat întotdeauna toate schimbările.

1.8.5. Provide phrases with merge, mess, mixed, give their Romanian ‘equivalents’ and find suitable contexts for them.

1.8.6. Make right choices of the paraphrases corresponding to the troublesome words and phrases given below. Provide suitable contexts and translate them into Romanian:1. macaroon. 2. macaroni. 3. as mad as wet hen/ a hatter/ a March hare. 4. make a mad dash. 5. work like magic. 6. have a magic touch. 7. magical. 8. a maze of rules/ regulations/ details. 9. bear somebody no malice. 10. with malice afterthought. 11. much maligned. 12. malignant. 13. to mark somebody out for. 14. to marry somebody off. 15. as merry as a cricket/ lark. 16. to master one’s fear/ weakness. 17. to muster up courage. 18. pass muster. 19. (BrE, informal) make a meal of. 20. (AmE) a meal ticket. 21. to go through the mill. 22. put somebody through the mill. 23. run-of-the-mill.

Chapter 1 – About translationa) thin pipe-like Italian pasta, cooked in boiling water; b) a cake made of sugar, eggs, crushed almonds and coconut; (informal) dull, idiot; (informal, BrE) a dandy; c) behave in an uncontrolled way; d) be extremely angry; e) to have a special ability to make things work well; f) be very effective; g) very charming and enjoyable; h) a large number of complicated rules; i) done on purpose; j) not to have the desire to harm somebody in spite of their behaving badly to you; k) showing a strong desire to harm somebody; l) unfairly criticized; m) to be destined for; n) to find a husband or wife for; o) extremely happy; p) to cheer up, to try and find courage in order to do something difficult; r) fight against a bad feeling; s) to be accepted as satisfactory; t) a way of getting money to secure a good life style; u) spend too much time or effort doing something; v) to make somebody work hard and suffer; x) to experience a lot of hardships; y) considered to be ordinary, uninteresting.

1.8.7. Make the right choice of the English equivalents for the following words and phrases considered to be translation difficulties:

1. sărăcăcios. 2. de origine modestă. 3. a fi rău intenţionat, a avea intenţii rele. 4. a fi bine intenţionat, a avea intenţii bune. 5. răutăcios. 6. a cheltui prea mult, a-şi permite multe lucruri. 7. a costa mai mult decât îşi poate permite cineva. 8. un scop în sine. 9. cu orice preţ. 10. cine s-atinge de mărăcini, nevătămat nu scapă. 11. încurcătură, harababură. 12. a fi încurcat, învălmăşit. 13. a se zăpăci când are prea mult de lucru. 14. a proceda haotic. 15. a încurca/ amesteca lucrurile, a încurca iţele. 16. a nu fi în stare să gândească limpede, a fi confuz. 17. a-şi găsi naşul/ omul. 18. a se băga în gura lupului. 19. a reuşi să o scoată la capăt, a trăi de azi pe mâine. 20. a se izbi/ lovi de/ a da peste greutăţi.

1.8.8. Comment on the ways of rendering the following troublesome Romanian words, phrases and structures into English:

1. grozav. 2. vechi de când lumea, de pe vremea lui Pazvante. 3. a avea foarte multă experienţă în/ la. 4. sărmana. 5. poliţia. 6. (informal) bătrână, rea şi cicălitoare, zgripţuroaică. 7. Vulpea bătrână nu se prinde cu păsăruicile mici. 8. Câinele bătrân nu latră la lună. 9. Calul bătrân nu se mai învaţă în buiestru. 10. Boii bătrâni fac brazda dreaptă. 11. îşi scutură baba (Dochia) cojocul. 12. cântece vechi dar nemuritoare.

1.8.9. Translate, interpret and make comments on the following excerpts considering the theoretical aspects discussed in the previous sections:

a) -Pe ce te bazezi? zise Ştefan, uitându-se în jos, cu pleoapele lăsate şi cu sprâncenele ridicate, semn al unei absenţe a gândului aproape totală, deşi se vedea că asculta cu cea mai mare atenţie ceea ce spunea taică-său.

- Pe ce mă bazez? strigă Parizianu. Mă bazez pe chiondoroşenia lui, se uită la tine ca şi când s-ar crede cel mai deştept din câţi există, în timp ce nu ştie nici măcar să ridice un pai de lângă el… Iar tat-său, dacă era ceva de capul lui, ajungea şi el primar, nu umbla să vândă pământul şi să râdă lumea de el. Nu mi-a spus mie Aristide? Mă, alde Parizianu, zice, vorbeşte tu cu Moromete, dacă e om deştept, îl fac primar… Eu mă retrag… Păi, de ce, domnule Aristide, zic, n-ai mai găsit pe nimeni în partidul liberal cât e satu ăsta de mare? E, dar e 'oţi, zice, mie îmi trebuie unul care să nu fie ‘oţ! Şi ce, se terminară oamenii cinstiţi? E cinstiţi, zice, da' e proşti, mie îmi trebuie unu

şi cinstit şi deştept… Dacă ar fi venit la mine i-aşi fi spus şi ar fi ajuns şi el cineva.

b) -Nu mai spune ! Cât de mare eşti acum? chicoti ea din nou. Mai bine zi că eu am ţinut la tine… De câte ori treceam pe drum spre biserică, te vedeam… Într-o zi ai ieşit pe prispă cu pâinea în mână.

El începu să râdă:-Ha, ha, ha!… Cu pâinea în mână! Mare brânză!-Mare, exclamă ea cu un glas scurt, acoperind un gând.Poate vrusese să spună că ea îl văzuse, în timp ce el nu ştia, n-o

văzuse pe ea?-Aveai o carte în mână şi te-ai dus sub salcâmi şi te-ai întins cu spatele în sus. Într-o mână ţineai cartea şi în alta pâinea. Tocmai o scosese maică-ta din ţest: „Nu rupe, mă, zice, că se încruzeşte”, am auzit-o din tindă, dar tu ai ieşit pe urmă cu colcovanul în mână…

-Şi tu unde te duceai? zise al lu’ Parizianu cu un glas intrigat de această amintire a ei care părea într-adevăr îndepărtată. Câţi ani aveai?

-Câţi aveai şi tu, răspunse ea ferindu-se, ca şi când n-ar fi vrut să dezvăluie un secret atât de nepătruns al vieţii ei.

(Marin Preda, Delirul, Editura Cartea Românească, Bucureşti, 1975: 33)

Chapter 2 – Traps in translating literary texts

Chapter 2 - Traps in translating literary texts

2.1. Like any kind of communication, translation is recipient/reader – oriented. Starting from this idea, it is the intended purpose of the target text (TT) i.e.” translation skopos” (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984), that imposes the translation methods, techniques and strategies. Unlike the functional or specialized translations that have to consider the “end – user” and have to meet with certain exact requirements such as conciseness, exactness and objectivity, the literary translations need careful investigation of the cultural, social and historical contexts of the source – text (ST) and target – text (TT). Besides the extralinguistic factors, they need psycholinguistic, linguistic and pragmatic knowledge of both languages and cultures in which the translator operates, the Translation Operator (TO) being a mediator between the two languages and cultures in contact.

