The use in modern Japanese of the grammaticalparticles known as kakari-joshi and fuku-joshi

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Authors Wallace, Delight Johnstone, 1944-

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THE USE IN MODERN JAPANESE OF m GRAI©mTICAE/PARTICLES

KNOWN AS KAKARI-JOSHI AND FUKU-JOSHI

D eligh t Johnstone Wallace.

. A Thesis'Submitted t o t h e Faculty o f the

i^KARTNiENf DF ORIENTAL STtDIES z"

In P a r tia l F u lfillm ent o f the Requirements For the Degree of

.. MASTER OF ARTS

In the Graduate College

THE.UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

1 / 9 S O

STATEMENT BY AUTHOR

This th esis has been submitted in p a r tia l fu lf illm e n t of re­quirements for an advanced degree at the U niversity of Arizona and is deposited in the U niversity Library- to be made availab le to borrowers . under ru les of the Library.

B r ie f . quotations from th is th e s is are allowable without sp ec ia l perm ission, provided that accurate acknowledgment of source i s made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of th is manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the head of the major department or the Dean o f the Graduate College when in his judg­ment the proposed use of the m aterial i s in the in te r e sts of scholar­sh ip . -In a l l other, in stan ces, however, permission must be obtained from the author. .

SIGNEDt

APPROVAL BY THESIS DIRECTOR-

This th esis has been approved on the date shown below:

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

. N(jr primary debt of gratitude i s owed to Dr. Don C. Bailey of

the O riental Studies Department, without whom th is paper would be

neither begun nor f in ish ed . I would a lso lik e to acknowledge with my

thanks the long hours put in to th is project b y my two native speakers,

S h io ji Hiroki and Tom Okita* Ky ty p is t , Laurie Womack, deserves great

thanks for her time and e f fo r t . And la s t ly , thanks go to my fam ily who

had to l iv e with me throughout the w riting of th is paper.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT . / . * . . • 0 6 0 0 0 6 0 ° ° 6 ° ° ° ■° 0 « 0 V

INTRODUCTION . . * . . • 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 ° » ° ° 6 ° ° ° ° ° 1

F u k u -J o s b i and K a k a r i-J o s h i 0 o o e 0 o 0 • o » ° O 7

FUKLWOSHI c o o o o 0 0 O 0 0 O O 0 6 0 0 . 0 » 0 • ° • 11

B a k a r i 0 Q o » „ 0 O 0 o o o o c 0 . o 0 o 31Dake o © . o © © © O O O O O O o 0 O O o o o O o o 0 0 ■ 0 0 1 8

Hodo 0 0 © o © ■ a O 0 .0 o o o' 0 • 0 0 ■O 0 O o . o o o o 0 21ICa o d o o d b o o o - 0 .0 O 0 O O 4 O c ■ 6 o O o O O O 0 O . 21FmZL O O O O O O 0 o o o o o o e • 0 0 0 o 0 0 O 0 O 0 o .2 6K u ra i (G u ra i) , O 0 .0 O o Q o » 0 O O 0 0 O 0 0 . 28Made . , » , . » o O o 0 0 o o o O 0 0 O 0 0 O 0 0 o 0 d 3 0Nado (Nazo„ N an zo , Nanka ). . , . . o. O O 0 o 0 0 O 0 O o O 3 1Nomx d o o o o o d o ,o o o b o o O 0 © 0 0 o O O o o 0 ' 35ITana . o © o & © o 0 O . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o 0 0 O 0 0 o O O 36ZUtSU 0, 6 0 O 0 O 0 0 0 0 0 ,0 • ° ' 0 • 0 6 0- 39

KAKARi-JOSHI © © © © 0 0 0 0 d; • o o o 0 o- ° ° ° 0 ° ° 11

D attG o o o o-o 0 o - o', o o o o o o 0 0 o o ‘ 0 ■ 0 11D©mp .O 0 O O 0-0 o O 9 0 O 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 O O d O o 0 12Kosp o o d o o o o O O O O 0 O 0 ° °, 6 0 < ,0 0 0 0 . b 1 1

