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TheProjectGutenbergEBookofTheChildren:SomeEducationalProblems,byAlexanderDarroch
ThiseBookisfortheuseofanyoneanywhereatnocostandwithalmostnorestrictionswhatsoever.Youmaycopyit,giveitawayorre-useitunderthetermsoftheProjectGutenbergLicenseincludedwiththiseBookoronlineatwww.gutenberg.org
Title:TheChildren:SomeEducationalProblems
Author:AlexanderDarroch
ReleaseDate:May11,2007[EBook#21419]
Language:English
***STARTOFTHISPROJECTGUTENBERGEBOOKCHILDREN***
ProducedbyBryanNess,MartinPettitandtheOnline
DistributedProofreadingTeamathttp://www.pgdp.net(ThisbookwasproducedfromscannedimagesofpublicdomainmaterialfromtheGooglePrintproject.)
_TheSocialProblemsSeries_
EDITEDBY
OLIPHANTSMEATON,M.A.,F.S.A.
THECHILDREN
_TheSocialProblemsSeries_
THECHILDREN
SOMEEDUCATIONALPROBLEMS
BY
ALEXANDERDARROCH,M.A.
PROFESSOROFEDUCATIONINTHEUNIVERSITYOFEDINBURGH
LONDON:T.C.&E.C.JACK16HENRIETTASTREET,W.C.ANDEDINBURGH
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1907
CONTENTS
CHAP.PAGE
I.INTRODUCTION--THEPRESENTUNRESTINEDUCATION1
II.THEMEANINGANDPROCESSOFEDUCATION13
III.THEENDOFEDUCATION22
IV.THERELATIONOFTHESTATETOEDUCATION--THEPROVISIONOFEDUCATION31
V.THERELATIONOFTHESTATETOEDUCATION--THECOSTOFEDUCATION46
VI.THERELATIONOFTHESTATETOEDUCATION--THEMEDICAL
EXAMINATIONOFSCHOOLCHILDRENANDTHEMEDICALINSPECTIONOFSCHOOLS54
VII.THERELATIONOFTHESTATETOEDUCATION--THEFEEDINGOFSCHOOLCHILDREN66
VIII.THEORGANISATIONOFTHEMEANSOFEDUCATION77
IX.THEAIMOFPHYSICALEDUCATION85
X.THEAIMOFTHEINFANTSCHOOL98
XI.THEAIMOFTHEPRIMARYSCHOOL107
XII.THEAIMOFTHESECONDARYSCHOOL118
XIII.THEAIMOFTHEUNIVERSITY126
XIV.CONCLUSION--THEPRESENTPROBLEMSINEDUCATION131
THECHILDREN
CHAPTERI
INTRODUCTION--THEPRESENTUNRESTINEDUCATION
Theproblemsastotheendorendsatwhichoureducationalagenciesshouldaiminthetrainingandinstructionofthechildrenofthenation,andoftherightmethodsofattainingtheseendsoncetheyhave
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beendefinitelyandclearlyrecognised,areatthepresentdayreceivinggreaterandgreaterattentionnotonlyfromprofessededucationalists,butalsofromstatesmenandthepublicgenerally.For,inspiteofallthathasbeendoneduringthepastthirtyyearstoincreasethefacilitiesforeducationandtoimprovethemeansofinstruction,thereisadeep-seatedandwidelyspreadfeelingthat,somehoworother,matterseducationallyarenotwellwithus,asanation,andthatinthisparticularlineofsocialdevelopmentothercountrieshavepushedforward,whilstwehavebeencontenttolagbehindintheeducationalrear.
Thefaultsinourpresenteducationalstructurearemany,andinsomecasesobvioustoall.Inthefirstplace,itissaid,andwithmuchtruth,thatthereisnosystematiccoherencebetweenthedifferentpartsofoureducationalmachinery,andnothorough-goingcorrelationbetweenthevariousaimswhichtheseparatepartsofthesystemareintendedtorealise.AsMr.DeMontmorencyhasrecentlypointedout,wehavealwayshadanationalgroupofeducationalfacilities,moreorlessefficient,butwehaveneverhad,nordoweyetpossess,anationalsystemofeducationsodifferentiatedinitsaimsandsocorrelatedastoitspartsastoform"anorganicpartofthelifeofthenation."[1]Aneducationalsystemshouldsubserveandfosterthelifeofthewhole:itshouldbesoorganisedastomaintainasufficientandefficientsupplyofalltheserviceswhichanationrequiresatthehandsofitsadult
members.Foritisonlyinsofarastheeducationalsystemofanycountryfulfilsthisendthatitcanbe"organic,"andcanbeentitledtotheclaimofbeingcalledanationalsystem.
Thislackofcoherencebetweenthedifferentpartsofoureducationalsystemandthewantofanysystematicplanorunityrunningthroughthewholeisduetomanycauses.Asanation,wearelittleinclinedtosystem-making,andasaconsequencetheproblemofeducationasawholeandinitstotalrelationtothelifeandwell-beingoftheStatehasreceivedbutscantattentionfrompoliticians.Educationalquestions,inthiscountry,arerarelytreatedontheirownmeritsandapartfromconsiderationsofaparty,political,ordenominationalcharacter,andhencetheproblemswhichhavereceivedattentioninthepastandevoke
discussionatthepresentareconcernedwiththenatureoftheconstitution,andlimitsofthepowerofthebodiestowhomshouldbeentrustedthelocalcontroloftheeducationalagenciesofthecountry,ratherthanwiththeproblemsastotheaimswhichweshouldseektorealisethroughoureducationalorganisation,andofthemethodsbywhichtheseaimsmaybebestrealised.Hence,asanation,wehaverarelyconsideredforitsownsakeandasawholetheproblemoftheeducationofthechildren.Anduntilwehavedoneso--untilwehavemadecleartoourselvesthekindoffuturecitizenwhichasaStatewedesiretorearup--oureducationalagenciesmustmanifestalikeindefiniteness,alikeinconsistency,andalikewantofconnectionasdooureducationalaimsandideals.
Again,closelyconnectedwiththisfirst-nameddefectinoureducationalorganisation,andinfactfollowingfromitasalogicalconsequence,isourfatalmethodofdevelopingthisorthatpartofoureducationalsystemandofleavingtheotherpartstodevelop,ifatall,withoutanycentralguidanceorcontrol,untilatlengthwerealisethattheneglectedpartsalsorequireattention,andmustsomehoworotherberefittedintothewhole._E.g._,since1870therehasbeenagreatadvanceintheextentandintentofelementaryeducationinbothEnglandandScotland,butthisprogresshasbeenofaone-sidednature,andtherehasbeennocorrespondingadvanceeitherintheperfectingofthe
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educationalsystemasawhole,orintheco-ordinationofthevariousgradesofeducation.InScotland,sincethepassingintolawoftheEducationBillof1872,themeansofelementaryeducationhavebeenwidelyextendedandthemethodsofteachinghavebeengreatlyimproved,buttherehasbeennocorrespondingadvanceintheprovisionofthemeansofhighereducation,andasaconsequence,atthepresentday,wefindmanydistrictswithoutadequateprovisionforcarryingontheeducationoftheyouthofthecountrybeyondthePrimarySchoolstage.Secondaryeducationhasbeenprovidedinsomecentresbymeansofendowments;inothersthroughtheextensionoftheterm"elementary"soastoincludeeducationofamoreextendednaturethanwasoriginallyintendedtobecoveredbythatterm.InEnglanduntil1902,verymuchthesameconditionsprevailed,butsincethen,mainlyinordertoremedythestateofthingscreatedbythejudgmentintheCockertonCase,thecontrolofprimary,secondary,andtechnicaleducationhasbeenplacedinthehandsoftheCountyandBoroughCouncils,whoareempowered"toconsidertheeducationalneedsoftheirarea,andtotakesuchstepsasseemtothemdesirable,afterconsultationwiththeBoardofEducation,tosupplyoraidthesupplyofeducationotherthanelementary,andtopromotethegeneralco-ordinationofallformsofeducation."TinderthepowerssograntedmuchhasbeendonethroughoutEnglandduringthepastfewyearstoextendandmakeefficientthemeansofhighereducation;toerectschoolswhichshallprovidetrainingforthefutureservicesrequiredbythecommunityandtheStateofthemorehighlygiftedofits
members,andtoco-ordinatetheworkofthevariousagenciesentrustedwiththecareandeducationofthechildrenofthenation.
ThroughthefailureoftheEducationBillsof1904and1905topassintolaw,Scotlandstillawaitsthecreationoflocalauthoritieschargedwiththecontrolanddirectionofallgradesofeducation,andinthisrespecthereducationalorganisationismuchmorelooselycompactedthanthesystemwhichnowexistsinEngland.
Further,inScotland,onaccountoftheabsenceofonecontrollingauthority,weoftenfindinthosedistrictsinwhichtheprovisionforhighereducationisample,imperfectco-ordinationbetweentheaimsandwork,ontheonehand,ofthePrimarySchool,andontheother,of
schoolsprovidinghighereducation.Fromthiscausealsoitfollowsthat,unlikeourGermanneighbours,wehavemadelittleprogressindeterminingthedifferentfunctionswhicheachparticulartypeofHigherSchoolshallperforminthesocialorganism,andhavenotassignedtheparticularserviceswhichtheStaterequiresofeachparticulartypeofHigherSchool.ItissurelymanifestthattheservicewhichthemodernindustrialStatelooksforfromitsmembersisnotthesameinkindandismuchmorecomplexinitsnaturethanthatwhichwasrequiredduringthemediævalperiod,andthatifthisserviceistobeefficientlysupplied,thenthereisneedforHigherSchoolsvariedintypeandhavingvariousaims.
Thiswantofunitybetweenthevariouspartsofoureducationalsystem
manifestsitselfagainintheindefinitenessofaimofmanyofourHigherSchools,andinthelackofco-ordinationbetweentheHigherSchoolontheonehand,andinstitutionsprovidinguniversityandadvancedinstructionontheother.Uptillquiterecently,thesoleaimofourSecondarySchoolswastoprovidestudentsfortheUniversitiesandtosupplytheneedsofthelearnedprofessions.Butwiththeeconomicdevelopmentofthecountry,andasaconsequenceofthekeeninternationalcompetitionbetweennationandnationintheeconomicsphere,therehasarisenademandforahighereducationdifferentinkindfromthatprovidedbytheolderUniversities,andaneedforatype
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ofSecondarySchooldifferentinaimandcurriculumfromthatwhichlooksmainlytotheprovisionofstudentsintendingtoenteruponsomeoneorotheroftheso-calledwellrecognisedlearnedprofessions.Itishere,whencomparedandcontrastedwiththeeducationalsystemsofsomeofourContinentalneighbours,thatwefindtheweakestpointinourownsystem,andatthepresenttimeourmosturgentneedisfortheextensionandbetterequipmentofthecentralinstitutionsofthecountrywhichprovidehighertechnicalandcommercialinstruction.
Thisunsatisfactoryconditionofthingsisdueinlargemeasure,aswehavealreadypointedout,toourinnatedislikeasanationofallsystem-making,andtothedistrustfeltbymanymindsofanyandeveryformofStatecontrolofeducation.Hence,partlyfromthesecauses,partlyasaresultofhistoricalconditions,ithasfollowedthatvariousauthoritieshaveinthiscountrytheguidanceandcontrolofeducation,withtheusualresultofwantofunityofaim,oflackofcorrelationofmeans,andinsomecasesofoverlappingandwasteofthemeansofhighereducation.
Inthesecondplace,whilemuchhasbeendonesincetheadventofcompulsoryelementaryeducationtobetterthemeansofeducationandtoincreasethefacilitiesforthehigherinstructionoftheyouthofthecountry,thereisawidespreadbeliefthatallthehopesheldoutbytheearlyadvocatesofuniversalcompulsoryeducationhavenotbeen
realised,andthatourPrimarySchoolsinlargemeasurehavefailedtoturnoutthetypeofcitizenwhichaStatesuchasoursrequiresforherafter-service.
UniversaleducationhasnotprovedapanaceaforallthesocialevilsoftheCommonwealth,andwhileitmustbeadmittedthatmuchgoodhasresultedfromtheadoptionofuniversalandcompulsoryeducation,yetatthesametimecertainevilshavefollowedinitstrain.
Sincetheinstitutionofuniversaleducation,itmaybearguedthatthechildrenofthenationhavereceivedabettertrainingintheuseofthemoremechanicalartsofreading,writing,andarithmetic,butthetendencyhasbeentolookupontheacquisitionoftheseartsas_endsin
themselves_,ratherthanasmereinstrumentsforthefurtherextensionanddevelopmentofknowledgeandpractice,andhenceourPrimarySchoolsystem,toalargeextent,hasfailedtocultivatetheimaginationofthechild,andhasalsofailedtotrainthereasonandtodevelopinitiativeonthepartofthepupil.Therehasbeenmoreinstruction,ithasbeensaid,duringthelastthirtyyears,butlesseducation;fortheprocessofeducationconsistsinthebuildingupwithinthechild'smindofpermanentandstablesystemsofideaswhichshallhereafterfunctionintheattainmentandrealisationofthevariousendsoflife.Now,ourschoolpracticeisstilllargelydominatedbytheoldconceptionthatmerememoryknowledgeisall-important,andasaconsequencemuchoftheso-calledknowledgeacquiredduringtheschoolperiodisfoundvaluelessinafterlifetorealiseanydefinitepurpose,foritisonlyinsofar
astheknowledgeacquiredhasbeensystematisedthatitcanafterwardsbeturnedtouseinthefurtheranceoftheaimsofadultlife.
Fromthisitfollowsthat,sincemuchoftheknowledgeacquiredduringtheschoolperiodhasnobearingontherealandpracticalneedsoflife,thePrimarySchoolinmanycasesfailstocreateanypermanentorrealinterestintheworkseitherofnatureorofsociety.
ButamuchmoreseriouschargeislaidattimesagainstourPrimarySchoolsystem.Itiscontendedthatduringthepastthirtyyearsithas
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donelittletoraisethemoraltoneofthecommunity,andithasdonestilllesstodevelopthatsenseofcivicandnationalresponsibilitywithoutwhichthemoralandsocialprogressofanationisimpossible.Ourhugecityschoolsaremanufactoriesratherthaneducationalinstitutions--placeswhereyearlyacertainnumberoftheyouthofthecountryareturnedoutabletosomeextenttomakeuseofthemechanicalartsofreadingandwriting,andwithasmatteringofmanybranchesofknowledge,butwithlittleornotrainingforthemoralandcivicresponsibilitiesoflife.Thisisevident,itisurged,ifweconsiderhowlittletheschooldoestocounteractandtosupplanttheevilinfluencesofabadhomeorsocialenvironment.WhattruththeremaybeinthesechargesandwhatmustbedonetoremedythisstateofmatterswillbediscussedwhenweconsiderlatertheexistingElementarySchoolsystem.Hereitissufficienttopointoutthatoneofthecausesatworkto-daytendingtoarousearenewedinterestineducationalproblemsisthefeelingnowbeginningtofindexpressionthatthekindofuniversalelementaryeducationprovidedsomehoworotherfails,andhasfailed,toproduceallthatwasinthebeginningexpectedofit--thatithasinthepastbeentoomuchdivorcedfromtherealinterestsoflife,andthatitmustberemodelledifitistofittheindividualtoperformhisdutytosociety.
Athirdfaultoftenfoundwithourexistingschoolsystemisthatinthecaseofthemajorityofthechildrentheprocessofeducationstopsat
tooearlyanage.Thebeliefisslowlyspreadingthatifwearetoeducatethoroughlythechildrenofthenationsoastofitthemtoperformefficientlytheafterdutiesoflife,somethingofamoresystematiccharacterthanhasasyetbeendoneisrequired,inordertocarryonandtoextendtheeducationofthechildaftertheElementaryschoolstagehasbeenpassed.ForitisevidentthatduringthePrimarySchoolperiodallthatcanbeexpectedinthecaseofthelargernumberofchildrenisthattheschoolshouldlayasoundbasisintheknowledgeoftheelementaryartsnecessaryforallsocialintercourse,andfortherealisationofthesimplerneedsoflife.Abeginningmaybemade,duringthisperiod,intheformationandestablishmentofsystemsofknowledgewhichhavefortheiraimtherealisationofthemorecomplextheoreticalandpracticalinterestsofafterlife,butunlesstheseare
furtheredandextendedintheyearsinwhichtheboyispassingfromyouthtomanhood,thenasaconsequencemuchofwhathasbeenacquiredduringtheearlyperiodfailstobeofuseeithertotheindividualortosociety.
Again,itissurelyunwisetogivenoheedtothesystematiceducationofthemajorityofthechildrenduringtheyearswhentheyaremostsusceptibletomoralandsocialinfluences,andtoleavethemoralandsocialeducationoftheyouthduringtheadolescentperiodtotheunregulatedanduncertainforcesofsociety.
Lastly,inthisconnectionitiseconomicallywastefulforthenationtospendlargelyinlayingthemerefoundationsofknowledge,andthento
adoptthepolicyofnon-interference,andtoleavetotheindividualparenttherightofdeterminingwhetherthefoundationsolaidshallbefurtherutilisedornot.
Afourthcriticismurgedagainstoureducationalsystemisthatinthepastwehavepaidtoolittleattentiontothetechnicaleducationofthosedestinedinafterlifetobecometheleadersofindustryandthecaptainsofcommerce.OurHigherSchoolsystemhasbeentoopredominantlyofonetype--ithastakentoonarrowaviewofthehigherservicesrequiredbytheStateofitsmembers,andoureducational
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systemhasnotbeensoorganisedastomaintainandfarthertheeconomicefficiencyoftheState.Foritmaybecontendedthattheeconomicefficiencyoftheindividualandofthenationisfundamentalinthesensethatwithoutthis,theattainmentoftheothergoodsoflifecannotorcanbeonlyimperfectlyrealised,anditisobviousthataccordingtothemeasureinwhichtheeconomicwelfareoftheindividualandoftheStateissecured,inlikemeasureissecuredtheopportunityforthedevelopmentandrealisationoftheotheraimsoftheindividualandofthenation.
Thusthepresentunrestasregardsoureducationalaffairsmaybelargelytracedtothefourcausesenumerated.Wehavebeguntorealisethatoureducationalsystemlacksdefinitenessofaim,andthatitsvariouspartsarebadlyco-ordinated;that,inshort,wedonotasyetpossessanationalsystemofeducationwhichministerstoandsubservesthelifeoftheStateasawhole.Wearefurtherbeginningtoperceivethattheprovisionofthemeansofhighereducationistooimportantamattertobelefttothecareoftheprivateindividual,andthateducationmustbetheconcernofthewholebodyofthepeople.Henceithasbeensaidthatonthecreationofanationalsystemofeducation,fittedtomeettheneedsofthemodernState,dependslargelythefutureofBritainasanation.
Again,allthatwashopedforastheresultofuniversalcompulsory
educationhasnotbeenrealised,andthefeelingisgrowingthatthereissomethingdefectiveintheaimsofourPrimarySchoolsystem,andthatitfails,andhasfailed,todevelopintheindividualthemoralandsocialqualitiesrequiredbyaStatesuchasours,whichisbecomingincreasinglydemocraticincharacter.Further,wearelearning,partlythroughexperience,partlyfromtheexampleofothercountries,thattheperiodduringwhichourchildrenmustbeundertheregulatedcontroloftheschoolandofsocietymustbelengthened,ifwearetorealisethefinalaimofalleducation,whichistoenabletheindividualontheintellectualsidetoapplytheknowledgegainedtothefurtheranceandextensionofthevariouspurposesoflife,andonthemoralsidetoenablehimtousehisfreedomrightly.
Lastly,asanation,wearebeginningtodiscoverthatwithoutthebettertechnicaltrainingofourworkmen,andespeciallyofthosetowhominafter-lifewillbeentrustedthecontrolanddirectionofourindustriesandcommerce,wearelikelytofallbehindtheotheradvancednationsintheraceforeconomicsupremacy.
But,inadditiontothesenegativeforcesatwork,tendingtoproducedissatisfactionwithoureducationalposition,theopinionisgrowingstrongerandclearerthattheeducation,physical,intellectual,andmoral,ofthechildrenofthenationisamatterofsupremeimportanceforthefuturewell-beingandthefuturesupremacyofthenation,andthatitisthedutyoftheStatetoseethattheopportunityisfurnishedtoeachindividualtorealisetothefullallthe
potentialitiesofhisnaturewhichmakeforgood,sothathemaybeenabledtorenderthatservicetothecommunityforwhichbynatureheisbestfitted.Compulsoryelementaryeducationisbutonestageintheprocess.Wemust,asanation,atleastseethatnoinsuperableobstaclesareplacedinthepathofthosewhohavetherequisiteabilityanddesiretoadvancefartherinthedevelopmentoftheirpowers.Moreover,ifneedbe,wemust,inthewordsofRousseau,compelthosewhofromvariouscausesareunwillingtorealisethemselves,toattaintheirfullfreedom.
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Thisdemandforthebetterandfullereducationofthechildrenofthenationismotivedpartlybythegrowingconvictionthatthefreedom,political,civil,andreligious,whichweasanationenjoy,canonlybemaintained,furthered,andstrengthenedinsofaraswehaveeducatedourchildrenrightlytounderstandandrightlytousethisfreedomtowhichtheyareheirs.Democracy,asaformofgovernmentandasapowerforgood,isonlypossiblewhenthemassofthepeoplehavebeenwiselyandfullyeducated,sothattheyareenabledtotakeanintelligentandcomprehensiveinterestinallthatpertainstothegoodandfuturewelfareoftheState.Ademocracyofillorpartiallyeducatedpeoplesoonerorlaterbecomesanochlocracy,[2]rulednotbythebest,butbythosewhocanworkupontheself-interestofthebadlyorone-sidedlyeducated.Atruedemocracyisinfacteveraristocratic,intheoriginalsenseofthatterm.Afalsedemocracyevertendstobecomeochlocratic,andtheonlysafeguardagainstsuchastateofconditionsarisinginacountrywhererepresentativegovernmentexistsisthespreadofhighereducation,andtheinculcationofarightconceptionofthenatureandfunctionsoftheStateandofthedutiesofcitizenship.
Butfurther,thedemandforincreasedfacilitiesforhigherandtechnicaleducationismotivedlargelybytheconvictionthatintheeducationofourchildrenwemustinthefuturemorethanwehavedoneinthepasttakemeanstosecurethefitnessoftheindividualtoperformefficientlysomespecificfunctionintheeconomicorganisation
ofsociety.Andthedemandproceeds,notfromanydesiretonarrowdowntheaimsofeducation,toplaceitonapurelyutilitarianbasis,butfromthebeliefthatthesecuringofthephysicalandeconomicefficiencyoftheindividualisoffundamentalandprimaryimportancebothforhisownwelfareandthewell-beingandprogressoftheState,andthatinproportionaswesecurethehighereconomicefficiencyofalargerandlargernumberofthepeoplewealsosecuretheessentialconditionforthedevelopmentandextensionofthoseothergoodsoflifewhichcanbeattainedbythemajorityofanationonlyafteracertainmeasureofeconomicprosperityandeconomicsecurityisassured.
Thesocialevilsofourownorofanytimecannot,ofcourse,beremovedbyanyoneremedy,butaneducationwhichendeavourstosecurethateach
individualshallhavetheopportunitytodevelophimselfandtofithimselffortheafterperformanceoftheserviceforwhichbynatureheissuitedmaydomuchtomitigatetheevilsincidentupontheindustrialorganisationofsociety.Ifthisendistoberealised,thenthreethingsatleastarenecessary.Wemustseekbysomemeansorothertocheckthelargenumberofourboysandgirlswho,afterleavingthePrimarySchool,driftyearbyyear,eitherthroughtheignoranceorthecupidityorthepovertyoftheirparents,intotheranksofuntrainedlabour,andwhointhecourseoftwoorthreeyearsgotoswelltheranksoftheunskilled,casualworkers,andbecomeinmanycases,inthecourseoftime,theunemployedandtheunemployable.Inthesecondplace,wemustendeavourtosecurethebettertechnicaltrainingoftheyouthduringtheiryearsofapprenticeship,andsotendtoraisethe
generalefficiencyoftheworkersofthenationwhateverthenature--manualormental--oftheiremployment.Inthethirdplace,wemustendeavour,bymeansofoursystemofeducation,toincreasethemobilityoflabour.InthemodernState,wherechangesintheindustrialorganisationarefrequent,theworkerwhocanmosteasilyadapthimselftochangingcircumstancesisbestassuredofconstantemployment,andagreatpartofthesocialevilsofourtimemaybetracedtothiswantofmobilityonthepartofalargenumberofourworkers.
Themobilityoflabourisofcoursealwaysdeterminedwithincertain
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limits,butmuchmayandcouldbedonebypursuingfromthebeginningarightmethodineducatingthechildtodevelopitspowerofself-adaptationtotheneedsofachangingenvironment.
Iftheseresultsaretobeattained,thenweshallhave,asanation,tomakecleartoourselvestherealmeaningandpurposeofeducation;weshallhavetomakeexplicitthenatureoftheendswhichwedesiretosecureastheresultofoureducationalefforts,andweshallhavetoorganiseoureducationalagenciessothattheendsdesiredshallbesecured.
Letusnowconsiderthequestionofthemeaning,purpose,andendsofeducation.
FOOTNOTES:
[1]_NationalEducationandNationalLife_,p.1.
[2]_Ochlos_,amob.
CHAPTERII
THEMEANINGANDPROCESSOFEDUCATION
"Ofalltheanimalswithwhichtheglobeispeopled,thereisnonetowardswhomnatureseems,atfirstsight,tohaveexercisedmorecrueltythantowardsman,inthenumberlesswantsandnecessitieswithwhichshehasloadedhim,andintheslendermeanswhichsheaffordstotherelievingofthesenecessities.Inothercreaturesthesetwoparticularsgenerallycompensateeachother.Ifweconsiderthelionasavoraciousandcarnivorousanimal,weshalleasilydiscoverhimtobeverynecessitous,butifweturnoureyetohismakeandtemper,hisagility,hiscourage,hisarms,andhisforce,weshallfindthathis
advantagesholdproportionwithhiswants....Inmanalonethisunnaturalconjunctionofinfirmityandofnecessitymaybeobservedinthegreatestperfection.Notonlythefoodwhichisrequiredforhissustenanceflieshissearchandapproach,oratleastrequireshislabourtobeproduced,buthemustbepossessedofclothesandlodgingtodefendhimagainsttheinjuriesoftheweather:thoughtoconsiderhimonlyinhimself,heisprovidedneitherwitharms,norforce,norothernaturalabilitieswhichareinanydegreeanswerabletosomany'necessities.''Tisbysocietyaloneheisabletosupplyhisdefectsandraisehimselfuptoanequalitywithhisfellow-creatures,andevenacquiresasuperiorityoverthem."[3]InthesetermsHumedrawsthedistinctionbetweenmanandtheanimals,andif,forthetermSociety,wesubstitutethewordEducation,thenweshallmoretrulydescribethe
meansbywhichmanovercomeshisnaturalinfirmitiesandmeetshisnecessities.
Butwehavetoask,Whereindoesmandifferfromtheanimals?whatpowerorfacultydoeshepossessoverandabovethosepossessedbyhimselfandtheanimalsincommon?andhowdoesithappenthatashiswantsandneedsincreaseandmultiplythemeanstosatisfythemalsotendtoincrease?Now,theanimalisguidedwhollyormainlybyinstinct.Inthecaseofmanyanimalsthewholeconductoftheirlifefrombirthtodeathisgovernedbythismeans.Inthecase,indeed,ofsomeofthehigher
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animals,thereisalimitedpowerofmodifyingthisgovernmentbyinstinctthroughtheexperienceacquiredduringthelifetimeoftheindividual.Butmanalonepossessesthepowerorfacultyofreason.Anditisthroughthepossessionofthispowerthathealoneofallcreaturescanbeeducated;itisthepossessionofthispowerwhichplaceshimabovetherestofcreation,anditisinthepossessionofthispowerthatthepossibilityofhisgreatness,andalsoofhisbaseness,lies.Now,aninstinctmaybedefinedasaninbornandinheritedsystemofmeansfortheattainmentofadefiniteendofsuchanaturethatoncetheappropriateexternalstimulusisappliedthesystemtendstoworkitselfoutinanautomaticmanneruntiltheendisattained,andindependentlyofanycontrolexercisedbytheindividual.Theworkingoutofsuchanactionmaybeaccompaniedbyconsciousness,butthepowerofmemorywouldonlybevaluableinsofarastheinstinctwasimperfect,andinsofarasthebetterattainmentoftheendwasfosteredbydirectindividualexperience.Thusthegreatertherangeofinstinctthelessthescopeofandthelesstheneedforeducation--_i.e._,foracquiringexperiencesthatwillfunctioninrenderingmoreefficientfutureaction;andconversely,thelesstherangeofinstinctthegreatertheneedforeducation,foracquiringexperiencesthatmayfunctionintheguidanceanddirectionoffutureaction.
Now,inmantherangeofinstinctissmall.Infact,itisquestionable
whetherinthestrictusageofthetermhepossessesanyoneperfectinstinct.Buttoovercomethisweaknessofhisnaturehepossessesthepowerorfacultyofreason,andthisconsistsintheabilitytoself-find,toself-adapt,andtoself-establishsystemsofmeansfortheattainmentofdefiniteends."Man'ssplendidpoweroflearningthroughexperienceandofapplyingthecontentsofhismemorytoforecastandmouldthefutureishispeculiarglory.Itisthiswhichdistinguisheshimfromandraiseshimaboveallotheranimals.Thisitisthatmakeshimman.Thisitisthathasenabledhimtoconquerthewholeworldandtoadapthimselftoamillionconditionsoflife."[4]Thisitisthatalsomakespossibletheeducationofthechild,andraisesthehopethatbyatrueranddeeperconceptionoftheprocessofeducationweshallbeenabledtomouldthecharacterofthechildrentoworthyends.