2.2. In translating literary texts, both the translation theory and practice, on the one hand, and translation criticism, on the other, have to consider a series of criteria for the analysis of the ST and TT important in interpreting and translating the text. Among the most important coordinates of literary translations, intentionality determines the translator’s choices, the author’s intention being as important as the recipient that defines the communicative situation and the function of the text. According to the functional – pragmatic approach, translation criticism focuses on the product of the translating process, i.e. the TT, comparing it to the ST. A critical analysis of the ST and TT version(s) is made in terms of accuracy, adequacy and effect. Style, which is a “property of language users in particular kinds of settings” (Hatim and Mason 1992: 10) is also extremely important both in translating literary texts and in comparing the ST and TT version(s). The ideal to touch in translating literary texts consists in expressing the whole universe of ideas of the source – language text (SLT). In a wider sense, this ideal means the re-creation of the SLT in the TL by different means, which reminds us of R. Jakobson’s “likeness in fundamental difference” (Jakobson 1959).The literary translation helps the reader go ,by way of comprehension, up to the author’s universe of ideas and feelings, as Schleiermacher put it. Re-creating the SLT means decoding the author’s universe, rendering the denotations and the connotations in the TL, rendering the message, as well as identifying, on the one hand, with the author’s universe in the TL system and with the TL reader, on the other. One of the most important semantic aspects of translation is the semantic content of a word which consists of: a) the general meaning of the linguistic notion; b) the occasional meaning , i.e. the general meaning in a certain situational context; c) the general representation of the notion as a result of all the occasional uses or occurrences ; d) the secondary representations, i.e. subjective associations; e) feeling – tones, i.e. connotations. Therefore, distinction must be made between the primary – linguistic aspect, based on the cognitive experience and including the denotative meaning usually described by means of referential definitions, and the secondary linguistic aspect which includes the specific overtones related to the cultural context or to a certain individual experience , i.e. connotations.

Chapter 2 – Traps in translating literary texts Nida distinguishes between the referential or cognitive meaning, related to the extralinguistic object in its cultural context, and the emotive meaning, related to the subjective relations. The former is possible, though sometimes difficult to translate, but it can be exactly rendered to a certain extent, whereas the latter is very difficult to translate. These “feeling tones” are real traps for translators of literary texts.

2.3. A translator of literary texts should never forget one of the fundamental translation principles, namely that the translation should accurately reflect the meaning of the original text and that nothing should be added or removed arbitrarily, though, occasionally, part of the meaning can be “transposed”. The so-called “loaded” words and phrases, with underlying implications, as well as the words and phrases whose dictionary meanings are not the most suitable ones, are frequent traps for literary translators. In order to illustrate various types of difficulties a translator has to overcome in translating literary texts, a series of examples will be provided out of many others found in investigating a very large corpus, prepared for study with a group of students within the master programme in the Translation and interpretation specialization. In discussing such traps which cover many types of difficulties, we considered both the extralinguistic or extratextual factors (socio-cultural and historical background, author, the author’s intention, the place and the time the ST was written in function of the ST/TT, and the ST / TT reader), on the one hand, and the linguistic or intratextual factors (subject matter, content, presupposition - as carriers of semantic information - , as well as composition, lexis, sentence structure – both surface and deep structure – and suprasegmental features ), all of them bearing stylistic implications. All these factors are very useful in the correct interpretation of the ST within a Translation – Oriented Text Analysis (TOTA), and in producing the TT.

2.4. A number of translation difficulties found in the corpus studied were classified according to the following criteria: 1) Connotations difficult to render in the TT; 2) Different contextual distributions in the TL; 3) Collocabillity; 4) Shifts or transpositions; 5) Different syntactic structures from SL to TL.

Studying the connotations found in the corpus, three types were obvious: a) connotations derived from the primary dictionary meaning or denotation; b) connotations derived from one of the secondary dictionary meanings; c) (a) different connotation(s) in the TT in terms of the co – text.

Among the three types of connotations mentioned above, the first one was the most frequent in translating five of the fragments included in the corpus. An interesting example may be the noun consecration in the structure consecration of its loneliness (in the fragment from Jane Eyre), rendered by sfinţenia singurăţăţii: I saw the fascination of the locality. I felt the consecration of its loneliness… Descopeream fascinaţia tinutului. Simţeam sfinţenia singurătăţii acestei aşezări… In this context, the noun consecration cannot be translated by its first meaning, i.e. “dedication to the service and worship of God” (Webster), but it has to be given a connotative meaning in terms of the co – text, as well as in terms of its collocabillity with the verb to reverence:

Chapter 2 – Traps in translating literary texts I liked to read what they liked to read;what they enjoyed delighted me;what they approved I reverenced… Îmi plăcea să citesc ceea ce le plăcea şi lor; ceea ce pentru ele era o bucurie, pentru mine era o încântare; preţuiam tot ceea ce ele apreciau… Another example is the verb to shield in the syntagm to shield his life from the eyes of men, in the fragment from The Landscape Painter: For five years, accordingly,he managed to shield his life from the eyes of men… În consecinţă, a reuşit timp de cinci ani să trăiască departe de privirile celor din jur… This verb cannot be translated by its primary dictionary meanings, i. e. a-şi proteja /a-şi feri viaţa de, because they are not specific to the TL; besides, the Romanian phrase de ochii lumii has fully different connotations and matches different contexts. Therefore, a phrase specific to Romanian has to be used. The adjective outside in the structure the outside world (in the fragment from Picture of Dorian Gray) was rendered by cei care nu-l cunoşteau prea bine/ care îl cunoşteau mai puţin in terms of the co-text,in contrast with Society cei apropiaţi: At half past twelve next day Lord Henry Wotton strolled from Curzon Street over to the Albany to call on his uncle, Lord Fermor, a genial if somewhat rough – mannered old bachelor, whom the outside world called selfish because it derived no particular benefit from him, but who was considered generous by Society as he fed the people who amused him A doua zi la douăsprezece şi jumătate, lordul Henry Wotton porni agale din strada Curzon spre Albany pentru a-i face o vizită unchiului său, lordul Fermor, un burlac bătrân şi vesel, deşi oarecum lipsit de maniere – despre care cei ce îl cunoşteau mai puţin spuneau că este un egoist, căci nu trăgeau nici un folos de pe urma lui – dar considerat generos de cei apropiaţi deoarece le dădea de mâncare celor care îl amuzau.

Considering the co – text (including the reference to Lord Fermor), it becomes obvious that the noun Society does not refer here to “the whole body of individuals living as members of a community, but to one social class only, that of the wealthy, prominent and fashionable persons” (Webster: 1351); moreover, it is spelt with a capital letter. Consequently, involving the emphasis that Lord Fermor was part of that social class and that he knew almost all its remarkable representatives, the translator’s final choice was cei apropiaţi in contrast with cei ce îl cunoşteau mai puţin.

More examples of such connotations could be found in the fragment from Typhoon, e. g. pitch, suck, tunnel: Her lurches had an appalling helplessness; she pitched as if taking a header into a void, and seemed to find a wall to hit every time …At certain moments, the air streamed against the ship as if sucked through a tunnel with a concentrated solid force of impact that seemed to lift her clean out of the water and keep her up for an instant with only a quiver running through her from end to end. Zbuciumul lui [vasului] dovedea o neputinţă înspăimântătoare: dispărea în talazuri ca şi cum ar fi plonjat în gol şi de fiecare dată părea că se izbeşte de un zid…În răstimpuri, curenţii de aer loveau vasul de parcă l-ar fi tras în jos printr-o pâlnie uriaşă cu o cumplită forţa de impact care izbea vasul cu înverşunare şi care părea că îl ridică cu totul din apă şi îl ţine astfel preţ de o clipă, străbătut doar de un tremur de la un capăt la altul. The verb pitch was translated by dispărea în talazuri, due to the impossibility of translating it by its first dictionary meaning, i.e. “to fall suddenly and heavily in a particular direction” (LDCE). Its synonyms, a se av â nta/ azvârli/ arunca/ afunda/ prăbuşi/ pica do not collocate with the noun vas in order to describe the movement of the

Chapter 2 – Traps in translating literary textsship. The elliptical comparative clause as if sucked through a tunnel was interpreted in terms of the context, as the noun tunnel could not be translated by tunel/ canal/ coridor/ ţeavă/ galerie, none of them collocating with either curenţi de aer or cumplita forţă de impact; the final choice was made for the Romanian equivalent to have the same effect on the reader. Consequently, in order to preserve the stylistic effect of the verb suck, the Romanian variant tras în jos printr-o pâlnie uriaşă was the best choice; furthermore, the epithet uriaşă emphasises the contrast between the size of the ship and the unleashed forces of nature the ship fought against.

