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Theory 1

Theory

Certaintyseries

Agnosticism

Approximation

Belief

Certainty

Doubt

Determinism

Epistemology

Fallibilism

Fatalism

Hypothesis

Justification

Nihilism

Probability

Scientific theory

Skepticism

Solipsism

Theory

Truth

Uncertainty

Theory is a contemplative and rational type of abstract or generalizing thinking, or the results of such thinking.

Depending on the context, the results might for example include generalized explanations of how nature works. Theword has its roots in ancient Greek, but in modern use it has taken on several different related meanings. A theory is

not the same as a hypothesis, as a theory is a 'proven' hypothesis, that, in other words, has never been disproved

through experiment, and has a basis in fact.

One modern group of meanings emphasizes the speculative and generalizing nature of theory. For example in the

arts and philosophy, the term "theoretical" may be used to describe ideas and empirical phenomena which are not

easily measurable. And by extension of the philosophical meaning, "theoria" is also a word still used in theological

contexts. As already in Aristotle's definitions, theory is very often contrasted to "practice" (from Greek praxis,

) a Greek term for "doing", which is opposed to theory because pure theory involves no doing apart from

itself. A classical example of the distinction between theoretical and practical uses the discipline of medicine:

medical theory involves trying to understand the causes and nature of health and sickness, while the practical side ofmedicine is trying to make people healthy. These two things are related but can be independent, because it is possible

to research health and sickness without curing specific patients, and it is possible to cure a patient without knowing

how the cure worked.[1]

In modern science, the term "theory" refers to scientific theories, a well-confirmed type of explanation of nature,

made in a way consistent with scientificmethod, and fulfilling the criteria required by modern science. Such theories

are described in such a way that any scientist in the field is in a position to understand and either provide empirical

support ("verify") or empirically contradict ("falsify") it. Scientific theories are the most reliable, rigorous, and

comprehensive form of scientific knowledge,[2] in contrast to more common uses of the word "theory" that imply

that something is unproven or speculative (which is better defined by the word 'hypothesis').[3] Scientific theories are

also distinguished from hypotheses, which are individual empirically testable conjectures, and scientific laws, which

are descriptive accounts of how nature will behave under certain conditions.[4]

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A theory can be "normative (or prescriptive),[] meaning a postulation about what ought to be. It provides "goals,

norms, and standards".[]

A theory can be a body of knowledge, which may or may not be associated with particular explanatory models. To

theorize is to develop this body of knowledge.[5]

Ancient usesThe English word theory was derived from a technical term in philosophy in Ancient Greek. As an everyday word,

theoria, , meant "a looking at, viewing, beholding", but in more technical contexts it came to refer to

contemplative or speculative understandings of natural things, such as those of natural philosophers, as opposed to

more practical ways of knowing things, like that of skilled orators or artisans. [6] The word has been in use in English

since at least the late 16th century.[7] Modern uses of the word "theory" are derived from the original definition, but

have taken on new shades of meaning, still based on the idea that a theory is a thoughtful and rational explanation of

the general nature of things.

Although it has more mundane meanings in Greek, the word apparently developed special uses early in the

recorded history of the Greek language. In the bookFrom Religion to Philosophy, Francis Cornford suggests that theOrphics used the word "theory" to mean 'passionate sympathetic contemplation'.[8]Pythagoras changed the word to

mean a passionate sympathetic contemplation of mathematical and scientific knowledge, because he considered such

intellectual pursuits the way to reach the highest plane of existence. Pythagoras emphasized subduing emotions and

bodily desires in order to enable the intellect to function at the higher plane of theory. Thus it was Pythagoras who

gave the word "theory" the specific meaning which leads to the classical and modern concept of a distinction

between theory as uninvolved, neutral thinking, and practice.[9]

In Aristotle's terminology, as has already been mentioned above, theory is contrasted with praxis or practice, which

remains the case today. For Aristotle, both practice and theory involve thinking, but the aims are different.

Theoretical contemplation considers things which humans do not move or change, such as nature, so it has no human

aim apart from itself and the knowledge it helps create. On the other hand,praxis involves thinking, but always withan aim to desired actions, whereby humans cause change or movement themselves for their own ends. Any human

movement which involves no conscious choice and thinking could not be an example ofpraxis or doing.[10]

Theories formally and scientifically

Theories are analytical tools for understanding, explaining, and making predictions about a given subject matter.