1,7Mo o o o o b o oN an t0 © © © © - o 0

0 . 0 0 - 0 0 0 oO O O 0 . 0 0 . ’. 0 c 0

0; 0 0 0°

4 /56

Na.ri (N a r i t o ) 0 O 0 o o o o o o 0 O .0 O O O o 0 0 0 0 o 5 6S ae © © o o .o o o o o o o o o o O 0 0 O O O O O 0 o o 57Shxka © o o .o © 0 O 0 O 0 O 0 o O 0 o o o 0 0 O O o O o 5 8S hxmo © o o o o 0 o o o o o o o 0 O o » O o 0 O o O 0 59S u ra o o © © o © O o 0 - 0 6 0 o o 0 O -o 0 0 o O o o- o O o 60Tara (T ta r a ) o o - o ob d 0 O O O 0 o o o 0 * 61Teba (T te.ba) © * 0 0 0-0 0 o o o O -o 0 O O 0 O O O o O 0 62lo t© © o o o o o 6 o o 0 o o o o e - e O 0 0 0 ■ a o 0 O O „ 62T te o o .o o o o O O 0 . O O' o ‘ 0 o o o 0 o o o 0 0 a o o 0 62

0o\° .

i. O O 0 0 o .o o b 0 ° • • « •• .» « • 63

LIST OF COLLOCATIONS ‘ USING FUKU-30SHI- e • ■0 • e 0 o ° . 0 0 7 1

LIST OF COLLOCATIONS USING KA.KAHI-JOSKI 0 . 0 0 o O d o b , 75

LIST OF: REFERENCES 3 a 0 o b 0 0 - 0 o 0 ■ b o . o 8 , b ; 76

ABSTRACT

The c la sses of p a r tic le s in modern Japanese known as fuku-joshi

(adverbial p a r tic le s) and kakari-josh i (governing'p a r tic le s ) are subject

to the same confusions in c la s s if ic a t io n , and d e fin it io n as the p a r tic le

as a general c la s s . B a sica lly , the p a r tic le i s an u n in flected , bound

morph, or word, which carries no content of i t s e l f , but m odifies the

word, phrase or sentence i t fo llow s, and d istin gu ish es between the ncon­

te n t” words of the sentence, Fuku-joshi enhance the words they follow

by lim iting: the scope o f th e ir meaning, They are most o ften -tran slated

"only," or " just," The scope of th is category is a subject for debate0

I t i s often thought to include those p a r tic le s which are here c la s s if ie d

under a d is t in c t heading,. k ak ari-josh i. These p a r tic le s .are. emphatic' i n '

nature and though occurring sentence-medial-ly may "govern" the tone or .

even the cohstruction of the whole sentence. They may most often be

translated "even," or with an exclamation point. These two. types of

p a r tic le s are delineated and c la s s if ie d in th is paper with-examples of

th e ir usage extracted from the Kbkuritsu Eokugo Eenkyuujo (National .

language research in s t i t u t e ) , Report No, 3 , Gendaigo no Josh i, Jodooshi—

Yoohoo t o .J itsu r e i (Present-day p a r tic le s and in fle c te d su f f ix e s —

examples and usage).

v

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The use in modern Japanese of the p a r tic le s known as kakari-

jo sh i and fuku-joshi i s an i l l -d e f in e d and con troversia l area of Japa­

nese l in g u is t ic studyo. Necessary to understanding the d i f f ic u l t ie s

.involved in a' d iscu ssion o f these two c la sses of p a rtic le s is . a r e a l i ­

zation o f the e sse n tia l d ifferen ces that e x is t in defin ing the scopej,

function , and basic ch a ra cter istic s of th e p a r tic le as a general.word

classo :