The connotations derived from one of the secondary dictionary meanings are also very frequent and difficult to render in the TL. For example, the substantivized adjective the impertinent (in the fragment from The Landscape Painter) was rendered by celor indiscreţi, because it was interpreted to have a connotation derived from the secondary dictionary meaning, i.e. nepotrivit. The use of the adjective curioşi in the published version is also a good choice. The noun spots (in the fragment from What Maisie Knew) was translated by its connotation, i.e. imperfecţiuni, because it was associated with brilliancy of a lady’s complexion translated by strălucirea obrazului unei doamne and with the structure the mother’s character: The father, who, though bespattered from head to foot, had made good his case, was,[…] appointed to keep her;it was not so much that the mother’s character had been more absolutely damaged as that the brilliancy of a lady’s complexion […] might be more regarded as showing the spots Tatăl, deşi împroşcat cu noroi din cap până-n picioare, îşi pledase bine cauza,[..] fu numit susţinătorul legal, nu atât pentru faptul că reputaţia mamei a fost iremediabil compromisă, cât pentru faptul că strălucirea obrazului unei doamne […] ar putea fi privită mai mult ca o imperfecţiune. A very interesting example may be the syntagm of all the moods and tenses of the ocean (in the fragment from The Landscape Painter):I am enamoured of all the moods and tenses of the ocean Sânt îndrăgostit de capriciile şi toanele oceanului… This final choice was made because these connotations preserve the stylistic effect of the hendyadis in the ST.

In studying the types of connotations and the ways of rendering them in the TL, a lot of words were found in the source – texts with different connotations in the TTs in terms of the co- text. The structure mutually entertained (in the fragment fom Jane Eyre) was rendered by simţindu-ne bine împreună, because the transitive a distra pe cineva has different connotations in the TL: Thus occupied, and mutually entertained, days passed like hours, and weeks like days Având astfel de preocupări şi simţindu-ne bine împreună, zilele treceau ca orele, iar săptămânile ca zilele. A very interesting example is with her full complement of limbs (in The Landscape Painter) that cannot be rendered by cu braţele întregi, which would miss the stylistic effect of the original. The variant în deplinătatea formelor ei would be wrong, and înainte de a fi mutilată would mean more than the author’s intention and would even alter the original: I used to hear that her lover was fond of comparing her to Venus of Milo; and, indeed, if you can imagine the mutilated goddess with her full complement of limbs […] you may obtain a vague notion of Miss Josephine Leary. Auzeam adesea că iubitului ei îi plăcea foarte mult s-o compare cu statuia lui Venus din Milo; şi într-adevăr, dacă v-aţi imagina-o pe zeiţă având şi braţele întregi […], atunci v-aţi face o idee vagă despre înfăţişarea domnişoarei Leary. Consequently, this final choice is considered to match the original better in terms of adequacy

Chapter 2 – Traps in translating literary texts In the same text, the structure of heroic proportions cannot be given a literal translation, because the effect would be rather hilarious. More than that, there is no reference to size, but it is her beauty that is meant, comparison being drawn to the statue of Venus: When he walked about with his betrothed it was half a matter of surprise that he should have ventured to propose to a young lady of such heroic proportions Când se plimba alături de logodnica lui, era oarecum surprinzător faptul că îndrăznise să ceară în căsătorie o domnişoară de o asemenea frumuseţe statuară.

The contextual distribution of every lexical item is specific to each of the two languages in contact. Such may be the case of the noun portions (in What Maisie Knew) translated by cele doua jumătăţi considering the determiner used with its anaphoric function, as well as the fact that it does not collocate with the verb a împărţi. There is repetition in the published version, besides the use of the verb a tăia even if it is used in its connotation:She was divided in two and the portions tossed impartially to the disputants. Ea a fost împărţită în două, iar jumătăţile au fost aruncate fără părtinire celor care şi-o revendicau. The Romanian equivalents of the noun simpleton have different contextual distributions. In the fragment from Pride And Prejudice it was translated by nerod, not by nătărău, although, according to a semantic translation, it would render the meaning of the original better (V.Breban: nătărău – care pricepe greu). However, nătărău/ prost/ bleg /imbecil have different contextual distributions in Romanian: If I can perceive her regard for him, he must be a simpleton indeed not to discover it too. Dacă eu îmi pot da seama de admiraţia ei pentru el, atunci el trebuie să fie chiar nerod să nu observe acest lucru.

Another interesting example can be found in one of H. James’ titles, i.e. papers, in The Aspern Papers, rendered by însemnări not by documente, although it is used with the meaning of “a document establishing or verifying identity, status, or the like: citizenship papers” (Webster: 1044). It cannot be translated as such because of the different contextual distribution: papers refers to someone’s personal notes – diary.

One of the major problems which a translator has to face is to use appropriate collocations in the TLT. He has to overcome the danger that SL interference may escape unnoticed and an unnatural collocation may occur in the TT. Translating collocations requires the translator’s competence because they provide powerful evidence of intentionality and text – type focus. They can point to the intended meaning, which is not made explicit by other means. For example, the collocation odd justice (in What Maisie Knew) was translated as acest mod de a face dreptate părea ciudat, not by the collocation dreptate ciudată, which is not accepted in Romanian. Moreover, it refers to the manner in which justice was done: This was odd justice in the eyes of those who still blinked in the fierce light projected from the tribunal – a light in which neither parent figured in the least as a happy example to youth and innocence. Acest mod de a face dreptate părea ciudat în ochii celor care încă mai clipeau orbiţi de lumina necruţătoare ce venea dinspre tribunal – lumina în care nici unul din părinţi nu apărea câtuşi de puţin ca un exemplu fericit pentru o fiinţă fragedă şi nevinovată. There are TL collocations in which neither the primary nor the secondary dictionary meanings of the SL noun can be used, and the translator has to find a synonym accepted by the TL. For example, the noun congeniality in the collocation congeniality of tastes, sentiments and principles (in Jane Eyre) has to be rendered by potrivire to collocate with all the three nouns: de

Chapter 2 – Traps in translating literary textsgusturi, sentimente şi principii: There was a reviving pleasure in this intercourse, of a kind now tasted by me for the first time - the pleasure arising from perfect congeniality of tastes, sentiments and principles. În acest fel de prietenie, găseam o plăcere care mă însufleţea şi pe care o simţeam pentru prima dată – plăcerea care izvora din potrivirea perfectă de gusturi, sentimente şi principii. An interesting example that may seem striking to the reader just because it creates a special stylistic effect is the collocation a concentrated solid force of impact (in Typhoon). It could not be rendered by a symmetrical collocation in the TT, i.e. forţa masivă compactă/ forţa solidă de impact cumplită/ forţa concentrată de impact, because none of these structures is appropriate in terms of collocability in Romanian. Therefore, it was translated as cumplita forţă de impact in order to render the meaning of concentrated as well: At certain moments the air streamed against the ship as if sucked through a tunnel with a concentrated solid force of impact that seemed to lift her clean out of the water […] În răstimpuri, curenţii de aer loveau vasul de parcă l-ar fi tras în jos printr-o pâlnie uriaşă cu o cumplită forţă de impact care izbea vasul cu înverşunare şi care părea că îl ridică cu totul din apă […]. Such rare and apparently unacceptable collocations are called marked collocations. They strike the reader because they involve deliberate confusion of collocational ranges to create new images. They may seem untypical in the common language, but they are often used in literary prose and poetry. The differences in the collocational patterning of the SL and TL create potential pitfalls and can be real traps for literary translators who “sometimes get quite engrossed in the source – text and may produce the oddest collocations in the target – language for no justifiable reason” (M.Baker 1992: 54). Translating collocations often involves a tension – a difficult choice between what is typical and what is accurate. Consequently, it is the collocational patterning of a word that determines its different meanings. According to the principle that translation conveys more or less than the original (Croitoru 1996: 40), the TL ’equivalent’ epithet may not be sufficient to render the semantic content and the stylistic effect of the SL word. For example, the epithet fierce in the collocation fierce light (in What Maisie Knew) was translated by necruţătoare not by puternică/ orbitoare that would mean less than fierce in the original. Consequently, interpretation during the translating process “concentrates on finding the appropriate expression to convey a given meaning […] in a given context, and involves the identification of relevant concepts and their rewording in another language so that the SL and TL wordings may correspond in their temporary meaning in a given speech performance” (Croitoru 1996 : 39).