There are theories in many and varied fields of study, including the arts and sciences. A formal theory is syntactic in

nature and is only meaningful when given a semantic component by applying it to some content (i.e. facts and

relationships of the actual historical world as it is unfolding). Theories in various fields of study are expressed in

natural language, but are always constructed in such a way that their general form is identical to a theory as it isexpressed in the formal language of mathematical logic. Theories may be expressed mathematically, symbolically, or

in common language, but are generally expected to follow principles of rational thought or logic.

Theory is constructed of a set of sentences which consist entirely of true statements about the subject matter under

consideration. However, the truth of any one of these statements is always relative to the whole theory. Therefore the

same statement may be true with respect to one theory, and not true with respect to another. This is, in ordinary

language, where statements such as "He is a terrible person" cannot be judged to be true or false without reference to

some interpretation of who "He" is and for that matter what a "terrible person" is under the theory. [11]

Sometimes two theories have exactly the same explanatory power because they make the same predictions. A pair of

such theories is called indistinguishable, and the choice between them reduces to convenience or philosophical

preference.

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The form of theories is studied formally in mathematical logic, especially in model theory. When theories are studied

in mathematics, they are usually expressed in some formal language and their statements are closed under

application of certain procedures called rules of inference. A special case of this, an axiomatic theory, consists of

axioms (or axiom schemata) and rules of inference. A theorem is a statement that can be derived from those axioms

by application of these rules of inference. Theories used in applications are abstractions of observed phenomena and

the resulting theorems provide solutions to real-world problems. Obvious examples include arithmetic (abstractingconcepts of number), geometry (concepts of space), and probability (concepts of randomness and likelihood).

Gdel's incompleteness theorem shows that no consistent, recursively enumerable theory (that is, one whose

theorems form a recursively enumerable set) in which the concept of natural numbers can be expressed, can include

all true statements about them. As a result, some domains of knowledge cannot be formalized, accurately and

completely, as mathematical theories. (Here, formalizing accurately and completely means that all true

propositionsand only true propositionsare derivable within the mathematical system.) This limitation, however,

in no way precludes the construction of mathematical theories that formalize large bodies of scientific knowledge.

Underdetermination

A theory is underdetermined (also called indeterminacy of data to theory) if, given the available evidence cited to

support the theory, there is a rival theory which is inconsistent with it that is at least as consistent with the evidence.

Underdetermination is an epistemological issue about the relation of evidence to conclusions.

Intertheoretic reduction and elimination

If there is a new theory which is better at explaining and predicting phenomena than an older theory (i.e. it has more

explanatory power), we are justified in believing that the newer theory describes reality more correctly. This is called

an intertheoretic reduction because the terms of the old theory can be reduced to the terms of the new one. For

instance, our historical understanding about "sound," "light" and "heat" have today been reduced to "wave

compressions and rarefactions," "electromagnetic waves," and "molecular kinetic energy," respectively. These terms

which are identified with each other are called intertheoretic identities. When an old theory and a new one are

parallel in this way, we can conclude that we are describing the same reality, only more completely.

In cases where a new theory uses new terms which do not reduce to terms of an older one, but rather replace them

entirely because they are actually a misrepresentation it is called an intertheoretic elimination. For instance, the

obsolete scientific theory that put forward an understanding of heat transfer in terms of the movement of caloric fluid

was eliminated when a theory of heat as energy replaced it. Also, the theory that phlogiston is a substance released

from burning and rusting material was eliminated with the new understanding of the reactivity of oxygen.

Theories vs. theorems

Theories are distinct from theorems. Theorems are derived deductively from objections according to a formal system

of rules, sometimes as an end in itself and sometimes as a first step in testing or applying a theory in a concrete

situation; theorems are said to be true in the sense that the conclusions of a theorem are logical consequences of the

objections. Theories are abstract and conceptual, and to this end they are always considered true. They are supported

or challenged by observations in the world. They are 'rigorously tentative', meaning that they are proposed as true

and expected to satisfy careful examination to account for the possibility of faulty inference or incorrect observation.

Sometimes theories are incorrect, meaning that an explicit set of observations contradicts some fundamental

objection or application of the theory, but more often theories are corrected to conform to new observations, by

restricting the class of phenomena the theory applies to or changing the assertions made. An example of the former is

the restriction of Classical mechanics to phenomena involving macroscopic lengthscales and particle speeds much

lower than the speed of light.

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"Sometimes a hypothesis never reaches the point of being considered a theory because the answer is not found to

derive its assertions analytically or not applied empirically." [citation needed]

Philosophical theories

Theories whose subject matter consists not in empirical data, but rather in ideas are in the realm of philosophical

theories as contrasted with scientific theories. At least some of the elementary theorems of a philosophical theory are

statements whose truth cannot necessarily be scientifically tested through empirical observation.