Butalthoughmanispre-eminentlytherationalanimal,yetreasononlyoperates,andcanonlyoperate,insofarasitiscalledintoactivitybytheneedofsatisfyingsomeinbornoracquireddesire.Thatis,manpossessesnotonlyreason,butalsocertaininstinctivetendenciestoaction.Inearlylife,theinstinctsofcuriosity,ofimitation,ofemulation,andthevariousformsoftheplayinstinctareeverincitingthechildtoaction,andeverevokinghisreason-activitytoacquirenewexperienceswhichshallfunctioninthemoreefficientperformanceoffutureaction.Atalaterstageotherinstinctivetendenciesmaketheirappearance,as_e.g._theparentalinstinct,andserveasmotivesforthefurtheracquisitionofnewexperiences--fortheestablishmentofothersystemsofmeansfortheattainmentofdesiredends.Butasthe
childpassesfrominfancytoyouthandmanhood,theseinstinctivetendencies,althougheverpresent,altertheircharacter,andacquiredendsorinterestsbecomethemotivesofactions.Buttheseacquiredendsorinterestsarenotsomethingcreatedoutofnothing:theyaregrafteduponandariseoutoftheinnateandinheritedinstinctivetendenciesofman'snature.Thus,_e.g._,theinstinctofmereself-preservationmaypassintothedesiretoattainacertainstandardoflife,ortomaintainacertainsocialstatus;theinstinctofcuriosityintothedesiretofindoutandtosystematiseknowledgeforitsownsake.Butfortherealisationoftheseinstinctiveends,whetherintheircrudeor
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acquiredforms,thefindingandtheestablishmentofsystemsofmeansineverycaseisnecessary,andinorderthattheymayberealisedmanmustacquiretherequisitecapacitiesforaction.Inthecaseoftheanimaltheinstinctorimpulsetoactionisinherited,butthecapacityforactionisalsoinbornorinnate.Manpossessesalltheinnateendsorinterestswhichtheanimalpossesses.Moreover,upontheseinnateendsorinterestscanbegraftedendsorinterestsinnumerableandvariedincharacter,butinorderthattheymaybesatisfiedhemustthroughtheevokingintoactivityofreasonfindandadaptmeansfortheirattainment.Thusthegeneralnatureofourconscioushumanlifeisthatthroughoutwearestrivingtoattainendsofamoreorlessexplicitnature,andendeavouringtofindoutandtoestablishmeansfortheirattainment.Whetherintheperformanceofsomesimple,practicalact,orintryingtoobserveaccuratelywhatispresentedtousthroughthesenses,orinendeavouringtorealiseimaginativelysomethingnotdirectlypresentedtothesenses,orinperforminganabstractprocessofthought,theactivityofreasoninitsformalaspectiseveroneandthesame.Henceineducationwehavenottodowiththedevelopmentofmanypowersorfacultiesbutwiththedevelopmentortheevolutionoftheonepowerorfacultyofreason,andtheprocessofdevelopmentinitsgeneralnatureisalwaysthesameinkind--viz.,theprocessofsystematicallybuildingupknowledgewhichshallfunctioninthefuturedeterminationofconduct.Whatvariesineachcase,ateachstageofdevelopment,isthenatureofthematerialwhichgoestoformthisor
thatsystem,andthecharacteroftheidentityorlinkofconnectionwhichbindsparttopartwithinanygivensystem.Asystemofknowledgemaybebuiltupofperceptualelements,ofideasderiveddirectlythroughthemediumofthesenses.Ofsuchacharacterarethesystemsofknowledgepossessedbytheartistandthemusician.Again,asystemofknowledgemaybecomposedwhollyormainlyofimages--ofrememberedideas,soalteredandsomodifiedastoformandfitintoanewwhole.Lastly,theelementswhichgotoformthecomponentpartsofthesystemmaybeofaconceptualcharacter.Thuswemayselectthenumberaspectofthingsforconsiderationandtreatment,andsobuildupandestablishwithinthemindofthechildanumbersystem.Butineachandeverycasethepoweratworkistheactivityofreason,andtheendeverinviewintheselectionandintheformationofthesystemisthesatisfactionof
someendorinterestdesiredeitherforitsownsakeorasameanstosomefurtherandremoterend.
Further,asystemofknowledgemaydiffernotonlyinthenatureofthematerialsofwhichitiscomposed,butalsointhemodeofitsformation;_i.e._,thenatureoftheidentitywhichbindsparttopartwithinthesystemmayvaryincharacter.Nowitisuponthenatureofthesystemswhichweultimatelyforminthemindofthechildanduponthemethodwhichwepursueinourprocessofsystemorknowledgemakingthattheresultantcharacterofoureducationdepends.
Asystemofknowledgemayberelatedasregardsitspartsbysomequalitativeorquantitativebondofidentity.Allsciencesofmere
classificationareformedinthisway,andtheformationofsuchsystemsisinsomecasesanecessarypreliminarytotheevolutionofthehigherformsofsystem.Buttheimportantpointtonoteisthatallsuchsystemsarevaluableonlyasameanstothefurtherrecognition,thefurtherclassification,ofsimilarinstances.Anindividualwhosemindwaswhollyformedinthiswaymightbecomparedtoawell-arrangedmuseum,whereeverythingisclassifiedandarrangedonthebasisofqualitativeidentity.Butmanifestlythismerearrangingandclassifyingofknowledgehasonlyalimitedvalue.Suchsystemscanneverbeusedasmeansfortherealisationofanypracticalneedoflife,canneverby
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themselvesleadustointrinsicallyconnectedknowledge.
Asecondandhigherformofsystemisestablishedwheneverthebondofconnectionbetweenpartandpartisanidentityoffunctionoroflaw.Alllanguagesystemsareofthisnature,andthemorehighlysyntheticthelanguagethemoreintrinsictheconnectionthereisbetweenthepartsofthesystem.Further,itshouldbenotedthatsystemsofthischaractercanbeusedfortheattainmentofotherendsthanthoseofmererecognitionandclassification.They,ofcourse,canbeusedasinstrumentsofintercourse,ofculture,andofcommerce.Buttheymayfurtherbeutilisedineducationinthetrainingofthepupiltoself-applyasystemofknowledgetothesolutionofrelativelynewproblems,anditisforthisreasonmainlythattheancientlanguagespossesstheirvalueaseducationalinstruments.
Lastly,systemsofknowledgemaybeformedinwhichtheinter-relationofparttopartwithinthesystemisthatofidentityofcauseandeffect.Intheestablishmentofscientificknowledgetheaimistoshowthecausalinter-relationofparttopartwithinasystematicwholeorunity.Hencealso,asinthecaseoflanguagesystems,systemsofthisnaturearecapableofbeingusedtotrainthepupiltoself-applyknowledgeinthesolutionofpracticalandtheoreticalproblems,andintherealisingofthepracticalendsoflife.Onceagainitmustbenotedthatintheestablishmentofthevarioussystemsofknowledgetheone
activityeverpresentisthatofreasonseekingevertoconnectparttopartinorderthatsomeendorinterestmaybeattained.Moreover,wemaymisusethepowerofreason,andemployitintheattainmentofendswhicharevaluelessinthesensethattheyfurthernorealinterestorendinlife.Thisisdonewheneverknowledgeiscrammed,wheneverthebondofconnectionbetweenonepartofknowledgeandtheotherisextrinsic,andwheneverfactsareconnectedandrememberedbybondsofamoreorlessaccidentalorfactitiousnature.Andsincesuchknowledgecanfurthernodirectinterestorendinlife,itsacquisitionmust,asarule,bemotivedbysomestrongindirectinterest.Asaconsequence,whenevertheindirectinterest,whateveritsnaturemaybe,--thefearofpunishment,orthepassingofanexamination,--ceasestooperate,thenthedesireforfurtheracquisitionalsoceases.Henceitfollowsthat
theestablishmentofanysuchsystemisofcomparativelylittlevalue.Itmaypavethewayatalaterperiodfortheformationofasystemofintrinsicallyconnectedknowledge,butasageneralrulesuchsystems,becausetheycannotbeused,tendsoontodropoutofmind,andtobeofnofurtherconsequenceinthedeterminationofconduct.Butfurther,thismisuseofreason,thisincitingofthemindtomemorisefactsunrelatedexceptbytheirmereaccidentaltimeorspacerelations,willifpersistedintendtorendertheindividualdull,stupid,andunimaginative.
Thesystemsofknowledge,then,ofmostvaluearethosewhichestablishintrinsicconnectionsbetweenpartandpart;foritisonlybymeansofsystemsofthischaracterthatactioncanbedeterminedandknowledge
extended.InthissensewemayagreewithHerbertSpencer[5]thatscienceorsystematisedknowledgeisofchiefestvaluebothfortheguidanceofconductandforthedisciplineofmind.AtthesametimewemustnotfallintotheSpencerianerrorofidentifyingscience"withthestudyofsurroundingphenomena,"andinmakingtheantithesisbetweenscienceandlinguisticstudiesonebetweendealingwithrealthingsontheonehand,andmerewordsontheother.
Further,sincetheestablishmentofasystemofmeansisalwaysthroughtheself-findingandtheself-formingofthesystem,thisfurnishesthe
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keytotheonlysoundmethodofeducation--viz.,thatthechildmustbetrainedintheself-discoveringandtheself-connectingofknowledge.ThisdoesnotmeanthatthemethodshouldbeheuristicinRousseau'ssense,thatthechildshouldbetoldnothing,butbelefttorediscoverallknowledgeforhimself.Butitdoesmeanthatintheimpartingofthegarneredexperienceoftheracethechildmustbetrainedinthemethodsbywhichtheracehasslowlyandgraduallybuiltupaknowledgeofthemeansnecessaryfortherealisationofthemanyandcomplexendsofcivilisedlife.
Beforepassingontoconsidertheendsatwhichweshouldaimintheeducationofthechild,itmaybewellbrieflytosummarisetheconclusionsreached.
1.Manisdistinguishedfromtherestofcreationbythepossessionofreason:theanimallifeismainlyorwhollyguidedbyinstinct.
2.Manliketheanimalspossessesinstinctsorinstinctivetendencies,butfortheirrealisationhemustseekoutandestablishsystemsofmeansfortheirattainment.Bereftoftheseinstinctivetendenciesofhisnature,manwouldhavenoincentivetoacquireexperiencesforthemoreefficientguidanceofhisfutureconduct.
3.Inthecourseofthedevelopmentandextensionofexperiencetheregraduallybecomesgraftedupontheseinnateinstincts,interestsorendsofanacquirednature,andoneofthemainfunctionsofeducationistocreate,foster,andestablishonapermanentandstablebasis,interestsofethicalandsocialworth.
4.Thepowerofreasonisnooccultpower:itissimplythecapacityforfindingandestablishingsystemsofmeansfortheattainmentofends;oritmaybedefinedasthepowerofacquiringexperienceandofself-applyingthisexperienceinthefutureguidanceofconduct.
5.Theevolutionofintelligenceinmanistheevolutionofthisreason-activitytotheattainmentofnewandmorecomplextheoreticalandpracticalendsorinterests.Atanearlystagethesystemsofknowledgeestablishedarefortheattainmentoftherelativelysimpleneedsoflife,andarecomposedofperceptualandimaginedelements.Atalaterstagethesystemsformedmaybeofthemostcomplexnature,andarecomposedofconceptualelements.
6.Manistheonlybeingcapableofeducationinthestrictusageoftheterm.Healonemustacquirethemeansfortherealisationofthevariousdesiredendsoflife.
7.Theprocessofeducationisaprocesswhich,utilisingas
motivestoacquirementtheinstinctivetendenciesofthechild'snature,seekstoestablishsystemsofmeansfortheirrealisation,andupontheseinnateorinborninstinctstograftacquiredendsorinterestswhichshallhereafterfunctionintheattainmentofendsofeconomic,ethical,andsocialworth.
8.Theonlytrulyeducativemethodisthemethodwhichtrainsthepupiltofind,establish,andapplysystemsofknowledgeintheattainmentofendsoffeltvalue.
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FOOTNOTES:
[3]Hume's_TreatiseofHumanNature_,Bk.III.partii.sec.2.
[4]_PrinciplesofHeredity_,byG.ArchdallReid,p.235.
[5]Cf.HerbertSpencer,_Education_,especiallychap.i.
CHAPTERIII
THEENDOFEDUCATION
Wehaveseenthattheprocessofeducationistheprocessofacquiringandorganisingexperiencesthatwillfunctioninthedeterminationoffutureconductandensurethemoreefficientperformanceoffutureaction;orwemaysaythattheprocessisonebywhichmeansaregraduallyestablishedandfixedinthemindfortheattainmentofendsofvaluefortherealisationofthevariedandcomplexinterestsoflife.
Now,thisacquisitionandorganisationofexperienceisneverentirely"lefttotheblindcontrolofinheritedimpulse,"noristhechildwhollylefttogatherandorganisehisexperiencesupontheincentiveofanyinnateoracquiredinterestthatmayforthetimeengagehiswill.Thevariousagenciesofsociety--thehome,theschool,theshopandyard--areeverconstantlyseekingtoestablishsuchorsuchsystemsofideas,andtopreventtheformationofothersystems.Henceitfollowsthateducationisnotamerenaturalprocess--notaprocessofacquiringexperienceinresponsetothedemandsofthisorthatnaturalneed,butthatitisaregulatedprocess,controlledwiththeviewoffinallyleadingthechildtoacquirecertainexperiences,toorganisecertainsystemsofmeansfortheattainmentofsuchorsuchends.
Moreover,atvariousperiodsinhistory,theendorendsofeducation,thekindsofexperiencethoughtnecessaryandvaluableforthechildtoacquirehavevaried,andstillvary,andmustvaryaccordingtothenatureofthecivilisationintowhichthechildisbornandtowhichhiseducationmustsomehoworotheradjusthim;_i.e._,thereisnoonetypeofexperience,noonekindofeducation,whichisequallysuitedtomeettheneedsofthechildborninamodernindustrialStateandthechildwhoseeducationmustfithimhereaftertofulfilhisdutiesasamemberofasavagetribe.
Further,indeterminingthenatureoftheexperiencesusefultoacquire,wemusttakeintoaccountnotonlythecivilisationtowhichthechild
istobeadjusted,butwemustalsotakenoteofthenatureoftheserviceswhichthegivensocietyrequiresofitsadultmembers.Theseservicesvaryincharacter,andtherecanbenoonekindofeducationwhichequallyfitstheindividualtoperformefficientlyanyandeveryservice.Topostulatethiswouldbetoaffirmthatthereisakindofexperienceusefulfortherealisationindifferentlyofanyandeverypurposeofadultlife,andtoaffirmthatasystemofknowledgeacquiredandorganisedfortheattainmentofcertaindefiniteendscanbeusedforthefurtheranceofendsdifferentincharacterandhavingnointrinsicconnectionwitheachother.Further,toassertthatthereis
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onetypeofeducationequallysuitedtotrainandtodevelopthereason-activityoftheindividualineverydirectionistoneglectthefactthatindividualsdifferininnatecapacity.Thesedifferencesaredueinparttodifferencesintheextentandcharacterofthereceptivepowersofindividuals,andaretobetraced,probably,todifferencesinthesizeandconstitutionofthesensoryareasofthebrain,andareduealsoinparttoinborndifferencesinthecapacityforacquiringandutilisingexperiences.Asaconsequenceofthesedifferencesoneindividualwillacquireandorganisecertainkindsofexperiencemorereadilythanothers.
Butnotonlyhavetheendssoughttoberealisedthroughtheeducationalagenciesofsocietyvariedinthepast--notonlydowefindthattheidealsatpresentvaryincharacteraccordingtothestageofcivilisationwhichtheparticularcountryhasreached--wealsofindthattheagenciesofsocietydeterminingthecharacterandendofeducationalsovary.Forinthediscussionoftheendssoughttobeattainedbymeansofeducation,wemustrememberthatthesearenotdeterminedbytheteacher,butby"theadultportionoftheCommunityorganisedintheformsoftheFamily,theState,theChurch,andvariousmiscellaneousassociations"[6]desirousofpromotingthewelfareofthecommunity.AtonetimetheChurchlargelydeterminedthecharacterandendsofeducation,butthetendencyatthepresenttimeisfortheStatetocontrolmoreandmoretheeducationoftherisinggeneration.Insome
countriestheentirecontrolofallformsofeducation,primary,secondary,andtechnical,hascomeundertheguidanceoftheState,andinourowncountryelementaryeducationisnowlargelyunderthecontroloftheStateauthorities,andtheotherformsofeducationtendincreasinglytocomeunderthiscontrol.Notonlyisthisso,buttheperiodduringwhichtheStateexercisesitscontrolovertheeducationofthechildisgraduallybeinglengthened.
Manycausesareatworktendingtoproducetheseresultsinthefirstplace,itisbeingclearlyrealisedthattherecanbenothorough-goingco-ordinationofthevariousgradesofinstructionuntilalltheagenciesofeducationineachareaareplacedunderoneauthorityactingundertheguidanceofsomecentralbodyresponsiblefortheorganisation
anddirectionoftheeducationofthedistrictasawhole.Further,therecanbenosatisfactorysettlementoftheproblemastowhatparticularfunctioneachdistincttypeofHigherSchoolshallperformuntilthewholemeansofeducationareunderonedeterminingauthority.
Inthesecondplace,thehighereducationofthechildrenofthenationistooimportantamattertobeleftentirelytothecareoftheprivateindividual,anditscostistoogreatinmanycasestobewhollybornebyeachindividualparent.Butthisprovision,organisation,andcontrolofthemeansofhighereducationbytheStatedoesnotnecessarilyimplythatitshouldbefree--thatthewholeburdenshouldbelaidontheshouldersofthegeneraltaxpayer.Yetunlessmeansareprovidedbywhichthepoorbutcleverboycanrealisehimself,thenthereissomuch
losstothecommunity.
Inthethirdplace,theorganisationofallformsofeducationandthemoreextendedprovisionofhigherandespeciallyoftechnicaltrainingisnecessary,iffornootherreasonthanasameansofeconomicprotectionandeconomicsecurity.
Lastly,thebetterorganisationofoureducationalagenciesisnecessaryasameansofsecuringademocracycapableofunderstandingthemeaningofmoralandcivicfreedomandofusingthisrightly.
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Butwhiletheconcretenatureoftheendstowhichoureducationaleffortsaredirectedmayvaryinaccordancewiththeneedsofachangingandprogressivecivilisation,neverthelessthegeneralnatureoftheendssoughttobeattainedbytheeducationofthechildrenofanationispermanentandunchangeable.Thatis,wehavetorecogniseauniversalaswellasaparticularelementinoureducationalideals.Now,theuniversalaimofalleducationis,orrathershouldbe,tocorrelatethechildwiththecivilisationofhistime;toleadhimtoacquirethoseexperienceswhichwillinafter-lifeenablehimtoperformablyandrightlyhisdutiesasaworker,asacitizen,andasamemberofanethicalandspiritualcommunityorganisedforthesecuringofthewell-beingoftheindividual.Andthehigherthecivilisation,themoredifficult,themorecomplex,andthemorelengthenedmustbethisprocessofacquiringexperiencesnecessarytofittheindividualtohisenvironment.Hence,whatevertheparticularnatureoftheenvironmentmaybe,theaimofeducationmustbethefittingoftheindividualtohisnaturalandsocialenvironments.Hencealsoanyorganisationofthemeansofeducationmusthaveasitsthreefoldobjectthesecuringofthephysicalefficiency,oftheeconomicefficiency,andtheethicalefficiencyoftherisinggeneration.Inshort,asMr.Bagley[7]putsit,thesecuringofthesocialefficiencyoftheindividualmustbetheultimateaimofalleducation.Tobesociallyefficientimpliesthatastheresultoftheprocessofeducationcertainexperiences,andthe
powerofapplyingthem,havebeenacquiredbyeachindividual,sothatbythismeansheisenabledtoperformsomeparticularsocialserviceforthecommunityofadirectlyorindirectlyeconomicnature.Forif,astheresultoftheeducativeprocess,weestablishsystemsofmeansfortherealisationofendswhichhavenosocialvalue,thensofarwehavefailedtomaketheindividualsociallyefficient."Theyouthwewouldtrainhaslittletimetospare;heowesbutthefirstfifteenorsixteenyearsofhislifetohistutor,theremainderisduetoaction.Letusemploythisshorttimeinnecessaryinstruction.Awaywithyourcrabbed,logicalsubtleties;theyareabuses,thingsbywhichourlivescanneverbemadebetter."[8]InthesewordsMontaignewritesagainstthefalseidealthatthemereaccumulationofknowledgeapartfromanypurposeitmayserveinenablingusbettertounderstandeitherthe
worldofnatureorofhistoryshouldbetheaimofeducation,andthroughoutalleducationwemusteverkeepinmindthatknowledgeacquiredmustbecapableofbeingusedandappliedfortherealisationofsomesocialpurpose,otherwiseitissomuchuselesslumber,totheindividualaburden,soondropped,tosocietyvalueless,sinceitcanmaintainandfurthernorealinterestofthecommunity.
Buttobesociallyefficientimpliesnotmerelythattheindividualshouldbefittedtoperformsomeserviceeconomicallyusefultothecommunity,itfurtherimpliesthatastheresultoftheprocessofeducationthereshouldhavebeenacquiredcertaincapacitiesofactionwhichrestrainhimfromundulyinterferingwiththefreedomofothers.Hemustacquirecertainexperienceswhichrestrainhimfromhindering
thefullandfreedevelopmentofothers;hemustbetrainedtousehisfreedomrightly,toacquirethosecapacitiesforactionwhichfithimtotakehisplaceinthemoralcosmosofhistimeandgeneration.Further,asMr.Bagleyalsopointsout,tobesociallyefficientimpliesinadditionthattheindividualshouldcontributesomethingfurthertotheadvancementofthecivilisationintowhichheisborn,andthuspassontohissuccessorsanincreasingheritage.
Thethreefoldaimofalleducation,then,istosecurethephysical,theeconomic,andtheethicalefficiencyofthefuturemembersofthe
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community;andoureducationalagenciesmustthroughoutkeepthisthreefoldaspectinview.
Tosecurethephysicalefficiencyofthechildisnecessary,inthefirstplace,becauseastrong,healthy,vigorousbodyisagoodinitself,apartfromthefactthatwithoutsoundhealththeotherendsoflifecannot,orcanbeonlyimperfectlyrealised.Itisanerroneouspointofviewtomaintainthatmanymenhavedonegoodintellectualworkinspiteofphysicalill-health,andevenincaseswheretherewaspresentsomephysicaldefect.Therealthingtokeepinmindisthattheseindividualsdonotrepresenttheaverage,andthatforthenormalindividualweakhealthorthepresenceofphysicaldefectlessenshisintellectualandmoralvigour.Wecan,inthelightofmodernpsychology,nolongerregardmindandbodyasseparateentitieshavingadevelopmentindependentofeachother,butmustregardthemasconditioningandconditionedbyeachother.
Inthesecondplace,thecareofthephysicalhealthofthechildisimportant,becauseanyimpairmentordefectinthesenseorgans--theavenuesofexperience--impliesacorrespondingdefectorwantinmentalgrowth,andasaconsequencetendstorendertheindividualeconomicallyandsociallylessefficientinafter-life.
Inthethirdplace,andthistruthisbeinggraduallyputintopractice
intheeducationoftheweak-mindedandofthephysicallydefective,soundphysicalhealthisoneoftheconditionsofrightmoralactivity.ThistruthRousseauemphasisedwhenhedeclared:"thattheweakerthebody,themoreitcommands;thestrongeritis,thebetteritobeys.Allthesensualpassionsfindlodgmentineffeminatebodies,andthelesstheyaresatisfiedthemoreirritabletheybecome.Thebodymustneedsbevigoroustoobeythesoul:agoodservantoughttoberobust."
Weshallinquirefurtherintothisquestionwhenwecometotreatofthephysicaleducationofthechild,butwhatwewishtopointoutisthatoneaimofalloureducationaleffortsmustbetosecurethephysicalefficiencyoftherisinggeneration,onthegroundsthatsoundphysicalhealthisagoodinitself;isameanstothesecuringoftheeconomic
efficiencyoftheindividualandofsociety;andisaconditionofsecuringtheethicalefficiencyoftheindividual.
Inthesecondplace,thesecuringoftheeconomicefficiencyoftheindividualmustbeoneoftheaimsofoureducationalefforts.Thisdoesnotimplythatoureducationalcurriculumshouldbebasedonpurelyutilitarianlines,andthatallsubjectswhoseutilitarianvalueisnotimmediatelyapparentshouldbebanishedfromtheschoolroom.Butitdoesimplythatwhetherintheeducationoftheprofessionalmanoroftheindustrialworkerallinstructioneitherdirectlyorindirectlymusthaveasitsfinalresulttheefficiencyoftheindividualasaworker.Aneducationwhichfitstheindividualtousehisleisurerightlymayhaveasmucheffectinincreasingtheproductivepowersofthe
individualasthatwhichlooksmorenarrowlytohistechnicaltraining.Further,wemustrememberthatthelargernumberbyfarofthechildrenofthemodernStatemustinafter-lifebecomeindustrialworkers,andthatanysystemofeducationwhichneglectsthisfact,whichmakesnoprovisionforthetechnicaltrainingofthechildrenoftheworkingclasses,andhasnoadequatesystemofselectingandtrainingthosewhobyinnatecapacityarefittedtobecometheleadersinindustry,isasystemnotinharmonywiththecharacteristicsofmodernlife,andthatunlessthiseconomicefficiencyissecured,thentheopportunityforthedevelopmentoftheotherendsoflifecannotbesecured.
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Lastly,thesecuringoftheethicalefficiencyofthefuturemembersoftheStatemustbeoneofourultimateaims.Theethicalaimofeducationmaybesaidtobethesupremeend,inthesensethatitistheessentialconditionforthesecurity,thestability,andtheprogressofsociety;andalsofromthefactthattheethicalspiritofdoingtheworkforthesakeoftheworkshouldpermeatealleducation.
Inconcludingthischapterwhatneedstobeemphasisedisthatwhiletheprocessofeducationremainseverthesame,everconsistsinacquiringandorganisingexperience,inandthroughtheworkingofreasonincitedtoactivitybytheneedofsatisfyingsomenaturaloracquiredinterest,inorderthatfutureactionmayberenderedmoreefficient,andwhilstthegeneralnatureoftheendstobeattainedmaybesaidtobepermanentandunchangeable,yettheparticularandconcreteendsatwhichweshouldaimintheeducationofourchildrenisapracticalquestionwhicheverynationhas,fromtimetotime,toaskandanswerafreshinthelightofhernationalidealsandinviewofhernationalaspirations.Nay,further,itisaquestionwhichwitheverynecessarychangeinherinternalorganisation,andwitheveryfundamentalalterationinherrelationtoherexternalneighbours,hastobeaskedandansweredanewbyeachandeveryStatedesirousofretainingherplaceamongstthenationsoftheworldandofsecuringthewelfareandhappinessofherindividualmembers.Itismainlybecauseweasanation
havenotrealisedthistruththatoureducationalorganisationhas,neitherintheexplicitnessandclearnessofitsaims,norinthedistinction,gradation,andco-ordinationofitsmeans,attainedthesamethoroughnessandself-consistencyasthatpossessedbytheeducationalsystemsofsomeofourContinentalneighbours.
FOOTNOTES:
[6]Cf.ProfessorFindlay,_JournalofEducation_(Sept.1899),also"_PrinciplesofClassTeaching_,"p.2.
[7]Cf._TheEducativeProcess_,chap.iii.,esp.pp.59,60(Macmillan).
[8]Montaigne,_TheEducationofChildren_,L.E.Rector,Ph.D.(_InternationalEducationSeries_),Appleton,NewYork.
CHAPTERIV
THERELATIONOFTHESTATETOEDUCATION--THEPROVISIONOFEDUCATION
Theendofeducationis,aswehaveseen,thesecuringofthefuture
socialefficiencyoftherisinggeneration,andthemethodineverycaseisthroughtheevokingofthereason-activityoftheindividualtoorganiseandestablishinthemindsoftheyoungandimmature,systemsofideaswhichwillhereafterfunctionasmeansintheattainmentofendsofdefinitesocialworth.
Thequestionnowarisesastowhethertheprovisionandorganisationoftheagenciesofeducationmaybesafelylefttothecareandself-interestoftheindividualparent,orwhetheronprinciplesuchprovisionisadutywhichdevolvesupontheState.
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TheprincipleoftheStateprovisionofthemeansofelementaryeducationhasnowpracticallybeenadmitted,andwhetherwiselyorunwisely,thelargerpartbyfarofthecostofthisprovisionnowfallsupontheshouldersofthegeneralandlocaltaxpayer._E.g._,inEnglandin1902thereweresixhundredandthirty-threethousandfee-payingchildreninthePublicElementarySchools,andoverfivemillionsreceivingtheireducationfree.[9]Further,bytheEducationAct(England)of1902andbytheEducationandLocalTaxationAccount(Scotland)ActofthesameyeartheprincipleoftheStateaidfortheprovisionofthemeansofsecondaryandtechnicaleducationmaybesaidalsopracticallytohavebeenrecognised.BytheformerActcertainImperialfundsderivedfromtheincomeonProbateandLicencedutieswerehandedovertotheCouncilsofcountiesandboroughsforexpenditureontheprovisionofthemeansofeducationotherthanelementary,andatthesametimethesebodieswereempowered,iftheythoughtitnecessary,toimposealimitedrateforthesamepurpose.InScotlandatthesametimeacertainpartofScotland'sshareofthe"whisky"moneywassetasidefortheprovisionofsecondaryeducationinurbanandruraldistricts,andSecondaryEducationCommitteeswereappointedinthecountiesandprincipalboroughschargedwiththeallocationofthefundstowardstheaidandincreaseoftheprovisionofhighereducationintheirrespectivedistricts.
Butwhilethishasbeendone,thequestionastowhetherandtowhatextenttheStateshouldundertaketheprovisionofthemeansofhighereducationisstilloneonwhichthereisnogeneralagreement.IfitisthedutyoftheStatetoseethattheprovisionofthemeansofeducation,elementary,secondary,technical,anduniversity,isadequatetotheattainmentoftheendofsecuringthefuturesocialefficiencyofallthemembersofthecommunity,thenitmustbeadmittedthatthemeansatpresentprovidedforthispurposearetotallyinadequate,andthatthemethodfollowedinfurnishingthisprovisionisnotofakindtoensurethatthefundsgrantedarespentinthemannerbestcalculatedtoextendtheagenciesandtoincreasetheefficiencyofthehighereducationofthechildrenofthenation.ThislatterobjectionappliesmoreespeciallyinthecaseofScotland.Inthatcountrycertain
nominatedbodieswhoareresponsibleonlytothemselvesandtotheScotchEducationDepartmentareentrustedwiththeexpenditureofthemoniesreceivedfortheextensionofthemeansofhighereducation,andsincethesebodiesstandinnointimateconnectionwiththerepresentativebodiesentrustedwiththecontrolofelementaryeducation,noefficientco-ordinationofthetwogradesofeducationispossible.Further,insomecasessectionalinterestsratherthantheeducationalinterestsofthedistrictasawholearethemainmotivesatworkindeterminingthedistributionofthefundsamongstthevariousbodiesclaimingtoparticipateinitsbenefits.Theuncertaintyoftheamountofincomeavailableforthispurpose,andthelimitationinEnglandofthepowerofrating,mightalsobeurgedinobjectiontothispeculiarlyEnglishmethodofprovidingthemeansforthehigher
educationoftheyouthofthecountry.
Similarreasonstothoseurgedpriorto1870infavouroftheStateprovisionofelementaryeducationmaybeurgedinfavouroftheextensionoftheprincipletohighereducation.ThesereasonsarenowheremoreclearlystatedthaninthewritingsofJohnStuartMill.