Shifts (Catford’s term) or transpositions (Vinay and Darbelnet’s) are frequent translation procedures which involve changes in the grammar from SL to TL. One of the most frequent cases is the use of a long syntagm to render a noun. For example, the noun sweetness (in What Maisie Knew) was translated as gustul dulce al succesului, because the TL lacks an equivalent in such a context: Attached, however, to the second pronouncement was a condition that detracted, for Beale Farange, from its sweetness – an order that he should refund to his late wife the twenty-six hundred pounds down by her […] Cu toate acestea, la a doua pronunţare s-a adăugat o clauză care îi lua lui Beale Farange din gustul dulce al succesului – hotărâre prin care trebuia să

Chapter 2 – Traps in translating literary textsrestituie fostei sale soţii cele două mii şase sute de lire sterline, plătite de ea[..]. For communicative purposes, in the published version it was translated by să primească hotărârea cu mai putin entuziasm covering the whole syntactic structure the predicate included. In the same fragment, the noun sider was translated by a very long syntagm including an attributive clause, i.e. cei care erau de partea unuia sau a celuilalt: There had been ‘sides’ before, and there were sides as much as ever; for the sider too the prospect opened out, taking the pleasant form of a superabundance of matter for desultory conversation Fusesera şi înainte ‘părţi’ adverse, dar acum erau unul împotriva celuilalt mai mult ca niciodată / Erau şi acum, ca şi înainte,’părti’ adverse; iar celor care erau de partea unuia sau a celuilalt li se ofereau noi prilejuri ce căpătau forma placută a numeroaselor/ ce se concretizau în numeroase subiecte pentru conversaţii ocazionale şi inutile. Another example is the noun wellwishers also rendered by an attributive clause, because it could not be translated by any of the synonyms susţinători/ simpatizanţi/ partizani/ doritori de bine that have different contextual distributions: That most popular with Locksley’s wellwishers was that he had backed out […] Cel mai frecvent comentariu printre cei care erau de partea lui Locksley era ca el fusese cel care renunţase […] The verbal adjective is most frequently rendered into Romanian by a whole clause, usually an attributive clause. For example, reviving in the collocation reviving pleasure (in Jane Eyre) was translated by the attributive clause care mă însufleţea: There was a reviving pleasure in this intercourse, of a kind now tasted by me for the first time - the pleasure arising from perfect congeniality of tastes, sentiments, and feelings. În acest fel de prietenie, găseam o plăcere care mă însufleţea şi pe care o simţeam pentru prima dată – plăcerea care izvora din potrivirea perfectă de gusturi, sentimente şi principii. In the published version, it was translated by the adjective mare +attributive clause, i.e. o mare bucurie pe care o gustam întâia oară which is considered to be a semantic loss.

2.5. Differences in the grammatical structures of the SL and TL may often bring about some change in the information content of the message. Two of the most frequent and most obvious changes are those taking the form of addition (i.e. adding to the TT information that is not expressed in the ST), or of omission (i.e. omitting information specified in the ST). Here are some of the most frequent syntactic structures found in the texts analysed and translated: 2.5.1. SL noun: a) TL noun +adjective (breezes aerul răcoros); b) TL noun + det. + adj. (extravagance cheltuielile mele extravagante): a) And we, the weary pilgrims of the London pavement, were beginning to think of the cloud – shadows on the corn – fields, and the autumn breezes on the sea – shore. Iar noi, istoviţi pelerini ai străzilor Londrei, începeam să ne gândim la umbrele norilor deasupra lanurilor de grâu şi la aerul răcoros de toamnă la malul mării.

b) And my extravagance now limited me to the prospect of spending the autumn economically between my mother’s cottage at Hampstead and my own chambers in town. Iar cheltuielile mele extravagante nu-mi lăsau acum decât posibilitatea de a-mi petrece toamna într-un mod mai chibzuit între căsuţa din Hampstead a mamei şi apartamentul meu din oraş.

Chapter 2 – Traps in translating literary texts 2.5.2. SL adj. + adj. TL adv. + adj. (a charm both potent and permanent pururea irezistibil): I, too, in the gray, small, antique structure […] found a charm both potent and permanent. Şi eu, la rândul meu, găseam un farmec pururea irezistibil în căsuţa aceea cenuşie şi veche […]. 2.5.3. SL noun + verb + noun: a) TL verb + adv. (thought fitted thought gandeam la fel ); b) TL verb (a avea )+ det. + noun (opinion met opinion aveam aceleaşi păreri ): Though fitted thought; opinion met opinion; we coincided, in short, perfectly. Gândeam la fel; aveam aceleaşi păreri; pe scurt, ne înţelegeam perfect. 2.5.4. SL noun + prep. + noun: a) TL verb + direct object clause (claims to distinction pretindeau că se deosebesc prin ceva: Both parties possessed certain claims to distinction . Ambele părţi pretindeau că se deosebesc prin ceva anume. b) TL noun + adj. (the blackness of the clouds norii întunecaţi; effect of quietness efect liniştitor): And on this dazzling sheet, spread under the blackness of the clouds […], Captain MacWhirr could catch a desolate glimpse of a few tiny specks black as ebony […] Şi pe această întindere strălucitoare de sub norii întunecaţi […], căpitanul MacWhirr reuşi să desluşească nişte puncte mici, răzleţe, negre ca abanosul[…]. And he heard that voice, forced and ringing feebly, but with a penetrating effect of quietness in the enormous discord of noises, as if sent out from some remote spot of peace[…] Şi din nou auzi glasul acela slab, dar care încerca să se facă auzit, cu un puternic efect liniştitor în vacarmul acela asurzitor, venind parcă din vreun loc îndepărtat , dintr-o oază de linişte […]. c) TL noun + prep. + (det./ pron.) noun + prep. + noun ( [ remote] spot of peace loc [ îndepărtat] dintr-o /vreo oază de linişte ) (see above). Sometimes the TL grammatical structure is different in terms of relevance. For example, the verb to find is irrelevant in the sentence She seemed to find a wall to hit. Consequently, the translation was Părea că se loveşte de un zid (in Typhoon,see above). The subtle choices in point of relevance may differ significantly from one translator to another, which would affect the quality and accuracy of the translation. On the other hand, failure to correctly render the SL structures will result in very unnatural texts. d) TL noun marked for the plural corresponding to the ST singular. For example, the nouns in the structure wave and rock and cloud are marked for the plural in the TL in order to preserve the stylistic effect of the original: Never before have I seen such a pretty little coast – never before have I been so taken with wave and rock and cloud. Niciodată nu am mai văzut un colţ de lume atât de frumos pe ţărmul mării, niciodată nu am mai fost atât de fascinat de valuri, de stânci şi de nori. The coordinating conjunction and in the ST is replaced by the preposition de in the TT in order to give the TT sentence the same rhythm and musicality of the ST one. Therefore, the literary translator has to overcome the restrictions imposed by certain features of the SL structures and has to make the TT sound natural. 2.5.6. To conclude, the content of a message in the SL cannot always be matched by an expression with exactly the same content and the same structure in the TL. What must be expressed is a problem as difficult as that