Fields of study are sometimes named "theory" because their basis is some initial set of objections describing the

field's approach to a subject matter. These assumptions are the elementary theorems of the particular theory, and can

be thought of as the axioms of that field. Some commonly known examples include set theory and number theory;

however literary theory, critical theory, and music theory are also of the same form.

Metatheory

One form of philosophical theory is a metatheory or meta-theory. A metatheory is a theory whose subject matter is

some other theory. In other words it is a theory about a theory. Statements made in the metatheory about the theoryare called metatheorems.

Political theories

A political theory is an ethical theory about the law and government. Often the term "political theory" refers to a

general view, or specific ethic, political belief or attitude, about politics.

Scientific theories

In science, the term "theory" refers to "a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world, based on

a body of facts that have been repeatedly confirmed through observation and experiment."

[12][13]

Theories must alsomeet further requirements, such as the ability to make falsifiable predictions with consistent accuracy across a broad

area of scientific inquiry, and production of strong evidence in favor of the theory from multiple independent

sources. (See characteristics of scientific theories.)

The strength of a scientific theory is related to the diversity of phenomena it can explain, which is measured by its

ability to make falsifiable predictions with respect to those phenomena. Theories are improved (or replaced by better

theories) as more evidence is gathered, so that accuracy in prediction improves over time; this increased accuracy

corresponds to an increase in scientific knowledge. Scientists use theories as a foundation to gain further scientific

knowledge, as well as to accomplish goals such as inventing technology or curing disease.

Definitions from scientific organizations

The United States National Academy of Sciences defines scientific theories as follows:

The formal scientific definition of theory is quite different from the everyday meaning of the word. It

refers to a comprehensive explanation of some aspect of nature that is supported by a vast body of

evidence. Many scientific theories are so well established that no new evidence is likely to alter them

substantially. For example, no new evidence will demonstrate that the Earth does not orbit around the

sun (heliocentric theory), or that living things are not made of cells (cell theory), that matter is not

composed of atoms, or that the surface of the Earth is not divided into solid plates that have moved over

geological timescales (the theory of plate tectonics)...One of the most useful properties of scientific

theories is that they can be used to make predictions about natural events or phenomena that have not

yet been observed.[14]

From the American Association for the Advancement of Science:

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A scientific theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the naturalworld, based on a

body of facts that have been repeatedly confirmed through observation and experiment. Such

fact-supported theories are not "guesses" but reliable accounts of the real world. The theory of biological

evolution is more than "just a theory." It is as factual an explanation of the universe as the atomic theory

of matter or the germ theory of disease. Our understanding of gravity is still a work in progress. But the

phenomenon of gravity, like evolution, is an accepted fact.

[13]

Note that the term theory would not be appropriate for describing untested but intricate hypotheses or even scientific

models.

Philosophical views of theories

The logical positivists thought of scientific theories as deductive theories - that a theory's content is based on some

formal system of logic and on basic axioms. In a deductive theory, any sentence which is a logical consequence of

one or more of the axioms is also a sentence of that theory.[11] This is called the received view of theories.

In the semantic view of theories, which has largely replaced the received view, [15][16] theories are viewed as

scientific models. A model is a logical framework intended to represent reality (a "model of reality"), similar to the

way that a map is a graphical model that represents the territory of a city or country. In this approach, theories are a

specific category of models which fulfill the necessary criteria. (See Theories as models for further discussion.)

Theories in physics

In physics the term theory is generally used for a mathematical frameworkderived from a small set of basic

postulates (usuallysymmetries, like equality of locationsin space or in time, or identityof electrons, etc.)which is

capable of producing experimental predictions for a given category of physical systems. One good example is

classical electromagnetism, which encompasses results derived from gauge symmetry (sometimes called gauge

invariance) in a form of a few equations called Maxwell's equations. The specific mathematical aspects of classical

electromagnetic theory are termed "laws of electromagnetism," reflecting the level of consistent and reproducibleevidence that supports them. Within electromagnetic theory generally, there are numerous hypotheses about how

electromagnetism applies to specific situations. Many of these hypotheses are already considered to be adequately

tested, with new ones always in the making and perhaps untested.

