Self-Determination TheoryExplanations>Theories>Self-Determination TheoryDescription|Research|Example|So What?|See also|ReferencesDescriptionPeople have an external 'perceived locus of causality' (PLOC) to the extent they sees forces outside the self as initiating, pressuring, or coercing ones action. In an internal PLOC a person feels they are the initiator and sustainer of their own actions.People with a higher internal PLOC thus feel self-determined in that they see their behavior as stemming from their own choices, values, and interests, whereas those with an external PLOC experience their behavior as controlled by some external event, person, or force.The internal locus is connected with intrinsic motivation, whilst the external locus is connected with extrinsic motivation.The distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic is a core part of SDT, which was developed in the wake of Behavioralism andConditioning, where behavior management is based around reward and punishment. SDT extends this extrinsic view to consider intrinsic effects.There are three needs that SDT identifies as requiring satisfaction: Competence: succeeding in what you do. Relatedness: connecting with others. Autonomy: being in control of your life.ExampleI feel in control of my own life. I feel responsible for my actions. I have a high internal locus and motivate myself. My friend is always complaining that they are being 'forced' to do things and that life is not fair. They have a high external locus and are more affected by reward and punishment.So What?Using itFind out whether people have stronger internal or external locus and then persuade them accordingly. For internal locus, you might show how they are control and let them choose. For external locus you could show how they are being driven by outer forces and then offer a safe haven for them.DefendingUnderstand your own PLOC and how you attribute cause. Think about whether this is effective for you and whether you want to change it. Also note how this relates to how others persuade you (and how you persuade yourself).See alsoControl,Intrinsic Motivation,Extrinsic Motivation,Attribution Theoryhttp://www.selfdeterminationtheory.org/theoryReferencesDeci and Ryan (1985)

Attribution TheoryExplanations>Theories>Attribution TheoryDescription|Research|So What?|See also|ReferencesDescriptionWe all have a need to explain the world, both to ourselves and to other people, attributingcauseto the events around us. This gives us a greater sense of control. When explaining behavior, it can affect the standing of people within a group (especially ourselves).When another person has erred, we will often useinternal attribution, saying it is due to internal personality factors. When we have erred, we will more likely useexternal attribution, attributing causes to situational factors rather than blaming ourselves. And vice versa. We will attribute our successes internally and the successes of our rivals to external luck. When a football team wins, supporters say we won. But when the team loses, the supporters say they lost.Our attributions are also significantly driven by our emotional and motivational drives. Blaming other people and avoiding personal recrimination are very realself-serving attributions. We will also make attributions to defend what we perceive as attacks. We will point to injustice in an unfair world. People with a high need to avoid failure will have a greater tendency to make attributions that put themselves in a good light.We will even tend to blame victims (of us and of others) for their fate as we seek to distance ourselves from thoughts of suffering the same plight.We will also tend to ascribe less variability to other people than ourselves, seeing ourselves as more multifaceted and less predictable than others. This may well because we can see more of what is inside ourselves (and spend more time doing this).In practice, we often tend to go through a two-step process, starting with an automatic internal attribution, followed by a slower consideration of whether an external attribution is more appropriate. As withAutomatic Believing, if we are hurrying or are distracted, we may not get to this second step. This makes internal attribution more likely than external attribution.ResearchRoesch and Amirkham (1997) found that more experienced athletes made less self-serving external attributions, leading them to find and address real causes and hence were better able to improve their performance.So What?Using itBeware of losing trust by blaming others (i.e. making internal attributions about them). Also beware of making excuses (external attributions) that lead you to repeat mistakes and leads to Cognitive Dissonance in others when they are making internal attributions about you.DefendingWatch out for people making untrue attributions.See alsoCorrespondent Inference Theory,Covariation Model,Fundamental Attribution Error,Actor-Observer Difference,Ultimate Attribution Error,Idealization,Post Hoc,Self-determination theory,Attributional Style,Theory of MindReferencesRoesch and Amirkham (1997),Heider (1958),Jones and Davis (1965),Kelley (1967),Kammer (1982)