The Japanese early had to deal w ith the ex isten ce o f the par­

t i c l e or 3o sh io. The f i r s t recorded re a liz a tio n of the n ecessity of

the p a rtic le occurs in a footnote by Ootorao no Yakamochi to his poem

in the Manydoshu (Vol« 19 , poem Ul?6 ) in which he allows that the par­

t ic le s mo, no, wa, t e , n i , and 0, are not included, w ith the im plica-

t io n that fo r correct in terp reta tion the reader must add theme This

convention of w riting poetry in im ita tion of C la ssica l Chinese which

does not have such re la tio n a l words as p a r tic le s led to the n ecessity

of placing okototen, or function-word marks, in various quadrants of

the Chinese graph to show w h ich .p article must-follow the Chinese graph

I ., Matsumura Akira, “Joshi n i tsuite"- (Concerning p a r t ic le s ) , . Kokubungaku (Japanese lite r a tu r e s tu d ie s ) , Jan. (1967), 8 .

' . . ' . ■ : • 1 . "

. 2

to show i t s re la tio n to the other graphs so that a Japanese might read

the poeMe Sometimes instead of using okototen5 the necessary p a r tic le

was added in a sm aller s iz e than the Chinese graph, th is process being2

ca lled kogakij, "small w ritin g . u

Subsequently from the Heian period through the Muromachi pe­

riod stu d ies in which the io sh i or tenioha (a composite term made up of

the p a r tic le t e , n iy o, and wa or ha as i t i s b a s ic a lly pronounced in

the kana sy lla b a r ies) were discussed in terms of th e ir re la tion sh ip to

poetry were much in vogue* In the waka and renga, the early p o etica l

forms which were not in im itation of C lassical; Chinese poetry5 the

sy lla b le count of each l in e was very important, so that the predomi­

nantly monosyllabic p a rtic le s were considered of obvious importance.

Jun Toku-in’s Yakumo Mishoo (M iscellaneous Notes by the Emperor) was

ch a ra cter istic of th is type of study, but, being mainly a tr e a t is e on -

poetry, only s lig h t mention i s made of ten ioha. Teniha. Taigais.hoo

(General. Notes on t e -n i-ha) was a more sch o larly tr e a tis e from the

Kamakura Period.^ In 1773 F u jitan i Nariakira published Ayuishoo (Ayui

Notes) in f iv e volumns. Ayui i s a term o r ig in a lly meaning 'leg g in g 1

and applied by F u jitan i to mean 1 s u f f ix . 1 This work i s noteworthy as

' 2 . Ib id .,, 8 .

3o Kokugo Gakkai (Japanese language s o c ie ty ) , comp., Kokugo == gaku. J ite n (Dictionary of Japanese language s tu d ie s ) , (Tokyos Tookyoodoo, 1963), 66$,

ho Ib id ., 66$ .

' ■ ' ■ ••■■■ ' ' 3

the d iscu ssion of the meaning and usage o f each p a r tic le was f a ir ly

d eta iled and p a r tic le s were d istinguished from au x iliary verbs w ithin

the category tenioha. I t was not u n til the M eiji Period that the term

tenioha was used to refer only to p a r t ic le s , with the publication of

the d ictionary, Genkai (sea of words) by Ootsuki Fumihiko in 1890®

Before th is time tenioha was used to include jodooshi ( in fle c te d su f- .

f ix e s ) , katsuyoogobi ( in fle c te d f in a ls ) , and setsubigo (conjunctive

f in a ls ) , along w ith the jo sh ic

The term jo sh i seems to have f i r s t appeared in a lex icon in

1908 in Kanazawa Shoozaburo1s J ir in (Forest of words), but was popu­

la r ized by Yamada Yoshio's Nihon Burn.pooron (On Japanese grammar) pub-5 . v

lish e d the next year® C oincidental with the use of the term joshi .

came what i s now considered to be the tra d itio n a l view o f the d e f in i­

t io n and c la s s if ic a t io n of the p a r t ic le s , This approach i s a ttr ib u ted .