Indiscussingthefunctionsofgovernment,MilllaysdownthateducationisoneofthosethingswhichitisadmissibleonprinciplethataGovernmentshouldprovideforthepeople,andalthoughinadducingthe
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reasonsfortheStateundertakingthisdutyheisconcernedmainlywiththeprovisionofthemeansofelementaryeducation,yetlookingtothealteredsocialconditionsofourowntime,andtakingintoaccountthedifferenceintheeconomicrelationswhichexistnowbetweenGreatBritainandherContinentalrivals,theargumentsadvancedbyMillarenolessapplicablenowtotheextensionoftheprincipleofStateprovision.Letusconsiderthesearguments.
Inthefirstplace,Milldeclaresthatthereare"certainprimaryelementsandmeansofknowledgethatallhumanbeingsbornintothecommunitymustacquireduringchildhood."Iftheirparentshavethepowerofobtainingforthemthisinstructionandfailtodoso,theycommitadoublebreachofduty.Thechildgrowsupanimperfectbeing,sociallyinefficient,andmembersofthecommunityareliabletosufferseriouslyfromtheconsequencesofthisignoranceandwantofeducationintheirfellow-citizens.
Inthesecondplace,Millurgesthatunlikethatthegivingofotherformsofhelp,theprovisionofeducationisnotoneofthethingsinwhichthetenderofhelpperpetuatesthestateofthingswhichrendershelpnecessary.Instructionstrengthensandenlargestheactivefaculties;itseffectisfavourabletothegrowthofthespiritofindependence--itishelptowardsdoingwithouthelp.
Inthethirdplace,hedeclaresthatthequestionoftheprovisionofelementaryeducationisnotonebetweenitsprovisionbytheGovernmentontheonehand,anditsprovisionthroughvoluntaryagenciesontheother.ThefullcostoftheeducationofthechildrenofthelowerworkingclassesinGreatBritainasinothercountrieshasneverbeenwhollypaidforoutofthewagesofthelabourer,andhencethequestionliesbetweentheStateprovisionofeducationanditsprovisionbycertaincharitableagencies.Asarule,whenprovidedbythelatter,itisbothinefficientinquantityandpoorinquality.
Lastly,MilllaysdownthatinthematterofeducationtheinterventionofGovernmentisnecessary,becauseneithertheinterestnorthejudgmentoftheconsumerisasufficientsecurityforthegoodnessof
thecommodity.
ButatthesametimehestrenuouslyinsiststhatthereshouldbenomonopolyofeducationbytheState.Itisnotdesirable,hedeclares,thatagovernmentshouldhavecompletecontrolovertheeducationofthepeople.Topossesssuchacontrolandactuallytoexertitwouldbedespotic.TheStatemay,however,requirethatallitspeopleshallhavereceivedacertainmeasureofeducation,butitmaynotprescribefromwhomorwheretheymayobtainit.
Atthepresentday,andunderthechangedeconomicconditionswhichnowprevail,itcannolongerbeassertedthattheimpartingofthemereelementsofknowledgeisadequateeithertosecurethefuturesocial
efficiencyofthechildrenofthelowerclassesofsocietyorthatsuchamodicumofinstructionasisprovidedbyourElementarySchoolsissufficienttoprotectthecommunityfromtheignoranceofitsilleducatedandbadlytrainedmembers.The"hooliganism"ofmanyofourlargecitiesisduetooursystemofhalfeducating,halftrainingthechildrenoftheslums,oflayingtoomuchstressontheacquisitionofcertainmechanicalartsinourPrimarySchoolsandinconceivingthemasendsinthemselves.Further,oursystemofprimaryeducationfailsonitsmoralside,andthisintwoways.Itseemsunawareofthefactthatallmoraleducationisanendeavourtoimplantinthemindsoftheyoung
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desiresthatshallimpelthemhereaftertogoodratherthantoevil,andthatthisendcanonlybeattainedinsofarasthenaturalinstinctivetendenciesofthechild'snaturewhichmakeforgoodarecultivatedandtrained,andinsofarasthoseotherinstinctivetendencieswhichmakeforsocialdestructionareinhibitedbyhavingtheircharacteralteredsoastobedirectedintochannelswhichmakeforthesocialwelfare.Inthesecondplace,weleaveofftheeducationofthechildrenattooearlyanage.Wehandoverthechildrenofthepoorerclassesduringthemostcriticalperiodoftheirlivestotheinfluencesofthestreetsandofthebadhome,counteractedonlybytheeffortsoftheslumvisitororthemissionary.Afterfurnishingthemwiththemereinstrumentsofknowledge,weentrusteithertothemortheirparentsthelibertyofusing,misusing,ornon-usingtheinstrumentsprovided.Moreover,wedonothingofasystematicnaturetoinstilintotheyouthofourpoorercitizensthefactthattheyaremembersofacorporatecommunityandfuturecitizensofaState,andthathereaftertheyhavedutiestowardsthatStatetheperformanceofwhichistheonlyrationalgroundoftheirpossessionofrightsasagainsttheState._E.g._,inmanyofourslumswehavethebestexamplesofindividualismrunmad,oftheconceptionthattheindividualisalawuntohisprivateself,andthatallgovernmentissomethingalien,somethingforcedupontheindividualfromtheoutsideandimpinginguponhisprivatewill,insteadoflawbeingwhatitreallyis,anexpressionofthesocialconditionsunderwhichthewelfareoftheindividualandofsocietymaybeattained.
Further,itmustbemaintainedthatourpresentpolicyineducationiseconomicallywasteful.Tospend,aswedoyearly,largerandlargersumsofmoneyontheelementaryeducationofourchildren,andthen,inalargenumberofcases,tofailtoreachtheendsofsecuringeitherthesocialefficiencyoftheindividualortheprotectionofsocietyagainsttheignoranceofitsmembers,issurely,tosaytheleast,unwise.Again,ifwereallysetbeforeusthisaimofthesocialefficiencyofthefutureindividual,wemustdosomethingtocarryontheeducationofthechildrenofthepoorerclassesaftertheElementarySchoolstagehasbeenpassed.
OneofthestrongestpointsintheGermansystemofeducation,as
comparedandcontrastedwithourown,isthecarewhichistakenofthehighereducationofthechildrenoftheworkingclassesduringtheperiodwhenitismostimportantthatsomecontrolshouldbeexercisedovertheyouthofthecountry,throughoutthetimewhentheboyismostopentotemptation,andwhenthemoralforcesofsocietyarepotentforgoodandevilinshapingandforminghischaracter.ThegreatmajorityofthechildreninamodernStateareandmustbedestinedforindustrialservice;thegreatmajorityofthechildrenoftheworkingclassesmust,atorabouttheageoffourteen,leavethePrimarySchoolandenteruponthelearningofsometrade.Butmanifestlyatthisearlystagethelargernumberarenotfittedtoguideandcontroltheirownlives;andifmoraleducationaims,asitoughttoaim,atfittingtheindividualforfreedom,atfittinghimtoguideanddirecthisownlife
inthelightofaself-acceptedandaself-directedideal,thensomemeasureofcontrol,ofguidance,andofregulationisnecessaryintheyearswhenthechildispassingfromyouthtomanhood.Now,itisthisfact,thistruth,whichtheGermansasanationhaverealised.TheydeclarethatitisneitherwisenorprudentnorfortheultimatebenefitoftheStatetoleavethevastmajorityoftheyouthwithoutguidance,andsometimesevenwithoutpropermoralcontrolexercisedoverthemduringthegreatformativeperiodoftheirlives.Nay,further,theybelievethataStatewhichneglectsitsdutyhereisnotdoingwhatitoughttodoforthefuturemoralgood,forthefutureeconomicwelfare,
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andforthefuturehappinessofitsindividualmembers.Hence,inseveraloftheGermanStates,theStatecontroloverthechilddoesnotceasewhenatfourteenyearsofageheleavestheElementarySchool,butiscontinueduntiltheageofseventeen;andthisiseffectedbytheestablishmentofcompulsoryEveningSchools.Inparticular,byalawwhichcameintoforceinBerlinonthe1stApril1905,everyboyandgirlinthatcity,withcertaindefinitelyspecifiedexceptions,mustattendatanEveningContinuationSchoolforaminimumofnotlessthanfourhoursandamaximumofnotmorethansixhoursperweek.Moreover,thisenactmenthasbeenrenderednecessarynottolevelupthemajority,buttoleveluptheminority.ThisdevelopmentisadevelopmentforwhichthevoluntaryEveningContinuationSchoolpreparedtheway;andcompulsoryattendancehasbecomepossibleonaccountofthewillingnessoftheGermanyouthtolearn,andofhisdesiretomakehimselfproficientinhisparticulartradeorprofession.Further,theschoolauthorities,inthismatterofcompulsoryattendanceatanEveningContinuationSchool,havewiththemtheheartyco-operationofthegreatbodyofemployers;andtheburdenofseeingthatthepupilattendsregularlyisnotputupontheparentbutupontheemployer.Bythesemeans,andbyotheragenciesofavoluntarycharacter,everycareistakenthattheBerlinyouthshallhavetheopportunityoffindingthatemploymentforwhichbynatureheisbestsuited,andthatthereafterheshalllearnthoroughlytheparticulartradeorcallinghemayenterupon.
Contrastwhatwedo,orratherwhatwedonotdo,inthismatterofprovidinghighereducationforthesonsanddaughtersoftheworkingclasses.InourlargetownsthegreatmajorityofourboysandgirlsleavetheElementarySchoolatorbeforetheageoffourteen.Inmanycasestheinstructiongivenduringthisperiodsoonpassesaway,andleaveslittlepermanentresultbehind.EveningContinuationSchoolsareindeedprovided,butonlyasmallproportionofouryouthtakesadvantageofthismeansoffurtherinstruction.Thelargernumberofthechildrenofthelowerworkingclassesdrift,forayearortwo,intovariousformsofunskilledemployment,choseninmostcasesbecausetheimmediatepecuniaryrewardisheregreaterthaninthecaseoflearningatrade;andafterspendingtwoorthreeyearsinemploymentswhichdo
nothingtoeducatethem,somedrift,byaccident,intothisorthatparticulartrade,whiletheothersremainbehindtoswellthenumberoftheunskilled.Duringthisperiodnothingofanorganisednatureisdonetosecurethephysicalefficiencyoftheyouthofourworkingclasses;nothingoralmostnothingisdonetosecurehisfutureindustrialefficiency;and,asaconsequence,yearafteryear,asanation,wegoonfosteringanarmyofloafers,increasingtheranksoftheunskilledworkers,andeveninourskilledtradesaddingtothenumberofthosewhoaremereprocessworkers,attheexpenseofproducingworkersacquaintedboththeoreticallyandpracticallywitheverydepartmentoftheirparticularcalling.Nowonderthatthedelegatesofthebrass-workers[10]ofBirmingham,contrastingwhattheyhaveseeninBerlinwithwhattheydailyseeintheirowntradeathomeandintheir
owncity,bitterlydeclarethattheBerlinyouthhasfrominfancybeenunderbettercareandtrainingathome,atschool,attheworks,andintheArmy;andconsequently,asaman,heismorefittedtobeentrustedwiththelibertywhichtheBirminghamyouthhasperhapsfromchildhoodonlyabused.
Spacedoesnotpermitmetogoatfullerlengthintothisquestion,butbeforeleavingtheparticularproblemletmeputtheissueplainly,becauseitisanissuewhichweasanationmustsoonclearlyrealise,andmustanswerineitheroneorotheroftwoways.Wemaygoonasat
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present,insistingthatacertainamountofelementaryeducationiscompulsoryforall,andleavingitamatterfortheindividualparentandtheindividualyouthtotakeadvantageofthemeansofhighereducationprovidedvoluntarily,andasarulewithoutanygreatdirectcosttothem.Inthisway,trustingtothevoluntaryagenciesatworkinsociety,wemayhopethateitherthroughenlightenedself-interest,orthroughahigherconceptionofthedutyoftheindividualtotheState,orthroughaloftiermoralidealbecomingprevalentandactualinsociety,anincreasingnumberofparentswillseethatthemeansprovidedforthehighereducationoftheirchildrenaredulytakenadvantageof,andthatthemajorityoftheyouthwillmakeittheiraimtousethesemeanstosecuretheirphysicalandindustrialefficiency.Ifweadoptthiscourse,thenitmustbethedutyoftheschoolauthoritiesofthevariousdistrictstoseethatEveningSchoolsofvarioustypessuitedtotheneedsofthevariousclassesofstudentsaredulyprovided,andthatnoinsurmountableobstaclesareplacedinthewayofthosedesirousandanxioustotakeadvantageofthemeansofhighereducation.Further,itmustbecomethedutyoftheemployersofthecountrytoseethattheyouthareencouragedineverywaytotakeadvantageofinstructiondesignedwiththeabove-namedendinview,andmoreoverthegeneralpublicmustdoallintheirpowertoco-operatewithandtoaidtheendeavoursofschoolauthoritiesandemployersoflabour.Inthisway,ashasbeenthecaseinBerlin,thevoluntarysystemofEveningContinuationandTradeSchoolsmaygraduallyandin
timepavethewayforthecompulsoryEveningSchool.Withoutdoubtthiswerethebetterway,ifitcouldbeeffectedandthatquickly.
Butifinthismatterwehavedelayedtoolong--ifwehaveallowedoureducationalpolicyinthepasttobeguidedbyaone-sidedandnarrowindividualism--iffortoolengthenedaperiodwehavepermittedourpoliticalactiontobedeterminedbythefalseidealthat,inthematterofprovidingforandfurtheringhiseducationasacitizenandasanindustrialworker,libertyforeachindividualconsistsinallowinghimtochooseforhimself,regardlessofwhetherornotthatchoiceisforhisownandtheState'sultimategood,thenitmaybenecessaryintheimmediatefuturetotakestepstoremoveorremedythisdefectinourpresenteducationalorganisation.Foritisnecessary--essentially
necessary--onvariousgroundsthattheeducationoftheboysandgirlsofourworkingclassesshouldnotceaseabsolutelyattheElementarySchoolstage,[11]butthat,withcertaindefiniteandwell-consideredexceptions,allshouldcontinueforseveralyearsthereaftertofitthemselvesforindustrialandsocialservice.Ifthisresultcanbeeffectedbymoralmeans,goodandwell;ifnot,legalcompulsionmust,soonerorlater,beresortedto.Foritis,asithasalwaysbeen,afundamentalmaximofpoliticalactionthattheStateshouldandmustcompelhermemberstoutilisethemeansbywhichtheymayberaisedtofreedom.
ThesecondlineofargumentwhichMillfollowsinhisadvocacyofthe
Stateprovisionofeducationisthatinstructionisoneofthecasesinwhichtheaidgivendoesnotfosterandre-createtheevilwhichitseekstoremedy.Educationwhichisreallysuchdoesnottendtoenervatebuttostrengthentheindividual.Itseffectisfavourabletothegrowthofindependence."Itisahelptowardsdoingwithouthelp."
Onsimilargrounds,wemayurgethatitisthedutyoftheStatetoseethatthemeansforthehighereducationoftheyouthofthecountryareadequateinquantityandefficientinquality.Thebettertechnicaltrainingofourworkmenisnecessaryifwearetosecuretheireconomic
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self-sufficiencyandfitthemtobecomesociallyusefulasmembersofacommunity.Oneaimthereforeunderlyinganyfutureorganisationofeducationmustbetosecuretheindustrialefficiencyoftheworkerandtoensurethattheresultsofscienceshallbeutilisedinthefurtheranceoftheartsandindustriesoflife.Thiscanonlybeeffectedbythebetterscientifictraining,bythemoreintensiveandthemorethorougheducationofthosechildrenofthenationwhobynaturalabilityandindustryarefittedinafter-lifetoguideandcontroltheindustriesofthecountry.
Mr.Haldane,[12]duringthepastfewyears,inseasonandoutofseason,hascalledtheattentionofthepublicofGreatBritaintothefactthatintheorganisationandequipmentoftheirsystemoftechnicaleducationGermanyismuchinadvanceofthiscountry,andthattheGermanpeoplehavethoroughlyandpracticallyrealisedthat,iftheyaretocompetesuccessfullywithothernations,thenoneoftheaimsoftheireducationalsystemmustbetoteachtheyouthhowtoapplyknowledgeinthefurtheranceandadvancementoftheeconomicinterestsoflife.WiththisendinviewwehavetheestablishmentthroughouttheGermanStatesofnumerousschoolsandcollegeshavingastheirchiefaimtheapplicationofknowledgetotheartsandindustries.Inourowncountrythisbranch--thisveryimportantbranch--ofeducationhasbeenleft,forthemostpart,tothecareofprivateindividuals,andalthoughtheStatehasdonesomethinginrecentyearstoencourageanddevelopthis
sideofeducation,yetmuchmorerequirestobedone;and,aboveall,itisdesirablethatwhateverisdoneinthefutureshouldbedoneinaregular,systematic,andorganisedmannerandwithdefiniteaimsinview.
ButitisnotmerelyinthehigherreachesofGermaneducationthattheindustrialaimiskeptinview.Itpervadesandpermeatesthewholesystemfromthelowesttothehigheststages.EveninthePrimarySchooltherequirementsofpracticallifearenotleftoutofsight.Inschool,saidaformerPrussianDirectorofEducation,"childrenaretolearnhowtoperformduties,theyaretobehabituatedtowork,togainpleasureinwork,andthusbecomeefficientforfutureindustrialpursuits.ThishasbeentheaimfromtheearliesttimesofPrussianeducation;andto
thisdayitisplainlyunderstoodbyallStateandlocaladministrativeofficers,aswellasbyallteachersandthemajorityoftheparents,thatthepeople'sschoolhasmoretodothanmerelyteachthevehiclesofculture--reading,writing,andarithmetic"--thatthechiefaimisrather"thepreparationofcitizenswhocanandwillcheerfullyservetheirGodandtheirnativecountryaswellasthemselves."
Inthethirdplace,thequestionoftheprovisionofthemeansofhighereducationisnotonebetweenitsprovisionontheonehandbymeansoftheGovernment,andontheotherbymeansofpurelyvoluntaryagencies.Highereducation,_e.g._,inScotlandhasrarelybeenprovidedandpaidforatitsfullcostbytheindividualparentorbyassociationsofindividualparents,buthasbeenmaintained,insomecasesinahigh
degreeofefficiency,byendowmentsleftforthispurpose.Theseendowmentsarenowinmanycasesinsufficienttomeetthedemandmadeforeducation,andthestreamofprivatebenevolenceinprovidingthemeansofeducationhaseitherceasedtofloworflowsinanirregularanduncertainfashion.Further,theincomesofeventhemoderatelywell-to-doofourmiddleclassesarenotsufficienttobearthewholecostofthemoreexpensiveeducationrequiredtofittheirsonsanddaughtersfortheafter-serviceofthecommunity.Hence,justasinMill'stimethequestionoftheprovisionofelementaryeducationlaybetweentheStateprovisionandtheprovisionbymeansofcharitable
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agencies,soto-daytheproblemoftheprovisionofsecondaryandtechnicaleducationisbetweenitsadequateprovisionandorganisationbytheState,anditsinadequate,uncertainprovisionbymeansoftheendowmentsofthepastandbythecharitableagenciesofthepresent.Manifestly,inthelightofmodernconditions,withtheeconomiccompetitionbetweennationandnationbecomingkeenerandkeener,andknowingfullwellthatthefuturebelongstothenationwiththebestequippedandthebesttrainedarmyofindustrialworkers,wecannolongerrestcontentwithanyhaphazardmethodofprovidingthemeansofhighereducation:whateverthecostmaybe,wemustrealisethatthetimehascometoputoureducationalhouseinorderandtoestablishandorganiseoursystemofhighereducationsothatitwillsubserveeachandeveryinterestoftheState.Thiscanonlybeeffectedinsofarasthenationasawholerealisestheneedforthebettereducationofthechildren,andtakesstepstosecurethatthisshallbeprovided,andthatthereshallbeaffordedtoeachtheopportunityoffittinghimselfbyeducationtoputhistalentstothebestusebothforhisownindividualgoodandthegoodofthecommunity.Lastly,asMillurges,theself-interestoftheindividualisneithersufficienttoensurethattheeducationwillbeprovided,norinmanycasesishisjudgmentsufficienttoensurethegoodnessoftheeducationprovidedbyvoluntarymeans.
But,inadditiontothereasonsurgedbyMillfortheStateprovision
andcontrolofthemeansofelementaryeducation,andthesereasonsare,aswehaveseen,asurgentandascogentto-dayfortheextensionoftheprincipletotheprovisionofthemeansofsecondaryandtechnicaleducation,stillfurtherreasonsmaybeadvanced.
Inthefirstplace,therecanbenoco-ordinationofthedifferentstagesofeducationuntilalltheagenciesofinstructionineachareaordistrictareplacedunderonecentralcontrol.Untilthisiseffectedwemusthaveattimesoverlappingoftheagenciesofinstruction.Insomecasestheremayalsobewasteofthemeansofeducation.Ineverycasetherewillbeageneralwantofbalancebetweenthevariouspartsofthesystem.
Inthesecondplace,oneobjectofanyorganisationofthemeansofeducationshouldbetheselectionofthebestabilityfromamongstthechildrenofourElementarySchoolsandthefurthereducationofthisabilityatsomeoneorothertypeofIntermediateorSecondarySchool.Inorderthatthismaybeeconomicallyandefficientlyeffected,theinstructionoftheElementarySchoolshouldenablethepupilatacertainagetofithimselfintotheworkoftheHighSchool,andourHighSchools'systemshouldbesodifferentiatedintypeastofurnishnotonetypeofsucheducationbutseveralinaccordancewiththemainclassesofservicerequiredbythecommunityofitsadultmembers.Manifestlysuchaco-ordinationofthemeansandsuchagradingoftheagenciesofeducation,ifnotimpossibleonthevoluntaryprinciple,isatleastdifficultofcompleterealisation.
Hence,onthegroundthatthehighereducationoftheyoungisnecessaryforthesecuringoftheiraftersocialefficiency,onthegroundthatitisnecessaryfortheeconomicandsocialsecurityofthecommunity,onthegroundthataidinhighereducationisahelptowardsdoingwithouthelpandthatitsprovisioninmanycasescannotbefullymetbythevoluntarycontributionoftheindividual,wemayurgetheneedfortheState'sundertakingitsadequateandefficientprovision.
Further,wemustrememberthattheStatemusttakea"longer"viewof
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theproblemofeducationthanispossiblefortheindividual.Atbestthelatterlooksbutonegenerationahead.Heiscontenttosecuretheeducationandthefuturewelfareofhischildren.InthelifeoftheStatethisisnotsufficient.Shemustlooktotheneedsoftheremotefutureaswellasoftheimmediatepresent,andhencehereducationaloutlookmustbewiderandgofartherthanthatofanymereprivateindividual.Lastly,ifweunderstandthetruenatureandfunctionoftheState,weneedhavenofearthattheStateshouldcontroltheeducationofallthepeople.Whatwehavetofearontheonesideisthebureaucraticcontrolofeducation,andontheotheritscontrolanddirectionbyoneclassintheinterestsofitself.TheStateexistsfor--thereasonofitsverybeingistosecure--thewelfareoftheindividual,andtheStateapproachesitsperfectionwhenitsorganisationisfittedtosecureandensurethewidestscopeforthefullandfreedevelopmentofeachindividual.
Theevilofbureaucracycanberemovedonlybyourrepresentativebodiesbecomingmoreeffectivevoicesofthesocialandmoralwillofthecommunity,justastheevilofclasscontrolcanonlybeeffectuallyabolishedbytheriseandspreadofthetruedemocraticspirit,everseekingthattheagenciesoftheStateshallbedirectedtowardstheremovingoftheobstacleswhichhinderthefullrealisationofthelifeofeachofitsmembers.
FOOTNOTES:[9]Cf.GrahamBalfour,_EducationalSystemofGreatBritain_,p.27,2nded.
[10]_Brass-workersofBerlinandBirmingham_(King).
[11]"Itmustnotbeforgottenthattheinstructionofthecommonschools(_Volksschule_),closingwiththepupil'sfourteenthyear,endstoosoon,thattheperiodmostsusceptibletoaid,mostinneedofeducation,theyearsfromfifteentotwenty...arenownotonlyallowedtolieperfectlyfallow,buttoloseandwastewhathasbeensolaboriouslyacquiredduringtheprecedingperiodatschool."Inthe
ruralpartsofNorthernGermanyeffortsarebeingmadetoremedythisevilbytheinstitutionofschoolsprovidinghalf-yearwintercourses.Cf.ProfessorPaulsen's_TheGermanUniversitiesandUniversityStudy_,p.117(Englishtranslation).
[12]Cf._EducationandEmpire_.
CHAPTERV
THERELATIONOFTHESTATETOEDUCATION--THECOSTOFEDUCATION
ButwhilewemayholdthatitisthedutyoftheStatetoseethatthemeansfortheeducationofthechildrenofthenationisbothadequateinextentandefficientinquality,andsoorganisedthatitaffordsopportunitiesforeachtosecuretheeducationwhichisneededtoequiphimforhisafter-workinlife,itbynomeansfollowsasalogicalconsequencethatthewholecostofthisprovisionshouldbebornebythecommunityinitscorporatecapacityandthattheindividualparentshould,ifhesochooses,berelievedfromanydirectpaymentforthe
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educationofhischildren.Toassertthiswouldbeimplicitlytoaffirmthattheeducationofaman'schildrenisnopartofhisduty--thatitisanobligationwhichdoesnotfalluponhimasanindividual,butonlyasamemberofacommunity,andthatsolongashepayswillinglytheproportionofthecostofeducationassignedtohimbytaxesandrates,hehasfulfilledhisobligation.Education,onsuchaview,becomesamatterofnationalconcerninwhichasaprivateindividualtheparenthasnodirectinterest.ThispositioncarriedouttoitslogicalconclusionwouldimplythatthechildandhisfuturebelongwhollytotheState,anditwouldalsoinvolvetheestablishmentofacommunalsystemofeducationsuchasissetforthinthe_Republic_ofPlato.Further,suchapositionlogicallyleadstothecontentionthattheothernecessitiesofliferequisiteforsecuringthesocialefficiencyofthefuturemembersoftheStateshouldalsobeprovidedbytheStateinitscorporatecapacityactingastheguardianoftheyoung,andfromthiswearebutashortwayfromthepositionthatitbelongstothecommunitytosuperintendthepropagationofthespecies,andtoregulatethemarriagesofitsindividualmembers.ThisisStatesocialisminitsmostextremeform,andiscontrarytothespiritofatrueliberalism,atruedemocracy,andatrueChristianity.
Theopposingposition--thepositionofliberalismuntaintedbysocialism--isthatitisthedutyoftheStatetoseethatasfaraspossiblethesocialinequalitieswhicharisethroughtheindividualistic
organisationofsocietyareremovedorremedied,andthatequalityofopportunityissecuredtoeachtomakethebestofhisownindividuallife.Intheeducationalspherethisimpliesthatanyobstaclesinthewayofaman'seducatinghischildrenshouldberemoved,ifandinsofarastheseobstaclesareirremovablebyanyprivateeffortofhisown,andthattheopportunityofobtainingthebestpossibleeducationshouldbeopentothechildrenofthepooriftheyarefittedbynaturetoprofitbysuchaneducation.Itfurtherimpliesthatthemeansofhighereducation,providedatthepublicexpense,shouldnotbewastedonthechildrenofanyclassifbynaturetheyareunfittedtobenefitbythemeansplacedattheirdisposal;_i.e._,anationalsystemofeducationmustbedemocraticinthesensethatthemeansofhighereducationshallbeopentoall,richandpoor,inorderthateachindividualmaybe
enabledtofithimselffortheparticularserviceforwhichbynatureheisbestsuited.Itmustsee,further,thatanyobstacleswhichpreventthefulluseofthesemeansbyparticularindividualsare,asfarasmaybepossible,removed.Anationalsystemofeducation,ontheotherhand,mustbearistocraticinthesensethatitisselectiveofthebestability.Lastly,itmustberestrictive,inorderthatthemeansofhighereducationmaybeutilisedtothebestadvantage,andnotmisusedonthosewhoareunfittedtobenefittherefrom.
CloselyconnectedwiththepositionthatitisthedutyoftheStatetoseenotmerelytotheadequateandefficientprovisionofthemeansofeducation,butalsothatthewholecostoftheprovisionshouldbebornebytheState,isthecontentionthatbecausetheStateimposesalegal
obligationupontheindividualparenttoprovideacertainmeasureofeducationforhischildren,itisalsoalogicalconclusionfromthisstepthateducationshouldbefree."Theobjectofpubliceducationistheprotectionofsociety,andsocietymustpayforitsprotection,whetherittakestheformofapolicemanorapedagogue."[13]
Buttheprovisionofthemeansofelementaryeducation,andtheimposingofalegalobligationuponeachindividualparenttoutilisethemeansprovided,isnotmerelyorsolelyfortheprotectionofsociety.Educationconfersnotonlyasocialbenefituponthecommunity,buta
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particularbenefitupontheindividual.ItsprovisionfallsnotwithinthemerelynegativebenefitsconferredbytheStatebyitsprotectionofthemajorityagainsttheignoranceandwickednessoftheminority,butitbelongstothepositivebenefitsconferredbyGovernmentuponitsindividualmembers.TheStateinpartundertakestheprovisionofthemeansofeducation,asMillpointedout,inordertoprotectthemajorityagainsttheevilconsequenceslikelytoresultfromtheignoranceandwantofeducationoftheminority.Asthisprovisionconfersacommonbenefitonall,sofar,butonlyinsofar,aseducationisprotective,canitscostbelaidupontheshouldersofthegeneraltaxpayer.
ButtheprovisionbytheStateofthemeansofeducationisnotmerelyundertakenfortheprotectionofanygivensocietyagainsttheignoranceandthelawlessnessofitsownindividualmembers,itisalsoundertakeninordertosecuretheincreasedefficiencyofthenationasaneconomicandmilitaryunitinantagonism,moreorless,withsimilarunits.Atthepresentdaythisisonemainmotiveatworkinthedemandmadeforthebetterandmoreintensivetrainingoftheindustrialclasses.TosecuretheindustrialandmilitaryefficiencyofthenationisexplicitlysetforthasthemainaimoftheGermanorganisationofthemeansofeducation.Wemaydeplorethistendencyofourtimes.Wemaycondemntheriseoftheintenselynationalspiritofthemodernworld,andregretthattheidealofuniversalpeaceanduniversalharmony
betweenthenationsoftheearthseemstofadeforeverandforeveraswemove.Butwehavetolookthefactsintheface,andtorealisethattheeducationalsystemofanationmustendeavourtosecuretheindustrialandmilitaryefficiencyofitsfuturemembersasameansofsecurityandprotectionagainstothercompetingnationsandasoneoftheessentialconditionsfortheself-preservationoftheparticularStateinthatwarofnationagainstnationwhichHobbessoeloquentlydescribes:"Forthenatureofwar,consistsnotinactualfighting;butintheknowndispositionthereto,duringallthetimethereisnoassurancetothecontrary."[14]
Insofar,then,astheprovisionofeducationbytheStateisundertakenwiththisendinview,itmaybemaintainedthatpart,at
least,ofthecostofitsprovisionshouldbebornebythegeneraltaxpayerinreturnforthegreaternationalandeconomicsecuritywhichheenjoysthroughthegreaterefficiencyofthenationasaneconomicandmilitaryunit.