Expectancy TheoryExplanations>Theories>Expectancy TheoryDescription|Example|So what?|See also|ReferencesDescriptionAs we constantly are predicting likely futures, we create expectations about future events. If things seem reasonably likely and attractive, we know how to get there and we believe we can 'make the difference' then this will motivate us to act to make this future come true.Motivation is thus a combination of: Valence: The value of the perceived outcome (What's in it for me?) Instrumentality: The belief that if I complete certain actions then I will achieve the outcome. (Clear path?) Expectancy: The belief that I am able to complete the actions. (My capability?)Of course you can have an unpleasant outcome, in which case the motivation is now one of avoidance.Expectancy Theory is also calledValence-Instrumentality-Expectancy TheoryorVIE Theory.So what?Motivate people to do something by showing them something desirable, indicating how straightforward it is to get it, and then supporting their self-belief that they can get there.See alsoCognitive Evalution Theory,Motivation,Equity TheoryReferencesVroom (1964)

Goal-Setting TheoryExplanations>Theories>Goal-Setting TheoryDescription|Research|So What?|See also|ReferencesDescriptionIn order to direct ourselves we set ourselves goals that are: Clear(not vague) and understandable, so we know what to do and what not to do. Challenging, so we will be stimulated and not be bored. Achievable, so we are unlikely to fail.If other people set us goals without our involvement, then we are much less likely to be motivated to work hard at it than if we feel we have set or directed the goal ourselves.FeedbackWhen we are working in the task, we need feedback so we can determine whether we are succeeding or whether we need to change direction. We find feedback (if it is sympathetically done) very encouraging and motivating.This includes feedback from ourselves. Negative self-talk is just as demotivating as negative comments from other people.Directional and accuracy goalsDepending on the type of goal we have, we will go about achieving it differently.Adirectional goalis one where we are motivated to arrive at a particular conclusion. We will thus narrow our thinking, selecting beliefs, etc. that support the conclusion. The lack of deliberation also tends to make us more optimistic about achieving the goal.Anaccuracy goalis one where we are motivated to arrive at the most accurate possible conclusion. These occur when the cost of being inaccurate is high. Unsurprisingly, people invest more effort in achieving accuracy goals, as any deviation costs, and a large deviation may well more. Their deliberation also makes them realize that there is a real chance that they will not achieve their goal. When we have an accuracy goal we do not get to a 'good enough' point and stop thinking about it--we continue to search for improvements.Both methods work by influencing our choice of beliefs and decision-making rules.ResearchTetlock and Kim motivated people to use accuracy goals by giving them a task and telling them they would have to explain their thinking. The people wrote more cognitively complex responses than the control group.So what?Using itIf you want someone to deliberately think about what they are doing, give them an accuracy goal.DefendingChoose your own goals. Notice the difference between when you are diving into action and when you are carefully thinking.See alsoChallenge,Confirmation Bias,Elaboration Likelihood Model,Satisficinghttp://www.themanagementor.com/kuniverse/kmailers_universe/sm_kmailers/SHRM_0602_1.htmReferencesLocke and Latham (1990),Tetlock and Kim (1987)