to Yamada Yoshio and Hashimoto Shinkishi as they were the most resp ect­

ed p h ilo lo g is ts of th e ir timeo; The tra d itio n a l d e f in it io n i s as f o l ­

lows? the p a r tic le i s a bound form which 11 ( l) from the standpoint of

form, i s not in f le c te d , (2) from the standpoint of sem antics, cannot

express meaning independently, being dependent on other ’concept words’

to demonstrate i t s meaning, and (3 ) from the standpoint of function ,

i s adjunct to independent words, c la r i f ie s th eir meanings and i s used

to in d icate the rela tion sh ip s between them®’’ This quote can v a lid ly

be considered as r e f le c tin g the tra d itio n a l d e fin it io n of jo sh i, as i t

i s taken from the Kokugogaku j it e n (D ictionary of Japanese language

s tu d ie s ) , and in turn from i t s general a r t ic le on p a r tic le s which

should of n ecessity r e f le c t the gen erally accepted opinion*

So Matsumura.-Akira ( 1967) , 80

Regarding the c la s s if ic a t io n of jo sh i, Yamada and. Hashimoto

d i f f e r .s l ig h t ly both in terms of the basis of c la s s if ic a t io n and the

number of ca teg o r ies , Yamada1s c la s s if ic a t io n , as. found in h is Nihon

Bunpooron, i s based bn what part of speech the j os hi accompany and

what relationsh ip s they in d ica te . His s ix categories are: -;

1» Kaku-joshi—case p artic les*

2 , Fuku-joshi—adverbial p artic les.,

3 , Se ts.uz.oku-j os h i—conjunctive p a r t ic le s ,

he K akari-joshi—governing p a r t ic le s , ■_..

Shuu-j os h i—f in a l p a r t ic le s , •66 , Kantoo-j os h i—exp letive p a r t ic le s .

Hashimoto Sh inkichi, in h is Kokugogaku-gairon (Introduction to '/.

Japanese language s tu d ie s ) , has based his c la s s if ic a t io n of p a rtic le s

on the rela tion sh ip s they determine and upon th e ir immediate constit^

uents. He has a nine part c la s s if ic a t io n s

1 , • Fuku-jos h i—^adverbial p a r t ic le s ,

2 , Kaku-j os h i—case p a r t ic le s ,

3o Setsuzoku-iosh i'—conjunctive p a r t ic le s ,

It, . Kakari-j os h i—governing p a r t ic le s , , ..

3o Shuu-joshi—f in a l p a r t ic le s ,

6 a Kantoo-joshi—exp letive p a r tic le s ,'

7 , J u n ta i-jo sh i--nom inalizing p a r t ic le s .

8 , • H eritsu -josh i-—-enumerative p a r tic le s ,

pa Junfukutai-j os h i- - (re n ta i-j os h i.)—a ttr ib u tiv e p a r t ic le s ,

6 , Kokugo Gakkai (Japanese language so c ie ty ) (1963), !?hOo ,

'■ ; ;V ■' 5Hashimoto la te r s e t up, as a tenth category, junfuku-joshi,7uadverballzing p a r tic le so n Many school grammars have used Yamaha's

s ix part c la s s if ic a t io n . In fa c t there a r e s onie four part c la s s i f ic a ­

tion s in which the f in a l and. exp letive p a r tic le s are included together

to create one category. Case p a r tic le s include the. nominal!zing par­

t ic le s to form the second c la s s , the conjunctive p a r t ic le s co n stitu te

the th ird c la ss and in the fourth c la ss adverbial, adverbali.zing, •

ennumerative, and governing p a r tic le s are lumped togeth er, However,

Hashimoto'S' c la s s i f ic a t io n i s b a s ic a lly the one used in the Report'#3

o f the Kokuritsu Kokugo Kenkyuujo (National language in s t itu te ) , en­

t i t l e d Gendaigo no Josh i, Jodooshi—Yoohoo to J i t s urei (Present day

p a r tic le s and in fle c te d su f f ix e s —usage and examples) from which the