The term theoretical

Acceptance of a theory does not require that all of its major predictions be tested, if it is already supported by

sufficiently strong evidence. For example, certain tests may be unfeasible or technically difficult. As a result,

theories may make predictions that have not yet been confirmed or proven incorrect; in this case, the predicted

results may be described informally with the term "theoretical." These predictions can be tested at a later time, and if

they are incorrect, this may lead to revision or rejection of the theory.

List of notable theories

Astronomy: Big Bang Theory

Biology: Cell theory Evolution Germ theory

Chemistry: Molecular theory Kinetic theory of gasesMolecular orbital theory Valence bond theory

Transition statetheory RRKM theory Chemical graph theory Flory-Huggins solution theory Marcus

theory Lewis theory (successor to BrnstedLowry acidbase theory) HSAB theory DebyeHckel

theory Thermodynamic theory of polymer elasticity Reptation theory Polymer field theory

Mller

Plesset perturbation theory

Density Functional Theory

Frontier molecular orbital theory

Polyhedral skeletal electron pair theory Baeyer strain theory Quantum theory of atoms in molecules

Collision theory Ligand field theory (successor to Crystal field theory) Variational Transition State Theory

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Collision_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ligand_field_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crystal_field_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Variational_Transition_State_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Debye%E2%80%93H%C3%BCckel_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Debye%E2%80%93H%C3%BCckel_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thermodynamic_theory_of_polymer_elasticityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reptation_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reptation_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reptation_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polymer_field_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M%C3%B8ller%E2%80%93Plesset_perturbation_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Density_Functional_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frontier_molecular_orbital_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frontier_molecular_orbital_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frontier_molecular_orbital_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polyhedral_skeletal_electron_pair_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Baeyer_strain_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Qtaimhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Collision_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ligand_field_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crystal_field_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Variational_Transition_State_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polyhedral_skeletal_electron_pair_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polyhedral_skeletal_electron_pair_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polyhedral_skeletal_electron_pair_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Baeyer_strain_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Baeyer_strain_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Qtaimhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Qtaimhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Qtaimhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Qtaimhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Collision_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Collision_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Collision_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ligand_field_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ligand_field_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ligand_field_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crystal_field_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crystal_field_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Variational_Transition_State_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Variational_Transition_State_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Variational_Transition_State_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Variational_Transition_State_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crystal_field_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ligand_field_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Collision_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Qtaimhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Baeyer_strain_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polyhedral_skeletal_electron_pair_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frontier_molecular_orbital_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Density_Functional_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M%C3%B8ller%E2%80%93Plesset_perturbation_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polymer_field_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reptation_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thermodynamic_theory_of_polymer_elasticityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Debye%E2%80%93H%C3%BCckel_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Debye%E2%80%93H%C3%BCckel_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=HSAB_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Br%C3%B8nsted%E2%80%93Lowry_acid%E2%80%93base_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lewis_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flory-Huggins_solution_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chemical_graph_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=RRKM_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transition_state_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Valence_bond_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Molecular_orbital_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kinetic_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Moleculehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Germ_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Evolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cell_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Big_Banghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Astronomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maxwell%27s_equationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gauge_symmetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Classical_electromagnetismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Postulateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scientific_theory%23Theories_as_modelshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scientific_modelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scientific_modelshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Semantic_view_of_theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Received_view_of_theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Logical_consequencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Axiomshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Formal_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Logical_positivisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scientific_modellinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scientific_modelling

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Theory 6

Benson group increment theory Specific ion interaction theory

Climatology: Climate change theory (general study of climate changes) and anthropogenic climate change

(ACC)/ global warming (AGW) theories (due to human activity)

Economics: Macroeconomic theory Microeconomic theory - Law of Supply and demand

Education: Constructivist theory Critical pedagogy theory Education theory Multiple intelligence

theory

Progressive education theory Engineering: Circuit theory Control theory Signal theory Systems theory Information theory

Film: Film Theory

Geology: Plate tectonics

Humanities: Critical theory

Linguistics: X-bar theory Government and Binding Principles and Parameters - Universal grammar

Literature: Literary theory

Mathematics: Approximation theory Arakelov theory Asymptotic theory Bifurcation theory

Catastrophe theory Category theory Chaos theory Choquet theory Coding theory Combinatorial

game theory Computability theory Computational complexity theory Deformation theory Dimension

theory

Ergodic theory

Field theory

Galois theory

Game theory

Graph theory

Group theory

Hodge theory Homology theory Homotopy theory Ideal theory Intersection theory Invariant

theory Iwasawa theory K-theory KK-theory Knot theory L-theory Lie theory

LittlewoodPaley theory Matrix theory Measure theory Model theory Morse theory Nevanlinna

theory Number theory Obstruction theory Operator theory PCF theory Perturbation theory