erformance Goals: A Paradox Part I

Background for the paradoxPerformance-based goals are not always appropriate, especially when an employee faces a new and complex task. In such a case, only after the employee masters a particular task, performance goals need to be assigned.Traditional goal setting theoryEdwin Locke, Professor of Organisational Effectiveness and Gary Latham, Dean of Motivation and Leadership have propounded the most effective motivational theory on goal setting. It can be summarised as follows:1. Specific, challenging goals result in better performance than abstract goals. Specific goals define an acceptable level of performance, whereas, abstract goals, prejudice employees self-evaluation of their performance. Abstract goals make them believe that their performance is better than it actually is. Therefore, they refrain from giving optimal performance. Specific goals have set quantitative terms and defined deadlines for goal achievement.2. There is a linear relationship between the difficulty level of the goal and performance - the higher the goal, higher the performance. This linear relationship levels off, once the employees reach the limits of their abilities. For example, General Electric encourages its workforce to set extremely ambitious goals, because of their organisational potential. However, goal setting fails, if the goal is beyond one's reach. Goals need to be realistic to have a positive impact on performance. Personal commitment from the employees side, too, becomes hard to obtain with increased goal levels.3. Though feedback is necessary, it is not sufficient to set goals or affect performance. Effective feedback allows employees to make adjustments for their personal growth, skills enhancement and effectiveness. On the other hand, when employees lack commitment to specific goals, feedback loses its effect. Thus, providing employees with accurate feedback can be a challenging exercise.4. Employee participation is not a method for gaining commitment to goals. It is more an information exchange process. Incentives, too, would affect performance only to the extent of goal setting and fail to elicit commitment.Affect of goals on performanceGoals have two kinds on affects on performance motivational and cognitive.MotivationalThe three motivational mechanisms upon which goals have an impact on performance are: 1. Choice:Specific goals facilitate choice by encouraging relevant activities for goal achievement.2. Effort:Goal-setting produces the appropriate effort, as employees need to adjust their effort to the level of the goal.3. Persistence:When employees set a specific goal, they tend to make persistent efforts until they attain their goals.CognitiveGoal setting influences cognitive processes like stimulating the development of specific strategies for goal achievement. Formal planning, creative thinking and problem solving are some such cognitive processes that are precipitated by specific goals. For example, Latham and his colleagues, during their studies on goal setting and performance came across a group of truck drivers. These drivers were assigned specific goals in terms of an average number of trips from logging sites to the mill. They used radios to co-ordinate their efforts so that there was at least one truck at the logging site. Consequently, performance improved substantially and employees forced to think outside the box. They were challenged to create new ways of attaining goals as the old, routine ways had become obsolete. Enter, ParadoxThe fundamental belief of the traditional goal-setting theory was that the specific goals result in higher performance. However, Ruth Kanfer and Phillip Ackerman, Professors of Psychology at the Georgia Institute of Technology challenged this. A study conducted by them revealed that air cadets, performing a complex air traffic control task, did worse when they were assigned a specific goal compared to when they were instructed to do their best.This led to the conclusion that when a task is novel or complex, where employees are going through a learning process, specific goals bring down the performance levels. Complex tasks, when assigned with specific goals demand greater concentration and attention. This distracts attention from the development and evaluation of task-relevant strategies. When employees are in a learning mode, the mechanisms of choice, effort and persistence are not sufficient to ensure high performance. This suggests that there might be a flaw in the traditional goal setting theory and caution is essential while setting ambitious goals in organisational settings.More on the flaw next week.Related reading:1.Setting goals: When performance doesnt matter;Seijts, GE., Ivey Business Journal, Feb 2001.2.Group pay-for-performance plans: The role of spontaneous goal setting;Hollensbe, EC., Guthrie, JP., The Academy of Management Review, Oct 2000.3.Global most admired: Measuring people power;Fortune, Oct 2000.

Extrinsic MotivationExplanations>Theories>Extrinsic MotivationDescription|Example|So What?|See also|ReferencesDescriptionExtrinsic motivation is when I am motivated by external factors, as opposed to the internal drivers of intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation drives me to do things for tangible rewards or pressures, rather than for the fun of it.When I do something, I have to explain why I do it. If I am being rewarded extrinsically for doing it, then I can explain to myself that I am doing it for the reward. In this way, rewards can decrease internal motivation as people work to gain the reward rather than because they like doing the work or believe it is a good thing to do.In effect, extrinsic motivations can change a pleasurable into work.There are three primary types of extrinsic motivation, as in the table below:MotivationBehavior sustained by...Example

External motivation...environmental reward or punishment contingencies.Do work because paid to do it.

Introjected motivation...desire to avoid internally imposed guilt and recrimination.Do work to earn money to sustain family.

Identified motivation...desire to express important self-identifications.Do work because it is 'what I want to do'.