Chapter 2 – Traps in translating literary textsof how it can be expressed. Following SL norms may involve insignificant changes in the overall meaning. On the other hand, deviations from typical TL patterns may result in a translation that will sound “foreign”. It is obvious that the literary translator has to be competent in handling the SL patterns in order to correctly render the message in the TL and to produce a TT which will read naturally and smoothly

2.6. Practical applications

2.6.1. Translate into Romanian paying attention to the translation traps:

1. I didn’t know that her husband was an adman.2. He had very little spare time because he worked in admin.3. I cannot come with you this weekend because I want to do some

admin.4. I was amazed to hear his admission that it had been his fault. I knew

that the admission of guilt is always hard.5. The admission of women to that club was something new in those

parts.6. She was a bad cook by/ on her own admission.7. From now on you’ll have free admission to all art galleries.8. I was put out to see the note: No admittance after 3 p.m.9. The detective hoped to gain admittance to the club in less than a

week.10.We are sorry to let you know that we have advanced the date of our

meeting from Friday to Wednesday.11.He told me that a more interesting project had been advanced by the

British delegation.12.She was very anxious about her husband’s advance to a higher

position.13.There was hardly any hope for his advancement.14.The company had big profits due to an advance on petrol.15.He could pay the rent as he had got an advance on salary two days

before.16.That was made possible due to the advancement given by the owner

to Janet.

2.6.2. Translate into English:

1. Se ştie că îndeplineşte funcţia de consilier cu probleme interne. 2. Te sfătuiesc să fii mai atent în privinţa detaliilor. 3. Nu mi-a dat niciodată măcar un sfat în această privinţă. 4. Dozele zilnice din acest medicament se schimbă numai la sfatul medicului. 5. V-am fi recunoscători daca ne-aţi informa în privinţa preţurilor. 6. Schimbarea aceea l-a afectat foarte mult. 7. Jane a afişat un aer de indiferenţă ca să mă facă să cred că n-o interesează aceste schimbări. 8. Imită accentul celor din sud. 9. S-a gândit că e mai bine să simuleze că nu ştie nimic. 10. Vestea l-a impresionat profund. 11. Aceasta întâmplare i-a marcat definitiv sensibilitatea. 12. Vederea atâtor răniţi a impresionat-o până la lacrimi. 13. Cei patru generali şi-au făcut un plan de atac. 14. Până la urmă i-a ajutat doar pentru impresie. 15. Suferea de o boală de ochi şi urma să facă o operaţie complicată. 16. Este medic într-o ţară îndepărtată şi studiază bolile care îi fac să sufere pe săraci. 17. Pământul suferea foarte mult de pe urma secetei. 18. Judecătorul a stabilit/ a

Chapter 2 – Traps in translating literary textsaplicat pedeapsa cea mai dură. 19. Directorul a trebuit să aplice o pedeapsă severă pentru încălcarea acestei legi. 20. Guvernul a impus taxe destul de mari.

2.6.3. Translate the following sentences into Romanian paying special attention to the trap words:

1. I liked her ashen hair which suited her perfectly.2. She got scared when she saw his ashen face and sunken eyes.3. These colours do not match her ashy complexion.4. It’s just like in that fairy tale where the little girl follows the ashy path to

reach her grannie’s house.5. To all his assurances, she couldn’t believe him; she knew he used to

be a big liar.6. He didn’t keep his word though he had given them his assurance that

he would get ready in due time.7. He was sorry to let them know that the insurance didn’t cover the

damage.8. He didn’t have enough money to pay the insurance on his house; he

needed to borrow some from his father-in-law.9. She said she had been working in insurance for a couple of months,

but she didn’t like it and was looking our for another job.10. I can assure you that he will make a good job of that.11.She was happy because she had been assured a good position.12.He didn’t care about the coming changes, because he had assured his

position.13.These arguments will ensure them the agreement of all.14. I just wanted to ensure that my youngest son had locked up the

house.15.He decided to insure his house against fire.16.He kept us waiting for more than twenty minutes but he showed up at

last.17.Then he signed all the papers and lastly the will he had made once

again.18.He mentioned a lot of her qualities which he admired and last of all he

mentioned her composure of temper and cheerfulness of manner.19.He remembered that his boss had attached too much importance to

that change.20.She hoped that no blame would be attached to her brother for that

loss.21.He was among the few politicians who had never been attacked by

journalists.22.They realized they couldn’t attack that problem which was connected

with the funds.

2.6.4. Translate into English paying special attention to the troublesome words:

1. Atunci erau împrejurări favorabile care îi puteau ajuta foarte mult.2. Nu-i venea să creadă că se ivise o ocazie propice să-şi valorifice

talentul.3. Era fericit că întâmplarea aceea de bun augur îi schimbase viaţa (în

bine).4. A jurat că va răzbuna moartea vărului său dând foc fermei.

Chapter 2 – Traps in translating literary texts5. În sfârşit obţinu satisfacţie pentru umilinţele pe care le-a îndurat timp

de doi ani.6. Rudele celui care fusese omorât căutau să se răzbune.7. Soţia îl înşelase iar el, drept răzbunare, şi-a făcut o amantă.8. Spera că într-o bună zi se va răzbuna pe toţi cei care îşi bătuseră joc

de el.9. S-a pus chezaş pentru/ a garantat întregul proiect ca să obţină

fondurile necesare.10.Până la urmă a trebuit să-şi recunoască sincer/ să mărturisească

adevăratele intenţii.11. Îmi pare rău că am garantat pentru el ca să obţină împrumut de la

bancă.12.El este cel care va răspunde/ îşi va asuma responsabilitatea pentru

calitatea reparaţiilor.13.L-au ruinat numai cheltuielile extravagante ale soţiei.14. Întotdeauna sare în sus/ se supără foc dacă vine vorba de relaţiile ei

amoroase.15.Este foarte supărat că rudele îi cer mulţi bani pentru casa de la ţară,

acum când este la strâmtoare/ într-o situaţie foarte delicată/ strâns cu uşa.

16.Te duce fratele ei mai mic să vezi împrejurimile; cunoaşte ţinutul foarte bine.

17. Îşi duceau zilele de azi pe mâine; tatăl lor se spetea să câştige câţiva bani.

18.După ce s-au certat el a ieşit fără să spună unde se duce şi asta le-a întrecut pe toate.

19.De-abia ieşise din curte când a văzut că are pană de cauciuc şi a trebuit să dea maşina înapoi în garaj.

20.Guvernul s-a hotărât să sprijine universităţile în această acţiune.21. În faţa acestor probe, acuzatul şi-a recunoscut greşeala.22.Mai bine s-ar retrage/ şi-ar vedea de drum. Chiar nu-şi dă seama că-i

un plicticos?23.A reuşit să convingă pe toată lumea pentru că a susţinut-o soţul ei.24.Nici n-a vrut să se uite înapoi.25.De obicei ei îi ajută pe copiii din ţările înapoiate/ nedezvoltate.26.Mi-a părut rău când am văzut cât sunt de nefericiţi pentru că au un

copil întârziat mintal.27.Ori de câte ori privea în urmă spre prima parte a tinereţii îi era ruşine

de greşelile pe care le făcuse.28.Era nostimă cu pălăria pusă invers/ cu partea din spate în faţă.29.Nu crezi că s-a schimbat şi merge tot înapoi/ în jos/ spre mai rău?30.A dovedit că ştie totul la perfecţie şi a luat locul întâi.

2.6.5. Give the paraphrases of the troublesome words and phrases underlined and translate them into Romanian:

1. Susan wanted to take part in the action but balked when she heard the conditions.

2. The bulk of the goods had been damaged.3. How could they bulk out the figures in such a way?4. We didn’t know how to handle the situations with her, as she was such a

balky girl.5. I was wondering what that bulky parcel could contain.