Butthespreadandthehigherefficiencyofeducationconfersinadditionbothalocalandanindividualbenefit.Itconfersalocalbenefit,insofarasbyitsmeansadvantagesaccruetoanyparticulardistrict.Itconfersanindividualbenefit,insofarasthroughthemeansofeducationplacedathisdisposaltheindividualisenabledtoattaintoahigherdegreeofsocialefficiencythanwouldotherwisehavebeenpossible.
Further,ifwelookatthisquestionnotfromthepointofviewofbenefitreceived,butfromthatoftheobligationimposed,wereachasimilarresult.ItisanobligationupontheStatetoseethatthemeansofeducationandtheirdueco-ordinationandorganisationareofsuchanaturebothinextentandinqualityastofurnishacompletesystemofmeansforthetrainingupoftheyouthofthecountrytoperformefficientlyalltheservicesrequiredbysuchacomplexcommunityasthemodernState.ThisdutydevolvesupontheStatechieflyforthereasonsetforthbyAdamSmithinhisdiscussionofthefunctionsofgovernment.Itisthedutyofthesovereign,hedeclares,
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toerectandmaintaincertain"publicinstitutionswhichitcanneverbefortheinterestofanyindividualtoerectandmaintain,becausetheprofitcouldneverrepaytheexpensetotheindividual,orsmallnumberofindividuals,thoughitmayfrequentlydomuchmorethanrepayittoagreatsociety."[15]
ItbecomesfurtheranobligationplaceduponthelocalauthoritytoaidthecentralauthorityoftheStateintheestablishmentanddistributionofthemeansofeducation.Thelocalauthoritybyitsmoreintimateknowledgeoflocalcircumstancesisthemostcompetenttojudgeofthenatureoftheeducationsuitedtoserveitsownparticularneeds,andisbestqualifiedtoundertakethedistributionofthemeans.
Buttheobligationtotakeadvantageofthemeansforthefuturebenefitofhischildrenisamoralobligationplacedupontheshouldersoftheindividualparent.Itbecomesalegalobligationonlywhen,andinsofaras,themoralobligationisnotrealisedbyacertainnumberofthecommunity.Certainlyonereasonforthemakingoftheeducationofaman'schildrenalegalobligationistheprotectionofsocietyagainsttheignoranceandwickednessoftheminority,buttheotherandprincipalaimistoendeavourtosecurethatwhatatfirstwasimposedasamerelyexternalorlegalobligationmaypassintoamoralandinherentobligation,sothattheindividualfrombeinggovernedbyoutwardrestraintmayintimebegovernedbyaninwardandself-imposed
ideal.Itisnodoubtdifficultinanyparticularcasetodetermineexactlywhatprecisepartofthecostshouldbeallocatedtoeachofthethreebenefitingparties,butinanynationalorganisationofthemeansofeducationthisthreefolddistributionofcostshouldsomehoworotherbeundertaken.
Fromthisitfollows,thatwhileitmaylegitimatelybelaiddownthatupontheStatemustfalltheobligationofsecuringtheadequateprovisionandtheduedistributionofthemeansofeducation,yetthefurtherdutyoftheStateinthisrespectislimitedtotheremovingofobstacleswhichstandinthewayofthefulfilmentoftheparent's
obligationtoeducatehischildren,andtothesecuringtoeachchildequalityofopportunitytoobtainaneducationinkindandqualitywhichwillservetofithimhereaftertoperformhisspecialdutytosociety.
Althoughsince1891elementaryeducationhasbeenpracticallyfreeinthiscountryandthewholecostofitsprovisionisnowundertakenatthepublicexpense,yetexceptfromthesocialisticpositionthattheprovisionofeducationisacommunalandnotapersonalandmoralobligation,thispublicprovisionofthefundsforelementaryeducationcanbeupheldfromtheindividualisticpointofviewonlyontwogrounds.Inthefirstplace,itmightbemaintainedthattheprotectivebenefitderivedfromtheimpartingoftheelementsofeducationissogreattoallthatitscostmaylegitimatelybelaiduponthecommunity
initscorporatecapacity.ItisonthisgroundofeducationbeingbeneficialtothewholesocietythatAdamSmithdeclaresthattheexpenseoftheinstitutionsforeducationmay,withoutinjustice,bedefrayedbythegeneralcontributionsofthewholesociety.ButatthesametimeAdamSmithrecognisesthateducationprovidesanimmediateandpersonalbenefit,andthattheexpensemightwithequalproprietybelaidupontheshouldersofthosebenefited.
Inthesecondplace,itmaybemaintainedthattheimpositionofschoolfeescreatedsuchahindranceinalargenumberofcasestothe
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fulfilmentofthemoralobligationthatitwasexpedientonthepartoftheStatetoremovethisobstaclebyfreeingeducationasawhole.Insupportofthis,itmightbefurtherurgedthatthedifficultyofdiscriminatingbetweenthemarginalcasesinwhichtheimpositionofschoolfeesreallyprovedahindranceandthoseinwhichitdidnotisgreat,andthatthepartialreliefofpaymentofschoolfeeslaidthestigmaofpauperismuponmanywhofromunpreventablecauseswereunabletomeetthedirectcostoftheeducationoftheirchildren.
But,exceptonthegroundsthateithertheprotectivebenefittosocietyissogreatandsoimportant,orthatthechargingofanypartofthecostdirectlytotheparentimposesahindranceinalargenumberofcases,thereisnojustificationforthecontentionthatbecausetheStatecompelstheindividualtoeducatehischildren,thereforetheStateshouldfullyprovidethemeans.
Ifthisbeso,thenthefurthercontentionthatthemeansofeducationfromtheelementarytotheuniversitystageshouldbeprovidedatthepublicexpense,andthatnopartofthecostshouldbelaiddirectlyupontheindividualparent'sshoulders,mustalsobejudgedtobeerroneous.
ThefirstdutyoftheState,inthematteroftheprovisionofhighereducation,islimitedtoseeingthattheprovisionofthemeansof
highereducationisadequatetothedemandmadeforit;further,itmayendeavourtoencourageandtostimulatethisdemandinvariousways.Themeansbeingprovided,theseconddutyoftheStateistoendeavourtosecurethatanyhindrancewhichmightreasonablypreventtheuseofthesemeansbythosefittedtobenefittherefromshouldberemoved.ButtheonlyjustificationfortheinterferenceoftheStateisthatthecompulsionexactedinthematteroftaxesorotherwiseisofsmallmomentcomparedwiththecapacityforfreedomandintellectualdevelopmentsetfreeintheindividualsbenefited.Inotherwords,thecostinvolvedbytheremovalofthehindrancemustbereckonedassmallcomparedwiththeultimategoodtothecommunityasmanifestedinthehigherdevelopment--inthehigherwelfareofitsindividualmembers.
Butthepracticalrealisationoftheidealneednotinvolvethateducationshouldbefreefromthelowesttothetopmostrungoftheso-callededucationalladder.Itisindeedquestionablewhethertheladdersimilehasnotbeenapotentinstrumentingivingawrongdirectiontoouridealsoftheessentialnatureofwhataneducationalorganisationshouldaimat.Educationshouldindeedprovideasystemofadvancingmeans,butthesystemofmeansmayleadtomanyandvariousaimsinsteadofone.Howeverthatmaybe,whatwewishtoinsistuponisthattheState'sdutyinthismattercanbefulfillednotbyfreeingeducationasawhole,butbyestablishingasystemofbursariesorallowances,enablingeachindividualwhootherwisewouldbehinderedfromusingthemeanstotakeadvantageofthehighereducationprovided.
Intheawardingofaidofthisnature,thetwotestsofabilitytoprofitfromtheeducationandofneedofmaterialmeansmustbothbeemployed.Iftheformertestonlyisapplied,thentheresultisthatinmanycasestheadvantageissecuredbythosebestabletopayforhighereducation.Iftheobjectionbemadethatthegrantingofaidonmereneedshownistoplacethestigmaofpauperismupontherecipient,thentheonlyansweristhatinsothinkingtheindividualmisconceivestherealnatureoftheaid,failstounderstandthatitishelptowardsdoingwithouthelp--aidtoenabletheindividualtoreachahigherandfullerdevelopmentofhispowers,bothforhisownfuturewelfareand
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forthebettermentofsociety.
FOOTNOTES:
[13]_NationalEducationandNationalLife_,ibid.p.101.
[14]Hobbes,_Leviathan_,p.1.chap.xiii.
[15]AdamSmith,_WealthofNations_,ed.J.ShieldNicholson(Nelsons).
CHAPTERVI
THERELATIONOFTHESTATETOEDUCATION--MEDICALEXAMINATIONANDINSPECTIONOFSCHOOLCHILDREN
InconsideringthequestionoftherelationoftheStatetoeducation,wehaveadoptedthepositionthatitisthedutyoftheStatetoseetotheadequateprovisionofthemeansofeducation,totheirduedistributionandtotheirproperorganisation.AtthesametimewefoundthattheobligationoftheStateinthisrespectdidnotnecessarily
involvethatthewholecostofthisprovisionshouldbeborneatthepublicexpense,andthatnopartoftheburdenshouldbeplacedontheshouldersoftheindividualparents.Asregardstheprovisionofelementaryeducation,weindeedfoundthatthewholeburdenmightbelegitimatelylaiduponthegeneraltaxpayer,uponthegroundseitherthattheprotectivebenefitofelementaryeducationtothecommunitywasgreat,orthatthehindranceopposedbytheimpositionofschoolfeestothefulfilmentofaman'smoralobligationtoprovidefortheeducationofhischildrenwassogeneralthatacasemightbemadeoutforfreeingelementaryeducationasawhole.Butexceptfromthepositionthattheprovisionofeducationwasacommunalandnotapersonalobligation,wefoundnogroundsforthecontentionthateducationthroughoutitsvariousstagesshouldbeachargeuponthecommunityasawhole.
Buttheprovisionofthemeansofeducationmayinvolvemuchmorethanthemereprovisionofadequatelyequippedschoolbuildingsandoffullytrainedteachers,andwehavenowtoinquirewhatotherprovisionisnecessaryinordertosecuretheaftersocialefficiencyofthechildrenofthenation,andwhatpartofthisprovisionrightlymaybeincludedwithinthescopeofthedutiesoftheState.
IsthemedicalinspectionofchildrenattendingPublicElementarySchoolsoneoftheseduties,and,ifso,whatactiononthepartoftheStatedoesthisinvolve?
Theimportanceofthethoroughandsystematicmedicalexaminationof
childrenattendingschoolasanecessarymeasuretosecuretheirafterphysicalandeconomicefficiencyaswellasfortheirintellectualdevelopmentandwelfareduringtheschoolperiodhasbeenrecognisedbymanyContinentalcountries.Totakebutoneortwoillustrativeexamples,wemaynotethatinBrusselseveryplaceofpublicinstructionisvisitedatleastonceineverytenweeksbyoneofthesixteendoctorsappointedforthispurpose.Theschooldoctoramongstotherdutieshastoreportonthestateofthevariousclassrooms,theirheating,lightingandventilation,andalsoupontheconditioninwhichhehasfoundtheplaygrounds,lavatoriesandcloakroomsattachedtothe
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school.Casesofillnessinvolvingtemporaryabsencefromschoolarereportedtohimaswellasthecasesinvolvingprolongedabsencefromschool.
Childrenaremedicallyexamineduponadmissiontoschool,andarecordismadeoftheirage,height,weight,chestmeasurement,etc."Anynaturaloraccidentalinfirmityischronicled,stateofeyesandteeth,dentaloperationsperformedatschool,etc.Thisexaminationisrepeatedannually,soastokeeparecordofeachchild'sphysicaldevelopment."Greatattention,moreover,ispaidtothecleanlinessofthechildrenattendingschool,andthechildrenareexamineddailybytheteacherupontheirentrancetoschool.[16]
InmostofthelargetownsofGermanyasystemofperiodicalmedicalexaminationandinspectionofchildrenattendingschoolhasalsobeenestablished._E.g._,in1901Berlinappointedtendoctorsforthispurpose,withthefollowingamongstotherduties:--
1.Toexaminechildrenontheirfirstadmissionastotheirfitnesstoattendschool.
2.Toexaminechildrenwiththeco-operationofaspecialistforthepresenceofdefectintheparticularsenseorgans(sight,
hearing).3.Toexaminechildrenwhoaresupposedtobedefectiveandwhomayrequirespecialtreatment.
4.Toexamineperiodicallytheschoolbuildingsandarrangementsandtoreportonanyhygienicdefects.[17]
InEngland,althoughthereisnospecificprovisionfortheincurringoftheexpenseofconductingthemedicalinspectionofchildrenattendingthePublicElementarySchools,itisgenerallyheldthattheexpensemaybelegitimatelyincludedinthegeneralpowersassignedtoeducational
authoritiesundertheActof1870;and,especiallysince1892,inseveralareas,adefinitesystemofmedicalinspectionhasbeenestablished,andinmanyothersthereisalikelihoodthatsomesystemofmedicalinspectionwillbeorganisedintheimmediatefuture.AccordingtotheReportoftheInter-DepartmentalCommitteeontheMedicalInspectionandFeedingofSchoolChildren,publishedinNovember1905,outof328localeducationauthorities,48hadestablishedamoreorlessdefinitelyorganisedsystemofmedicalexamination,whilstineighteenotherdistrictsteachersandsanitaryofficershadundertakenorganisedworkfortheameliorationofthephysicalconditionofchildrenattendingPublicElementarySchools.Asarule,thisinspectionislimited"totheexaminationofthechildrenandtothediscoveringofdefectsofeyesight,hearing,orphysicaldevelopment."Whenthe
existenceofthedefectisdiscovered,theparentisnotified,butasageneralrulethepublicauthoritydoesnotincludewithinitsdutiesthetreatmentoftheailmentsanddefectsortheprovisionofremedialinstrumentswhenrequired.
Further,innocasehastherebeencarriedoutathoroughanthropometricrecord,suchasthatinvogueintheschoolsofBrussels,oftheconditionofthephysicalnatureofthechilduponadmissiontoschoolandhissubsequentphysicaldevelopment.
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InScotlandwefindnogeneraloradequatesystemofmedicalinspectioncarriedoutbythelocalschoolauthorities.TheReportoftheRoyalCommissiononPhysicalTraining(Scotland),issuedinMarch1903,declares,however,thatsuchasystemisurgentlyneeded,mainlyforremedialpurposes.Bythismeansdefectsintheorgansofsightorhearing,inmentaldevelopment,inphysicalweakness,orinstateofnutrition,suchasdemandspecialtreatmentinconnectionwithschoolwork,mightbedetected,andbysimplemeansremovedormitigated.ButalthoughintheEducation(Scotland)Billof1905provisionwasmadefortheinstitutionofmedicalinspectionatthepublicexpense,yetthroughthefailureoftheBilltopassnothingofasystematicnaturehasbeendonetoorganisethemedicalinspectionofElementarySchoolchildreninanydistrictinScotland.
Fromthisbriefaccountofwhateitherhasbeenalreadydoneorisproposedtobedone,itisapparentthatthereisagradualawakeningofthenationtothefactthatthecareofthephysicalnatureofthechildduringtheschoolperiodisoffundamentalimportancefromthepointofviewofthefuturewelfareandefficiencyofthenation.Intheendeavourtoreachthisaimitisnecessarythattheexaminationofthechildshouldbeundertakeninasystematicmanner,andthatmeansshouldbeadoptedfortheremedyofanydefects.Inparticulareverychildonadmissiontoschoolshouldbeexaminedinordertodiscoverwhetherthereisanydefectpresentinthespecialorgansofsense,[18]and
periodicalexaminationsshouldbemadeinordertodiscoverwhethertheschoolworkistendingtoproduceanyinjurytothevarioussenses.Foritisawell-knownfactthatoftencasesofseemingstupidityandseemingcarelessnessarenotdueeithertothewantofintelligenceontheonehandorofinattentionontheother,onthepartofthechild,butmaybetracedtoslightdefectsofeyesightandofhearing.Inorderthattheymaydiscoverthesedefectsteachersoughttobetrainedintheobservationofthemainsymptomswhichimplydefects,andshouldbepractisedintheartofapplyingthesimplerandmoreobviousremediesforeyeandeardefects.Moredifficultcasesshouldbereferredtothemedicalofficeroftheschool.Again,itoughttobeamatterofinquiryatthebeginningoftheschoolperiodastowhetherthechildpossessesanyphysicaldefectwhichwouldmakeitdifficultforhimtoundertake
thefullworkoftheschool.Insomecasesitwouldbefoundthatthechildwasaltogetherunabletoundertakethiswork,andmeasuresshouldbetakentoremedythedefectbeforethechildentersupontheschoolcourse.Lastly,itisnowrealisedthatmoreattentionmustbepaidtothedifferencesthatexistbetweenindividualchildren,andthatinthecaseofchildrenwithalowdegreeofintelligenceitismuchbetterbothforthemselvesandfortheschoolgenerallytoinstitutespecialclassesorspecialschoolsfortheireducation.
Butinorderthatthismedicalexaminationmaybethoroughlyandsystematicallycarriedout,speciallegislativeauthoritymustbegiventoeducationauthoritiestoincurexpenseunderthishead,andregulationsmustbelaiddownbythecentralauthorityforthecarrying
outofthisinspectionsoastosecuresomethinglikeauniformsystemofexaminationthroughoutthecountry.Forthispurposethereshouldbeattachedtoeachschoolareaamedicalofficer,orofficers,chargedwiththesoledutyofattendingtothehygienicconditionsunderwhichtheschoolworkiscarriedon,andofperiodicallyexaminingthechildrenattendingtheschoolsofhisdistrict.
ThatthedutyofcarryingoutthemedicalexaminationofschoolchildrenfallsupontheStateandshouldbemetoutofpublicfundsmaybejustifiedonvariousgrounds.Inthefirstplace,itisnecessaryas
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ameasureofprotection,inordertopreventthechild'sgrowingupimperfectly,andthusbecominginadultlifealessefficientmemberofsociety.Schoolworkoftenaccentuatescertaintroubles,andtheseifneglectedtendgraduallytorendertheindividualmoreandmoreunfittedtoundertakesomespecialoccupationinafter-life.Anyeyespecialistcouldfurnishevidenceofnumerouscasesinwhichtheeyeshavebeenruinedthroughsomeslightdefectbecomingintensifiedthroughmisuse.
Inthesecondplace,theexaminationforphysicalandmentaldefectcannotinalargenumberofcasesbelefttotheself-interestandjudgmentoftheindividualparent,andunlessundertakenbythepublicauthoritywillnotbeundertakenatall.
Inthethirdplace,ifitislefttomerelyvoluntaryagencies,itisimperfectlydone,andinmanycasesrecourseishadtothevariousvoluntaryagencieswhenthetroublehasbecomeacute,andinsomecasesimpossibleofremedy.
Onthesethreegrounds--ofitsnecessityforthefuturepublicwelfare,thattheself-interestoftheparentoftenprovesbutafeeblemotivepower,andthatthevoluntaryagenciesplacedatthedisposalofthepoorareunablesystematicallytoundertakethiswork--wemaymaintainthatthedutymaylegitimatelybelaidupontheState.
ButthefurtherquestionastohowfaritbecomesthedutyoftheStatetoundertaketheprovisionofremedialmeasureseitherinthewayofsupplyingmedicalaidorintheprovisioninnecessitouscasesofremedialmeasures,as_e.g._spectaclesinthecaseofdefectiveeyesight,isaquestionofmuchgreaterdifficulty.
Atpresentanypositivehelpofthisnatureistheexceptionratherthantherule,andisundertakenbyagenciesworkedonthevoluntaryprinciple,andtheremedialmeasuresadoptedarelimitedtothetreatmentofcertainminorailments._E.g._,inLiverpool,Birmingham,andotherplaces,Queen'snursesregularlyvisittheschools,andundertakeeitherinschooloratthehomesofthechildrensimplecurativetreatmentofminorsurgicalcases.Butwhileitmaybeheld
thatthedutyoftheStateislimitedtothemedicalexaminationofschoolchildreninordertodiscoverthepresenceofphysicalandmentaldefects,andthatthisbeingdone,anyfurtherresponsibility,whetherinthewayeitherofprovidingorprocuringremedies,fallsupontheindividualparent,yetwehavesufficientevidencetoshowthat,inmanycases,eitherthroughthepovertyortheapathyandindifferenceoftheparents,nostepsaretakeninthewayofprovidingthenecessaryremedies,andasaconsequencewehavegrowingupinourmidstchildrenwhoinafter-lifewill,throughthelackofsimplecurativetreatmentundertakenatthepropertime,becomemoreorlesssociallyinefficient.
Moreover,itistobenotedthatinthismattertheStatehasalreadyrecogniseditspublicobligationtoprovideremedialaidinits
provisionfortheeducationandlodgingoftheblind,thedeafandthedumb,andinthemeasurestakenwithinrecentyearsforthespecialeducationofthedefectiveandtheepileptic.Theprovisionforthesepurposesmayindeedbejustifiedonthegroundsthattheexpenseoftheeducationofchildrenoftheindustrialclassessoafflictedisbeyondthepowersofanyoneindividual,orgroupofindividuals,tosupply,andthatunlessundertakenbytheStateitwouldnotbeefficientlymade,withtheconsequenceofthrowingthemaintenancehereafteroftheseparticularclassesuponthecommunity:ontheground,therefore,ofthefutureprotectivebenefittosociety,suchexpensemaybe
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legitimatelylaiduponthecommunityasawhole.Further,inthesecases,thedangeroftheweakeningofthesenseofparentalresponsibilityisnotanextremedangertotheCommonwealth,sincetheaidisdefinitelylimitedtoarestrictednumberofcases,andsincethemoralobligationimposedupontheindividualtoprovidefortheeducationofhischildrencouldinmanycasesnotbefulfilledwithoutthebyfargreaterportionoftheexpensebeingprovidedbymeansofpublicorvoluntaryaid.
Inlikemanner,theexpenseofthespecialeducationofthemorallydefectiveinIndustrialSchoolsandinotherinstitutionsmaybejustifiedonthegroundofthepresentandfutureprotectivebenefittosociety.Inthesecasesparentalgovernmenthaseitheraltogetherceasedorbecometooweaktoactasaneffectiverestrainingforce,andasaconsequencethecommunityforitsownself-preservationhastoundertakethecontrolandeducationoftheactualorincipientyouthfulcriminal.IntheirReporttheRoyalCommissionersonPhysicalTraining(Scotland)sadlydeclarethatIndustrialandsimilarinstitutionscertainlygivetheboysandgirlswhocomeundertheirinfluenceadvantagesinfeedingandphysicaltrainingwhicharenotopentothechildrenofindependentandrespectablethoughpoorparents._ThecontrastbetweentheconditionofchildrenasseeninthepoorerdayschoolsandchildreninIndustrialinstitutions,whoseparentshavealtogetherfailedtodotheirduty,isbothmarkedandpainful._[19]
Andyetitmightbeurgedthattheprotectivebenefitlikelytobederivedinthefuturebytheprovisionofremedialmeansfortheremovalofthesimplerdefectsinthecaseofthechildrenofparentsunablewithoutgreatdifficultytosupplythesethemselvesisnolessevidentthaninthemoreextremecases.Butheretheonlysoundprincipleofguidanceistoaskwhethertheremedialmeasuresrequiredarereasonablywithinthepoweroftheparenttoprovide.Iftheyarenot,nocommunitywhichexercisesawiseforethoughtwillsufferchildrentogrowupgraduallybecomingmoreandmoredefective,moreandmorelikelyinafter-lifetobeaburdenuponitsresources.Butthisquestionoftheprovisionofremedialaidinvolvesamuchlargerquestion,whichweshallnowdiscuss.
APPENDIX
Asshowingtheneedforthesystematicexaminationofthespecialsenseorgans,IappendasummaryoftheresultsarrivedatandtheconclusionsreachedbyDr.WrightThomsonafterexaminationoftheeyesightofchildrenattendingthePublicElementarySchoolsundertheGlasgowSchoolBoard:--
"Theteacherstestedthevisualacutenessof52,493children,andfound18,565,or35percent.,tobebelowwhatisregardedasthe
normalstandard.
"Iexaminedthe18,565defectivesbyretinoscopy,andfoundthat11,209,or21percent.ofthewhole,hadoculardefects.
"Thepercentagewithoculardefectswasfairlyconstantinalltheschools,butthepercentagewithdefectivevisionwasveryvariable--_i.e._,manychildrenwithnormaleyeswerefoundtoseebadly.
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"Theproportionofthesecaseswashighestinthepoorandclosely-builtdistrictsandinoldschools,andwaslowestinthebetterclassschoolsandinthoseneartheoutskirtsofthecity.
"TheproportionofsuchcasesinthecountryschoolsofChrystonandCumbernauldwasmuchlowerthaninanyofthecityschools;andinIndustrialSchools,wherethechildrenarefedatschool,theproportionwaslowerthanamongBoardSchoolchildrenofacorrespondingsocialclass.
"Defectivevision,apartfromoculardefect,seemstobedue,partlytowantoftrainingoftheeyesfordistantobjects,andpartlytoexhaustionoftheeyes,whichiseasilyinducedwhenworkiscarriedoninbadlight,orthenutritionofthechildrendefectivefrombadfeedingandunhealthysurroundings.
"Regardingtrainingoftheeyesfordistantobjects,muchmightbedoneintheinfantdepartmentbythetotalabolitionofsewing,whichisdefinitelyhurtfultosuchyoungeyes,andthesubstitutionofcompetitivegamesinvolvingtherecognitionofsmallobjectsatadistanceof20feetormore.
"Teacherscandeterminethevisualacuteness,buttheycannotdecidewhetherornotanoculardefectispresent.
"Visualacuteness,especiallyamongpoorchildren,isvariableatdifferenttimes.
"Teachersshouldhaveaccesstosight-testingmaterialsatalltimes,andshouldhavetheopportunityofreferringsuspectedcasesformedicalopinion.
"Anannualtestingbytheteachers,followedbymedicalinspectionofthechildrenfounddefective,wouldsooncauseallexistingdefectstobecorrected,andwouldleadtothedetectionofthosewhichdevelopduringschoollife."
Anexaminationof502childrenattendingtheChurchofScotlandTrainingCollegeSchool,Glasgow,asregardsdefectsineyesightandhearing,wasmadebyDrs.RowanandFullertonrespectively,withthefollowingresults:--
"Asregardseyesight--
"61.55percent.werepassedasnormal,whileofthosedefective7.57wereawareofthefact;somefewofthesehadalreadyreceivedtreatment,but30.88werequiteunawarethattherewasanythingwrong,theseunfortunatesbeingexpectedtodothesameworkas,
andholdtheirownwith,theirmorefortunateclassmates.
"Asregardshearing--54.4percent.werefoundnormal.27.6""weredefective.18.""weredistinctlydefective."
IappendtheveryvaluablesuggestionsandconclusionsofDr.Rowan,whoconductedtheexaminationontheeyesightofchildren:--
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"Afterexamining502children,whichinvolvedtheexaminationof1004eyes,oneisforcedtocertainconclusions.Thesechildrenaretakenatrandom,andinthiswaytheymaybeconsideredasafairsampleoftheirageandclass.
"Ithinkoneofthefirstthingsthatforcethemselvesonournoticeisthedifficultiesunderwhichmanyofthosechildrenlabour,andofwhichthey,theirparentsandteachersarequiteunaware.Thechildrenareconsidereddull,careless,orlazy,asthecasemaybe:theythemselves,poorunfortunates,donotknowhowtocomplain,andseemjusttostrugglealongasbesttheycan,thoughthisstruggle,withoutadequateresult,mustdiscouragethem,andinthisindirectway,too,maketheirfutureprospectsmorehopeless.
"Somewouldbeconsiderablybenefitedbytreatmentandoperation,orboth,whileforsomelittlecanbedone.Someofthosewhocouldbebenefitedaredeprivedofhelpbytheirparents'ignoranceorprejudice.
"Inthecaseofthoseforwhomlittleornothingcanbedone,andwhosesightisverydefective,itseemstomethequestionoughttoberaisedastowhethertheirpresentmodeofeducationshouldnotbereplacedbysomeother,whichwouldendeavourtodeveloptheir
abilitiesinotherwaysthanthroughtheireyesight;inshort,theyshouldhavespecialtrainingwiththeviewoffittingthemforsomeformofemploymentforwhichtheyaremorefittedthantheordinaryoccupationsofeverydaylife.Thisraisesadifficultquestion,andeachcasewouldhavetobesettledonitsmerits.Thedifficultymustbefaced;otherwisethechildrenwillsimplydriftandbecomeidleanduseless,while,ifeducated,atanyratepartly,onthesystemfortheblind,theywouldbecomeusefulmembersofsociety.
"Ithinknoone,afterstudyingtheresultofthisexaminationofwhatmaybebysomeconsideredasmallnumberofchildren,candoubtthatathoroughmedicalexaminationofallschoolchildrenshouldbemadewhentheyenterschool,andthisexamination
repeatedatregularintervals.
"Iholdthisappliesnotonlytothechildrenofthepoor,buttochildreninallranksoflife,asoneconstantly,andthat,too,inprivatepractice,meetswithcaseswherechildrenareconsidereddullandlazy,whiletherealfaultlieswiththeparents,whohavenottakenthetroubletoascertainthephysicalfitnessorunfitnessoftheirchildren.
"Iamgladtosayitisnowbecomingmorecommonforchildrentobetakentothefamilydoctor,toaspecialist,ortoboth,tobethoroughlyoverhauledbeforestartingschool-life;andinmanycaseswithmostsatisfactoryresults,astheirtrainingcanbe
modifiedortreatmentorderedwhichpreventsthedevelopmentofthosepathologicalconditionswhich,inmanycases,wouldlimitthechoiceofoccupation,or,ifthesearealreadypresent,theycanatleastbemodifiedorevenovercome.
"Iwishtoemphasisethefactthatthosethoroughmedicalexaminationsshouldberepeatedinthecaseofallchildrenatregularintervals,asinthiswayalonecanaproperphysicalstandardbemaintained,anddeviationsfromthenormaldetectedpromptlyandinmanycasescuredbeforethesuffererisawareof
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theirpresence.
"Howofteninexaminingouradultpatientsdowefindthemmuchsurprisedwhentheyaretoldandconvincedbyactualproofthatalltheirlifetheyhavedependedononeeyeonly!Thisfact,ofcourse,theysometimesaccidentallydiscoverforthemselves,andcomewiththestatementthattheeyehassuddenlygoneblind.Inthemajorityofthesecasestheweakereyeisuseless,andthepossibilityofmakingitofanyuseis,attheirage,practically_nil_."
FOOTNOTES:
[16]Cf._SpecialReportonEducationalSubjects_,vol.ii.
