Theories of Practice:Theories of Practice:The Human Resources FrameThe Human Resources Frame

MPA 8002

Organization Theory

Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, Ph.D.

People are the heart of any organization. When people feel the organization is responsive to their needs and supportive of their goals, managers and leaders can count on their followers’ commitment and loyalty. Managers and leaders who are authoritarian or insensitive, who don’t communicate effectively, or who simply don’t care about their people can never be effective managers and leaders. The human resource manager and leader works on behalf of both the organization and its people, seeking to serve the best interests of both.

A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO

The job of the manager and leader is one of support and empowerment. Support takes a variety of forms: letting people know that they are important and that managers and leaders are concerned about them; listening to find out about their followers’ aspirations and goals; and, communicating personal warmth and openness. Human resource managers and leaders empower their followers through participation and openness as well as by making sure that they have the autonomy and the resources they need to do their jobs well. Human resource managers and leaders emphasize honest, two-way communication as a way to identify issues and resolve differences. They are willing to confront others when it is appropriate, but they try to do so in a spirit of openness and caring.

Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 359)

MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIPIN A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO

PrimaryMetaphor forOrganization:

CentralConcepts:

ManagerialAnd

LeadershipImage:

FundamentalChallenge:

Family Tribe Clan

Relationships Self-Interest Needs Feelings Skills

Empowerment Liberation Fulfillment Self-

Actualization

Attuneorganizationaland humanneeds

the human resources frame

If the principles of scientific management were considered “revolutionary,” the assertions of the early human resources theorists were “radical”...

…as their hypotheses challenged the antecedents and theories of practice governing how managers viewed workers for the new Industrial era.

One of the earliest precursors of One of the earliest precursors of human resources theory...human resources theory...

David Owen

18th century mercantilistowned spinning mills throughout

Scotlandbelieved that worker productivity

could be improved by being attentive to their basic human needs

provided workers a high standard of living, including:

life-long educational opportunities

decent, clean housing

• preschool

• day care

• progressive elementary and secondary schooling

• continuing adult education

in contrast to prevailing practice, Owen trained his managers in humanehumane disciplinary practices...

...endeavored to make workers “originsorigins” rather than “pawnspawns” of the organization (de Charms, 1968)

Contrasting “pawns” and “origins”...Contrasting “pawns” and “origins”...

passive “workers” basically incompetent

and lazy

need close supervision

require training

active “resources” competent and basically

self-motivated

are self-regulating

bring skills, attitudes, energy, enthusiasm, and commitment

how managers and leaders view “pawnspawns”:

how managers and leaders view “originsorigins”:

“replaceable cogs” in a machine

alienating, dehumanizing, and frustrating

victims of incompetent bosses, bureaucratic inertia, and organizational doublespeak

invigorating opportunities to make a personal contribution

a place for personal and professional growth and challenge by asserting oneself and advocating one’s needs

a place to experience a sense of belonging, to build self-esteem, and to become self-actualized

how “pawnspawns” experience work:

how “originsorigins” experience work:

The issue raised by the human resources theories of practice is that of better aligning people andand organizations not people oror organizations...

because...

people need organizations…for the extrinsic rewards work provides

organizations need people

…for the intrinsic satisfaction work can provide

…for a reliable and stable labor pool

…for the energy, effort, and talent people bring

The assumptions of human The assumptions of human resources theories...resources theories...

1. organizations exist to serve human needs

3. the fit of people and organization is critical

2. organizations and people need each other

ideas

energy

talent

salaries

opportunitiescareers

an inappropriate fit can lead to exploitation or victimization by people and/or the organization

The rise of industrial/organizational psychology in the 20th century, especially human needs theories, provided a theoretical focus to consider the fit of people and organization...

Abraham Maslow (1954)...Abraham Maslow (1954)...

defined the hierarchy of pre-potent needs

5. self-actualization

4. self-esteem

3. belongingness

2. safety, security

1. physiological1

2

3

4

5

asserted that the worker-structure conflict is built into the traditional principles of organizational design and management

task specialization defines jobs as narrowly as possible to improve efficiency…

Chris Argyris (1977)...Chris Argyris (1977)...

...but the outcome is that work is depersonalized and becomes monotonous

1. personal withdrawal—evident in absenteeism and quitting2. psychological withdrawal—evident in indifference passivity, and apathy3. resistance—evident in soldiering, deception, feather bedding, and sabotage4. power grabs—climbing the bureaucracy5. forming coalitions (e.g., unions) to redress power imbalances

evidence of worker-structure conflict:

6. socializing children with negative view of work (i.e., unrewarding, little hope for advancement)

formulated a two factor theory of the motivation to work:

Frederick Herzberg et al. Frederick Herzberg et al. (1959)...(1959)...