sentences have been extracted and translated to make up the main body

of th is paper. I t should be noted, however, that the junfukutai- and

junfuku-joshi categories have not been included in the Kokuritsu kokugo

kenkyuujo (KKK) study, ;■

■ The tra d itio n a l approach to the d escrip tion of jo sh i as ou t- : '

lin ed above has been disputed by modern lin g u is ts w ith the to o ls of

modern structural a n a ly sis at hand. Their c la s s if ic a t io n s of p a rti­

c le s vary b a s ic a lly as the follow ing c la s s if ic a t io n of Bernard Bloch

w il l show ,. Yet i t i s in terestin g , that most modern analyses accept the

basic segmentation which allows the p a r tic le to e x is t as a separate

though bound morph or word. In the f in a l an alysis the ra tion a le f o r ­

giving the p a r tic le word-status i s the in tu it io n o f . the native speaker,

7- I b id ,, 51t0o

In segmenting the Japanese sentence, a basic sentence u n it i s the8bunsetsu, a term coined by Hashimoto Shinkichi, that phrase unit

ly in g between a sentence and a words This concept i s important in an

analysis of the p a r tic le as the bunsetsu i s made up of the free form

plus an almost ob ligatory p artic leo In some analyses (that of the KKK

for instance) i t i s the subtraction of th e free form morpheme from the

bunsetsu which leaves the p a r tic le as an iso la te d word0 Bernard

Bloch's concept o f the " facu lta tive phrase" or pause group i s very

sim ilar to the coneept Of bunsetsu, and y et h is c la s s if ic a t io n of par- '

t i d e s , which depends in large part upon th is concept, does not resem-

b le Hashimoto's parts of speech c la s s i f i e s t io n e Some p a r t ic le s , ac­

cording to Bloch, apply only to the pause group in which they occur

w hile some refer to the larger u n its of sentences and c la u se s„ In h is

c la s s if ic a t io n a seemingly s in g le p a r tic le may occur in two d ifferen t

categorieso This i s , however, simply a case of using these homonyms

as d is t in c t p a r t ic le s , a so lu tio n sought by most analyses, including

that of the KKKo His categories are as fo llow s s

lo Sentence p a r t ic le s—which fo llow the predicate nucleus in a

sen ten ce-fin a l c lau se .

80 Hashimoto Shinkichi, Hashimoto Shinkichi Hakushi Chosaku- shuu. Vol. I I , Kbkugohoo Joosetsu (Complete works of Dr. Hashimoto Shinkichi, vo l.. I I , Elements of Japanese Grammar), (Tokyo; Iwanami Shoten, 19U8), 5-

9 . Hiroshi M iyaji, "D efin ition and Usage o f P a r tic le s in Contemporary Japanese," The Journal-Newsletter of the A ssociation o f. ' Teachers o f Japanese, Vol. TV, No. 3 , (1967) , 18. —

2„ Clause p a r t ic le s—which follow the predicate nucleus in a non-

f in a l clause 0

3o Referent P a r t ic le s e

ho Quotative p a r t ic le s .

5o Conjunctive p a r t ic le s .

The la s t three categories handle p a r tic le s which act on pause groups10

in d icatin g the re la tion sh ip s between them.:

Fuku-J os hi and Kakari-J oshi

The two types of p a r tic le s d ea lt with here are fuku-,j os hi and

k ak ari-jo sh i, the adverbial and governing p a r t ic le s . These two cate­

gories are of particu lar in te r e s t because they are both e lu s iv e in

d e fin it io n and because the various p a r tic le s l i s t e d under them appear

to overlap5 to lo g ic a l ly come under e ith er heading. Therefores s in ­

g lin g them out for consideration together would seem a v a lid under­

taking. The adverbial p a r tic le i s the more e a s ily defined of the two

p a r tic le s and consequently a d iscu ssion of th is p a r tic le w i l l be

undertaken f i r s t . ■

Yamada Yoshio who i s responsible for the term fuku-joshi has

defined th is p a r tic le as one which m odifies or enhances the meaning of

an in f le c t ib le or n on -in flectab le word. I t a c ts upon the preceding

word or phrase as i f i t were a n o n -in fle c tib le word, as in the f o l -

. lowing examples:

1 . Kawara bakari da. ( I t *s ju st t i l e s ) .