[17]Cf._ReportonElementarySchoolsofBerlinandCharlottenburg_,byG.Andrew,Esq.
[18]Cf.Appendix,pp.62-65.
[19]_ReportRoyalCommissiononPhysicalTraining_(_Scotland_),vol.i.(Neill&Co,.Edinburgh).
CHAPTERVII
THERELATIONOFTHESTATETOEDUCATION--THEFEEDINGOFSCHOOLCHILDREN
Amuchmoreimportantandfar-reachingquestionthanthatoftheStateprovisionforthemedicalexaminationandinspectionofchildrenattendingPublicElementarySchoolsisthequestionofwhether,andtowhatextent,theStateshouldundertaketheprovisionofschoolmealsforunderfedchildren.
Oftheexistenceoftheevilofunderandimproperfeedingofchildren,especiallyinmanyofourlargetowns,thereisnodoubt.Thenumerousvoluntaryagencieswhichhavebeenbroughtintoexistencetocopewiththeformeraresufficientevidencethattheevilexistsandthatitisofawidespreadnature.Again,thehighrateofinfantmortalityamongstthechildrenofthelowerclassesislargelyduetoignoranceonthepartofparentsofthenatureandproperpreparationoffoodsuitableforchildren.Further,thesocialconditionsunderwhichmanyofthepoorliveinourlargetownsisacontributingcauseofthisimproperfeeding.Inmanycasesthereisnoadequateprovisioninthehomeforthecookingandpreparationoffood,andinotherstheabsenceofthemotheratworkduringthedaynecessitatesthechildren"fending"for
themselvesintheprovidingoftheirmeals.However,inconsideringthisquestionwemustcarefullydistinguishbetweenthreedistinctcausesoperatingtoproducetheconditionofunderfeeding,andasaconsequenceresultinginthreedistinctclassesofunderfedchildren.Asthecausesorgroupsofcausesaredifferentinnature,sotheremediesalsovaryincharacter.Moreover,inmanycaseswefindallthreecausesoperating,nowoneandnowtheother,toproducethechronicunderfeedingofthechild.
Inthefirstplace,theunderfeedingofthechildmayarisethroughthe
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temporarypovertyoftheparentduetohistemporaryillnessortemporaryunemployment.Innormalcircumstances,inthesecasesreliefisbestaffordedbymeansofthevoluntaryagenciesofsociety.Inabnormalcircumstances,suchasarecausedbyawidespreaddepressionofindustry,theevilmaybemetbyaspecialeffortonthepartofthevoluntaryagenciesorbymunicipalitiesorotherbodiesprovidingtemporaryrelief-work.
Inthesecondplace,theunderfeedingofthechildmaybeduetothechronicandpermanentpovertyoftheparent.Thewagesofthebreadwinnerevenwheninfullworkmaybeinsufficienttoaffordadequatesupportforanumerousfamily.ThisconditionofthingsisnotpeculiartoGreatBritain,butisacommoncharacteristicinthelifeofthepoorofallcivilisednations.Thisiswheretherealstingoftheproblemofunderfeedinglies,andthecausesatworktendingtoproducethisconditionofthingsaretoodeep-seatedandtoowidelyspreadtoberemovedbyanyoneremedy.Moreover,inendeavouringtocurethisdiseaseoftheCommonwealthweareeverindangerofperpetuatingandintensifyingthecausesatworktendingtoproducetheevil.
Inthethirdplace,theunderfeedingofthechildmayarisethroughtheindifference,theselfishness,ortheviceoftheparents.Insuchcasestheparentscouldfeedtheirchildren,butdonot.ManifestlyincasesofthischaracterthereisnoobligationplacedupontheStateandno
rightfulclaimuponanycharitableagencytoprovidefoodforthechildren.Togiveaidsimplyweakensfurthertheparentalsenseofresponsibility,andleavesawidermargintobespentonviciouspleasures.ButwhilethereisnoobligationplacedupontheStatetoprovidethenecessariesoflifeforthechild,thereisneedandjustificationinsuchcasesfortheinterventionoftheState.Thereisneed,forotherwisethechildsuffersthroughthecriminalneglectoftheparents,andthecommunitymustinterfereforthesakeofthefuturesocialefficiencyoftheindividualandofthenation.Thereisjustification,forhereasinthecaseoftheparentsofthemorallydefective,parentalresponsibilityhaseitherceasedtoactorbecometooweakamotiveforcetobeeffectiveinsecuringthewelfareofthechild.Astheindividualparentneglectshisduty,soandtothe
correspondingdegreetowhichthisneglectextends,mustthedutybeenforcedbytheState.Butintheenforcingofthisorofanydutywemustbequitesurethattheneglectisreallyduetotheweakenedsenseofresponsibilityoftheparent,thatitisaconditionofthingswhichhecouldremoveifhehadthemoralwilltodoso,andthattheneglectisnotduetocausesbeyondthepoweroftheparenttoremove.
Casesinwhichthereisculpableneglectofthechildduenottopoverty,buttothefactthatthemoneywhichshouldgotothepropernutritionofthechildissquanderedindrink,oronotherenervatingpleasures,arethereforecasesinwhichrecoursemustbehadtomeasureswhichenforceupontheparenttheobligationtofeedandclothehischildren.Thereallydifficultquestionisastothebestmeansof
enforcingthisobligation.Manifestlytopunishbyfineorimprisonmentdoeslittleinmanycasestoalleviatethesufferingsofthechildren.Thepunishmentfallsuponthemaswellasupontheparent,andwherethelatterisdeadto,orcarelessof,thepublicopinionofhisfellows,itfailstoinitiatethatreformofconductwhichoughttobetheaimofallpunishment.Ifindeedbyimpositionoffine,orbyimprisonment,theindividualrealiseshisneglectofduty,repents,andasaconsequencereforms,thengoodandwell,butasaruletheneglectofthechildisinsuchcasesamoraldiseaseoflongstandingandnoteasilycured,andsowefindoftenthatneitherpunishmentbyfinenorimprisonment,even
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whenrepeatedseveraltimes,iseffectiveinmakingtheparentrealisehisresponsibilityandreformhisconduct.Allthewhilethechildgoesonsuffering.Heisnobetterfedduringtheperiodoffineorimprisonment,andthewrathoftheparentisoftenvisiteduponhisunoffendinghead.
Thesecondmethodofcureproposedistofeedthechildrenatthepublicexpenseandtorecoverthecostbyprocessoflaw.Butthepracticaldifficultiesincarryingoutthisplanaresimilarinkindtothoseformerlyexperiencedintherecoveryofunpaidschoolfees.Thecostofrecoveringisoftengreaterthantheexpenseinvolved,andasaconsequencelocalauthoritiesarenotinclinedtoprosecute.Further,thereisthedifficultyofdiscriminatingbetweenunderfeedingduetowilfulandculpableneglectandunderfeedingduetotheactualchronicpovertyoftheparent.Ifthisplanistobeeffective,somesimplermethodofrecoveryofcostthanthatwhichnowprevailsmustbeadopted. _E.g._,itmightbeenactedthatthesumdecreedforshouldbedeductedfromtheweeklywagesoftheparentbyhisemployer.Hereagainmanydifficultieswouldpresentthemselvesinthecarryingoutofthisplan.Inthecaseofcertainemploymentsthiscouldnotbedone.Inothercases,employerswouldbeunwillingtoundertaketheinvidioustask.Moreover,thecostofcollectionmightequalorbegreaterthanthecostincurred.Aboveall,suchamethodwoulddolittletoalleviatethesufferingsandbetterthenutritionofthechild.Inmostcasesthe
schoolprovidesbutonemealaday.Experiencehasshownthatinthecaseofchildrenofthedissolutethefreemealattheschoolmeanslessfoodathome.Werethecostdeductedfromtheweeklywagesoftheparent,theresultwouldbeintensified.Sogreathavebeenthedifficultiesfeltinthismatterthatwithoneortwoexceptionsnoforeigncountryhasmadetheattempttorecoverthecostoffeedingfromtheparent.Yetthediseaserequiresaremedy.Theevilistoodangeroustothefuturesocialwelfareofthecommunitytobeallowedtogoonuncheckedandunremedied.Moreover,toendeavourtoeducatethepersistentlyunderfedchildrenofourslumsistodothematwofoldinjury.Bytheexercisesoftheschoolweuseup,inmanycases,withlittleresult,thesmallstoreofenergylodgedinthebrainandnervoussystemofthechild,andleavenothingeitherfortherepairofthe
nervoussystemorforthegrowthofhisbodygenerally.Weprematurelyexhausthisnervoussystem,andbysodoingwehinderhisbodilygrowthanddevelopment.Tomakemattersworse,weofteninsistthatthechildinordertoaidhisphysicaldevelopmentmustundergoanexhaustingsystemofphysicalexerciseswhenwhatismostwantedforthispurposeisgoodandnourishingfoodandasufficiencyofsleep.Atthesametimethatweareneglectingthenutritionofhisbodywearespendinganincreasingyearlysumontheso-callededucationofhismind.What,then,istheremedy?Iffiningandimprisonmentoftheparentonlyaccentuatethesufferingsofthechild,iftheyfailtomaketheparentrealisehisresponsibilityandreformhisconduct,iftheprovisionofafreemealatschoolmeanslessfoodathome,thenthereisonlyonethorough-goingremedyfortheevil,andthatistotakethechildaway
fromtheparent,toeducateandfeedhimatthepublicexpense,andtorecoverthecostasfaraspossiblefromtheparent.InNorwaythisdrasticmethodhasbeenadopted.Underalawpassedonthe6thJanuary1896,theauthoritiesareempowered"toplaceneglectedchildreninsuitablehomesorfamiliesatthecostofthemunicipality,theparent,however,beingliable,ifcalledupon,todefraythecost."[20]
Thereasonsfortakingthisextremestepareobvious.Bynomethodofpunishingthepersistentlydissoluteandneglectfulparentcanyoubeassuredofsecuringthepropernutritionandwelfareofthechild.
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Parentalaffectioninthesecasesisdead,andparentalresponsibilityforthepresentandfuturewelfareofthechildhasceasedtoactasamotiveforce.Asaconsequence,thechildgrowsuptobe,atbest,sociallyinefficient,andliableinlaterlifetobeaburdenuponthecommunity.Inmanycases,theevilandsordidinfluencesofhishomeandsocialenvironmentsooncheckanyspringsofgoodinhisnature,andmorethanlikelyhebecomesinlaterlifenotmerelyasociallyinefficientmemberofthecommunitybutanactivesociallydestructiveagent.Hence,onthegroundofthefutureprotectivebenefittosociety,onthegroundofsecuringthefuturesocialefficiencyoftheindividual,onthegroundthatitisonlybysomesuchsystemwecaneverhopetoraisethemoralefficiencyoftherisinggenerationoftheslums,themethodaboveadvocatedisworthyofconsideration.
Againsttheadoptionofsuchamethodoftreatmentofthedissoluteparentmanyobjectionsmaybeurged,anditwouldbefoolishtominimisethedangerswhichmightfollowitssystematicandthoroughcarryingintopractice.Butthepossibleinjurytothecommunitythroughtheweakeningofthesenseofparentalresponsibilityseemstomesmallincomparisonwiththefuturegoodlikelytoresultfromtheincreasedphysical,economic,andethicalefficiencyofthenextgenerationwhichmightreasonablybeexpectedtofollowfromtherigorouscarryingoutofsuchaplanforatime.Thefearlestalargerandlargernumberofparentsmightendeavourtoridthemselvesofthedirectcareoftheirchildren,
ifthisplanwereadopted,neednotdeterus.Ifthisplanwerecarriedintopractice,thensomeextensionofthescopeoftheIndustrialActswouldberenderednecessary,andsomesuchextensionseemstohavebeeninthemindsoftheSelectCommitteeintheirReportontheEducation(ProvisionofMeals)Bill,1906,inconsideringtheirrecommendations.[21]
Buttheimportanceofthetwoclassesofcasesalreadyconsideredsinksintocomparativeinsignificancecomparedwiththethirdclassofcases.Temporaryunderfeedingcausedbytemporarypovertycanbemetinmanywayswithouttoanyappreciabledegreelesseningthesenseofthemoralobligationoftheparenttoprovidethepersonalnecessitiesoffoodandclothingforhischildren.Inthecase,again,ofthepersistently
dissoluteandneglectfulparent,moralconsiderationshaveceasedtooperate,andsotheindividualbysomemethodorothermustbeforcedtoperformwhateverpartoftheobligationcanbeexactedfromhim.
Butinthethirdclassofcasesparentalresponsibilitymaybeanactiveandwillingforce,yetthemeansavailablemaybesolimitedinextentthatthechildisinthechronicconditionofbeingunderfed.NoonewhocarefullyconsiderstheinformationrecentlysuppliedbytheBoardofEducationastothemethodsoffeedingthechildrenattendingPublicElementarySchoolsinthegreatContinentalcitiesandinAmericacanarriveatanyotherconclusionthanthathereweareinthepresenceofanevilnotlocalbutgeneral,andapparentlyincidentaltotheorganisationofthemodernindustrialState.Forwhetherbyvoluntary
agencies,bymunicipalgrants,orbyStateaid,everygreatContinentalcityhasfounditnecessarytoorganiseandinstitutesomesystemoffeedingschoolchildren.
Theonlyinferencetobedrawnfromsuchaconditionofthingsisthatinalargenumberofcasesthenormalwagesofthelabourerareinsufficienttomaintainhimselfandhisfamilyinanythinglikeadecentstandardofcomfort.Howlargeaproportionofthepopulationofourgreatcitiesisinthisconditionitisdifficultexactlytoestimate,butthereisnodoubtthataveryconsiderablenumberofcases
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ofthechronicunderfeedingofschoolchildrenmaybetracedtotheinsufficiencyofthehomeincometosupportthefamily.Themoralobligationtoprovidethepersonalnecessitiesoffoodandclothingforhischildrenisactive,butthemeansfortherealisationoftheobligationcannotbeprovidedinmanycasestheendeavourfullytomeettheneedsofthechildresultsinthelessenedefficiencyofthebreadwinnerofthefamily.
Therealcausesatworktendingtokeepthewagesoftheunskilledlabourereverhoveringroundameresubsistenceratemustberemoved,ifanythinglikeapermanentcureofthissocialevilistobeeffected.Wemustendeavourontheonehandtolessenthesupplyofunskilledlabour.Bysodoingtherewardofsuchlabourwilltendtobeincreasedmaterially.Ontheotherhand,wemustduringthenextdecadeortwoendeavourbyeverymeansinourpowertoensurethatalargerandlargernumberofthechildrenoftheverypoorshallinthenextgenerationpassintotheranksofskilledlabour.
Butinthemeantimesomethingmustbedone.Thechildrenarethere;theystillsuffer;andtheirwrongscryaloudforredress.Itiscertainlytruethatanyaidgiventothechildwilltendmeanwhiletokeepthewagesatbaresubsistencerates.Itisalsotruethatthedistributionofreliefonlytendstomakethepoorcomfortableintheirpoverty,insteadofhelpingthemtoriseoutofit.Allthisandmuchmoremight
beurgedagainstthedemandtoinstituteandorganisethesystematicpublicfeedingofschoolchildren.Buttheseevilsareevilswhichfalluponthepresentadultpopulation.Educationhas,however,todowiththefuture,withthenextgenerationandnotwiththis.Itsaimistosecurethataslargeanumberaspossibleofthechildrenofthepresentgenerationwillgrowuptobeeconomicallyandethicallyefficientmembersofthecommunity.Tosecurethisendtheproblemofunderfeedingisonlyoneoftheproblemsthatmustbesolved.Ifweadoptsomesystematicplanforsecuringthefullnutritionofthechildrenofthepresent,thismustgohandinhandwithotherremedies.Duringthestageoftransitionweshallhavetotakeintoaccountthatforatimethewagesofthepoorestclassoflabourerwilltendtoremainattheirpresentlowrate;weshallhavetofacethedangerthatbygivingsuch
aidwemayinsomecasesstillfurtherweakenthesenseofmoralobligationoftheparentsofthepresentgeneration.If,ontheotherhand,wedonothing,orifwelooktothepresentvoluntaryagenciestogoondoingwhattheycantoremedytheevil,whatthen?Willtheevilbelessenedinthenextgeneration?Assuredlynot,iftheexperienceofthepresentandofthepastaresafeguidesastowhatwemayexpectinthefuture.
HencewehavenohesitationinurgingthatthefeedingofchildrenattendingthePublicElementarySchoolsshouldbeorganisedonlinessimilartotherecommendationslaiddowninthe_SpecialReportfromtheSpecialCommitteeonEducation_(_ProvisionofMeals_)_Bill_,1906.[22]
Butifwecarryouttheserecommendationsanddonothingelse,thenitmaybethatweshallpartiallyremedytheevilinthenextgeneration,butweshalltoalargeextentperpetuatethepresentconditionofthings.Sidebysidewiththis,wemustinstituteandsetotheragenciesatwork.BytheinstitutionofFreeKindergartenSchoolsinthepoorerdistrictsofourlargetowns,bypostponingthebeginningoftheformaleducationofthechildtoalaterage,byascientificcourseofphysicaleducation,bybettertradeandtechnicalschools,andifneedbebythecompulsoryattendanceofchildrenateveningcontinuationschools,wemustbendoureveryefforttosecurethattheranksofthe
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casual,theunskilled,andtheunemployableshallbelessened,andtheranksoftheskilledandintelligentworkerincreased.
AsthefreeingofelementaryeducationcanbejustifiedonthegroundthattheeducationofthechildisnecessaryforthefutureprotectionoftheState,soonsimilargroundsitmaybeurgedthatthenutritionofthechildisalsonecessary.Withoutthisourmerelyeducationalagenciescanneveradequatelysecurethesocialefficiencyofthecominggeneration.Atthesametime,unlessinthefuturetheneedforfreeeducationandfreefoodbecomeslessandless,andunlessbythemeanssketchedabovewerearupagenerationeconomicallyandmorallyindependent,thentrulywehavenotdiscoveredthemethodbywhichmancanberaisedtoindependenceandrationality.
APPENDIX
_RecommendationsoftheSelectCommitteeonEducation_(_ProvisionofMeals_)_Bill_,1906.
"Theevidence,verbalanddocumentary,placedbeforetheCommitteehasledthemtoarriveatthefollowinggeneralconclusions:--
"1.ThatitisexpedientthattheLocalEducationAuthorityshouldbeempoweredtoorganiseanddirecttheprovisionofamiddaymealforchildrenattendingPublicElementarySchools,andthatstatutorypowersshouldbegiventoLocalAuthoritiestoestablishCommitteestodealwithschoolcanteens.
"2.ThatsuchCommitteesshouldbecomposedofrepresentativesoftheLocalEducationAuthority,representativesoftheVoluntarySubscribers,andwherethoughtdesirablearepresentativeoftheBoardofGuardians,andofthelocalbranchoftheSocietyforthePreventionofCrueltytoChildren,wheresuchexists.ThattheHeadTeacher,theSchoolAttendanceOfficer,andtheRelievingOfficershouldworkinassociationwithsuchCommittee.
"3.ThatpowershouldbegivenfortheLocalEducationAuthorities,whentheydeemitdesirable,toraiseloansandspendmoneyontheprovisionofsuitableaccommodationandofficials,andforthepreparation,cooking,andservingofmealstothechildrenattendingPublicElementarySchools.
"4.Thatonlyinextremeandexceptionalcases,whereitcanbeshownthatneithertheparents'resourcesnorLocalVoluntaryFundsaresufficienttocoverthecost,andaftertheconsentoftheBoardofEducationastothenecessityforsuchexpenditurehasbeenobtained,aLocalAuthoritymayhaverecoursetotheratesfortheprovisionofthecostoftheactualfood;thelocalratefor
thispurposetoinnocaseexceed½d.inthe£.
"5.ThattheLocalEducationAuthorityshould,asfaraspossible,associatewithitself,andencouragethecontinuanceof,voluntaryagenciesinconnectionwiththeworkoffeedingofchildren.
"6.Thatwhateverstepsmaybenecessary,bywayofextensionoftheIndustrialSchoolsandthePreventionofCrueltytoChildrenActsorotherwise,shouldbetakentosecurethatparentsabletodosoandneglectingtomakeproperprovisionforthefeedingof
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theirchildrenshallbeproceededagainstfortherecoveryofthecost;andthattheGuardians,orwhereavailabletheSocietyforthePreventionofCrueltytoChildren,andnottheLocalEducationAuthority,beempoweredtoprosecuteinanycasescomingunderthelawinrespecttotheneglectofparentstomakeproperprovisionforthefeedingoftheirchildren.
"7.Thatpaymentformeals,priortothemeal,wheneverpossible,shouldbeinsisteduponfromtheparents.
"8.Thatitisundesirablethatmealsshouldbeservedinroomshabituallyusedforteachingpurposes,andthattheRegulationsoftheBoardofEducationshouldcarrythisrecommendationintoeffect.
"9.ThatwhilststrongtestimonyhasbeenplacedbeforetheCommitteetotheeffectthattheteachershavegivenandaregivingadmirableserviceinthewayofsupervisingtheprovisionofmealstothechildren,itistheopinionoftheCommitteethatitoughtnottobemadepartoftheconditionsattachingtotheappointmentofanyteacherthathe(orshe)shallorshallnottakepartindispensingmealsprovidedforthechildren,andthattheBoardofEducationshouldcarrythisrecommendationintoeffect."
FOOTNOTES:
[20]Cf.UnderfedChildreninContinentalandAmericanCities(presentedtoParliament,April1906).
[21]Cf._ReportonEducation_(_ProvisionofMeals_)_Bill_,especiallyRecommendation6,Appendix,p.75.
[22]Cf.Appendix,p.75.
CHAPTERVIII
THEORGANISATIONOFTHEMEANSOFEDUCATION
ThroughoutwehaveassumedthatitisthedutyoftheStatetoseetotheadequateprovision,totheduedistribution,andtotheproperco-ordinationofalltheagenciesofeducation,andwehavetakenupthispositionmainlyonthegroundthatneithertheadequateprovisionnortheproperco-ordinationofthemeansofeducationcanbesafelylefttotheself-interestoftheindividualoranygroupofindividuals.Iflefttobeaccomplishedbypurelyvoluntaryagencies,boththe
provisionandtheco-ordinationwillremainimperfect,andasanationwecannolongerneglectthesystematicorganisationandgradingofthemeansofeducation.
Butamisapprehensionmustfirstberemoved.IndeclaringthatalltheagenciesofformaleducationshouldbeundercontroloftheState,itisnottobeinferredthatthiscontrolshouldbebureaucratic.InmanymindsStatecontrolissynonymouswithgovernmentbyinspectorsandotherofficialsofthecentralauthority.Butbureaucraticcontrolinanationwhosegovernmentisfoundedonarepresentativebasisisa
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diseaseratherthananormalconditionofsuchgovernment.Inacountrywherethesovereignpowerisvestedinanindividualorinalimitednumberofindividuals,bureaucraticcontrolisandmustbeanessentialfeatureofitsgovernment.Ontheotherhand,wherethegovernmentisfoundedupontherepresentativeprinciple,theappearanceofbureaucracyisanindicationofsomeimperfectionintheorganisationoftheStateitself.Theintroductionoftherepresentativeprinciplemayhavebeentooprematureoritsextensiontoorapid,andasaconsequencethegovernmentofthepeoplebythemselvesisineffectivethroughthegeneralwantofanenlightenedself-interestamongstthemajorityofthenation.Insuchaconditionofaffairs,ifprogressistobemade,itcanonlybeaccomplishedeffectivelythroughanenlightenedminorityforcingitswillupontheunenlightenedandignorantmajority,andasaresultwemayhavethecreationofanarmyofofficialinspectorswhosechiefdutybecomestosecurethatthewillofthecentralauthorityisrealised.Insuchaconditionofthingsthetendencyeverisformoreandmorepowertofallintothehandsofthepermanentofficials.
Butthisconditionofthingsmayariseinagovernmentfoundedupontherepresentativeprincipleinanotherway.Theorgansthroughwhichthewillofthepeoplemakesitselfknownmaybeimperfect,sothatasaconsequenceitfailstofindadequateexpression,oritsexpressionisfeltonlyatinfrequentintervals.If,forexample,thecentralauthorityissooverburdenedwithworkthatlittleorinsufficient
attentionisgiventomanymattersofsupremeimportanceforthewelfareofthenation,thenitfollowsthatmoreandmorepowerwillpassintothehandsofitsexecutiveandadvisoryofficers.Thisconditionofthingswillbefurtherintensifiedifthegoverningbodieschargedwiththelocalcontrolofnationalaffairsaretooweakortoounenlightenedtomaketheirvoiceeffective.Now,thetendencytothebureaucraticcontroloftheeducationalaffairsofourowncountrymaybetracedtoallthreecauses.Thewantofanenlightenedself-interestinthematterofeducationamongstalargenumberofthepeople,theineffectivenessofParliamenttodealthoroughlywithpurelyeducationalquestions,andtheweaknessinmanycasesofthelocalgoverningbodieshaveallcontributedtothegradualcreationofthebureaucraticcontrolofeducationinGreatBritain.Butthisformofcontrolisnotentirely
evil,andincertaincasesitmaybeanecessarystageinthedevelopmentofademocracypassingfromunenlightenmenttoenlightenment.Theremediesforthisimperfection,thisdiseaseofrepresentativegovernmentinthematterofeducationalcontrol,are(1)thespreadofamoreenlightenedself-interestastothevalueofeducationasameansofsecuringthesocialefficiencyofthenationandoftheindividual,(2)theeffectivecontrolofeducationbythecentralauthority,and(3)thestrengtheningofthelocalauthoritiesbydevolvinguponthemmoreandmoreimportanteducationalduties.BythismeansthecontrolofeducationbytheStatewillbecomemoreandmorethecontrolofthepeoplebythemselvesandforthemselves,andthechieffunctionofofficialsandinspectorswillthenbetoadvisecentralandlocalauthoritieshowbesttorealisetheeducationalaims
desiredbythecommonwillofthepeople.
LetusnowconsiderthemainprincipleswhichshouldguidetheStateinherorganisationofthemeansofeducation.
Inthefirstplace,anduponthisallareagreed,thecontrolofallgradesofeducation,primary,secondary,andtechnical,shouldbeentrustedtoonebodyineachareaordistrict.Fortherecanbenoco-ordinationestablishedbetweentheworkofthevariousschoolagencies,andtherecanbenodifferentiationofthefunctionstobe
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undertakenbythevarioustypesofschool,untiltherehasbeenestablishedunityofcontrol.
InEngland,bytheActof1902,agreatstepwastakentowardstheunificationofalltheagenciesofeducation.Accordingtoitsprovisions,theSchoolBoardsystemwasabolished."EveryCountyCouncilandCountyBoroughCouncil,andtheBoroughCouncilsofeverynon-countyboroughwithapopulationofover10,000,andtheDistrictCouncilofeveryurbandistrictwithapopulationover20,000,becamethelocaleducationauthorityforelementaryeducation,whiletheCountyCouncilandtheCountyBoroughCouncilbecametheauthoritiesforhighereducation,_withthesupplementaryaidoftheCouncilsofallnon-countyboroughsandurbandistricts_."Bythismeanstheunificationofeducationalcontrolhasbeenrealised,andalreadyinmanydistrictsofEnglandmuchhasbeendonetofurtherthemeansofhighereducationandtoco-ordinatethisstagewiththeprecedingprimarystage.
InScotlandthequestionoftheextensionoftheareaofeducationalcontrolandoftheunificationofthevariousagenciesdirectingeducationstillawaitssolution.Severalplanshavebeenputforwardtoeffecttheseends.[23]
Inthefirstplace,ithasbeenproposedtoretainthepresentparishSchoolBoardsforthepurposeofelementaryeducation,andtocombine
twoormoreSchoolBoardsforthepurposesofprovidingsecondaryandtechnicaleducation.Thisplan,however,meetswithlittlefavour.Itwouldbedifficulttocarryintopractice,andifrealisedwouldimperfectlyfulfiltheendofco-ordinatingtheworkofthevariousschoolagencies.Itsonlyrecommendationsareitsapparentsimplicity,andthefactthatitcouldbecarriedoutwiththeleastpossiblechangeintheexistingconditions.
Inthesecondplace,itisproposedtoretaintheSchoolBoardsystem,buttoextendtheareaoverwhichanyparticulareducationalauthorityexertsitscontrol,andtoplaceunderitsdirectionallgradesofeducation.Inthepracticalcarryingoutofthisplanthepresentdistrictareasofcountiesselectedforotherpurposeshavebeen
proposedaseducationalunits.Ontheotherhand,ithasbeendeclaredthatinmanycasestheseareasareunsuitableforeducationalpurposes,andithasbeenproposedthatnewareasshouldbedelimitedforthispurpose.
Thechiefmerit,ifitbeamerit,ofthisplanistheretentionineducationalcontrolofthe_adhoc_principle--_i.e._,oftheprincipleofentrustingonesinglenationalinteresttoabodychargedwiththesoledutyofconservingandfurtheringtheinterest.Theonlyreasonsadvancedarethegreatimportanceoftheeducationalinterestandthefearthatifitisentrustedtobodieschargedwithotherdutiesthisinterestmaytendtobeneglected.Butalthoughbothsentimentandtheinterestsofpoliticalpartiesareinvolvedintheadvocacyofthe_ad
hoc_principle,itmustbekeptinmindthattheSchoolBoardsysteminScotlandisuniversalandthatthedifficultiesofthesystemwhichprevailedinEnglandbeforeitsabolitiondonotexistinScotland.Asaconsequence,ithasbeenmuchmoreeffectiveinScotlandthaninEngland,andhasamuchfirmerholdonthesentimentsofthepeople.
Inthethirdplace,ithasbeenproposedtohandovertheeducationaldutiesofthecountrytotheCountyCouncilsandtotheBurghCouncilsofthemoreimportanttowns,toadopt,inprinciple,asystemofeducationalcontrolsimilartothatestablishedinEnglandbytheActof
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1902.
Manyreasonsmaybeurgedfortheadoptionofthelast-namedplan,andweshallbrieflystatethemoreimportant.
1.An_adhoc_authoritybyitsverynatureisnecessarilyweakerthananauthorityentrustednotmerelywiththecareofasingleinterestbutwiththecareofthepublicinterestsasawhole.Ifthereistobedecentralisationofanypartofthefunctionsofthecentralauthority,thenanyformofdecentralisationwhichconsistsinthehandingoverofparticularintereststodifferentlocalbodies,howeveritmaybefortheadvantageoftheparticularinterestisradicallybadforthegeneralinterestsofthecommunity.Thecallingintoexistenceofanumberoflocalauthoritieseachhavingthecareofoneparticularinterest,eachpursuingitsownaimindependentlyandwithoutconsiderationofthedifferingandoftenconflictingaimsoftheotherbodies,eachhavingthepowerofratingforitsownparticularpurposewithoutanyregardforthegeneralinterestofthetaxpayer,isradicallyanunsoundformofdecentralisation.