M 2F A E

motivation is a psychological complex of two factorsfactors manifesting themselves in attitudesattitudes evident in their effectseffects

2 FACTORS2F

these factors are the objective elements and subjective feelings (i.e., needs or drives activated by the events themselves) antecedent to an attitude

hygiene factors

motivators

do not motivate but the absence of hygiene increases worker dissatisfaction

hygiene factors

when hygiene is not met, workers strike or give up motivation and become addicted to hygiene

extrinsic

hygiene factors

Good organizational hygiene provides the foundation for higher motivation in the workplace...

experiences enabling personal growth and self-actualization in the work itself

motivators intrinsic

achievement

responsibility

the work itself

advancement

doing complete jobs, experiencing successengaging in work design and accountabilitydoing the jobengaging in new learnings, developing expertise

hygiene factors

motivators

...motivators build on hygiene factors...

To inculcate higher motivation in workers, managers and leaders should focus on:

attending to the workers’ attitudes notnot the work process

using the organizing and planning functions to encourage high morale

While attending to worker morale and attitudes, managers and leaders recognize:

that motivation to work is a psychological process not a matter of a worker’s interest in the job

that workplace hygiene is primary providing the foundation for motivation

that salary is a hygiene factor not a motivator

According to Herzberg et al.’s two-factor theory of motivation, the worst of all motivators is…

…an across-the-board salary increase

posited a theory of management, Theory X and Theory Y

…asserting that a manager’s assumptions about people become self-fulfilling prophecies evident in organizational behavior

Douglas McGregor (1960)...Douglas McGregor (1960)...

Theory X...people are inherently:

lazypassive

possess little ambitionprefer to be ledresist change

Theory X...workers are characterized by:

…an external locus-of-control

…“other-centered” directedness

Theory X...management through:

coercion

tight controls

threats

punishments

Theory X...self-fulfilling prophecies:

coercion

tight controls

threats

punishments

low productivity

antagonism

militant unions

subtle sabotage

Theory Y...people are inherently:

motivatedactive and interested

ambitiousprefer to lead

interested in change

Theory Y...workers are characterized by:

…an internal locus-of-control

…self-direction

Theory Y...management through:

open systems

communication

self-managing teams

peer-controlled pay systems

Theory Y...management through:

open systems

communication

self-managing teams

peer-controlled pay systems

needs and tasks aligned

accurate feedback

worker investment

fairness and equity

the essential task of managers and leaders is to arrange organizational conditions…

…so that people can achieve their own goals best by directing their efforts toward organizational rewards

While industrial/organizational psychology provided a theoretical focus to consider the fit of people and organization...

…the goal of making the workplace and productivity a forum for people to express their freedom and dignity, as noble as this goal may be, has never been empirically proven.

juxtaposed two theories of practice, Model IModel I and Model IIModel II

Model IModel I…what managers and leaders say conflicts with what they do

Argyris & Schön (1974, 1996)...Argyris & Schön (1974, 1996)...

Model IIModel II…through organizational learning, there is congruence between what managers and leaders say and do

Model I assumptions...Model I assumptions...

organizations are competitive, dangerous places

watch out for yourself or someone else will do you in

Model I theory-in-use...Model I theory-in-use...

core values

action strategy

outcomes: behavior

outcomes: learning

identify and achieve goals

design and manage the environment unilaterally

defensive, inconsistent, fearful, and

selfish appearance

no learning: self-sealing, protection

from negative feedback

core values

action strategy

outcomes: behavior

outcomes: learning

maximize winning, minimize

losing

own and control what is relevant to

one’s interests

engenders defensive,

inconsistent, fearful, and

selfish behaviors in

others

“single-loop” learning:

core values and

assumptions remain

unquestioned

core values

action strategy

outcomes: behavioral

outcomes: learning

minimize the

expression of negative

feelings

insulate oneself from

criticism, discomfort,

and vulnerability

reinforces defensive

norms: mistrust, risk avoidance, conformity, and rivalry

core values and

assumptions are tested privately

core values

action strategy

outcomes: behavior

outcomes: learning

be rational insulate others from being hurt

critical organizational issues are not

discussed

collusion that impedes

organizational learning

The Model I problem-solving The Model I problem-solving process...process...

1. assume that others are causing the problem

2. develop a private, unilateral diagnosis and solution to the problem

…calmly using facts, logic, and rational persuasion to assert the merits of your point of view

…using indirect coercive influences …formulating and issuing direct

critiques

3. get other(s) to change by...

4. defensiveness confirms the original diagnosis

5. intensify pressures by offering to protect or to reject the other person(s)

6. if unsuccessful, bear no responsibility because the outcome is the other person(s) fault

Model I outcomes...Model I outcomes...

feelings of vulnerability

Managers and leaders using a Model I theory of practice increase in workers...

self-protecting behaviors

games of camouflage

deception

organizationalcatastrophe

…and increase the probability of...

Model II problem-solving Model II problem-solving process...process...

1. emphasize common goals and mutual influence

Mutually Assured Destruction produces no winners

M

A

D

LEADERS AND MANAGERS DO NOT FORGET:

2. communicate openly and publicly, testing one’s assumptions and beliefs

Does what I espouse... …what I do?