Chapter 2 – Traps in translating literary texts6. What happened with the World Trade Center was a barbaric act of

terrorism.7. The people who were dancing were wearing such barbaric clothes.8. A few days later he got acquainted with that savage barbarous tribe.9. I couldn’t understand what they were speaking; their dialect seemed so

barbarous to my ears.10.He hoped he would feel well among those people but he got such a

barbarous treatment.11.She assured him that all the people of her tribe were very kind, but he

was shocked by their barbarism.12.Given the political context, everybody hopes that the barbarities of the

last war will not be repeated.13.Our customer base will be pleased with our very good service.14.His estimations of the farm profits were off base.15.Some of the apparata were first installed on a trial basis.16.They used to go for a bathe on Friday afternoons.17.Now that she felt better she went out and looked at the fields which were

bathed in sunlight.18.The old man was wondering what would become of his grandson now

that the kid’s father was dead.19.After a trial, which seemed to be endless, the jury believed him to be

innocent.20.To his amazement, I answered that I believed in Jesus.21.That week he felt much better due to a benefic confluence of the planets.22. I called him up that very night to tell him that I was so very grateful for

that beneficent act.23. I wouldn’t think of anything else those days. I was happy to lie in the sun,

to swim in the sea and to feel the beneficial effect of sunshine.24.She was beside herself when she heard that she had won the

competition.25.The kids were beside themselves with excitement because they didn’t

know what had happened with their friend.26.Besides being the lazybones of the family he is also a big liar.

2.6.6. Give the troublesome words corresponding to the words and paraphrases underlined and translate them into Romanian:

1. I had known her mother to be a beautiful woman but with a bad reputation so I was thinking that the girl took after her mother.

2. He tried hard to resist the gang but they beat him up.3. I didn’t feel like carrying on the talk with him, he was a nasty guy.4. I was so sorry that these quarrels had cast a shadow on our

happiness.5. They were sure that such incidents were only the result of the city

decay.6. That year the bad quality of the crop was due to the plants disease.7. Her hatred and the lack of any support destroyed all his hopes.8. I won’t have that idiot say that again.9. Don’t you dare do that again, you blockhead.10.After his death his children realized that all those troubles had

destroyed his cheerful nature.11.She wouldn’t even hear of going there again; she didn’t like him and

thought him to be a yokel / hayseed.

Chapter 2 – Traps in translating literary texts12.She had imagined him to be a man with very good manners, but she

came to know him a barbarian / clod / goop.13.How could I carry on a talk with such a boring person?14.Whenever he told me that fishy story he used to get me extremely

bored.15.He was so drunk and they tried hard to lift him on the horse.16. It was a promotional offer to advertize that new product.17. I had always thought his words the necessary help for me to become

more confident which I needed most.18.The old people living low are very anxious about the rise in food

prices.19.They had used to speak with pride of his rich old family.20.Such attitudes usually make progress slower and more difficult.21.She had to force her way through the crowd of people to reach the

gate.22. I told him not to rely on him because he used to go back on his word.23.They were very poor and their father had to work very hard to turn an

honest penny.24.Everything turned out bad, but it will be fine if we come to even results

by neither making a profit not losing money.

2.6.7. Build up sentences using the following troublesome words and phrases and translate them into English:

1. încălcare (a unui angajament/ contract, etc.). 2. tulburare a ordinii publice/ scandal. 3. trădare. 4. a fi gata să ducă tot greul muncii. 5. pantaloni bufanţi/ prinşi sub genunchi. 6. a i se tăia respiraţia. 7. a merge să ia o gură de aer. 8. a-şi trage sufletul/ după un efort. 9. a ului pe cineva. 10. până la moarte/ cât voi mai trăi. 11. a răsufla uşurat. 12. a nu sufla o vorbă. 13. a lua foc/ a spumega de mânie. 14. a sta tot timpul cu ochii pe cineva. 15. a desfunda un butoi de vin. 16. nu pot decât să. 17. pe care să nu-l cunosc. 18. decât să, în afară de. 19. la două străzi de aici. 20. sigur, bineînţeles. 21. nu mă lua cu ”dar”. 22. Mişcă-ţi fundul! 23. Nu te mai băga ! 24. Nu te priveşte/ nu te amesteca/nu-i treaba ta!

2.6.8. Translate the following troublesome words and phrases and use them in sentences of your own:

1. canal. 2. channel. 3. cannery. 4. candent. 5. candescent. 6 . candid. 7. candied. 8. canteen. 9. cantina. 10. cantle. 11. cantling. 12. canvas. 13. canvass. 14. caper. 15. cut a caper. 16. capper. 17. a philosophical cast of mind. 18. to cast the blame. on. 19. to cast accounts. 20. to cast away. 21. to cast smth in smb’s teeth. 22. to cast out. 23. to cast lots. 24. to cast in one’s lot with. 25. catch-up. 26. catchup. 27. censor. 28. censure. 29. censer. 30. centennial. 31. certifiable. 32. certificat. 33. certified. 34. cessation. 35. cession. 36. to chafe one’s shoes.

2.6.9. Explain the following troublesome words and phrases and translate them into Romanian:

1. The detective was going to run a check on the people who had been at the ship launching.

2. They hadn’t managed to keep / hold the disease in check and a lot of people caught it being admitted into hospital.

Chapter 2 – Traps in translating literary texts3. On seeing his kid beaten up the man got in such a rage and the

policeman could hardly hold him in check.4. The little girl asked me to check over her essay.5. They wanted to put me up but I said that I had already checked in

at the hotel.6. I was glad to check off a lot of things which I had already bought.7. All the banks were closed and I had to cash a cheque at the Post

Office.8. The doctor said I was not allowed to eat fat cheese; I had to eat

only chevret.9. I liked her chevrette handbag very much; it felt so soft and was

very smart.10. I thought it childish of him to behave like that under the

circumstances.11. She stood in the doorway looking at us with a smile on his childlike

face.12. We started to shiver with cold when we felt the chill wind.13. She said that the second dish was stewed meat with chili.14. When they arrived they were given the cold shoulder; the next day

they were thinking to leave for another resort because of the chilly welcome.

15. The lad was very angry because he had taken it on the chin.16. The men were smoking in the living-room, and the ladies were

chinning over a cup of coffee upstairs.17. When he woke up after midnight he found himself alone in the

dark. The only thing he saw was a chink of light in the darkness of the room.

18. After that incident they were trying all the time to seize upon any chink in her armour.

19. She didn’t want anyone to know that she was working at a Chinkie.20. She had talked to him so many times, but at that moment she felt

that she had struck / touched a chord and hoped he would do something to change for the better.

21. Five metres of phone cord is enough to make the connexion.22. She had a terrible sore throat as she had undergone a very difficult

operation on the vocal cords.23. He was so funny in his cords which he was wearing when he had

to work in the garden.24. She was happy to tell her husband that he could come with her to

that cordial reception.

2.6.10. Give the paraphrases of the troublesome words and phrases underlined and translate them into English. Use them in context:1. cretin/ tâmpit/ prost. 2. a căpia/ a înnebuni. 3. politicos/ curtenitor. 4. a vorbi/ a se purta drăguţ/ politicos. 5. a tăcea mâlc/ a nu scoate o vorbă/ a refuza să vorbească. 6. a bloca roţile unei maşini. 7. tipic, clasic (caz de corupţie). 8. (informal) tipic ! 9. costum clasic. 10. cleric preot. 11. treabă de funcţionar. 12. a avea program de tratament şi consultaţii. 13. a avea pregătire medicală/ în domeniul medicinii. 14. (examinare, gândire) la rece. 15. (literary) clerul. 16. nu te întinde mai mult decât îţi este plapuma. 17. (Am.E., informal) cusut cu aţă albă. 18. a îmbrăca. 19. (literary) a învălui. 20. student la colegiu. 21. student cu bursă la Eton College. 22. coliziune, tamponare, ciocnire. 23. a intra în conflict. 24. înţelegere secretă, complot. 25. de comedie. 26. nostim. 27. a inspira stimă/ respect. 28. a deţine (locuri

Chapter 2 – Traps in translating literary textsîn Parlament). 29. a-şi exprima admiraţia pentru. 30. a nu corespunde cerinţelor.