10. Bernard Bloch, “Studies, in C olloquial Japanese, Part I I , Syntax," Language, Monograph 22 (ip h o), 208-228.

2«, Warau bakari da. (He ju st laughs) „

Fuku-joshi c h a r a c te r is t ic a lly have a conditioning ( jo o ta ite k i) meaningu - :

according to Yamada0

Hashimoto Shinkichi has b a s ic a lly accepted Yamada1s d e fin it io n

of fu ku -josh i, but applies i t only to sp e c if ic cases of the whole

c la ss of p a r t ic le s , Fuku-joshi may follow or precede case p a r tic le s or

may surplant them as in the follow ing examples $

1 , Kimi n i dake oshieyoo, ( I ' l l teach i t only to you),

2, Kimi dake n i oshieyoo, ( I ' l l teach i t to only you),

3 , Kimi dake oshieyoo, ( I ' l l teach only you),

The f i r s t example performs, what Hashimoto terms a fuku-joshi function,.

merely the adverb adverbial function of lim itin g the preceding phrase*

However, in the second example, dake performs a. ju n ta ite k i, or nominal-

iz in g function . A ll that precedes a p a r tic le l ik e dake, and note that

i t may be a phrase, as in; Shinpai sh ita hodo no (To the extent of

worrying), becomes a nominal plirase which then functions as a s in g le

n o n -in flec tib le word. He fe e ls that in the third case the function of15

dake cannot be determined because o f t he absence of the case p a r t ic le .

This i s the point in Hashimoto's argument that makes one wonder i f i t

i s not the Case p a r tic le s follow ing the fuku-joshi th at carries the

nominalizing effect* However, such a dual adverbial-nominal role in .

which the u n it resu ltin g from the addition of a fuku-joshi to either

an in flec ted or n on-in flected word functions l ik e a substantive, can

11, KpkUgo Gakkai (Japanese language so c ie ty ) (1963), 272,

12, I b id ,, 272,

be i llu s tr a te d by a double tra n sla tio n o f th e fo llo w in g 5

lo Miru dake da, . I'm ju st look ing» (Adverbial tra n sla tio n ).

2o Miru dake da. I t ' s ju st looking (that I'm doing). (Nominal-

iz in g tr a n s la t io n ) .^

In the Kokuritsu kokugo kenkyuujo study from-which th e examples of

fuku-joshi in th is paper are taken, th is ju n ta itek i function i s not

recognized for p a r tic le s such as dake, hodo, kara, e t c . , and thus the■ " ■ l h

ju n ta i-jo sh i category o f the report contains, only the p a r tic le no.

The new t e x t , Ggndalgo-Kotengo Joslii-Jodooshi Shoosetsu .(Present-day

and c la s s ic a l p a rtic le s and in fle c ted su ff ix e s—-a d eta iled study) by .' ' - .' 15

Matsumua Akira recognizes no such category as ju n ta i- jo sh i.

Both Yamada and Hashimoto.recognize a lim itin g or r e s tr ic t iv e

q u a lity in fuku-joshi (that which Yamada c a l ls con d ition in g). This .

may be e a s ily observed in a l l of the following, fu ku -josh i, l i s t e d as

they appear in th is papers

1 . bakari .

2 0 dake. ,

■ 13. Ekoyama Tsuneaki and Matsumura Akira, comp. , Nihon Bumpoo J ite n (D ictionary of Japanese grammar) , 1 (Tokyo: M eiji Shoin, 1963), .

lit. Kokuritsu Kokugo Kenkyuujo (Mational language research in s t i t u t e ) , comp.. Report. No. 3 , Gendaigo no Josh i, .Jodooshi—Yoohoo to J itsu re i (Present-day p a r tic le s and in flected , su f f ix e s —usage and examples), (Tokyo: Shuuei Shuppan, 1951), 171.