2.Theestablishmentofsuchaformofcontrolfails,andmustnecessarilyfail,inthelocalauthoritiessecuringthemaximumoffreedomandtheminimumofinterferencefromtheexecutiveofficersofthecentrallegislativeauthority.Solongastheseparateinterestsof
thecommunityareentrustedtodifferentlocalauthorities,solongmustthereremaintothecentralauthorityandtoitsexecutiveofficersthepowerofregulatingandharmonisingthevariousandoftencontendinginterestssoastosecurethatthegeneralinterestoftheindividualdoesnotsuffer,andthemorekeenlyeachparticularbodyfurtherstheparticularinterestentrustedtoitscarethegreateristhenecessityforthiscentralcontrolandinterference,andthatthecentralcontrolshouldbeeffective.
3.Theseparationoftheso-callededucationalinterestsfromtheotherinterestsofthecommunityisnotforthegoodofeducationitself.Therealeducationalinterestswhichhavetobedeterminedbytheadultportionofthecommunityaretheexactnatureoftheserviceswhicha
nationsuchasoursrequiresofitsfuturemembers.Thisdetermined,themethodoftheirattainmentisbestentrustedtotheeducationalexpert.Thefirst-namedendwillbebetterrealisedbyabodycomposedofmenofdiverseintereststhanbyonewhichismadeupofmenwithoneintensebutoftennarrowinterest.
4.Thelargerthepowersentrustedtoanybodyandthemorefreedompossessedbyitindevisingandworkingoutitsschemes,thebetterchancethereisofattractingthebestmeninthecommunitytoundertakethework.
5.Itisquestionablewhethertheinterestsoftheteacherwouldnotbebetterfurtheredbyalocalauthorityentrustedwiththecareofthe
interestsofthecommunityasawholethanbyabodyhavingchargeofeducationalone.Menentrustedwiththelargerinterestsofthecommunityareusuallymorereadytotakewiderviewsthanthemanwhoisnarroweddowntooneinterest.Asarule,theyknowthevalueofgoodworkdone,andarereadyandwillingtopayforitwherevertheyfindit.
6.Lastly,wemayurgethetestofpracticalexperience.InEngland,andespeciallyinLondon,sincethecontrolofeducationhaspassedintothehandsoftheCountyCouncilsagreatadvancehasbeenmadebothin
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thefurtheringandintheco-ordinationofthemeansofeducation.
WhetherultimatelythecontrolofeducationbevestedinDistrictSchoolBoardsorintheCountyandBurghCouncils,onereformisurgentlyneededinScotland,andthisistheextensionoftheareaofeducationalcontrol,underastronglocalauthority,andwiththeentirecontrolofelementary,secondary,andtechnicaleducation.
Inthesecondplace,whatevertheareaofcontrolchosenitshouldbeofsuchanatureastoadmitwithinitsboundsofschoolsofdifferentgradesandofdifferenttypes,sothatchildrenmaypassnotonlyfromtheElementarySchooltotheSecondary,butmaypasstotheparticulartypeofSecondaryorHigherSchoolwhichisbestfittedtopreparethemfortheirfuturelife'swork.Inmanycases,inScotland,wecannotmakethesamecleardistinctionbetweenthevarioustypesofschoolastheydoinGermany,butmustremaincontentwiththedivisionofaschoolintodepartments;yetinourlargetownsandinourmostpopulouscentresofindustrywemustestablishschoolsofdifferenttypesandwithdifferingparticularendsinview.
Thethirdprincipleoforganisationfollowsfromthesecond.Wemustseethatoureducationalsystemissoorganisedastoprovideanefficientandsufficientsupplyofalltheserviceswhichthecommunityrequiresofitsindividualmembers.Inparticular,ourHigherSchoolsystemmust
bedesignednotmerelyforthesupplyoftheso-calledlearnedprofessions,butmustalsomakedueandadequateprovisionforthetrainingofthosewhoinafter-lifearedestinedforthehigherindustrialandcommercialposts.Inparticular,wemustseethatthereisdueprovisionofTradeandTechnicalSchools,whereourfutureartisansmaybecomeacquaintedwiththetheoreticalprinciplesunderlyingtheirparticularart.
Fourthly,wemustendeavourtomakeourElementarySchoolsystemthebasisandpointofdepartureofallfurtherandhighereducation.ThiswouldnotinvolvethateverychildshouldbeeducatedataPrimaryandState-aidedSchool,butitdoesmeanandwouldinvolvethatthePreparatorydepartmentsofourpresentSecondarySchoolsshouldmodel
theircurriculumonthelineslaiddowninourElementarySchools.
Fifthly,intheorganisationofthemeansofeducation,oursystem,aswehavealreadypointedout,mustbedemocraticinthesensethatthemeansofhighereducationshallbeopentoall,richandpoor,inorderthateachmaybeenabledtofindandthereaftertofithimselfforthatparticularemploymentforwhichbynatureheisbestsuited.Itmustfurtherbearistocraticinthesensethatitisselectiveofthebestability;andfinally,itmustberestrictiveinorderthatthemeansofhighereducationmaybeutilisedtothebestadvantage,andnotmisusedonthosewhoareunfittedtobenefittherefrom.
Unityofcontrol;adequacyofarea;schoolsofvarioustypes,sufficient
innumber,andsuitedtomeettheneedforthesupplyofthevariousservicesrequiredbytheState;acommonbasisinelementaryeducation;meansofhighereducationopentoallwhocanprofitthereby;selectionofthebest;restrictionofthoseunabletobenefitfromhighereducation--thesearetheprincipleswhichmustinthefutureguidetheStateorganisationofthemeansofeducation.
FOOTNOTE:
[23]Forafullerdiscussionofthisquestion,see_ScotchEducation
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Reform_,byDr.DouglasandProfessorJones(Maclehose).
CHAPTERIX
THEAIMOFPHYSICALEDUCATION
"Asoundmindinasoundbodyisashortbutfulldescriptionofahappystateinthisworld.Hethathasthesetwohaslittlemoretowishfor,andhethatwantseitherofthemwillbebutlittlethebetterforanythingelse."[24]InthesewordsLockesetsforthforalltimewhatshouldbeaimedatinthephysicaleducationofthechild,andinthelightofmodernphysiologicalpsychologythepositionmustbeemphasisedanewthatoneoftheessentialconditionsofsoundintellectualandmoralvigourissoundphysicalhealth,andthatbodyandmindarenotthingsapart,butthatthehealthoftheoneeverconditionsandisconditionedbythehealthoftheother.
Moreover,atthepresenttime,itisallthemorenecessarytoinsistupontheneedforthesystematiccareofthephysicalcultureofthechild,sinceinmanycasestheconditionsunderwhichthechildrenof
thepoorliveinourgreattownsaremostprejudicialtothefullandfreedevelopmentoftheorgansofthebody.Thenarrow,overbuiltstreetsinthepoorerpartsofourtowns,theovercrowdingofthepeopleintenements,theunhygienicconditionsunderwhichthevastmajorityofourverypoorliveandsleep,areallactiveforcesinpreventingthefullandfreedevelopmentofthephysicalpowersofthechild.Thusthepurelyeducationalproblemofhowbesttopromotethephysicalhealthanddevelopmentofthechildbythesystematicexercisesoftheschoolisinvolvedinthemuchlargerandmoreimportantsocialproblemofhowtobettertheconditionsunderwhichtheverypoorlive.Theagenciesoftheschoolcandolittlepermanentlytoimprovethephysiqueofthechildrenuntil,concurrentlywiththeschool,societyendeavourstoimprovethesocialconditionsunderwhichthepoorestofthepopulation
ofourgreatcitiesherdtogether.Forasimilarreasonmuchoftheendeavouroftheschooltofoundandestablishinthechild'smindinterestsofsocialworthiscounteractedbytheevilinfluenceofitshomeandsocialenvironment.Ifthephysical,economic,andethicalefficiencyofthechildrenoftheslumsisevertobesecured,ifweareevertoattainapermanentresult,thenconcurrentlywiththecreationofnewandhighersocialinterestsmustgohandinhandchangesinthesocialenvironmentofthechild.Merebettermentofthephysicalconditionsunderwhichourslumpopulationliveisofnoavailunlessatthesametimewehaveacorrespondingchangeintheslummindbytheriseandprevalenceofahigheridealofthephysicalandmaterialconditionsunderwhichtheirlivesoughttobespent.
Forexperiencehasshowninmanycasesthatthemerebettermentofthematerialconditionsunderwhichthepoorlivewithoutanycorrespondingchangeofidealssoonresultsinthere-creationofthemiserableconditionswhichformerlyprevailed.Ontheotherhand,themereinstillingofnewidealsintothemindsoftherisinggenerationwilleffectlittle,ifduringthegreaterpartoftheschoolperiodandaltogetherafterwardsweleavethechildtoovercometheevilinfluencesofhisenvironmentasbesthemay.Theidealsoftheschoolaretooweak,toofeeblyestablished,toprevailagainsttheeverpresentandeverpotentinfluencesoftheenvironmentunlesssidebysidewiththe
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riseofthenewidealsweatthesametimeendeavourtolessen,ifwecannotaltogetherremove,theobstacleswhichpreventtheirrealisationandprevalence.Thisproblemofhowtoraisebyeducationandbymeansoftheothersocialagenciesatworkthechildrenoftheslumstoahigheridealoflifeandconductandtosecuretheirfuturesocialefficiencyisthemosturgentproblemofourdayandgeneration.Mereschoolreformsinphysicalandintellectualeducationwilleffectlittleunlesstheotheraspectsoftheproblemareattackedatthesametime.
Further,ourschoolsystem,whichrequiresthatthechildshouldrestrainhisinstinctivetendenciestoaction,andforcertainhourseachdayassumeamoreorlesspassiveandcrampedattitude,isalsoprejudicialtothedevelopmentandfreeplayoftheorgansofthebodywhichhaveentrustedtothemthedischargeofcertainfunctionalactivities.
Hencetheevileffectsoftheschoolitselfmustberemovedorremediedbysomemeanshavingastheiraimtheincreasedfunctionalactivityoftherespiratoryandcirculatorysystemsofthebody.Andthereforetheaimofanysystemofphysicalexercisesshouldbenotmerelyincreaseofboneanddevelopmentofmusclebutalsothesustainingandimprovingofthebodilyhealthofthechildby"expandingthelungs,quickeningthecirculation,andshakingtheviscera."This,asweshallseelater,isnottheonlyaimofphysicaleducation.Itmayfurtheraidinmental
growthanddevelopment,andbeinstrumentalintheproductionofcertainmentalandmoralqualitiesofvaluebothtotheindividualandtothecommunity.
Anothercauseoperatingintheschooltopreventthefullandfreedevelopmentofthebodyisthemethodofmuchoftheteachingwhichprevails.Aquiteunnecessarystrainisoftenputuponthenervoussystemofthechild,andasaconsequencealassitudeofbodyresultswhichphysicalexercisenotonlydoesnottendtoremovebutactuallytendstoincrease.Methodsofteachingwhichfailtoarouseanyinherentinterestintheattainmentofanendoffeltvaluetothechildrequirefortheevokingandmaintainingofhisactiveattentiontheoperationofsomepowerfulindirectinterest,andifpersistedin,suchmethodssoon
resultintheoverworkingandexhaustionofsomeoneparticularsystemofnervouscentres,andinthedepletionthroughnon-nutritionofothercentres.Asaconsequence,thechildisunabletotakeanypartinphysicalexercisesorinschoolgameswithprofittohimself.Heiscontenttoloafanddoaslittleashecan.Theevilisfurtherintensifiedifthereisalsopresentunderorimpropernutritionofthechild.
Thusalongwithourschemesforthephysicaleducationofthechildwemustendeavourtoimprovethemethodsofourteachers,tomakethemunderstandthatexperiencesacquiredthroughthearousingofthedirectinterestofthechildareacquiredattheleastphysiologicalcost,andtomakethemrealiseunderwhatconditionsthisdirectinterestcanbe
arousedandmaintained.Nooneindeedwishestomakeeverythingintheschoolpleasanttothechild,ortoreduceself-efforttoaminimum.Buteffortandinterestarenotopposedterms.Theeffortwhichisevokedintherealisationofaninterestorendoffeltvalueistheonlykindofeffortwhichpossessesanyeducationalvalue.Theeffortwhichiscalledforthinthefindingandestablishingofasystemofmeanstowardsanendwhichthechildfailstosee,andwhich,asaconsequence,rousesnodirectinterestinitsattainment,isaneffortwhichshouldforeverbebanishedfromtheschoolroom.Such,_e.g._,istheeffortevokedinthemerecrammingofemptylistsofwordsordatesorfacts.Littlemental
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goodresultsfromsuchaprocess,andthephysiologicalcostisoftengreat.
Letusnowconsidertheconditionsnecessaryforsoundphysicalhealth,andinquirehowfartheschoolagenciescanaidintheprovidingoftheseconditions:theyaremainlyfourinnumber.Inthefirstplace,inordertosecurethefullgrowthanddevelopmentofthebodilypowers,thereisneededasufficiencyoffood.Butmeresufficiencyisnotenough,thefoodmustbevariedinqualityinordertomeetthevariousneedsofthebody,andmustbepreparedinsuchawayastobereadilyassimilatedandrenderedfitforthenutritionofbothbodyandmind.Manifestlythehomeoughttobethechiefagentinprovidingforthisneed.But,aswehaveseeninconsideringtheproblemofthefeedingofschoolchildren,thehomeinmanycasesisunableadequatelytoprovideforit,and,foratimeatleast,somemethodofpublicprovisionofgoodandwholesomefoodforthechildrenofthepoormayberenderednecessary.Butmuchofthephysicalevilresultsfromimpropernutrition;andheretheschoolagenciesmaydoagreatdealinthefuturebyfurtheringtheteachingofdomesticsciencetothegirlsoftheworkingclasses.Suchteaching,however,ifitistobeeffective,mustberealandmusttakeintoaccounttheactualconditionsunderwhichtheirfuturelivesaretobespent.Atthepresenttimemuchoftheteachingisvalueless,throughitsneglectoftheactualincomeandresourcesoftheworkingman'shome.
Thesecondconditionnecessaryforbodilygrowthanddevelopmentisasufficiencyofpureair.Thisisnecessary,sincetheoxygenoftheairisnotonlytheactiveagentinthemaintenanceoflife,butisalsorequisiteforthecombustionofthefoodstuffsconveyedintothebody.Muchhasbeendonewithinrecentyearsinourschoolstoprovidewell-ventilatedclassroomsandtoinstructteachershowtokeeptheairoftheschoolpure.Hereagaintheproblemistoalargeextentasocialone,involvingthebetterhousingofourgreattownpopulation.
Athirdconditionnecessaryforthephysicaldevelopmentofthechildissleepsufficientinquantityandgoodinquality.Theweak,punychildreninarmstobeseeninourcrowdedslumsowetheircondition,in
manycases,tothewantofsoundsleep,tothefactthattheyneverareallowedtorest,asmuchastotheunderandimproperfeedingtowhichtheyaresubjected.Asweshallseeinthenextchapter,muchmightbedonebytheestablishmentofFreeKindergartenSchoolsinourovercrowdeddistrictstoalleviatethelotandtobettertheeducationoftheveryyoungchildrenofthepoor.
Butinadditiontothethreeconditionsalreadynamed,whichmaybeclassedtogetherasthenutritivefactorsinbodilygrowth,thereisafourthconditionessentialforalldevelopment,whetherbodilyormental--viz.,exercise.For"developmentisproducedbyexerciseoffunction,useoffaculty....Ifwewishtodevelopthehand,wemustexercisethehand.Ifwewishtodevelopthebody,wemustexercisethe
body.Ifwewishtodevelopthemind,wemustexercisethemind.Ifwewishtodevelopthewholehumanbeing,wemustexercisethewholehumanbeing."[25]
Butanyformofexercisewillnotdo.Theexercisewhichisgivenmustbegivenattherighttime,mustbeinharmonywiththenatureoftheorganexercised,andmustbeproportionedtothestrengthoftheorgan,iftruedevelopmentistobeattained.
Inordertounderstandthisinsofarasitbearsupontheaimswhichwe
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shouldsetbeforeusinthephysicaleducationofthechild,itisnecessarythatweshouldunderstandwhatmodernphysiologicalpsychologyhastoteachusofthenatureofthenervoussystem.
Ifthereaderwilllookbacktoanearlierchapter,[26]hewillfindthateducationwasdefinedastheprocessbywhichexperiencesareacquiredandorganisedinorderthattheymayrendertheperformanceoffutureactionmoreefficient,oralternativelyitistheprocessbywhichsystemsofmeansareformed,organised,andestablishedfortheattainmentofvariousendsoffeltvalue.Theestablishmentofthesesystemsofmeansisonlypossiblebecauseinthehumaninfantthenervoussystemisrelativelyunformedatbirth,isrelativelyplastic,andsoiscapableofbeingorganisedinsuchandsuchadefinitemanner.Ontheotherhand,inmanyanimalsthenervoussystemofeachisdefinitelyformedatbirth;itissoorganisedthatexperiencedoeslittletoaddtooraidinitsfurtherdevelopment.Now,whilethenervoussystemofthechildatbirthisnotsodefinitelyorganisedasthatofmanyanimals,yetontheotherhanditisnotwhollyplastic,whollyunformed,sothat,asmanypsychologistsandeducationalistsoncebelieved,itcanbemouldedintoanyshapeweplease.
Rather,wehavetoconceiveofthenervoussystemofthehumaninfantasmadeupofaseriesofsystemsatdifferentdegreesofdevelopmentandwithvaryingdegreesoforganisation.[27]Somecentres,as_e.g._those
whichhavetodowiththeregulationofcertainreflexandautomaticactions,startatonceintofullfunctionalactivity;others,as_e.g._ thosewhichhavetodowithpurelyintellectualfunctions,arerelativelyunformedandunorganisedatbirth,andbecomeorganisedastheresultofconsciouseffort,astheresultofaneducationalprocess,astheresultofacquiring,organising,andestablishingexperiencesfortheattainmentofendsofacquiredvalue.
Betweenthesystemsatthelowestlevelandthoseatthehighestwehavecentresofvaryingdegreesoforganisationatbirth.Moreover,thesecentresofthemiddlelevelreachtheirfullmaturityatdifferentrates.Thecentres,_e.g._,whichhavetodowiththeco-ordinationofhandandeyeandwiththeattainmentofcontroloverthelimbsofthe
bodyreachtheirfullfunctionalactivitybefore,_e.g._,thecentreshavingcontrolofthelipsandspeech.Thecentres,again,whichhavetodowiththeco-ordinationofthesensorymaterialderivedthroughtheparticularsensesarestilllongerinreachingtheirfullfunctionalactivity,whilethehigherintellectualcentresmaynotreachtheirhighestpoweruntilwelloninlife.Hence,sinceeducationistheprocessofacquiringexperiencesthatshallmodifyfutureactivity,itcandolittlepositivelytoaidthedevelopmentofthelowestcentres;itcandomoretomodifythedevelopmentofthemiddlecentres;whilethehighestcentresofallareingreatpartorganisedastheresultofdirectindividualexperience.
Asregardsthesystemsofthelowestlevel,whatwehavethentoaimat
istoallowthemfreeroomforgrowth,andtocorrectasfaraspossiblefaultsdueeithertotheimperfectionsofnatureortotheunnaturalconditionsunderwhichthechildlives.Solongasthesesystemsareprovidedwithnutritionandallowedfreedominperformingtheirfunctions,weareunawareoftheirexistence.We,_e.g._,onlybecomeawarethatwepossessacirculatorysystemorarespiratoryoradigestivesystemwhenthefunctionalactivityoftheseorgansisimpeded.Theopinion,therefore,thatphysicalexercisehasforitschiefaimthesustainingandimprovingofthebodilyhealthisnodoubttrueandcorrect,butitisnottheonlyaim.Onthisviewweare
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consideringonlythelowestsystemofcentres,anddevisingmeansbywhichwemaymaintainandimprovetheirfunctionalactivity.Moreover,itisnecessarytoendeavourtosecurethefreedevelopmentofthesecentresandtheirunimpededfunctionalactivity,becauseotherwisethedevelopmentofthehighercentresishindered,andthewholenervoussystemrenderedunstableandinsecure.
Butawisesystemofphysicaleducationmusttakeintoaccountthefactthatacarefullyselectedandorganisedsystemofexercisescandomuchforthedevelopmentofthecentresofthemiddlelevelwhichhavetodowiththeproperco-ordinationofvariousbodilymovements.Theseareonlypartlyorganisedatbirth,andeducation--theacquiringandorganisingofexperiences--isnecessaryfortheirdueorganisationandtheiradaptationassystemsofmeansfortheattainmentofdefiniteends.Itisforthisreasonthatthebeginningoftheformaleducationofthechildattooearlyanageisphysiologicallyandpsychologicallyerroneous.Indoingthisweareneglectingthelowercentresatthetimewhenbynaturetheyarereachingtheirfullfunctionalactivity,andexercisingthehigherwhichareatanunripestageofdevelopment.Moreover,lowercentresnotexercisedduringtheperiodwhentheyareattainingtheirfulldevelopmentneverattainthesamefunctionaldevelopmentifexercisedlater.Hencethedifficultyofacquiringamanualdexteritylaterinlife.Again,itisonthistheoryoflowerandhighercentresmaturingatdifferentratesandattainingtheirfull
functionalactivityatdifferenttimesthatwenowbaseoureducationofthementallydefective.Wemustorganisethelowercentres;wemusteducatethementallydefectivechildtogetcontroloverthesealreadypartiallyorganisedcentres,beforewebegintoeducatethehigherandlessorganisedcentres.Moreover,itisonlyinsofaraswecansecurethisendthatwecanstablybuildupandorganisethehighercentresofthenervoussystem.Hencealsosuchqualitiesasalertnessinreceivingordersandpromptnessandaccuracyincarryingthemoutare,atfirst,bestlearnedthroughtheorganisingandtrainingofthecentresofthemiddlelevel.Whatwereallyendeavourtodohereistoorganiseandestablishsystemsofmeansfortheattainmentofdefiniteends,whichthroughtheirsystematicorganisationcanbebroughtintoactionwhenrequiredpromptlyandquickly,andoncearousedworkthemselvesoutwith
aminimumofeffortandwithalowdegreeofattention,sothattheirperformanceinvolvestheleastpossiblephysiologicalcost.
Fromthisthereaderwillunderstandthattheaimofphysicaleducationistheaimofalleducation,viz.,toacquireandorganiseexperiencesthatwillrenderfutureactionmoreefficient.
Moreover,theearlytrainingofthecentresofthemiddlelevelisimportantfortheaftertechnicaltrainingofourworkmen.Theboyorgirlwhohasneverbeeneducatedinearlylifetoco-ordinateandcarryoutbodilymovementspromptlyandaccuratelyisnotlikelytosucceedinafter-lifeinanyemploymentwhichrequiresthereadyandexactco-ordinationofmanymovementsfortheattainmentofadefiniteend.
Theproperphysicaleducationofthechildisthereforenecessaryforthesecuringoftheaftereconomicefficiencyoftheindividual,anditcanalsobythedevelopmentofcertainmentalandmoralqualitiesbemadeinstrumentalinthedevelopmentoftheethicallyefficientperson.
Wemustnowbrieflynotetwoothereducationalagencieswhichmaybeemployedinthesecuringofthephysicalandmentalefficiencyofthechild--playandgames.Psychologically,gamesstandmidwaybetweenplayandwork.Inplaywehaveaninheritedsystemofmeansevokedintoactivityandcarriedouttoanendforthepurepleasurederivedfrom
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theactivityitself.Suchsystemsatfirstareimperfectlyorganised,butthroughtheexperiencederivedthesystemsbecomemoreandbetteradaptedfortheattainmentoftheendswhichtheyareintendedtorealise.Ingames,ontheotherhand,theactivityisundertakenforanendonlypartiallyconnectedwiththemeansbywhichitisattained,whilstinworkthemeansmayhavenointrinsicconnectionwiththeenddesired.Hencetheeffortofadisagreeablenaturewhichworkoftenevokes.
Inanimalsfullyequippedatbirthbymeansofinstinctfortheperformanceofactionstheplay-activityisaltogetherabsent.Theirlivesarewhollybusiness-like.Ontheotherhand,inthehigheranimals,whoseyounghaveaperiodofinfancy,playisnature'sinstrumentofeducation.Bymeansofitthesystemsofthemiddlelevelwhichformthelargerpartofthebrainequipmentofthehigheranimalsaregraduallyorganisedandfittedfortheattainmentoftheendswhichinmaturelifetheyareintendedtorealise.Playistheireducation--isthemeansbywhichnatureworksinorderthatexperiencesmaybeacquiredandorganisedthatshallrenderfutureactionmoreefficient.Withoutthispower,"thehigheranimalscouldnotreachtheirfulldevelopment;thestimulusnecessaryforthegrowthoftheirbodiesandmindswouldbelacking."[28]
Playalsoisnature'sinstrumentintheeducationoftheyoungchild.
Thefirstandmostimportantpartofhiseducationisobtainedbythismeans,and,onthebasisthuslaid,mustallafter-educationbebuilt.Hencetheimportanceinearlylifeofallowingfullfreedomforthemanifestationofthisactivity.Hencealsotheverygreatimportanceofsecuringthatthechildrenofthepoorshouldbeprovidedwiththemeansofrealisingtheplayfulactivitiesoftheirnatureandofbeingstimulatedandencouragedtoplay.HenceoneaimoftheKindergartenSchoolistoutilisetheplay-activityofthechildinthedevelopmentofhisbodyandmind.[29]
Thethirdagencywhichwemayemployindevelopingthephysicalpowersofthechildisthatofgames.Games,however,arenotmerelyusefulasmeansfortheattainmentofthephysicaldevelopmentoftheboyorgirl;
theyalsomaybemadeinstrumentalinthecreationandfosteringofcertainmentalandmoralqualitiesofthegreatestafter-valuetothecommunity.NooneacquaintedwiththeimportantpartwhichgamesperforminthelifeofthePublicSchoolboycandoubttheirgreateducationalvalue.Bymeansofthemtheboyacquiresexperienceswhichinafter-lifetendtomakemoreefficientcertainclassesofactionsessentialforanycorporateorcommunallife.Intheplaying-fieldshelearnswhatitistobeamemberofacorporatebodywhosegoodandnottheattainmentofhisownprivateendsmustbethefirstconsideration.Throughthemediumofthegamesoftheschoolhemaygettoknowthemeaningofself-sacrifice,ofworkingwithhisfellowsforacommonendorpurpose,andofsinkinghisownindividualityforthesakeofhisside.Inadditionhelearnsthehabitsofreadyobediencetosuperiorknowledge
andability;tosubmittodiscipline;andtoundergofatigueforthecommongood.Iffoundworthy,hemaylearnhowtocommandaswellastoobey,tothinkoutmeansfortheattainmentofends,andtoknowandfeelthatthegoodnameoftheschoolrestsuponhisshoulders.Theseandotherqualitiessimilarincharactermaybecreatedandestablishedbymeansofthegamesoftheschool.Andjustastheutilisingoftheplay-instinctisnature'smethodofeducationinthefittingoftheyounganimalandtheyoungchildtoadaptitselfinthefuturetoitsphysicalenvironment,sowemaylaydownthatthegamesoftheschoolmaybelargelyutilisedassociety'smethodoffittingtheindividualto
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hisaftersocialenvironment,andintraininghimtounderstandthetruemeaningandtherealpurportofcorporatelife.
Onaccount,however,ofthevastsizeofmanyofourPublicElementarySchoolsandforotherreasons,suchasthelimitedplaygroundaccommodationinmanycasesandthewantofplaying-fields,organisedgamesplaybutasmallpartinthephysicalandmoraleducationofthechildrenattendingsuchschools.Butevenheremuchmoremightbedonethanisdoneatpresentbytheteachersintheplaygroundtoencouragethesimplerplaygroundgames,and"toreplacethedisorganisedroughandtumbleexerciseswhichcharacterisetheactivitiesofsomanyofourpoorerpopulationbysomeformoforganisedactivity."[30]Theaimlessparadingofourstreetsbythesonsanddaughtersoftheworkingandlowermiddleclassesintheirleisuretime,theroughhorseplayoftheyouthofthelowestclasses,aredueinlargemeasuretothefactthatduringtheschoolperiodtheyhavenotbeenhabituatedtotakepartwiththeirfellowsinanyformoforganisedactivity,haveneverrealisedwhatacorporatelifemeans,andasaconsequencearedevoidofanysocialinterests.
Oneotherquestionmustbebrieflyconsidered,viz.,Howfarshouldweinthephysicaleducationoftheyouthkeepinviewtheendofsecuringthemilitaryefficiencyofthenation?AsAdamSmithpointedout,thedefenceofanysocietyagainsttheviolenceandinvasionofother
independentsocietiesisthefirstdutyofthesovereign."Anindustrious,anduponthataccountawealthynationisofallnationsthemostlikelytobeattacked,andunlesstheStatetakessomemeasuresforthepublicdefence,thenaturalhabitsofthepeoplerenderthemaltogetherincapableofdefendingthemselves."[31]Hefurtherassertsthat"eventhoughthemartialspiritofthepeoplewereofnousetowardsthedefenceofthesociety,yettopreventthatsortofmentalmutilation,deformity,andwretchednesswhichcowardicenecessarilyinvolvesinit,fromspreadingthemselvesthroughthegreatbodyofthepeople,itwouldstilldeservethemostseriousattentionofGovernment."[32]
Onthesethreegrounds,then,thatthedefenceofthecountryisthe
firstdutyofeveryGovernmentandthereforethefirstdutyofeverycitizen,thatanationengagedincommercetendstorenderitselfunfittodefenditselfunlessmeansaredevisedtokeepalivethepatrioticspirit,andthatthekeepingaliveofthepatrioticspiritisusefulforthecultivationofcertainnecessarysocialqualities,wemaymaintainthatthemilitaryefficiencyoftheyouthshouldbeincludedamongsttheaimsofanynationalsystemofphysicaleducation.IftheemphasiswhichislaiduponthesecuringoftheaftermilitaryefficiencyoftheyouthofthenationoccupiestooprominentaplaceintheschemesofphysicaleducationofsomeContinentalcountries,weontheotherhandhavealmostwhollyneglectedthisaspectofthequestion.EveryencouragementthereforeshouldbegiventotheformationofcadetandriflecorpsintheSecondarySchoolsofthecountryandintheEveningContinuation
Schoolsattendedbythesonsoftheworkingclasses.Thetimewhensystematicinstructioninmilitaryexercisesandintheuseofarmsshallformpartofeveryyouth'seducationhasnotyetarrived,butthenecessityforsomesuchsteploomsalreadyonthehorizon.
FOOTNOTES:
[24]Locke's_ThoughtsonEducation_.
[25]Bowen'sFroebel(GreatEducatorSeries),p.48.
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[26]Cf.chap.ii.
[27]Cf.MacDougall's_PhysiologicalPsychology_(Dent);_also_SirJamesCrichtonBrowne'sarticleon"EducationandtheNervousSystem,"inCassell's_BookofHealth_.