2.6.11. Use the following troublesome words in sentences of your own and translate them into Romanian:

commissar – commissary, commissionaire – commissioner, commode – commodious, commutable – commutative, compeer – compere, complected – completed, complement – compliment, composer – compositor, composite – compound, comprehensible – comprehensive, compromis – compromise, compulsive – compulsory, concede – conceit.

2.6.12. Translate into English:

1. Jane era confidenta mea şi îi spuneam întotdeauna toate secretele.2. Luase în primire de la unchiul său şi avea încredere în profiturile mari

pe care le va avea compania.3. Insistară să vină şi el, iar când apăru li se păru destul de încurcat.4. Răspunsurile lui mi s-au părut foarte confuze.5. Puştiul era năucit de ţipetele şi zgomotele de afară.6. Ne-a dat câteva indicaţii confuze care nu ne-au fost de prea mare

ajutor.7. Lucram acolo de câteva săptămâni şi mă bucuram de tot ceea ce

făceam pentru că era o muncă plăcută.8. Ne înţelegeam foarte bine; aveam afinităţi cu el deoarece gândeam şi

simţeam la fel.9. Numai câţiva băieţi ştiau că are o malformaţie congenitală.10.Cei mai mulţi ştiau că cei doi s-au despărţit pentru că el era un

mincinos incorigibil.11.Nu mi-a plăcut ţinuta lui deoarece nu era deloc potrivită cu poziţia lui

socială.12.Se simţea vinovat pentru că avea pe conştiinţă faptul că îşi minţise

familia.13. În momentul acela privirea tatălui său îl făcu să se simtă vinovat.14. Întotdeauna refuzase să facă vreun compromis; voia să aibă conştiinţa

curată.15.Avea foarte multe datorii şi a avut tupeul să ceară iar bani.16. Avea pe conştiinţă faptul că nu se dusese acolo când îl chemase.17.A leşinat dar după câteva minute au reuşit să-l facă să-şi revină.18. Îmi plac foarte mult romanele scrise în tehnica fluxului conştiinţei.19.Era conştient de faptul că era o mincinoasă.20.Se număra printre partenerii conştiincioşi cu care îi plăcea să facă

afaceri.

2.6.13. Translate and explain the troublesome words in the text below. Consider the denotative and connotative meanings:

‘Who are her people?’ grumbled the old gentleman. ‘Has she got any?’

Lord Henry shook his head. ‘American girls are as clever at concealing their parents as English

women are at concealing their past, he said, rising to go.’‘They are pork-packers, I suppose?’

Chapter 2 – Traps in translating literary texts‘I hope so, Uncle George, for Dartmoor's sake. I am told that pork-

packing is the most lucrative profession in America, after politics.’‘Is she pretty?’‘She behaves as if she was beautiful. Most American women do. It is

the secret of their charm.’‘Why can't these American women stay in their own country? They are

always telling us that it is the Paradise for women.’‘It is. That is the reason why, like Eve, they are so excessively anxious

to get out of it’, said Lord Henry. ‘Good-bye, Uncle George. I shall be late for lunch, if I stop any longer. Thanks for giving me the information I wanted. I always like to know everything about my new friends and nothing about my old ones.’

2.6.14. Comment on the troublesome traps in the fragment below in terms of polysemy and synonymy:

He answered to every touch and thrill of the bow ... There was something terribly enthralling in the exercise of influence. No other activity was like it. To project one's soul into some gracious form, and let it tarry there for a moment; to hear one's own intellectual views echoed back to one with all the added music of passion and youth; to convey one's temperament into another as though it were a subtle fluid or a strange perfume; there was a real joy in that - perhaps the most satisfying joy left to us in an age so limited and vulgar as our own, an age grossly carnal in its pleasures, and grossly common in its aims ... He was a marvelous type, too, this lad, whom by so curious a chance he had met in Basil's studio; or could be fashioned into a marvelous type, at any rate. Grace was his, and the white purity of boyhood, and beauty such as old Greek marbles kept for us. There was nothing that one could not do with him. He could be made a Titan or a toy. What a pity it was that such beauty was destined to fade! ... And Basil? From a psychological point of view, how interesting he was!

2.6.15. Give paraphrases for the verb+preposition combinations and for the set-phrases in the fragment below:

‘She could have married anybody she chose. Carlington was mad after her. She was romantic, though. All the women of that family were. The men were a poor lot, but, egad! the women were wonderful. Carlington went on his knees to her. Told me so himself. She laughed at him, and there wasn't a girl in London at the time who wasn't after him. And by the way, Harry, talking about silly marriages, what is this humbug your father tells me about Dartmoor wanting to marry an American? Ain’t English girls good enough for him?’

‘It is rather fashionable to marry Americans just now, Uncle George.’‘I'll back English women against the world, Harry, said Lord Fermor,

striking the table with his fist.’‘The betting is on the Americans.’‘They don't last, I am told, muttered his uncle.’‘A long engagement exhausts them, but they are capital at a

steeplechase. They take things flying. I don't think Dartmoor has a chance.’

2.6.16.Translate, interpret and make comments in terms of equivalence and adequacy:

Chapter 2 – Traps in translating literary textsSo that was the story of Dorian Gray's parentage. Crudely as it had

been told to him, it had yet stirred him by its suggestion of a strange, almost modern romance. A beautiful woman risking everything for a mad passion. A few wild weeks of happiness cut short by a hideous, treacherous crime. Months of voiceless agony, and then a child born in pain. The mother snatched away by death, the boy left to solitude and the tyranny of an old and loveless man. Yes; it was an interesting background. It posed the lad, made him more perfect as it were. Behind every exquisite thing that existed, there was something tragic. Worlds had to be in travail, that the meanest flower might blow ... And how charming he had been at dinner the night before, as, with startled eyes and lips parted in frightened pleasure, he had sat opposite to him at the club, the red candle shades staining to a richer rose the wakening wonder of his face. Talking to him was like playing upon an exquisite violin.

(Oscar Wilde, The Picture of Dorian Gray in Elena Croitoru, Floriana Popescu, Gabriela Dima, Culegere de texte pentru traducere. vol. I, Editura Evrika, Brăila, 1996: 29-32)

2.6.17. Explain the troublesome traps in the following excerpt. Make comments in terms of denotation and connotation:

Meantime a month was gone. Diana and Mary were soon to leave Moor House, and return to the far different life and scene which awaited them, as governesses in a large, fashionable, south-of-England city, where each held a situation in families by whose wealthy and haughty members they were regarded only as humble dependants, and who neither knew nor sought one of their innate excellences, and appreciated only their acquired accomplishments as they appreciated the skill of their cook or the taste of their waiting-woman. Mr. St. John had said nothing to me yet about the employment he had promised to obtain for me: yet it became urgent that I should have a vocation of some kind. One morning, being left alone with him a few minutes in the parlour, I ventured to approach the window-recess which his table, chair and desk consecrated as a kind of study; and I was going to speak, though not very well knowing in what words to frame my inquiry - for it is all times difficult to break the ice of reserve glassing over such natures as his - when he saved me the trouble by being the first to commence a dialogue.

2.6.18. Give paraphrases for the troublesome words in the fragment below:

Incommunicative as he was, some time elapsed before I had an opportunity of gauging his mind. I first got an idea of its calibre when I heard him preach in his own church at Morton. I wish I could describe that sermon: but it is past my power. I cannot even render faithfully the effect it produced on me.

It began calm - and indeed, as far as delivery and pitch of voice went, it was calm to the end: an earnestly felt, yet strictly restrained zeal breathed soon in the distinct accents, and prompted the nervous language. This grew to force - compressed, condensed, controlled. The heart was thrilled, the mind astonished, by the power of the preacher: neither were softened. Throughout there was a strange bitterness; an absence of consolatory gentleness; stern allusions to Calvinistic doctrines - election, predestination,

Chapter 2 – Traps in translating literary textsreprobation - were frequent; and each reference to these points sounded like a sentence pronounced for doom.