. 15 o Matsumura. Akira., comp., Gendaigo-Kotengo Jos hi-Jodooshi ' .. Shoosetsu (Present-day and c la s s ic a l p a r tic le s and in fle c te d su f­f ix e s —a d eta iled study), (Tokyo: Gakutoosha, 1969) , U-6.

10

3 « hodo

li. ka

5 e k ir l

60 kurai (gurai)

7 o nado (nazOj nanzo, nanka)

80 nomi

9 o made

10o yara

11o zutsu

While ka i s not so c le a r ly .lim itin g as the other p a r t ic le s , i t does

q u a lify in the sense that i t lim its the in terrogative to an in d e fin ite

function or meaningd Matsumura d iffe r s in h is c la s s if ic a t io n of fuku-

jo sh ij in th a ts in his aforementioned te x t , he includes shika and sae

(which the KKK Report and therefore th is paper include w ith kak a r i-jo sh i)

and y e t does not l i s t e ith er zu tsu or nomi in .any of h is jo sh i ca te­

g o r ies .

The term kakari-josh i or governing p a r t ic le s , comes from the ;

terra kakari-musubi which i s the concept of the connection between the

f in a l verb of the sentence and.the sentence-m edial p a r t ic le . The most,

obvious example of th is lin k occurs in the use of the p a r tic le shika

which occurs only in conjunction with a negative verb. Thus such a

p a r tic le i s sa id to govern the construction of th e r e s t of th e sen-

ten ce , in th a t i t in fluences and r e s tr ic ts the speaker's choice of a ■

verb formo The concept of the essen tia l dynamic nexus o f verbal

lb , Kokugo Gakkai (Japanese language so c ie ty ) (1963)» 138,

■ 11

q u a lity or copularity as i t i s primary in construction o f a sentence

i s ca lle d in Japanese ch in ju tsu 0 The view held of th is concept seems ;

to d if fe r from scholar to scholar. However, in contrast to the fa c -

tu a l or narrative elements (the jo ju tsu ) on an utterance, i t i s con­

ceived of as the devices marshalled by the speaker both to animate or

r e la te the basic concept-words to each other and to superimpose upon

th e whole, the speaker’s fe e lin g s about h is utterance. Accordingly,

in order to accomplish th is large i f nebulous order, the lo ca tio n of

chinjutsu i s variously, held fo be w ith in the in H e e tib le words gener- •

a l ly , w ith in the in fle c ted su f f ix e s , w ith in p a r tic le s (p articu lar ly

the f in a l or ex p le tiv e p a r t ic le s ) , w ith in the in ton ation , and even

w ith in the. sub jective choice of one word over a n o t h e r . T h u s , a kakari-

jo sh i l im its and r e s tr ic t s the chinjutsu of th e sentence in much the

same way th at a fuku-joshi lim its and r e s tr ic t s the jo ju tsu , or narra- .

t iv e elem ent.of the sentence which l i e s in the subject,, i t s m odifiers

and the adverbs. This fu nction al s im ila r ity of kakari and fuku-joshi' in

terms of th e ir r e s tr ic t iv e q u a lity has led to some p h ilo lo g is ts , such as

Yasuda Kiyomon, t o include kakari-josh i w ith fu k u -josh i. Tokeida Mootoki

f e e ls that th is lim itin g q u a lity i s of primary importance and that both

kakari-joshi and fu ku -josh i, and p ossib ly even h er itsu -jo s h i ■(enumerat-

ing p a r tic le s) ought to be discussed as 11 jo sh i which express limitation.'^*®

The.k a k a ri-jo sh i.which are l i s t e d below as those which w i l l be.

d ea lt w ith in th is paper, are those which the. KKK Report Number 3 . in - -'

eludes as governing p a r t ic le s :

-17. I b id . , 650. .