Potential theory Probability theory Ramsey theory Rational choice theory Representation theory

Ring theory Set theory Shape theory Small cancellation theory Spectral theory Stability theory

Stable theory SturmLiouville theory Twistor theory

Music: Music theory

Philosophy: Proof theory Speculative reason Theory of truth Type theory Value theory Virtue

theory Physics: Acoustic theory Antenna theory Atomic theory BCS theory Landau theory M-theory

Perturbation theory Theory of relativity (successor to classical mechanics) Quantum field theory

Scattering theory String theory

Psychology: Theory of mind - Cognitive dissonance theory - Attachment Theory - Object permanance - Poverty

of stimulus - Attribution Theory - Self-fulfilling prophecy - Stockholm syndrome

Sociology: Sociological theory Social theory Critical theory

Statistics: Extreme value theory

Theatre: Performance theory

Visual Art: Aesthetics Art Educational theory Architecture Composition Anatomy Color theory

Perspective

Visual perception

Geometry

Manifolds

Other: Obsolete scientific theories

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Obsolete_scientific_theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manifoldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geometryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Visual_perceptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Perspective_%28graphical%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Color_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anatomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Composition_%28visual_arts%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Art_teachinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Astheticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Visual_Arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Performance_studieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theatre%23Theories_of_theatrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Extreme_value_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Statisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Critical_theory_%28Frankfurt_School%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Social_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sociological_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sociologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stockholm_syndromehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Self-fulfilling_prophecyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Attribution_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Poverty_of_stimulushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Poverty_of_stimulushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Object_permanancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Attachment_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cognitive_dissonance_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theory_of_mindhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=String_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scattering_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quantum_field_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Classical_mechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theory_of_relativityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Perturbation_theory_%28quantum_mechanics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M-theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Landau_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=BCS_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atomic_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Antenna_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Acoustic_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virtue_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virtue_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Value_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Type_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Truthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Speculative_reasonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proof_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Music_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Musichttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Twistor_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sturm%E2%80%93Liouville_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stable_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stability_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spectral_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Small_cancellation_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shape_theory_%28mathematics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Set_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ring_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Representation_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rational_choice_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ramsey_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Probability_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Potential_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Perturbation_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=PCF_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operator_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Obstruction_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Number_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nevanlinna_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nevanlinna_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Morse_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Model_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Measure_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Matrix_%28mathematics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Littlewood%E2%80%93Paley_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lie_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=L-theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Knot_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=KK-theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=K-theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Iwasawa_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Invariant_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Invariant_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intersection_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ideal_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Homotopy_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Homology_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hodge_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Group_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Graph_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Game_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Galois_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Field_theory_%28mathematics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ergodic_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dimension_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dimension_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Deformation_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computational_complexity_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computability_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Combinatorial_game_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Combinatorial_game_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coding_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Choquet_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chaos_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Catastrophe_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bifurcation_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Asymptotic_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arakelov_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Approximation_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mathematicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Literary_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Literaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Universal_grammarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Principles_and_Parametershttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Government_and_Bindinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=X-bar_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Critical_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Humanitieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plate_tectonicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Film_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Filmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Information_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systems_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Signal_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Control_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Circuit_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Progressive_education_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Multiple_intelligence_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Multiple_intelligence_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Education_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Critical_pedagogy_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constructivist_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Supply_and_demandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Microeconomic_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Macroeconomic_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Economicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_warminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anthropogenichttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Climate_changehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Climatologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Specific_ion_interaction_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Benson_group_increment_theory

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Theory 7

Notes

[1] See for example Hippocrates Praeceptiones, Part 1 (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.

0251:text=Praec.:section=1&highlight=medical,theory).

[3] National Academy of Sciences (http://nationalacademies.org/evolution/TheoryOrFact.html), 2008.

[4] See the article on Physical law, for example.

[5] Thomas, G. (2007)Education and Theory: Strangers in Paradigms. Open University Press.

[6] The word "theory" was used in Greek philosophy, for example, that of Plato. It is a statement of how and why particular facts are related. It isrelated to words for "spectator", thea "a view" + horan "to see", literally "looking at a show". See for example dictionary entries at Perseus

website (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/resolveform?type=start&lookup=qewr& lang=greek).