2.6.19. Translate and make comments on the following excerpt in terms of equivalence and adequacy:

Often, in the evening, when he sat at the window, his desk and papers before him, he would cease reading or writing, rest his chin on his hand, and deliver himself up to I know not what course of thought; but that it was perturbed and exciting might be seen in the frequent flash and changeful dilation of his eye.

I think, moreover, that nature was not to him that treasure of delight it was to his sisters. He expressed once, and but once in my hearing, a strong sense of the rugged charm of the hills, and an inborn affection for the dark and hoary walls he called his home; but there was more of gloom than pleasure in the tone and words in which the sentiment was manifested; and never did he seem to roam the moors for the sake of their soothing silence - never seek out or dwell upon the thousand peaceful delights they could yield.

2.6.20. Translate and comment the translation difficulties in terms of polysemy and synonymy:

This was a society in which for the most part people were occupied only with chatter, but the disunited couple had at last grounds for expecting a time of high activity. They girded their loins, they felt as if the quarrel had only begun. They felt indeed more married than ever, in as much as what marriage had mainly suggested to them was the unbroken opportunity to quarrel. There had been ‘sides’ before, and there were sides as much as ever; for the sider too the prospect opened out, taking the pleasant form of a superabundance of matter for desultory conversation. The many friends of the Faranges drew together to differ about them; contradiction grew young again over teacups and cigars. Everybody was always assuring everybody of something very shocking, and nobody would have been jolly if nobody had been outrageous. The pair appeared to have a social attraction which failed merely as regards each other; it was indeed a great deal to be able to say for Ida that no one but Beale desired her blood, and for Beale that if he should ever have his eyes scratched out it would be only by his wife.

2.6.21. Consider synonymy as revealed by the fragment below. Focus on the translation difficulties:

a) The quiet twilight was still trembling on the topmost ridges of the heath; and the view of London below me had sunk into a black gulf in the shadow of the cloudy night, when I stood before the gate of my mother's cottage. I had hardly rung the bell before the house door was opened violently; my worthy Italian friend, Professor Pesca, appeared in the servant's place; and darted out joyously to receive me, with a shrill foreign parody on an English cheer.

On his own account, and, I must be allowed to add, on mine also, the Professor merits the honour of a formal introduction. Accident has made him the starting-point of the strange family story which it is the purpose of these pages to unfold.

I had first become acquainted with my Italian friend by meeting him at certain great houses where he taught his own language and I taught drawing. All I then knew of the history of his life was, that he had once held a situation

Chapter 2 – Traps in translating literary textsin the University of Padua; that he had left Italy for political reasons (the nature of which he uniformly declined to mention to any one); and that he had been for many years respectably established in London as a teacher of languages.

(W. Collins, The Woman in White in Elena Croitoru, Floriana Popescu, Gabriela Dima, Culegere de texte pentru traducere. vol. I, Editura Evrika, Brăila, 1996:25-27)

b) Veneau în sfârşit nevoile mele. La drept vorbind, nu erau ale mele, ci ale dreptăţii. În casă pentru mine aveam tot ce-mi trebuia, pentru că de lucru mare nici n-aveam trebuinţă. Blidul, patul şi narghileaua, aceste trei fericiri nelipsite vieţii, le dobândeam uşor, în schimbul muncii mele… Ce nu puteam căpăta lesne era dreptul de-a nu ţine seama de fiinţa lui Dumnezeu, care-mi cerea să nu mănânc când mi-era foame şi să-l proslăvesc, cu pântecul gol. E drept că Dumnezeu ăsta , mofturos şi neghiob, niciodată nu a cerut aşa ceva de la mine. Tata, popa şi hogea se rosteau în numele lui. Mă ridicai împotriva lor şi atunci mă pedepsiră, numai ca să-i fie pe plac Dumnezeului lor.

(Panait Istrati, Neranţula, Editura Minerva, Bucureşti 1984: 48-49)

c) Prea multă virtute otrăveşte inima, şi inimile otrăvite nu cunosc bucuria jertfei. Aşadar, înapoiaţi-vă la obiceiurile voastre. Eu mă ţiu de ale mele.

Se înapoiară şi se simţiră foarte bine. Cel care nu se simţea bine fui eu. Prilej să fiu încă o dată singur şi trist ca mai-nainte.

Mai era cineva care nu se simţea bine: tata. Îşi dase seama că proverbul „ce naşte din pisică şoareci mănâncă” nu se cam potrivea-n casa lui. Astfel, întâia lui grijă, după isprava păgubitoare a Chirei şi a lui Cosma, fu să-i caute ei un bărbat straşnic. Cât despre noi, făcu ce-i stătu în putinţă: ne dădu-n pază stăpânirii. Strălucit viitor pentru trei răzvratiţi ce voiau să purceadă la război împotriva celor puternici!…

Încrucişai braţele în faţa imposibilului. Nu mai era chip să alin o durere. Veneau năpăstuiţii să povestească amarurile şi să ceară ajutorul lui „Ilie cel bun”, şi Ilie nu le putea da decât firimituri.

(Panait Istrati, Neranţula, Editura Minerva, Bucureşti, 1984: 52)

d) Ce drum curios!… închis, în valea mea, ca un pustnic, mi se părea că asist la mersul înainte al omenirei. Sunt aproape 20 de ani de când n-am ieşit din ţară. Câtă schimbare! Pe drum, pe la gări, prin vagoane, numai lume pripită. Trenuri nesfârşite, locomotive monstruoase, călătorie otova, grabă, grabă peste tot. Or încotro îţi întorci ochii, fabrici, fum, trudă, parcă o întrecere de activitate ar îndemna pe fiecare să ajungă înaintea vecinului său. Hotărâtor, în vremea noastră nu se mai poate judeca omenirea de pe scaunul de acasă.

Am intrat în Italia cu sentimentul complicat al omului ce se apropie de o catastrofă. Îmi fusese dragă Italia, ca o carte frumoasă, ca o statuie, pe care o ştii că stă pururea albă într-un colţ de muzeu; iar acum îmi era dragă ca un ţintirim, în pământul căruia odihnea copilul meu; ca un loc de jale şi poate – cine ştie – de speranţă. Deodată, liniile arhitecturei, în care se oglindeşte geniul armonic al Renaşterii, îmi apărură, redându-mi un fel de linişte imensă, în care ideea morţii fiului meu nu-mi mai rodea inima ca până acum.

Chapter 2 – Traps in translating literary textse) Când trenul se opri în gară mă simţii ca istovit de puteri; mă durea capul, mi se tăiaseră picioarele. Coborâi din vagon, nesigur dacă trăiam sau visam. Un hamal se ţinea după mine, cu valiza în spinare. Când să ies pe peron, o doamnă îmbrăcată în negru îmi veni întru întâmpinare. Într-o clipă o recunoscui, printr-o revelaţie lăuntrică, ca şi cum o aşteptam. Era Lydda – blondă, naltă, cu ochii ei albaştri, aşa cum mi-o închipuisem pe când o uram. Îşi ridică vălul negru de pe faţă şi, cu o nespusă delicateţe, îmi sărută mâna. Nu pot spune cum se petrecură lucrurile; numai atâta ştiu, că o amintire vagă, ca de parfum cunoscut, îmi adie prin minte, parcă aş fi mai întâlnit-o cândva sau parcă o rază de simpatie de la fiul meu ar fi învăluit-o. Mă înecau lacrămile. Ea mă luă binişor de braţ şi mă duse la o trăsură; plăti hamalul; apoi plecarăm.

(D. Zamfirescu, Lydda, Editura Porto-Franco, Galaţi, 1991:71)

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