In addition, a fourth type of extrinsic motivation,integrated regulation, has been described. In this case rules and regulations are fully assimilated into the person, their models and beliefs. This form is very close to intrinsic motivation in effect, though the original source is external.ResearchLepper, Greene and Nisbett (1973) asked two groups of children to do some drawings. One group was promised a 'good player medal' for their work and the other was promised nothing. On a return visit, the groups were given paper and crayons and what they did was observed. The group who had been given the medal for drawing previously spent significantly less this time drawing as compared with the no-reward group.ExampleSupermarkets use loyalty cards and discounts, airlines use air miles, companies use bonuses and commissions. Extrinsic motivation is everywhere.So what?Using itYou can offer positive motivations such as rewards and other bribery or you can use negative motivation such as threats and blackmail. Either way, extrinsic motivation is crude, easy and often effective. However it focuses people on the reward and not the action. Stop giving the reward and theyll stop the behavior. This can, in fact, be useful when you want them to stop doing something: first give them extrinsic rewards for doing the unwanted behavior, then remove the reward.See alsoIntrinsic motivation,Overjustification Effect,Using threatsReferencesDeci (1971),Petri (1991),Lepper, Greene and Nisbett (1973),Deci and Ryan (1985)

Intrinsic MotivationExplanations>Theories>Intrinsic MotivationDescription|Example|So What?|See also|ReferencesDescriptionIntrinsic motivation is when I am motivated by internal factors, as opposed to the external drivers of extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation drives me to do things just for the fun of it, or because I believe it is a good or right thing to do.There is a paradox of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is far stronger a motivator than extrinsic motivation, yet external motivation can easily act to displace intrinsic motivation (see theOverjustification Effect).Deci and Ryan identified three needs that lead to intrinsic motivation: Competence: succeeding in what you do. Relatedness: connecting with others. Autonomy: being in control of your life.ExampleMost people's hobbies are intrinsically motivated. Notice the passion with which people collect little bits of china or build detailed model ships. Few people carry that amount of passion into their workplace.So what?Using itIf you can get someone to believe in an idea or align their values with what you want, then you have set very powerful motivation in place. Seek to make them feel good about what you want.Motivate people at work by ensuring they have autonomy and are given work at which they are competent. Also connect them to the company and others so they feel a part of a social whole.Also minimize extrinsic motivation. So, for example, pay them fairly, then do everything to keep money out of the equation of why they come to work.See alsoCognitive Evalution Theory,Extrinsic Motivation,Overjustification Effect,Minimal Justification PrincipleReferencesDeci (1971),Deci (1975),Deci and Ryan (1985)