[9] Russell, Bertrand,History of Western Philosophy

[10] The LSJ cites two passages of Aristotle as examples, both from theMetaphysics and involving the definition of natural science: 11.1064a17

(http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0052:book=11:section=1064a), "it is clear that natural science

( ) must be neither practical () nor productive (), but speculative ()" and 6.1025b25

(http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0052:book=6:section=1025b), "Thus if every intellectual activity

[] is either practical or productive or speculative (), physics () will be a speculative [] science". So

Aristotle actually made a three way distinction between practical, theoretical and productive or technical - or between doing, contemplating or

making. All three types involve thinking, but are distinguished by what causes the objects of thought to move or change.

[11] Curry, Haskell,Foundations of Mathematical Logic

[12] National Academy of Sciences (http:/

/

www.

nap.

edu/

openbook.

php?record_id=6024&

page=2), 1999[13] AAAS Evolution Resources (http://www.aaas.org/news/press_room/evolution/qanda.shtml)

[14] National Academy of Sciences (http://www.nap.edu/openbook. php?record_id=11876&page=11) (2008), Science, Evolution, and

Creationism.

References

Matson, Ronald, "Comparing scientific laws and theories" (http://science.kennesaw.edu/~rmatson/3380theory.

html),Biology, Kennesaw State University.

Davidson Reynolds, Paul (1971). A primer in theory construction. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Hawking, Stephen (1996). "The Illustrated A Brief History of Time" (Updated and expanded ed.). New York:

Bantam Books, p. 15. Popper, Karl (1963), Conjectures and Refutations, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, UK, pp. 3339. Reprinted

in Theodore Schick (ed., 2000),Readings in the Philosophy of Science, Mayfield Publishing Company, Mountain

View, CA, USA, pp. 913.

Zima, Peter V. (2007). What is theory? Cultural theory as discourse and dialogue. London: Continuum (translated

from: Was ist Theorie? Theoriebegriff und Dialogische Theorie in der Kultur- und Sozialwissenschaften.

Tbingen: A. Franke Verlag, 2004).

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theodore_Schickhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Karl_Popperhttp://science.kennesaw.edu/~rmatson/3380theory.htmlhttp://science.kennesaw.edu/~rmatson/3380theory.htmlhttp://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11876&page=11http://www.aaas.org/news/press_room/evolution/qanda.shtmlhttp://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=6024&page=2http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0052%3Abook%3D6%3Asection%3D1025bhttp://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0052%3Abook%3D11%3Asection%3D1064ahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Natural_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Metaphysics_%28Aristotle%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=LSJhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Western_Philosophy_%28Russell%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russellhttp://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/resolveform?type=start&lookup=qewr&lang=greekhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Platohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physical_lawhttp://nationalacademies.org/evolution/TheoryOrFact.htmlhttp://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0251:text=Praec.:section=1&highlight=medical%2Ctheoryhttp://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0251:text=Praec.:section=1&highlight=medical%2Ctheoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hippocrates

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Article Sources and Contributors 8

Article Sources and ContributorsTheory Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=564208618 Contributors: 100110100, 10metreh, 203.25.148.xxx, Abdullais4u, AbsolutDan, Abuk SABUK, Adam441997, Adrian J.

Hunter, AikBkj, Aitias, Ajphctp46, Aka042, Akriasas, Alansohn, Aleksa Lukic, Alexf, Alfio, Alousybum, AlphaEta, Amali1999, Amotoki, Ams80, Anarchangel, Ancheta Wis, Andres, Andrew

Lancaster, Anetode, Angela, Anonymous014, Another Stickler, Antandrus, Anzjoy, April Arcus, Arc de Ciel, Ark, Atomic49er, AxelBoldt, Azxdtheprof, Azymuthca, B7T, BUstudent, Backslash

Forwardslash, Bamkin, Beeswaxcandle, Bensaccount, Bevo, Biothoughts, BirgerH, Bkalafut, Bobbyknight, Bobo192, Bobvq, Bomac, Bonadea, Bongwarrior, Boud, Brambleclawx, Brian0918,

Brianjd, Burzmali, Buster7, Byelf2007, Byronsharp, CKA3KA, CRGreathouse, CSTAR, CTF83!, Calrosfing, Caltas, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CapitalR, Capricorn42, Captain Disdain, Carl

2k6, Chairman S., Cheeesemonger, Chemandkaty, Ck lostsword, Cmdrjameson, Cncs wikipedia, Colin B, Collectimatic, Conversion script, Corvus c ornix, Cosmicstargoat, Cphighkid, Cpiral,

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