3. combine inquiryinquiry with advocacyadvocacy

what othersothers think, know, want, and feel

inquiry

advocacywhat II think, know, want, and feel

a fundamental competence in relating with diverse individuals effectively

Human resources theory requires that Human resources theory requires that managers and leaders possess...managers and leaders possess...

sufficiently good interpersonal skills:

the refined ability to inquire in a non-threatening way: What is going on here? Why are people behaving as they are? What can I do about it?

is not afraid of conflict

sufficiently good intrapersonal skills:

in arguments, is able to distance oneself from the passion of the moment and to construct how other individuals are making sense of things

is able to confront conflict

“complicates” (rather than simplifies) one’s understanding of how the organization really works

negotiates the fit between the individual and the organization

sufficiently good group skills:

is comfortable with plurality, diversity, and ambiguity

directs conflict towards productive ends while solving problems, resolves organizational

issues

while groups can promote... …groups can also generate

increased knowledge

a diversity of perspectives

time and energy

improved communication

increased acceptance of decisions

caving into social pressure

inefficiency

personal agendas which dominate the decision

making process

unproductive constraints

to increase group productivity managers and leaders must be able to address:

other’s personal interests the requirements of various task roles the requirements of various personal roles informal group norms interpersonal conflict

Basic human resources Basic human resources strategies...strategies...

1. develop a long-term organizational commitment to the philosophy of human resources

• build human resources in to the corporate and incentive structures

• develop quantitative and qualitative measures of human resources management

2. invest in people

• hire the right people and reward them well

• provide job security

• promote from within

• train and educate

• share the wealth of success

3. deal directly with people• engage in active listening

• provide accurate feedback

• search for common interests

• experiment with ideas and proposals

• doubt one’s infallibility

• treat differences as a group responsibility

4. empower people through work redesign

• provide greater autonomy and participative management

• focus on job enrichment

• emphasize teamwork

• ensure egalitarianism• provide opportunities for

upward hierarchical influence

Because change causes people to feel incompetent, needy, and powerless, providing for the development of new skills, creating opportunities for involvement, and providing psychological support are essential managerial/leadership tasks.

effective managers and leaders are…catalysts

Using human resources theory...Using human resources theory...

whose primary concerns are…support

…empowerment

…servants

Human resources tasks for Human resources tasks for managers and leaders...managers and leaders...

1. help individuals and group develop a shared sense of direction and purpose

2. balance task and process goals

3. endeavor to make group work both satisfying and efficient

4. keep on top of a large, complex set of activities

5. get support from bosses

6. get support from corporate staff and other constituents

7. motivate, coordinate, and control large, diverse group of subordinates

ineffective managers and leaders are…wimps

Abusing human resources Abusing human resources theory...theory...

whose primary concerns are

…making people happy

…managing by abdication

…pushovers

…personal

Strengths of the human resources Strengths of the human resources theory of practice...theory of practice...

…practical

…addresses fundamental human needs and interests

…naïve

Limitations of the human Limitations of the human resources theory of practice...resources theory of practice...

…optimistic

…not realistic in a fast-changing environment

Integrating reflective practice, conceptual Integrating reflective practice, conceptual pluralism, and organizational analysis...pluralism, and organizational analysis...

Analyzing organizations through four frames inculcates the conceptual pluralism needed to diagnose the issues underlying the problems manifesting themselves in organizations.

the structural frame

the human resources frame

the political frame

the symbolic frame

This module has focused on...This module has focused on...

the human resources theorieshuman resources theories that managers and leaders can utilize in practice episodes

the human resources frame

as these theories of practice provide managers a frame of reference to inform decision making, the

offers managers and leaders guidance about the strengths and limits of human resources theory

People are the heart of any organization. When people feel the organization is responsive to their needs and supportive of their goals, managers and leaders can count on their followers’ commitment and loyalty. Managers and leaders who are authoritarian or insensitive, who don’t communicate effectively, or who simply don’t care about their people can never be effective managers and leaders. The human resource manager and leader works on behalf of both the organization and its people, seeking to serve the best interests of both.

A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO

The job of the manager and leader is one of support and empowerment. Support takes a variety of forms: letting people know that they are important and that managers and leaders are concerned about them; listening to find out about their followers’ aspirations and goals; and, communicating personal warmth and openness. Human resource managers and leaders empower their followers through participation and openness as well as by making sure that they have the autonomy and the resources they need to do their jobs well. Human resource managers and leaders emphasize honest, two-way communication as a way to identify issues and resolve differences. They are willing to confront others when it is appropriate, but they try to do so in a spirit of openness and caring.

Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 359)

MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIPIN A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO

PrimaryMetaphor forOrganization:

CentralConcepts:

ManagerialAnd

LeadershipImage:

FundamentalChallenge:

Family Tribe Clan

Relationships Self-Interest Needs Feelings Skills

Empowerment Liberation Fulfillment Self-

Actualization

Attuneorganizationaland humanneeds

the human resources frame

ReferencesReferences

Argyris, C. (1977, Sept-Oct). Skilled incompetence. Harvard Business Review, 55(5), 115-25.

Argyris, C., & Schön, D. A. (1974). Theory in practice: Increasing professional effectiveness. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (1991). Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice and leadership (1st ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. B. (1959/1993). The motivation to work. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.

Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50, 370-396.

McGregor, D. (1960). The human side of organization. New York: McGraw Hill.