Self-Determination Theory: A Key to MotivationSelf-determination theory (SDT) is a theory of motivation that aims to explain individuals goal-directed behavior. Motivation resides along a continuum, with intrinsic motivation on the far right, extrinsic motivation in the middle and amotivation on the far left.Intrinsic motivationis ideal; people engage in an activity because of internal factors and are therefore likely to sustain the activity for their own reasons.Extrinsic motivationis driven by external forces; it is a less preferred state than intrinsic motivation, but better thanamotivation,which is a complete absence of motivation.The critical component of the theory concerns the degree to which individuals fulfill their basic psychological needs; the more they attain these basic psychological needs, the more their behavior is self-determined. The three needs areautonomy, competenceandrelatedness.This article suggests ways in which you can positively influence clients motivation to exercise by maximizing their autonomy, competence and relatedness.AutonomyAutonomy is defined as freedom of choice. Autonomy is high when individuals feel they are engaging in exercise because they choose to do so, not because they feel pressured by other people or external factors. Ideally, exercisers will engage in exercise because they enjoy the experience. In reality, however, many people exercise to enhance their body image. Thats fine, but if clients can balance that extrinsic motivational state with things they enjoy about exercising (particular exercises, the feeling of exercising, becoming stronger, etc.), they will promote an intrinsic motivational statewhich is more likely to keep them exercising. You can do two things to influence the level of autonomy that clients enjoy:1. Offer choice as to the types of exercises you will use with clients.2. Redefine what exercise means to them.Exercise Choices.We all know that a variety of exercises can generally accomplish the same end; the differences in benefits may be minor. For example, there are subtle differences between the benefits gained from a dumbbell incline press and a barbell incline press. However, if you choose the exercise that yields better gains, but clients do not realize those gains because they do not enjoy the exercise, what is the benefit? Disliking one exercise in a weight training program might not lead to dropout, but disliking half of the exercises could result in that outcome.Motivation Tip.Ask clients to identify the exercises they enjoy, the exercises to which they are indifferent and the exercises they do not like at all. Then steer clear of the ones they dislike, and include many, if not all, of the exercises they enjoy.What Exercise Means.Redefining the meaning of exercise mandates that you explain to clients that all types of physical activity constitute exercise. Clients may have boxed themselves into a strict definition of exerciseusually consisting of doing certain exercises at the gym on x days per week for y minutes per day. This mindset is restrictive and contributes to dropout. Blow the walls off that box when clients first start working with you, and as you design their programs, incorporate activities that the clientsenjoy.Says Mike Lagomarsine, head coach at Boston Universitys Athletic Enhancement Center, I worked with a woman who had just quit smoking and thought the only exercise was working one-on-one with a trainer. We talked about how walking up and down the stairs for 10 minutes before eating is exercise.Motivation Tip.Be creative. Tap into what clients enjoy doing, and translate these activities into a worthwhile exercise session. For example, if you are working with someone who enjoys gardening, have that person walk to the hose, fill up the water jug only enough to water a few flowers, water the flowers, then walk back to fill up the jug with more water. If a client likes playing video games, encourage him to choose active Wii games.CompetenceCompetence is defined by a perceived self-belief in ones ability to perform well in an activity. Feedback is a great tool for influencing clients competence. Here are a few SDT tips on administering feedback:Positive Reinforcement.Use general positive reinforcement (e.g., Nice work! or Way to go!) a few times per session. Reinforcement can lose its value if clients hear it all the time; be somewhat selective when giving feedback.Skill-Specific Feedback.Give skill-specific feedback (e.g., Good job keeping your elbow stationary during a biceps curl, or You kept your upper half tightkeep doing that during a lunge) the first few times clients perform a skill correctly. This kind of feedback is most beneficial when used immediately after clients have executed the skill. Also, give skill-specific feedback when clients are getting closer to performing the skill correctly.The Sandwich Approach.Try the sandwich approach when giving corrective feedback. Begin by mentioning something clients are doing correctly (first slice of the bread); next, offer a solution to change the behavior that needs to change (filling); and then finish with a general positive comment (second slice of bread) (Brigman & Molina 1999). The sandwich approach is a great communication tool because you tell clients what to do, not whatnotto do, and you begin and end with positive statements. This creates an atmosphere of positivity that fosters client competence.Feedback is effective if clients feel personally responsible for the action. When clients have low competence as exercisers, or have low competence in a particular area of exercising (e.g., they think they have a weak core or adherence issues), it is important to identify what they did well. Be specific. Remember, competence is about clientsperceivedself-belief; it does not matter much if you believe they have a strong core or if they show up most of the time. If they believe they are weak, then provide evidence to the contrary by giving feedback to that effect during and after training sessions.The sandwich approach is effective with individuals who have low competence. Their self-worth is poor, and any negative comment can add another brick in what I term their wall of defense, which worksagainstyou. Workwiththese clients by using the sandwich approach to give them constructive criticism.For further ideas, including eliciting feedback from clients rather than giving it yourself, see the sidebar Promoting Autonomy and Competence.RelatednessRelatedness