Theories of Personality

Chapter 2

Theories of Personality

The Psychodynamic Theories The Modern Study of Personality Genetic Influences Environmental Influences Cultural Influences The Inner Experience

Psychodynamic Theories

Emphasis on unconscious intrapsychic dynamics

Belief in the importance of early childhood Belief that development occurs in fixed stages Focus on fantasies and symbolic meanings of

events Reliance on subjective rather than objective

methods

The Structure of Personality

Id: Operates according to the pleasure principle Primitive and

unconscious part of personality

Ego: Operates according to the reality principle Mediates between id

and superego Superego: Moral ideals

and conscience

Defense Mechanisms

Repression: Threatening idea is blocked from consciousness

Projection: Unacceptable feelings are attributed to someone else

Displacement: Directing emotions toward objects or people that aren’t the real target

Reaction Formation: A feeling that produces anxiety is transformed into its opposite.

Regression: A person reverts to a previous phase of psychological development.

Denial: A person refuses to admit that something is unpleasant.

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages

Oral Anal Phallic Latency period Genital

Other Psychodynamic Approaches

Jungian Theory: A psychodynamic theory that includes the concepts of the collective unconscious (the universal memories of the species) and archetypes (universal symbolic images in myths, art, and dreams).

Object Relations Theory: A psychodynamic approach that emphasizes the importance of the infant’s first two years of life and the baby’s formative relationships, especially with the mother.

Evaluating Psychodynamic Theories Psychodynamic theories violate the principle

of falsifiability Psychodynamic theories are criticized for

drawing universal principles from the experiences of a few atypical patients.

Psychodynamic theories are criticized for basing theories upon the retrospective accounts and fallible memories of patients.

The Modern Study of Personality

Personality Factor Theories

Five Central Factors in Personality

Extroversion versus Introversion Neuroticism Agreeableness Conscientiousness Openness to Experience

The Genetic Contribution

Heredity and Temperament Heredity and Traits Evaluating Genetic Theories

Heredity and Temperament

Temperaments: Physiological dispositions to respond to the environment in certain ways; they are present in infancy and are assumed to be innate.

Genes: The functional units of heredity; they are composed of DNA and specify the structure of proteins.

Heredity and Traits

Heritability: A statistical estimate of the proportion of the total variance in some trait that is attributable to genetic differences among individuals within a group.

Behavioral genetics: An interdisciplinary field of study concerned with the genetic basis of behavior and personality.

Twins

Identical (Monozygotic) Twins: Twins that develop when a fertilized egg divides into two parts that develop into separate embryos

Fraternal (Dizygotic) Twins: Twins that develop when two separate eggs are fertilized by different sperm; they are no more alike genetically than any other pair of siblings.

Twin Studies

Studying identical twins separated near birth is one behavior genetic method

Gerald and Mark (right) met at age 31 after being separated at birth.

Both are volunteer firefighters Like to hunt, eat Chinese food, and

watch John Wayne movies Drink the same brand of beer,

with their hands held the same way (pinky curled)

Evaluating Genetic Theories

Reasons for Caution Not all traits are equally heritable or unaffected

by shared environment. Some studies may underestimate the impact

of the environment. Even traits that are highly heritable are not

rigidly fixed. Genetic predisposition does not imply

inevitability

Environmental Influences on Personality

The Behavioral SchoolThe Social-Cognitive Learning School

The Power of ParentsThe Power of Peers

The Behavioral School

Behaviorism: An approach to psychology that emphasizes the study of observable behavior and the role of the environment as a determinant of behavior.

Operant Conditioning: The process by which a response becomes more likely to occur or less so, depending on its consequences.

Reinforcer: A stimulus or event that strengthens or increases the probability of the response it follows.

The Social-Cognitive Learning School

A theory that emphasizes how behavior is learned and maintained through the interaction between individuals and their environment, an interaction strongly influenced by such cognitive processes as observations, expectations, perceptions, and motivating beliefs.

The Cultural Contribution

Culture and Personality

Evaluating Cultural Theories

Culture and Personality

Culture: A program of shared rules that govern the behavior of members of a community or society, and a set of values, beliefs, and attitudes shared by most members of that community

Individualism or Community?

Individualist Culture: The self is regarded as autonomous, and individual goals and wishes are prized above duty and relations with others.

Collectivist Culture: The self is regarded as embedded in relationships, and harmony with one’s group is prized above individual goals and wishes.

Cultures and Time

Monochronic Culture: Cultures in which time is organized sequentially; schedules and deadlines are valued over people.

Polychronic Culture: Cultures in which time is organized horizontally; people tend to do several things at once and value relationships over schedules.

The Inner Experience

Humanist Approaches

An approach that emphasizes personal growth and the achievement of human potential rather than the scientific understanding and assessment of behavior.

Abraham Maslow Previous Psychological Theories Avoided the Positive Focused on the Qualities of the Self-Actualized Person Hierarchy of Needs

Carl Rogers Unconditional Positive Regard Congruence

Rollo May Existentialism

Narrative Approach

The story that we each develop over time Core Beliefs