The World of CitiesBellwork # 3 9/23/101712 arlington driveMemphis tnNovember 9 1998

Medicine and Population1800-1900 population of Europe more than doubled.This rapid growth was not due to larger families. In fact, families in most industrializing countries had fewer children. Population soared because the death rate fell. People ate better and enjoyed longer lives, thanks to improved methods of farming, food storage, and distribution. Medical advances and improvements in public sanitation also slowed death rates.

The Fight Against Disease1870, Louis Pasteur clearly showed the link between germs and disease. He developed a vaccine for rabies as well as a process, called pasteurization, to kill disease-carrying microbes in milk.1880, the German doctor Robert Koch identified the bacteria that caused tuberculosis, a respiratory disease that claimed about 30 million human lives in the 1800s. It took a half a century to find a cure. 1914, yellow fever and malaria had been traced to microbes carried by mosquitoes.

In the Hospital

1846, a Boston dentist, William Morton, introduced anesthesia to relieve pain during surgery. This helped doctors to experiment with operations that had never before been possible. Hospitals could be dangerous places. Surgery was performed with dirty instruments in dank operating rooms. Often, a patient would survive and operation, only to die days later of infection. For the poor to be admitted to the hospitals was a death sentence.

Florence NightingaleShe said that it should do the sick no harm.She was an army nurse during the Crimean War, Nightingale insisted on better hygiene in field hospitals. At home she worked to introduce sanitary measures in British hospitals. She also founded the worlds first school of nursing.

Joseph Lister He discovered how antiseptics prevented infection. He insisted that surgeons wash their hands before operating and sterilize their instruments. Eventually, the use of antiseptics drastically reduced deaths from infection.

The Life of the CitiesCity planners gouged out spacious new squares and boulevards. They lined these avenues with government buildings, offices, department stores, and theaters.As the century progressed, settlement patterns shifted. The rich developed pleasant residential neighborhoods on the outskirts of the city. The poor tended to crowd into slums near the city center, within reach of factories. Trolley lines made it possible to live in one part of the city and work in another.

Sidewalks, Sewers, and SkyscrapersPaved streets made urban areas much more livable. Beneath the streets, new sewage systems helped make cities healthier places to live. This cut death rates dramatically.1800s architects began using steel to construct soaring buildings. The metal Eiffel Tower became a symbol of Paris. In the United States, architects like Louis Sullivan pioneered a new structure, the skyscraper. In large cities, single-family middle-class homes gave way to multistory apartment buildings.

SlumsDespite urban improvements, city life remained harsh for the poor.The lure of the city- Music halls, opera housed, and theaters provided entertainment for every taste. Museums and libraries offered educational opportunities. Parks offered a chance for fresh air, walks, and picnics.

Working Class StrugglesWorkers tried to improve the harsh conditions of industrial life. They protested low wages, long hours, unsafe conditions, and the constant threat of unemployment. Strikes and unions during this time were illegal. Worker demonstrations were crushed.By mid-century, workers slowly began to make progress. They formed mutual-aid societies to help sick or injured workers.

Steps to Reform By the late 1800s most western countries had granted all men the vote. Workers also won the right to organize unions to bargain on their behalf. Pushed by unions, reformers, and working class voters, governments passed laws regulating conditions in factories and mines.Later, laws outlawed child labor entirely and banned the employment of women in mines. Also, hours were cut and work conditions were better.