is defined by a sense of shared experience. Motivation can improve in clients if they feel there is a warm, accepting atmosphere. One effective method is simply to put in more time and genuinely care about your clients. Says Kelly McGonigal, PhD, health psychologist at Stanford University and author of the forthcoming bookThe Willpower Instinct(Penguin 2012), I know that social connection is half of what keeps people coming to class or scheduling sessions. So I plan to arrive early and stay late just to talk. I listen to stories about high-school reunions and kids baseball championships and anything else people want to talk about. I try to ask about that stuff along with things related specifically to the behavior change theyre working on.Here are other ways in which you can connect with your clients: Ask clients whether or not they enjoy being talked to while exercising (e.g., whether you should count repetitions during weightlifting or chat with them when theyre running) and adjust accordingly. Get a feel for how much they like talking about themselves, and how much they want to hear about you. Call clients a couple times per year. On each call, compliment them by pointing out two positive personality characteristics. E-mail clients once per month. Congratulate them on something they did during that period. Ensure that clients feel in complete control over what was accomplished. Tell clients how much you appreciate their business. Do this in person, or send a holiday card wishing them happy holidays and thanking them for their continued business (Cross 2008).For more ideas, see the sidebar Promoting Autonomy and Relatedness.A Consistent ApproachMotivating clients to perform at their best can be a difficult endeavor. Some clients seem to be self-motivated and have no problems with effort, intensity and focus. Others seem to be the opposite; it is quite difficult for them to give full effort, intensity and focus over the long haul. Worse yet, motivating these clients can sometimes seem impossible. Self-determination theory offers you a consistent approach. By consistently promoting autonomy, competence and relatedness, you can have a wonderful motivational impact on your clients, while improving your efficacy as a professional.Promoting Autonomy and CompetenceKelly McGonigal, PhD, health psychologist at Stanford University and author of the forthcoming bookThe Willpower Instinct,regularly uses SDT principles with her clients. She offers these observations on how she promotes autonomy and competence: I always offer options. While clients invariably want expert advice, it is equally important for them to feel a sense of choice. We also talk about why they are choosing what they chooseis it because of how the exercise/practice made them feel? Linking a clients choice to outcomes the client cares aboutthats key, too. One of the reflection exercises I have clients do is Find Your Want Power:1. How will you benefit from succeeding at this challenge? What is the payoff for you personally? Really notice, acknowledge and appreciate these payoffs as they unfold.2. Imagine that this challenge will get easier for you over time if you are willing to do what is difficult now. Can you imagine what your life will be like, and how you will feel about yourself, as you make progress on this challenge? Is some discomfort now worth it if you know it is only a temporary part of your progress? Instead of giving clients direct feedback, I mostly ask them to do this for themselves through a process of questioning and reflective listening. For example, Ill ask them where and how they feel an exercise. Ill ask them to try an exercise two different ways and tell me which reduces any pain (if injuries are present). Im trying to teach them self-efficacy in listening to their own bodies. Most people have very little of that when they first start exercising.Promoting Autonomy and RelatednessMike Lagomarsine, MS, CSCS, USAW, head strength and conditioning coach at Boston Universitys Athletic Enhancement Center, works not only with athletes, but also with adults in a group setting. Most adults he trains are runners, skiers and competitive rowers. These clients attend sessions almost year-round and generally have a high level of motivation. As a coach, Lagomarsine applies the SDT principles of autonomy and relatedness in these ways:Free Friday.I ask the group what they want to work on for some Friday sessions. For example, the group consensus one week was sprint mechanics, and the session went very well.Exercise Variety.Clients have asked about different training programs, so I have educated them by [offering sessions on some of these programs]. For example, clients were asking about CrossFit, so we had a CrossFit workout session.Social Media.The AEC has a Facebook page, and we friend everyone who signs up. About 95% of clients accept the friend request. This allows me to check on clients walls for upcoming games or competitions, and I attend when I can."Further ReadingBrown, L. 2007.Psychology of Motivation.New York: Nova Science.Deci, E. 1980.The Psychology of Self-Determination.Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.Deci, E., & Ryan, R. 2002.Handbook of Self-Determination Research.Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.Hagger, M., & Chatzisarantis, N. 2007.Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Exercise and Sport.Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.Ryan, R. M., et al. 2009. Self-determination theory and physical activity: The dynamics of motivation in development and wellness.Hellenic Journal of Psychology, 6,10724.www.psych.rochester.edu/SDT/documents/2009_RyanWilliamsPatrickDeci_HJOP.pdf.University of Rochester.Self-Determination Theory: An Approach to Human Motivation and Personality.www.psych.rochester.edu/SDT/theory.php.TopicsMind-Body-SpiritReferencesBrigman, G., & Molina, B. 1999. Developing social interest and enhancing school success skills: A service learning approach.Journal of Individual Psychology, 55(3), 34255.Cross, K. 2008. Guiding client progress.IDEA Trainer Success, 5(2), 1214.Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R.M. 2000. The what and why of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior.Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 22768.IDEA Fitness Journal,Volume 8, Issue 10 2011 by IDEA Health & Fitness Inc. All rights reserved. Reproduction without permission is strictly prohibited.