[28]_PrinciplesofHeredity_,ibid.p.242.
[29]Cf.nextchapter.
[30]_SuggestionsfortheConsiderationofTeachers_(EnglishBoardofEducation),chapteronPhysicalEducation.
[31]AdamSmith,_WealthofNations_,p.292.
[32]_Ibid._p.329.
CHAPTERX
THEAIMOFTHEINFANTSCHOOL
Itisneedlesstopointoutthatthemethodofeducatingtheinfantmindisthemethodofalleducation--viz.,theregulationoftheprocessbywhichexperiencesareacquiredandorganisedsoastorendertheperformanceoffutureactionmoreefficient.This,asweshallseelater,isthefundamentaltruthatthefoundationoftheKindergartenmethodofFroebel,anditmustguideandcontrolourconductnotonlyduringtheearlierstagesbutthroughoutthewholeprocessofeducation.
Moreover,sincetheearlyacquisitionsofthechildarethebasesuponwhichallfurtherknowledgeandpracticearefounded,wemustrealisehowimportantthesefirstexperiencesareforthewholefuture
developmentofthechild.Further,wehaveseenthatalleducation--allacquiringandorganisingofexperienceinearlylife--mustbemotivedbythefeltdesiretosatisfysomeinstinctiveneedofthechild'snature,andthatitistheseinstinctiveneedswhichdeterminethenatureandscopeofhisearlyactivities.
Later,indeed,acquiredinterestsmaybegraftedupontheinnateandinstinctiveneeds,butatthebeginningandduringhisfirstyearsthechild'swholelifeisdeterminedbytheprimitivedesiresofhumannature.
Now,thefirstinstinctiveneedwhichrequirestheaidofeducationistheneedfeltbythechildtoacquiresomemeasureofcontroloverhis
bodilymovementsandoverthethingsinhisimmediatephysicalenvironment.Hencethefirststageineducationistheregulationoftheprocessbywhichthechildacquiresandorganisesthoseexperienceswhichshallgivehimthiscontrol.Natureherselfindeedprovidesthemeansfortheattainmentofthisend,buteducationcandomuchtoaidintheattainmentandtoshortentheperiodofincompleteattainment.Bymeansoftheassistancegiven,thecontrolexercisedandthedirectionafforded,weenablethechildtoorganisethelowercentresofthenervoussystemwhichhavetodowiththecontrolofthelargerbodilymovements,andthusestablishorganisedsystemsofmeansforthe
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attainmentofcertaindefiniteends.
Thesecondstagesuperveneswhentheneedisfeltbythechildforsomemeasureofcontroloverhissocialenvironment.Fortheyoungchildsoonrealisesthatitisonlyinsofarashecanexertsomeinfluenceoverthepersonsintimatelyconnectedwithhiswelfarethathecanmakehiswantsknownandfindmeansforthesatisfactionofhisdesires.Hencearisestheneedforsomemethodofcommunicationwithhisfellows,andfromthisspringsthedesireforsomesystemofsignsandforalanguagetoenablehimtomakehiswantsknown.Chieflybymeansoftheeducativeprocessofimitatingtheexperiencesofothers,hegraduallyacquiresalanguageandfindshimselfathomeinhissocialworld.
Duringthisperiodthecentrescalledintoactivity,developed,andorganisedaremainlythoseconnectedwiththelipandspeechcentres,andacertainstageoforganisationhavingbeenattained,theopportunityisnowaffordedforthefullerfunctionaldevelopmentofthehighercentresentrustedwiththedutyofreceiving,discriminating,andco-ordinatingthedataofthespecialorgansofsense.
Theperiodduringwhichthechildisgraduallyacquiringcontroloverhisimmediatephysicalandsocialenvironmentsmayroughlybesaidtoextendtotheendofhisthirdyear.
Fromthattimeonwardstheworldsofnatureandofsocietyfortheirownsakebecomeobjectsofcuriositytothechild.Everynewobjectpresentshimwithavarietyoffreshsensations.Hefeels,tastes,andbiteseverythingthatcomeswithinhisreach,andsoacquiresaworldofnewexperiences.Hencefor"thefirstsixyearsofhislifeachildhasquiteenoughtodoinlearningitsplaceintheuniverseandthenatureofitssurroundings,andtocompelitduringanypartofthatperiodtogiveitsattentiontomerewordsandsymbolsistostintitofthebestpartofitseducationforthatwhichisonlyofsecondaryimportance,andtoweakenthefoundationsofitswholementalfabric."[33]
If,then,duringthisperiodthechildisleftwhollytogatherhisexperiencesashemay,henodoubtacquiresbyhisownself-activitya
worldofnewideas,buttheresultofthisunregulatedprocesswillbethattheknowledgegainedwillbelargelyunsystematised,andmuchoftheexperienceacquiredmaybeofanaturewhichmaygiveafalsedirectiontohiswholeafter-development.Hencearisethreeneeds.Inthefirstplace,wemustendeavourtoseethatnewexperiencesarepresentedtothechildinsomesystematicmanner,inorderthattheknowledgemaybesoorganisedthatitmayserveasmeanstotheattainmentofends,andsorenderfutureactivitymoreaccurateandmoreefficient.Inthesecondplace,wemustendeavourtopreventtheacquisitionofexperienceswhichifallowedtobeorganisedwouldgiveanimmoraldirectiontoconduct;andinthethirdplace,wemustendeavourtoestablishearlyinthemindofthechildorganisedsystemsofmeanswhichmayhereafterresultintheprevalenceofactivities
sociallyusefultothecommunity.
Now,thesethreeaimsareorshouldbetheaimsoftheKindergartenSchool,andweshallnowinquireintotheendswhichtheKindergartenSchoolsetsbeforeit,andforthispurposeweshallstatethefundamentalprincipleswhichFroebelhimselflaiddownastheguidingprinciplesofthisstageofeducation.
OnitsintellectualsidetheKindergartenasconceivedbyFroebelhasfourdistinctaimsinview.Thefirstaimisbymeansofcomparingand
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contrastingaseriesofobjectspresentedinsomeregularandsystematicmannertoleadthechildtonotethelikenessesanddifferencesbetweenthethings,andsothroughandbymeansofhisownself-activitytobuildupcoherentandconnectedsystemsofideas.Bythismethodtheteacherbuildsupinthemindoftheyoungchildsystemsofideasregardingthecolours,forms,andothersensequalitiesofthemorecommonobjectsofhisenvironment.Thesecondaimisbymeansofsomeformofconcreteconstructiontogiveexpressiontotheknowledgesogained,tomakethisknowledgemoreaccurateanddefinite,andthusbyadialecticalreturntomaketheexperiencesofthechilddefiniteandaccurate,soastorenderfutureactionmoreefficient,andthuspavethewayforfurtherprogress.Thethirdaimistoutilisetheplay-activityofthechildintheacquisitionofnewexperiencesandintheiroutwardconcreteexpression.Thefourthistoengagethechildintheproductionofsomethingsociallyuseful,somethingwhichengageshisgenuinework-activity.Inshort,whatFroebelclearlyrealisedwasthatthemeretakinginofnewexperiencesbythechildmindinanyorderwasnotsufficient.Experiencestobeusefulforefficientactionmustbeassimilated--mustbeorganisedintoasystem--andinorderthatthismaybepossibletheexperiencesmustbepresentedinsuchamanneraswillrenderthemcapableofbeingorganised.Moreover,thismeretakinginofnewexperiencesisnotenough.Theremustbeagivingoutorexpressionoftheknowledgeacquired,foritisonlyinsofaraswecanturntousenewexperiencesthatwecanbesurethattheyarereallyours.Now,
sincetheformsofexpressionnaturaltotheyoungchildarethosewhichevokehispracticalconstructiveefforts,alloutwardexpressioninitsearlierstagesmustassumeaconcreteform.Theaimoftheso-called"Gifts"inFroebel'sschemeistobuildupanorganisedsystemofsense-knowledge;theaimofthe"Occupations"oftheKindergartenistodevelopthepowerofconcreteexpressionofthechild.The"Gifts"andthe"Occupations"arecorrelativemethods,--theoneconcernedwiththetakingin,theotherwiththeoutwardexpressionofthesameexperience,--andthroughouteitheraspectoftheprocessthereason-activityofthechildmustbeevokedbothintheacquisitionandintheexpressionofthenewexperience.Physiologically,thistwofoldprocessimpliesthatduringtheKindergartenperiodthesensoryareasofthebrainarebeingexercisedandorganisedandthattheassociative
activityevokedisconcernedwiththeco-ordinationoftheimpressionsderivedthroughtheseareas.Psychologically,itimpliesthatduringthisperiodwearemainlyconcernedwiththeformationofperceptualsystemsofknowledgecomposedofdataderivedthroughthespecialsensesandthroughtheactivemovementsofthehandsandlimbs.Suchaprocess,moreover,isanecessarypreliminaryforthefullafter-developmentofthehigherassociationcentresofthebrainandfortheformationbythemindofconceptualsystemsofknowledge.
Forifweattemptprematurelytoexercisethehighercentresbeforethelowerhavereachedacertainmeasureofdevelopment,ifweattempttoformconceptualsystemsofknowledge,suchasalllanguageandnumbersystemsare,withoutfirstlayingasoundperceptualbasis,thenwemay
domuchtohinderfuturementalgrowth,ifwedonoteveninflictapositiveinjurytothechild.Fortheeducationofthesensesneglected,"allafter-educationpartakesofadrowsiness,ahaziness,andaninsufficiencywhichitisimpossibletocure."[34]
OnitsmoralandsocialsidetheaimsoftheKindergartenSchoolarenolessimportant.Iflefttofollowthenaiveinstinctiveneedsofhisnatureandtogatherexperienceswhereandhowhemay,thechildislikelytomakeacquisitionswhichlatermayissueinwrongconduct.HenceoneaimoftheKindergartenistopresentexperienceswhichmay
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eventuallyissueinrightconduct,andtopreventtheacquisitionofexperiencesofanimmoralkind.Hencealsoitsinsistenceupontheneedofcarefullyselectingtheenvironmentoftheyoungchild,sothatasfaraspossibleitsearlyexperiences--itsfirstacquisitions--shallbeofahealthynature.Moreover,bymeansoftheorganisedactivitiesoftheschool,andbyutilisingtheplay-instinctofthechild,itseekstoformandestablishcertainhabitsoffuturesocialworthtothecommunityandtotheindividual.For,bymeansofthegamesandoccupationsoftheKindergartenSchool,thechildmayfirstofalllearnwhatitmeanstoco-operatewithhisfellowsforacommonendorpurpose;maylearntosubmittoauthoritywhichhedimlyandimperfectly,itmaybe,perceivestobereasonable;maybetrainedtohabitsofaccuracy,oforder,andofobedience.Aboveall,theKindergartensystemmayrouseandfosterinthemindofthechildthatsenseofacorporatelifeandofacommonsocialspirittheprevalenceofwhichinafter-lifeistheonlysecurefoundationofsociety.
InEnglandtheextremeimportanceoftheeducationoftheinfantmindhasbeen,inrecentyears,clearlyacknowledged.ThenewregulationsoftheBoardofEducationnolongerallowchildrenunderfiveyearsofagetobeincludedas"anintegralpartofathree-Rgrant-earningElementarySchool."Aspecialcurriculumhasbeensetforthfortheireducation.Theyaretohaveopportunitiesprovided"forthefreedevelopmentoftheirbodiesandmindsandfortheformationofhabitsof
obedienceandattention."[35]Whatareknownas"KindergartenOccupationsarenotmerelypleasantpastimesforchildren:ifsoregarded,theyarenotintelligentlyusedbytheteacher.Theirpurposeistostimulateintelligentindividualeffort,tofurnishtrainingofthesensesofsightandtouch,topromoteaccurateco-ordinationofhandmovementswithsenseimpressions,and,notleastimportant,toimplantahabitofobedience."
"Formalteaching,evenbymeansofKindergartenOccupations,isundesirableforchildrenunderfive.Atthisstageitissufficienttogivethechildopportunitytousehissensesfreely.Toattemptformalteachingwillalmostinevitablymean,withsomeofthechildren,eitherrestraintorover-stimulation,withconstantdangertomentalgrowthand
health."[36]
Fromtheseextractsfromthe_SuggestionsfortheConsiderationofTeachers_oftheHeadoftheEnglishBoardofEducation,itwillbeevidentthatthespiritofthe"Kindergarten"nowlargelyentersintothecurriculumoftheinfantclasses.Inthefuturewemayhopetoseeitcarriedfurtherandthatnoformalteachingofthechildwillbeundertakenduringthefirstsixyearsofhislife.Further,wemayhopetoseeinthefuturetheinfantdepartmentsofourschoolsmorethoroughlyorganisedthantheyareatpresentontheKindergartenprinciple,andthecurriculumoftheInfantSchoolsodevisedthatitshallfitintoandpavethewayforthecurriculumoftheElementarySchool.Forattheearlierstagemuchmaybedonebythemethodsofthe
Kindergartentolaythebasisfortheteachingoftheartsofreading,writing,andarithmeticwhichitisthemainbusinessofthePrimarySchooltoleadthechildtoacquire._E.g._,attheearlierstage,bythebreakingupandreconstructingofconcretegroupsofthings,thechildcanbeinitiatedintothemeaningofanumbersystem.Bymeansofpicturesandofconcreteformshecanbemadegraduallyacquaintedwithalphabeticforms,andthisteachinglaysthebasisforthefutureacquisitionoftheabstractsymbolsofprintedandwrittenwords.
ButwhilemuchhasbeendoneinEnglandtorecognisetheimportanceof
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theearlyeducationofthechildfortheaftermoralandsocialgoodbothoftheindividualandofthecommunity,andtoplacetheinstructionoftheinfantclassesinthePublicElementarySchoolsuponarationalbasis,littleattentionhasbeenpaidinScotlandtothissubject.Asarule,childreninthatcountrydonotenterschoolbeforetheageoffive,andthereisnoseparateprovisionmadefortheteachingofchildrenunderthatage;infact,allscholarsundersevenyearsofageareclassifiedtogetherandformtheJuniorDivisionoftheschool.
SuchastateofmattersreflectsbutlittlecreditontheeducationalleadersofScotland,andindicatesanimperfectconceptionoftherealnatureoftheeducativeprocess.Forifeducationistheprocessofacquiringandorganisingexperiencesinordertorenderfutureactionmoreefficient,itissurelytheheightoffollytoallowtheyoungchildtogatherhisearlyexperiencesashemay.Moreover,inthecaseofthechildrenoftheslums,toallowthemduringtheirearlyyearstogatherintotheirbrainwithoutanycorrectingagency"allthesightsandscenesofaslumissheersocialmadness.""Thechildmustberemoved,orpartiallyremoved,fromsuchanatmosphere,sinceithasreachedtheimitativestage,andisnearingtheselectivestageoflife.Forthemomentheimitatesanything;presentlyhewillimitatewhatpleaseshim,whatgiveshimmomentarypleasure.Beforetheunmoralselectivestageisreached,thestagewhichinevitablyprecedesthe
moralandimmoralselectivestage,itisessentialthatchildrenshouldreceivedefiniteanddeliberateguidance,thattheimitativefacultyshouldbecontrolled."[37]InthecaseofthechildrenofthepoorerdistrictsthiscanbedoneonlythroughtheagencyoftheInfantSchool.Muchmaybedonebymakingtheinstructionoftheschoolattractive,tocounteracttheevilinfluencesofthehomeandsocialenvironment,andtoleadthechildtoacquireandorganiseexperienceswhichwillissueinmoralandnotinimmoralconduct.
HencewhatweneedinthepoorerdistrictsofourlargetownsisFreeKindergartenSchoolsfromwhichallformalteachingofthethreeR'sisabolished,whereforseveralhoursineachdaythechildmaybetrainedtousehissensesintheaccuratediscriminationandaccurate
systematisationofsenseknowledge;wherehemayhavehisconstructiveactivitiesevokedbytheexpressioninconcreteformofwhathehasbeenledtoperceivethroughthemediumofthesenses;wherehemaybetrainedtohabitsoforder,ofcleanliness,ofsubmissiontoauthority;andwhereforatime,atleast,hemaybeaccustomedtoliveinapurerandhealthieratmospherethanhecanfindathomeorinthestreet,andwhereforabriefspacehemayhavethatfeelingofhomewhichhecannotfindathome.[38]
TheestablishmentinthepoorerdistrictsofourgreattownsofschoolswhoseeducationfollowsthemethodoftheKindergartenifaccompaniedbysomesystemoffeedingthechildwoulddomuchtosecuretheaftersocialefficiencyoftherisinggeneration,andwouldbyitsreactionon
thehome-lifetendgraduallytoraisetheidealsoftheverypoor.
FOOTNOTES:
[33]_TheNervousSystemandEducation_,bySirJamesCrichtonBrowne, _ibid._p.345.
[34]_TheNervousSystemandEducation_,bySirJamesCrichtonBrowne, _ibid._p.345.
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[35]Cf.onthissubjectthechapteron"SchoolNurseries"in_NationalEducationandNationalLife_,ibid.
[36]_SuggestionsfortheConsiderationofTeachers_,chap.iii.(issuedbytheEnglishBoardofEducation).
[37]Montmorency's_NationalEducationandNationalLife_,ibid.p.143.Thechapteron"SchoolNurseries"shouldbereadbyeveryone,andespeciallybyeveryScotsmaninterestedintheeducationofyoungchildren.
[38]Cf.CharlesLamb'sEssayon_PopularFallacies_.
CHAPTERXI
THEAIMOFTHEPRIMARYSCHOOL
DuringthepastthirtyyearsnopartofoureducationalsystemhasreceivedsomuchattentionastheElementarySchoolsofthecountry.Ifwecomparetheconditionofthingswhichprevailsatthepresenttime
withthatwhichexistedpreviousto1870,therecanbenodoubtthatagreatadvancehasbeenmadebothinthebetterprovisionofthemeansofeducationandintheefficiencyoftheinstructiongiven.Previousto1870alargenumberofthechildrenofthepoorreceivednoeducation.[39]Ofthoseattendingschoolmanyleftwithbutascantyknowledge.Nowpracticallyeverychild[40]receivesatrainingintheprimaryartsofreading,writing,andarithmetic;andwiththegradualextensionoftheperiodduringwhichthechildmustattendschool,ithasbecomepossibletoensurethatalargerandlargernumberofchildrenleavingourElementarySchoolshavereceivedaneducationwhichmaybeofvaluefortheafter-fulfilmentofthesimplerpracticalendsoflife.Again,previousto1870theschoolbuildingswereinmanycasesunfitfortheirpurpose;nowtheElementarySchoolsofthecountryboth
intheirbuildingarrangementsandequipmentareasarulemuchsuperiortothevoluntaryandendowedschoolsprovidingsecondaryeducation.Previousto1870anyonewasthoughtgoodenoughtoundertaketheworkofteaching;sincethattimemoreandmoreattentionhasbeenpaidtothequalificationsoftheteacherandtosecuringthatheshallhaveattainedacertainstandardofeducation,andhavereceivedacertainmeasureoftrainingbeforeengagingupontheworkoftheinstructionoftheyoung.We,_e.g._,nolongerentrusttheinstructionoftheyoungerchildrenintheschooltotheolder,aswasthecustomunderthemonitorialsystemofBellandLancaster,andwiththeabolitionofthepupil-teacherthelastremnantofasystemintroducedatthebeginningofthenineteenthcentury,astheonlyremedytomeetthedireeducationalnecessitiesofthetime,willhavebeenremoved.
Butinspiteofthegreatadvanceswhichhavebeenmade,thereisadeep-seatedfeelingnowbeginningtofindexpression,thatsomehoworothertheElementarySchoolhasnotrealisedalltheexpectationsthatwereoncethoughtlikelytoresultfromtheuniversaleducationofthechildrenofthenation,andthatinparticularthePrimarySchoolhasfailedtofosterandtoestablishthemoralandsocialqualitiesnecessaryforthewelfareofaStatewhosegovernmentisfoundedontherepresentativeprinciple.
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This,itseemstome,islargelyduetothewrongconceptionoftheaimswhichthePrimarySchoolisintendedtorealise--aconceptionwhichprevailedformanyyearsaftertheintroductionofcompulsoryelementaryeducation.Forsometimenow,andespeciallyduringthepastfewyears,acounter-reactionhassetinagainstthenarrownessoftheaimsoftheprecedingperiod,andlikeallreactionsittendstogototheoppositeextreme,andsotobroadentheaimsofthePrimarySchoolastobeindangeroffailingtorealiseefficientlyanyoneoftheendswhichitsetsbeforeit.
Thestateofthingsimmediatelypreceding1870notunnaturallygaverisetotheideathattheacquisitionoftheartsofreading,writing,andarithmeticwastheoneindispensableobjecttobeattainedintheelementaryeducationofthechild.ThisconvictionwasstrengthenedbythesystemofGovernmentgrantsintroducedintobothEnglishandScotchschools,paymentstoschoolmanagersbeinglargelybaseduponthesuccessesobtainedinpassesinthethreeelementarysubjects.
Certainresultsnaturallyfollowed.Inthefirstplace,noprovisionwasmadeforthespecialeducationoftheinfantclasses.Sincetheafter-successofthechildwasmeasuredbyhisattainmentsinthethreeR's,thesoonertheinfantmindwasintroducedtothesesubjectsthebettertheafter-resultmightbeexpectedtobe.Thusthegrant-earningcapacityofthechildbecametheteacher'schiefconsideration.Inthe
secondplace,theenergiesoftheteacherweredirectedtosecureacertainmechanicalaccuracyintheuseofthethreeelementaryartsratherthantheirintelligentapprehension.Asaconsequence,thesesubjectscameintimetobethoughtofassubjectsworthyofattainmentfortheirownsakeandtheiracquisitionasanendinitself.Henceitwasforgottenthattheacquisitionandorganisationofthesesystemsofelementaryknowledgeareonlyvaluablebecausetheyaretheindispensablemeansofallintercourse,ofallcommerce,andofallculture.Hencealsotheiruseasinstrumentsfortheafter-realisationofmanypurposesinlifetendedtobeneglected,oratleasttofallintothebackground.Individualteachers,nodoubt,inmanycasesrealisedthepartialerrorinthisconceptionoftheaimsofthePrimarySchool,butthedemandsofGovernmentinspectorsandofschool
authorities,withtheirrule-of-thumbmethodsoftestingthesuccessoftheteacher'sworkbythepercentageofpassesgained,tendedoftentomaketheteacher,inspiteofhisbetterjudgment,lookuponthechildmainlyasathree-Rgrant-earningsubjectandtoconsiderthechiefaimofprimaryeducationtobethesecuringofacertainmechanicalproficiencyintheuseofthethreeelementaryarts.
Undersuchamethodofexaminationitwascertainlynecessaryfortheteachertopaysomeattentiontotheindividualityofthechild.Ifhiseffortsweretobeatallsuccessfulitwasincumbentuponhimtodiscoverasearlyaspossibletherangeofthechild'spreviousknowledgeinthethreegrant-earningsubjectsandtofindoutinwhichofthethreethepowerofacquisitionofthechildwasnaturallyweakor
naturallystrong.Wherethenumberofchildreninaclasswaslarge,littleindividualattentioncould,ofcourse,bepaidtothechild,andinsuchcasestheacquisitionofthesubjectwasaidedbythemechanicaldrillingofsectionsoftheclassandbyrecoursetoallmannerofdevicesforensuringtheaccurateacquisitionoftheessentialsubjects.
Asaresultofthispartialandone-sidedconceptionlittleattentionwaspaidtotheusetowhichthesesubjectsmaybeputintherealisationofthepracticalendsoflife.Arithmetic,_e.g._,seemedtothechildtobemadeupofanumberofkindsofarithmetic,eachprocess
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havingitsownrulesandmethodsofprocedure;butitneverenteredintohismind,andbutseldomintothatofhisteacher,thatthevariousarithmeticalprocessesareatbottombutdiverseformsoftheonefundamentalprocessofaddingtoorsubtractingfromagroup.Proportionwasonekindofarithmetic,simpleinterestanother,butthattheseprocessessymbolisedrealgroup-formingprocesses,orthattheyhadtodowithanyoftherealitiesoflife,wasapprehended,ifatall,inthemostimperfectandhazymanner.
Inasimilarmanner,theovercomingofthemechanicaldifficultiesoflanguageconstructionoccupiedthemajorportionoftheattentionofthechildduringtheschoolperiod,andthefunctionoflanguageinconveyingaknowledgeofthingsandpersonsandeventsreceivedbutasmallshareofhisattention.Meaningsofwordswereindeedtabulatedandlearntbyheart,andasarulethechildonexamination-daycouldmakeafairshowindeludingtheinspectorthatthepassagereadwasintelligentlyapprehended.Inverymuchthesameway,theovercomingofthemechanicaldifficultiesofwritingandthedrillingofthechildtoformhislettersinauniformstylereceivedthechiefshareoftheschool-timedevotedtothesubject.
Theinterestandattentionofthechildhavingbeenthusmainlyoccupiedintheovercomingofthemechanicaldifficultiesinvolvedinthelearningofthethreegrant-earningsubjects,andlittleattention
havingbeenpaidtotheuseofthesearts,itfollowedthatupontheconclusionoftheschoolperiodthechildlefttheschoolwithoutanyrealinterestshavingbeenestablishedastheresultoftheeducativeprocess.
Moreover,exceptinsofarasbytheirteachingwemayestablishhabitsoforderandofaccuracy,thethreeelementarysubjectsinthemselvespossessnomoralorsocialintent;henceunlesswecanmakethechildrealisetheirvalueasinstrumentsfortheattainmentofendsofsocialworththeyinthemselvesfailtoplayanyimportantpartinthebuildingupofcharacter.
Letmeputthisinanotherway.Wehavedefinededucationastheprocess
ofacquiringandsystematisingexperiencesthatwillrenderfutureactionmoreefficient,oralternativelyitistheprocessbywhichweorganiseandestablishinthemindsystemsofideasfortheattainmentofends.Butifwemaketheacquisitionoftheseelementaryartsendsinthemselves,thenitfollowsthatthemoreefficientactionweseektorealiseisthemoreefficientmanipulationofanumbersystemoralanguagesystem.If,however,werealisethattheseartsarebutmeanstotherealisationofotherends,thenweshallunderstandthatitisthecharacterofthelatterwhichmainlydeterminestheresultingcharacteroftheeducationgiven.
Partlytothiserroneousconceptionoftherealfunctionoftheelementaryarts,andpartlytoanothercausewhichweshallmention
later,maybeattributedthepoorresultswhichourElementarySchoolsystemhasattainedintheestablishmentofinterestsofmoralandsocialworth.If,moreover,werealisehowlargeaproportionofthechildrenleftandstilldoleaveschoolatanearlyage,beforesuchinterestscanbepermanentlyestablished,andinsomecaseswithanythingbutanadequateknowledgeoftheelementaryartsnecessaryforallfurtherprogress,wemayratherbeastonishedthatsomuchhasbeendonethansolittle.
Butinthereactionagainstthenarrownessandformalismofourearly
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aimsinelementaryeducation,thereisatendency--astrongtendency--atthepresenttimetogototheoppositeextreme,andtomaketheelementaryinstrumentalartsthevehiclesforthefosteringofrealinterestsattooearlyastage.Thismanifestsitselfontheonehandinthedesiretomakeallinstructioninterestingtothechild,andontheothertointroducethechildprematurelytoaknowledgeoftherealconditionsoflife,beforehecanhaveanyintelligentunderstandingoftheseconditions.Fromthebarrennessandformalismoftheearlierperiod,wenowhavethedemandmadethattheschoolshouldthroughouttakeintoaccounttherealandpracticalnecessitiesoflife.
Theformertendency--thetendencytomakeeverythinginterestingtothechildbylesseningorminimisingthemechanicaldifficultiesandbyendeavouringineverywaytoincitethechildtobecomeinterestedinthecontentofthelesson--isbestexemplifiedbythecharacteroftheschoolbookswhichwenowplaceinthehandsofourchildren.Thelattertendency--thetendencytotheprematureuseoftheelementaryarts--isexemplifiedbythecravingtomakeourteachingofarithmeticpracticalandrealfromtheverybeginning.
Intheformercase,insteadofendeavouringtomaketheprocessoflanguageconstructioninterestinginitself,wedivertthechild'sattentionfromtheacquiringandorganisingofthesystemoflanguageformstotheprematureacquirementofthecontentoflanguage.What
resultsisobvious:themaininterestbeinginthecontent,theinterestinthemechanicalconstructionoftheformsuffers,andasaconsequencethechildneverattainsafullmasteryovertheinstrumentalart.
Inthelattercaseweattempttodotwothingsatthesametimeinourteachingofarithmetic.Ineveryconcreteapplicationofarithmetictherearetwointerestsinvolved:inthefirstplace,thereisthenumberinterest--theinterestintheanalysingandrecombiningofagroup,undertakenforthesakeofthereconstructionitself;inthesecondplace,thereisthebusinessorrealinterest,whichthenumberinterestindeedsubserves,butthetwointerestsareinnocaseidentical.Ifweattempttoteachthetwotogether,weasaruleteach
bothbadly.Thepupilwillhavebutahazyideaofthebusinessrelation,andwillruntheriskofimperfectlyorganisingthepurenumbersystem.Henceallkindsofimpossibleproblemsmaybegiventothechildwithoutraisinganysuspicionoferrorinhismind,andsuchcasesfurnishcertainevidencethatthebusinessrelationdoesnotreallyconcernhim,butthathiswholeattentionisengagedwiththepurelyconstructiveaspectofnumber.Anotherexampleofthesameerrorofconfoundingtwoseparatethingsisthe"blindmixturewemakeofarithmeticandmeasuring."Becausearithmeticisinvolvedinallmeasuringweassumethatwhenthechildcanaddtogetherfeetandinches,thereforehehasacompleteknowledgeofthesespatialmagnitudes.Butmanifestly,ifspatialmagnitudeistobetaughtintelligently,itmustatfirstbetaughtindependentlyofthenumber
relation,whichisageneralsysteminstrumentalintherealisationofmanyconcreteinterests.
Fromtheseconsiderations,certaingeneralresultsfollow.Ontheonehand,theearlierconceptionoftheaimofthePrimarySchoolasbeingmainlyconcernedwiththeacquirementandorganisationofthethreeelementaryartsasendsinthemselvesmustbecondemned.Languageandnumbersystemsaremeanstotherealisationofcertainconcreteendsofafter-life,andtheschoolduringthelaterstagesofeducationmustendeavourtoleadthechildtoperceivehowthesesystemsmaybe
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utilisedinthefurtheranceoftheserealconcreteinterests.Ontheotherhand,theattempttocombineprematurelythesetwoaimswillresultintheimperfectattainmentofboth.Duringtheearlierstagesofeducationthemaininterestmustbeintheconstructionforitsownsakeofthelanguagesystemorthenumbersystem,andwhiletherealinterestmaybeintroduceditmustalwaysbekeptsubsidiarytothemaininterest--mustfirstofallbetaughtforitsownsake,andtheinstrumentalartonlyusedforitsfurtheranceinsofarastheacquirementoftheformerisnotobstructed._E.g._,theplacingofgeographyandhistoryReadersinthehandsofthechildwhileheisstillstrugglingwiththedifficultiesoflanguageconstructioncanonlyresultinthehistoryandgeographybeingimperfectlyunderstoodandtheorganisationofthelanguagesystembeingdelayedandhindered.
Oncetheelementaryandsubsidiarysystemshavebeenfairlywellorganisedandestablished,theirfunctionasmeansforthefurtheranceofrealinterestsshouldoccupyalargershareofthechild'sattentionandofthetimeoftheschool.Theserealinterests,however,mustineverycaseandateverystagebetaughtatfirstfortheirownsake,andthereaftertheirrelationtotheinstrumentalartexplainedandapplied.Gradually,astheybecomebetterorganisedandmorefirmlyestablished,theelementaryartsoccupyasmallerandsmallershareofattention,untilfinallytheyfunctionautomatically,andthewholeattentioncanbedirectedtothefurtheranceoftherealintereststowhichthe
elementaryartsaretheindispensablemeans.Hencewenotethreestagesintheelementaryeducationofthechild--thestageprecedingtheformalinstructionintheelementaryarts;thestageinwhichtheformalinstructionshouldpredominateandreceivethegreatershareofthechild'sattention;thestageinwhichtheelementarysystemshavingbeeningreatmeasureorganisedandestablished,theymaybeutilisedasmeanstothefurtheranceoftherealinterests.ThefirststagecorrespondstotheInfantorKindergartenage:herethemainobjectistobuildupinthemindofthechildsystemsofideasaboutthethingsofhisenvironment;toextend,byconversationandbyreadingtothechild,thevocabularyofhisownlanguage;togivehimpracticeinthecombiningandrecombiningof
concretegroupsofthings,andtointroducehimtoaknowledgeofthevariouslanguageformsinaconcreteshape.
Inthesecondstage,andheretheworkofthePrimarySchoolbegins,themainemphasisatthebeginningmustbelaidontheacquirementandestablishmentofthelanguageandnumbersystemsfortheirownsake.Ifrightmethodsarefollowed,thechildcanbeinterestedintheseprocessesofconstructionwithouttheneedofcallingintouseateverypointsomerealinterest.Intheconcludingstagetheuseoftheseinstrumentsasmeanstotherealisationofthesimplerpracticalendsoflifeshouldreceivemoreattention.
Onereason,then,forthepoormoralandsocialresultseffectedinthe
pastbyourElementarySchoolsystemhasbeentheundueemphasisplacedupontheacquisitionofthemerelyformalartstotheneglectoftherealintereststowhichtheformerarebutthemeans.Anothercause,however,hasbeenoperativeinproducingthisnegativeresult.IntheElementarySchools,inthepast,littleattentionhasbeenpaidtotheindividualityofthechild,andlittleheedgiventothedifferencesbetweenchildrenasregardstheirdifferentratesofintellectualgrowthandtheirdifferingaptitudesforvariousbranchesofstudy.Underasystemofclassificationwhichcompelledeachindividual,whetherintellectuallywellormoderatelyorpoorlyequipped,toadvanceatan
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CHAPTERXII
THEAIMOFTHESECONDARYSCHOOL
WehaveseenthatonitsintellectualsidethePrimarySchoolhastwomainfunctionstoperformintheeducationofthechild.Inthefirstplace,theschoolmustendeavourtosecurethattheelementaryartsofreading,writing,andarithmeticarewellorganisedandwellestablishedinthemindofthechild.Themoreeffectivelythelanguageandnumbersystemsareorganisedandestablishedthemoreefficientlywilltheyfunctionintheperformanceoffutureaction.Moreover,itisonlywhentheyhavebecomesoorganisedastofunctionautomaticallythattheyreachtheirhighestefficiencyasinstrumentsforthefurtherextensionofknowledgeorofpractice.
Inthesecondplace,thePrimarySchoolmusttrainthepupiltotheuseofthesesystemsasinstrumentsfortherealisationofotherandconcreteendsorinterests._E.g._,thenumbersystemmaybeusedinthefurtheranceofthemeasuringinterest,theweighinginterest,andsoon.Thetwodangerswehavetoavoidareontheonehandthebarrenformalismoftreatingtheacquisitionoftheseartsasendsin
themselves,andontheotherofsupposingthattherealinterestscanbeintelligentlyunderstoodmerelythroughtheinstrumentalityoftheelementaryartsandthattheydonotrequireindependenttreatmentofthemselves.
IfthechildisdestinedtogonofartherthantheElementarySchoolstage,thenatleasttheconcludingyearoftheschoolshouldbemainlydevotedtotraininghimtotheuseoftheprimaryinstrumentalartsintheestablishmentofsystemsofknowledgenecessaryfortherealisationofthesimplerpracticalendsoflife.
If,however,thechildisselectedforacourseofhighereducation,theeducativeprocessbecomesdifferentinnature.Inthefirst-namedcase
wearecontenttogivethechildpracticeintheapplicationofanalreadyestablishedsystemtoconcreteproblems.Inthesecondcaseweendeavour,usingtheelementarysystemsasmeans,toestablishothersystemsofknowledgeasmeanstotheattainmentofstillfurtherends.Wemay,_e.g._,onthebasisofthevernacularlanguagebuildupaforeignlanguagesystemasameanseithertocommercialintercourseortoliteraryculture.Inshort,theaimoftheSecondarySchoolis,usingtheelementarysystemsasthebasalmeans,toorganiseandestablishothersystemsofmeansfortheattainmentofthemorecomplexinterestsofafter-life,practicalandtheoretical.Theobjectofestablishingasystemofknowledgeisnottopassexaminations,--thisistheschoolmaster'serror,--buttorenderfutureactionmoreefficient,tofurtherinafter-lifesomecomplexinterestofapracticalor
theoreticalnature.Tothefew,indeed,theestablishmentandsystematisationofknowledgemaybeanendinitself.Tothemany,thesystematisationandestablishmentisandoughttobeundertakenasameanstothemoreefficientfurtheranceofsomepracticalend.Further,theonlyjustificationfortheseekingofknowledgeforitsownsakeisthattherebyitmaybebetterunderstood,betterestablishedandbettersystematised,andsobecomebetterfittedtomakepracticemoreefficient.
Hencethequestionasregardssecondaryeducationresolvesitselfinto
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thequestionastothenatureofthesystemsofknowledgewhichweshouldendeavourtoestablishsystematicallyinthemindofthechild,andbeforewecananswerthisquestionwemustknowthelengthoftimewhichthechildcanaffordtospendattheHigherSchoolandhispossiblevocationinafter-life.Forifeducationistheprocessbywhichthechildisledtoacquireandorganiseexperiencessoastorenderfutureactionmoreefficient,wemustknowsomethingofthenatureofthisaction,somethingofthenatureofthefuturesocialservicesforwhichhiseducationistotrainhim,andtheschoolperiodmustbeofsufficientlengthtoenabletherequiredsystemstobeestablishedpermanentlyandthoroughly.
Neglectofthesetwoobviousconsiderationshasledinthepastandeveninthepresentleadstotwoerrorsinourorganisationofthemeansofsecondaryeducation.Inthefirstplace,untilquiterecently,wehavebeentoomuchinclinedtotheopinionthatsecondaryeducationwasallofonetype,andevenwherethiserrorhasbeenrecognised,asinGermany,thetendencystillexiststoemphasiseundulytheparticulartypeofeducationwhichhasasitsmainingredientstheancientclassicallanguages.Wespendyearsintheattempttoreconstructandestablishinthemindoftheyouthaknowledgeoftheselanguagesystems,andinalargenumberofcaseswefailtoattainadequatelyeventhisend.Webuilduplaboriouslysystemsofmeanswhichinafter-lifefunction_directly_intheattainmentofnoend,andasa
consequence,inmanycases,thedissolutionofthesystemisasrapidasitsacquisitionwasslow.AtthetimeoftheRenascenceandwhenfirstintroducedintothecurriculumoftheSecondarySchool,theselanguages,andespeciallyLatin,didthenpossessahighfunctionalvalue,sincetheyweretheindispensablemeanstothefurtheranceofknowledgeandtosocialintercourse.To-daytheypossesslittlefunctionalvalue,andtheirclaimforadmissionintotheschoolcurriculumischieflybasedupontheirso-calledtraininganddisciplinaryvalues.
Letusconsiderthisforamoment:inthereconstructionof,say,theLatinlanguage,thepupilisbeingtrainedinthereconstructionandre-establishmentofalanguagesystemwhosemethodsandrulesofconstructionaremuchmorecomplexandintricatethanthoseofany
livinglanguage,andwhoseformsaresodesignedastobringoutexactlyvariedshadesofmeaning.Hence,initsacquisitionthepupilreceivespracticeintheexactdiscriminationofthemeaningofwords,andintheiraccurateplacingandreconstructionwithinthesentence--theunitofexpression--inordertobringouttheexactinterpretationofthethoughtorstatementoffactintendedbythewriter.
Further,wemaytrainthepupilduringtheschoolperiodtoself-applythelanguagesysteminthefurtherinterpretationofrelativelyunknownpassages.Inshort,wecantrainhimintheprocessesoflanguageconstructionandoflanguageapplication.Moreover,inconsideringthisquestion,wemusttakeintoaccountthatduringtheschoolperiodthe
maininterestmustnecessarilybedirectedtotheacquisitionandestablishmentofthesystemitself,thatlittleattentioncanbedirectedtowardsthecontentforitsownsake,andthattheestablishmentofthesystemsothatitshallfunctionautomaticallyintheinterpretationofthecontentisastagewhichisattainedincomparativelyfewcases,andthenonlyaftermanyyearsofstudy.
Ifwethentakeintoaccount,andwemusttakeintoaccount,thefactthatthechiefvalueoftheancientlanguagesasSecondarySchoolsubjectsliesintheiruseastraininganddisciplinary
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instruments--thatinafter-lifetheyfunctiondirectlyintheattainmentofnopracticalend,andonlyindirectlyinsofarasthehabitsacquiredoftheexactweighingofthemeaningofwordsandoftheaccurateplacingofwordsarecarriedoverfortheattainmentofpracticalendsinwhichthesequalitiesofexactinterpretationandexactexpressionoflanguagearethechiefrequisites--weshallunderstandthatwhiletheymaybeofvalueinsecuringtheefficientafter-performanceofcertainsocialservices,theyplaybutasmallpartinthefurtheringofanyservicewhichrequiresanexactknowledgeofthequalitiesofthingsandanaccurateknowledgeofthelawsgoverningtheoperationsofnature.
Inthesecondplace,neglectofthefactthattheaimofeducationistoestablishsystemsofmeansfortheefficientafter-performanceofactionshasledustoneglectthefactthatintheacquisitionandestablishmentofsystemsofknowledgewerequiretolimitthescopeofouraimsandtocarryontheprocessofeducationduringaperiodsufficientlyextendedtoadmitofthestableestablishmentofthesystems.If,_e.g._,weattempttoestablishtoomanysystems,thenasaresultweoftenstablyestablishnone,withthefurtherresultthataftertheschoolperiodhaspassedtheknowledgegainedsoondisappears.If,again,weattemptintoolimitedatimetoestablishanelaborateandcomplexsystemofknowledge,as_e.g._thatoftheLatinlanguage,thenweneverreachthestagewhenitcanbeself-appliedintelligently
inthefurtheranceofanyend.Hence,ifaboyleavestheElementarySchoolandentersuponaHighSchoolcoursewiththeintentionofleavingattheageoffifteenorsixteenandenteringuponsomeemployment,thesystemsofknowledgewhichcanbeestablishedduringtheschoolperiodmustbedifferentfromthoseoftheboywhoseeducationisintendedtobeextendeduntiltwenty-one.If,then,anationalsystemofeducationistomakeadequateprovisionfortheefficientafter-performanceofthevarioussocialserviceswhichthenationrequiresatthehandsofitsadultmembers;if,inshort,itistobeorganictothelifeoftheStateasawhole,thentheremustbenotonetypeofhighereducationbutseveral;foritistoherHigherSchoolsthatanationmustprincipallylookforthepreparationofcitizenswhoinafter-lifewilldischargethemoreimportantservicesofthe
community.Thistruthhasalreadybeenrealisedinothercountries,notablyGermany.Weareonlybeginningtorealiseit,andtotakemeasurestocarryitintopractice.
Moreover,inanationalsystemofeducationweshallneednotonesystemofadvancingmeansbutseveral;notmerelyaneducationalladderthatmaycarrytheboytotheUniversity,butalsoeducationalstepsbywhichtheindividualmaymounttotheTechnicalortheCommercialortheArtCollege.
Henceouraimsinthehighereducationoftheyouth,andasaconsequencethenatureofthesystemsofknowledgewhichweshouldendeavourtoorganiseandtoestablishintheirminds,willvaryin
accordancewiththenatureoftheservicewhichinadultlifetheboyislikelytoperform.Now,theseservicesmaybedividedintofourmainclasses.
Inthefirstplace,everynationrequiresanarmyofefficientindustrialworkers.Partly,insomecases,owingtothedeclineoftheapprenticeshipsystem,partlyowingtothefactthatwhereapprenticesarestillemployednosystematicmeasuresaretakentoinstructtheyouthintheprinciplesunderlyinghisparticularart,itisbecomingincreasinglynecessarythattheschoolshouldsupplyandsupplementthe
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knowledgerequiredfortheefficientafter-performanceoftheindustrialandtechnicalarts.HenceonekindofHigherSchoolurgentlyrequiredistheTradeorTechnicalSchool.InalargenumberofcasesthisneedcouldbesuppliedbyEveningContinuationSchools.Atpresent,however,ourEveningSchoolsaretoopredominantlycommercialandliterary,anddonotmakeadequateprovisionforthetradeandtechnicalneedsofthecommunity.Further,wemustendeavourtosecurethattheboyorgirlenterstheEveningContinuationSchoolassoonafterheleavestheElementarySchoolaspossible.ForinmanycasesatthepresenttimetheboyafterleavingthePrimarySchoolloafsatnightaboutthestreets,andinashorttimethroughdisuseforgetsmuchofwhathelearnedatschool,andofteninadditionacquireshabitswhichtendtounfithimforanyfuturestrenuouseffort.When,therefore,hefeelstheneedformoreknowledgeinordertoadvanceinhistrade,theEveningSchoolhastoofrequentlytobeginbydoingoveragaintheworkoftheElementarySchoolbeforeitcanenterupontheworkofestablishingthehighersystemofknowledge.
Inthesecondplace,anationsuchasoursrequiresatrainedbodyofservantsfortheefficientcarryingonofhercommerce.PreparationforthesimplerformsofservicecouldbefurnishedbythecommercialclassesoftheEveningContinuationSchools.Forpreparationforthehigherservices,werequireatypeofschoolwhichbeginningaftertheElementarySchoolstagehasbeencompleted,carriesontheboy's
educationuntilthefifteenthorsixteenthyear,whosechiefaimshouldbetolayasoundbasisintheacquisitionandorganisationofoneortwomodernlanguagesandintheacquirementoftheartsinstrumentalforthecarryingonofcommercialtransactions.FurthermeansofadvanceinthesestudiesshouldbeprovidedbythedayoreveningCommercialCollege.
Inthethirdplace,everymodernnationrequiresatrainedbodyofscientificworkersfortheaftercarryingonofherindustrialandtechnicalarts.Henceweneedatypeofschoolwhichbymakingthephysicalsciencestheirchiefobjectofstudypreparethewayforthefuturetrainingofthestudentintheapplicationofscientificknowledgetothefurtheranceoftheindustrialandtechnicalarts.
Lastly,werequireatypeofsecondaryeducationwhichshallpreparetheboyfortheefficientdischargeofthedutieswhichtheStaterequiresatthehandsofherphysicians,hertheologians,herjurists.
Thus,sincealleducationistheacquisitionofexperiencesthatwillrenderfutureactionmoreefficient,thenatureofthesecondaryeducationgivenmustdependonthenatureoftheservicestowhichthesystemsofknowledgearethemeans.Aclassicaleducationmaybeagoodpreparationfortheafter-dischargeofthedutiesofthetheologianorthejurist;itcertainlywillnotdomuchfortheefficientdischargeofthedutiesofthemechanicalengineerandthepracticalchemist.
Butoneerrormustbeavoided.WhilstthevarioustypesofSecondarySchoolmustfashiontheircurriculaaccordingtothenatureoftheservicesforwhichtheyprepare,wemustnotforgetthattheschoolhasotherdutiestoperformthanthemerepreparationforthesocialservicesbywhichamanhereafterearnshisliving.Itmustineverycaseendeavourtoorganiseandestablishthosesystemsofmeansnecessaryfortheafter-dischargeofthecivicdutiesoflifeandinstrumentalfortherightuseofleisure.
PracticallyweneedthreetypesofHigherSchool--oneinwhichmodern
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languagesformthebasalsubjectsofthecurriculum;oneinwhichthephysicalsciencesarethemainsystemsorganisedandestablished;oneinwhichtheclassicallanguagesformthemainstapleofeducation.
CHAPTERXIII
THEAIMOFTHEUNIVERSITY
"Allpublicinstitutionsoflearningarecalledintoexistencebysocialneeds,andfirstofallbytechnicalpracticalnecessities.TheoreticalinterestsmayleadtothefoundingofprivateassociationssuchastheGreekphilosophers'schools;publicschoolsowetheirorigintothesocialneedforprofessionaltraining.ThusduringtheMiddleAgesthefirstschoolswerecalledintobeingbytheneedofprofessionaltrainingforecclesiastics,thefirstlearnedprofession,andacallingwhoseimportanceseemedtodemandsuchtraining.EssentiallythesamenecessitycalledintobeingtheUniversitiesoftheParisiantype,withtheirartisticandtheologicalfaculties.Thetwoothertypesofprofessionalschools,thelawschoolandthemedicalschool,whichwerefirstdevelopedinItaly,thenunitedwiththeformer.TheUniversities
thereforeoriginatedasaunionof'technical'schoolsforecclesiastics,jurists,andphysicians,towhichdivisionthefacultyofArtswasrelatedasageneralpreparatoryschool,untilduringthenineteenthcenturyitalsoassumedsomethingofthecharacterofaprofessionalinstitutionforthetrainingofteachersfortheSecondarySchool."[41]
ThustheearlyaimoftheUniversitywas,asitstillcontinuestobe,toprovidethetrainingfortheafter-supplyofthoseserviceswhichtheStaterequiresatthehandsofhertheologians,herjurists,andherphysicians.InGermany,andtosomeextenteveninourowncountry,theArtsfacultyoftheUniversityisceasingtoperformthefunctionofaGeneralPreparatorySchooltotheprofessionalschools,andisbecoming
anindependentschool,havingforitsaimthepreparationofteachersfortheIntermediateandSecondarySchoolsofthecountry.InScotland,indeed,itservesatthepresenttimeasaPreparatorySchoolmainlytothetheologicalfaculty.AstheSecondarySchoolsofthecountrybecomemoreefficient,betterdifferentiated,andbetterorganised,theneedofaPreparatorySchoolwithinourUniversitieswillgraduallybecomeless,andtheUniversitywillbeabletodevotemoreofherenergiestothetrainingofstudentspreparingforsomeoneorotheroftheabove-namedprofessions.WiththischangethephilosophicalstudiesoftheArtsfacultywillbecomeincreasinglyimportant,andthemethodofteachingthelinguisticandscientificstudiesreceivealargershareofattentionthantheydoatpresent.
ButtheotherandperhapsthemoreimportantfunctionoftheUniversityistocarryonandtoextendtheworkofscientificandliteraryresearchforitsownsake.ThisisthedominantnoteoftheGermanandAmericanUniversitiesofto-day.Theemphasisislaidnotsomuchupontheirfunctionasschoolsforthesupplyofcertainprofessionalservices,butuponthemasgreatnationallaboratoriesfortheextensionofknowledgeandthebettermentofpractice.InGreatBritain,andespeciallyinScotland,thisconceptionofthefunctionoftheUniversityhasnotreceivedthesameprominenceas,_e.g._,inGermany,wheretheintimateunionofscientificinvestigationandprofessional
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instructiongivestheGermanUniversitiestheirpeculiarcharacter.Indeed,inthelattercountrythetendencyatthepresenttimeisrathertoover-emphasisethefunctionoftheUniversitiesinfurtheringscientificandliteraryresearchtotheneglectoftheotherandnolessimportantaim.Twodangersmustbeavoided.Inthefirstplace,wheneverthechiefemphasisislaidupontheUniversitiesasmainlyschoolsforprofessionaltraining,theteachingtendstobecomenarrowanddogmatic.Theteacherceasingtobeaninvestigator,graduallylosestouchwiththespiritoftheage,andasaconsequencehefailsadequatelytoperformthedutyofefficientlytraininghisstudentsfortheirafterlife-work.Inthesecondplace,whentheemphasisislaidstronglyuponthefunctionoftheUniversityasaninstitutionforthecarryingonofscientificandliteraryresearchthereisthedangerofagainlapsingintotheoldfallacythatknowledgeforknowledge'sakeisanendinitself,thattheobjectofeducationistoacquireandorganisesystemsofmeanswhichfunctionintheattainmentofnopracticalend,andthattheacquisitionofknowledgeisvaluableforthecultureoftheindividualmindapartfromanysocialpurposewhichtheknowledgesubserves.
TheUniversitymustthereforeeverkeepinviewthetwoaims,ofadvancingknowledgenotforitsownsakebutinorderthatfutureactionmayberenderedmoreefficient,andofadequatelytrainingforprofessionalservices.
ButtotheolderprofessionsforwhichtheUniversitypreparestherehavebeenaddedduringthepastcenturyothervocationsorprofessionswhichneedanddemandaneducationnolessimportantandnolessthoroughthantheeducationforthewellestablishedrecognisedprofessions.Theneedforthehighertrainingofthefutureleadersofindustryandthefuturecaptainsofcommercehasbeenprovidedbytheorganisationandestablishmentoftechnologicalschoolsandcolleges.Theestablishmentandorganisationofthe"TechnicalUniversity"hasbeenmorethoroughinGermanythaninthiscountry.Therewefindestablishednewerinstitutions,ofwhichtheCharlottenburgCollegeisthebestknownandmostimportant,forthehighereducationofthoseintendedinafter-lifetoperformthemoreimportantindustrialservices
ofthecommunity.TheseinstitutionsbothintheirorganisationandinstructionareconstantlyapproximatingintypetotheolderUniversities.
TherecentlyestablishedUniversitiesintheNorthofEnglandattempt,withwhatsuccessitistooearlyyettodeclare,tocombinebothaimsoftrainingfortheolderandnewerprofessions.InScotlandthelatterworkislargelyundertakenbytheTechnicalColleges,andintheseinstitutionstheincreasingneedisfortheextensionanddevelopmentoftheDay-schoolcourse.
Oneotherquestionofsomeimportanceremainsforbriefconsideration.Inourowncountry,butmoreespeciallyinGermany,thereisatendency
atthepresenttimetoeffectacompleteseparationbetweentheworkoftheUniversityandtheworkoftheTechnicalCollege.
Thisseparationhasarisenpartlythroughtheoperationofexternalhistoricalconditions,butithasalsoarisenpartlythroughthetendencyincertainacademiccirclestolookdownupontechnicalknowledgeandabilityassomethinginferior.TheexclusivenessandthetorporoftheolderUniversitiesinmanycaseshasbeenafurthercausetendingtothecreationoftheTechnicalCollegeseparatedfromtheUniversity.
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Suchaseparation,however,isgoodneitherfortheUniversitynorfortheTechnicalCollege.Theformerincarryingouttheaimofscientificresearchandoftheextensionofknowledgerequireseverthevivifyingtouchofactualconcreteexperience,andthisitcanonlyobtainbykeepinginclosecontactwiththosewhosechieffunctionistheapplicationofscientificknowledgetopractice.Thelatterincarryingoutitsmorepracticalaimsrequires,ifitistobesavedfromthenarrownessofmerespecialisationandfromdegeneratingintoempiricalmethods,theconstantco-operationofthosewhoseoutlookisnotnarroweddowntotheimmediatepracticalend,buttakesinthesubjectasawhole,andwhosechieffunctionisthebettersystematisationofknowledge.
Hence,whiletheaimoftheUniversityisdifferentfromthatoftheTechnicalCollege,theyaresointimatelycorrelatedthatneithercanreachitsfullestdevelopmentwithouttheaidandco-operationoftheother.TheTechnicalCollegesshouldbetheprofessionalschoolsattachedtothescientificsideoftheUniversities.Moreover,thisdivisionandseparationiseconomicallywasteful,sincethegeneraltraininginsciencewhichmustprecedethepracticaltraininghastobecarriedonbothintheUniversityandintheTechnicalCollege.
InScotlandthisseparationhasnotadvancedtosuchastageasisthe
caseinGermany.InanyfurtherreorganisationofuniversityandhighereducationitisearnestlytobehopedthattheDayTechnicalCollegewillfinditsrightfulplaceasanintegralpartoftheUniversity,andthatthelattermayrealisethatherfunctionistofurtherandextendtheboundsofknowledgeinorderthatpracticeineverysphereoflifemayberenderedmoreefficient.
FOOTNOTE:
[41]Cf.Prof.Paulsen,_TheGermanUniversities_,p.111(Eng.Trans.).
CHAPTERXIV
CONCLUSION--THEPRESENTPROBLEMSINEDUCATION
Thefirstnecessityofthepresentforteachersandforallconcernedwiththeupbringingofchildrenistorealisethetruemeaningofeducation--thatitistheprocessbywhichweleadthechildtoacquireandorganiseexperiencesthatwillrenderfutureactionmoreefficient;thatbyoureducationalagenciesweseektoestablishsystemsofknowledgethatshallhereafterfunctionintheefficientperformanceofservicesofsocialvalue;andthattheonlymethodwhichreallyeducates
andcaneducateisthemethodwhichevokestheconstructiveactivityofreasonintheestablishmentofthevarioussystemsofmeans.Educationdoesnotaimatculturenoratknowledgeforitsownsake,butatfittingtheindividualforsocialservice.Ourschoolsystemtendsevertoforgetthistruth.Itisinconstantdangeroflosingsightofthisultimateaimofeducationbykeepingitsattentiontoonarrowlyfixedonsomenearerandproximateaim.Ittendsoftentolaytoomuchstressonmereexaminationsandexaminationresults.Itforgetsthattheonlytruetestofknowledgegainedliesinthepupil'sabilitytouseitintelligentlyinthefurtheranceofsomepurpose--andofsomesocial
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purpose,andthattheultimatetestofasystemofeducationisthekindofsocialindividualitturnsout.Ifoureducationalsystemturnsoutboysandgirlswhoinafter-lifebecomeefficientworkers,efficientcitizens,andmenandwomenwhohavelearnedhowtousetheirleisurerightly,thenithasfulfilleditsfunction.If,ontheotherhand,itfailsinalargenumberofcasestoattainthesethreeendsoranyoneofthem,howeveritmaysatisfytheothertestsapplied,ithasnotperformeditsfunction,isnotasystemwhichis"organic"tothewelfareoftheState.
Thesecondnecessityistorealisethetrueplaceoftheschoolastheformalagentintheeducationofthechild.Mankindbyalongandlaboriousprocesshasdiscoveredandestablishedmanysystemsofknowledge.Hehascreatedlanguageandinventedartsfortherealisationofthemanypurposesoflife.Itisthebusinessoftheschooltoimpartthisknowledgetothechild--toputhiminpossessionatleastofsomepartofthisheritagewhichhascomedowntohim,andtodosoinsuchamannerthatwhileacquiringtheexperienceheshallalsobetrainedinthemethodoffindingandestablishingsystemsofmeansforhimselfandbyhimself.If,however,welaytheemphasisonthemereimpartingofthegarneredexperiencesoftheages,thedangertobefearedislestourteachingdegenerateintomeredogmatismormerecram.If,ontheotherhand,welaytoomuchemphasisontheabilitytoself-findandself-establishsystems,weareindangeroflosingsightofthesocial
purposeofallknowledge--offorgettingthattheonlyjustificationforestablishingasystemofknowledgeisthatitmayefficientlyfunctionintheattainmentofsomepurposeoflife.
OfthemoreimportantofthepracticalproblemsofourowndayandgenerationthefirstandmostimportantistorealisethatoureducationalsystemasitexistsatpresentisnotfittedtoproduceandmaintainanefficientandsufficientsupplyofallthesocialserviceswhichthemodernStaterequiresofitsadultmembers,andthatwemustconsiderthisquestionofeducationasawholeandinallitsparts,andquiteclearofmerepartyinterests.Aboveall,wemustgetoverthefatalhabitofreformingonepartofthesystemandleavingtheotherpartsalone.ThewholeproblemofeducationfromthePrimarySchoolto
theUniversityrequiresconsiderationandorganisation.WereformnowourUniversities,thenafteraperiodourSecondarySchoolsystem,andsoweproceed,advancinghere,retrogradingthere,butofeducationasanorganicallyconnectedwholewehavenothought.
Butapartfromthewantoforganisationasawholeoureducationalsysteminitspartsisatpresentdefective.Werequiretoreconsiderthequestionofhowbesttoeducatethechildrenoftheverypoor.Atpresentwefailinalargenumberofcasestotrainupthechildrenofthisclasstobesociallyefficient.Economicallyandmorallywefailtoreachanyhighstandard.Nodoubtthehomeandsocialenvironmentisallagainsttheschoolinfluence;butbyamorerationalsystemofearlyeducation,bytakingmorecareofthephysicaldevelopmentofthechild,
and,ifneedbe,foratime,makingpublicprovisionforthefeedingofthechildrenoftheverypoor,wemightdomuchtoremovethisdefect.Aboveall,wemustendeavourtostemtheyearlyflowofboysandgirlsattheconclusionofthePrimarySchoolperiodintomerecasualandunskilledemployments,andmustendeavourbysomemeansorothertocontinuetheeducationofthechildforsomeyearsfurther.
Again,werequiretomakebetterprovisionforthetechnicaltrainingofourworkmen.ByasystemofEveningContinuationSchoolshavingastheiraimtheinstructionoftheyouthintheartsunderlyingorsubsidiaryto
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hisparticularcalling,wemightdomuchtoamendthisdefect.Moreover,theEveningContinuationSchoolsmightplayamuchmoreimportantpartthantheynowdointhesecuringofthefuturemoralandcivicefficiencyoftheindividualandofthenation.
Lastly,andthisneedisclearlyfeltbyallacquaintedwiththesubject,werequirethedevelopmentandextensionofourTechnicalColleges,inorderthatwemayadequatelytrainthosewhosedutyinafter-lifewillbetheapplicationofadvancedscientificknowledgeinthefurtheranceoftheartsandindustriesoflife.
_Printedby_ MORRISON&GIBBLIMITED,_Edinburgh_
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