/ .. " 18. I b id ., 139. •

1 , datte

2. demo

3 . koso

it. mo ■

3 . nante

6 , . nari

7 . sae

8 . sh ik a .

9 . shimo

10. sura

11, - t ( t )a r a .

12, t (t)e b a

13. to te

lit. t.te.

13= wa -v

There are two p a r tic le s on th is l i s t which, are particularly■unamenable

to c la s s if ic a t io n , Wa and mo are not considered;case p a r tic le s by any

prominent a u th o r it ie s , but are u su ally included as k ak arl-josh i,

Matsumura1s category of kakari-joshi includes them even though most o f

the p a r tic le s included on the above l i s t do not appear in his sectio n on

kaikari-joshio M atsushita Daizaburoo and Sakuma Kanae have each estab­

lish ed 'sep arate categories for these "topic-" (as d is t in c t from "subject-")

designating p a r t ic le s 0 And y et even they h in t.th a t because these par­

t ic le s sp ec ify the general subject (daimokugo) they have some in fluence

on the construction of the sentence. I f th is i s so then these p a r tic le s

would have to be included among the kakari-.joshi as Yamada and Hashimoto

have statedo"^ However, th is debate i s far from closed and the c la s s i ­

f ic a t io n of wa, and to a le s s e r degree, mo, may s t i l l be considered

uncertain.

The follow ing sentences have been chosen from the se le c tio n pro­

vided in The National Language Research I n s t itu te 's Report Number 3 ,

Gendaigo no Joshij Jodooshi—-Yoohoo to J it s u r e i , unless otherwise in d i­

cated , The various headings for the d ifferen t usages of each p a r tic le

are tran sla tion s or adaptations of those headings found in the KKK Report,

Sometimes s lig h t changes or additions have been made for the sake of

c la r if ic a t io n .

CHAPTER 2

FUKU-JOSHI -

T ■ 'Bakari

Indicating degree or approximation follow ing q u an titative words

Example 1 : Soo iu ojoosama wa tatam i.no ue o funde in a i yoo

na karusa de5 su tto chikayotte yuki> kusuribin o motte modotte kuru to ,

hanbun bakari h a ftte i ta kohaku-»iro. no,- o-ktisuri .o sakasa ni. sh ite ,,

ensaki kara niwa e su tete shimaimashitab -.

Now that you ask me, when the ojoosama, so l ig h t ly as i f she .:

weren’t treading on the tatam i, had q u ie tly approached and brought back

the medicine b o t t le , she emptied from the edge of the veranda in to the

garden the medicine b o t t le , f i l l e d about (almost) half way with amber-

color eds medic ine<.

Limits the scope of the ap p lication ,. follow ing various words

Example 1 : Tokpro ga koko n i noberarete iru yoo na koto wa

sekai no ooku no kuniguni de wa mochiron, Nihon demo shuusen ir a i sudeni

ippan ch ish ik in in no aida de wa jooshikika sh ite iru kotogara bakari

de aruo : ■ ' ' : ; :

By the way, however, the kinds of th ings mentioned here are

merely those things which, of course, are common knowledge among the

lo The. follow ing examples have been taken from the Kokuritsu ■ Kogugo Kenyuujo. (hereafter abbreviated, as KKK) Report (1951) 5 201-203o

ru n -o f-th e-m ill educated , and informed in many countries of the worldj,

and which, sin ce the war, have already become common knowledge among

in te lle c tu a ls generally in Japan0

. Example 2 ; Too no Suzan wa masumasu kare n i netsu. o agete,

matsuwari-tsuku bakari da0

The Susan we1 re talk ing about became more and more enamored of

- him and ju st ta g s ,along a fter him, .

Bakari de_wa_nai

Example I s Soren wa Maasharu keikaku ya Kita Taiseiyoo Jooyaku

, n i miru S e i1oogawa no gu n jitek i k e iz a ite k i danketsu. no uchi n i, ta iso

hoo'isen no kiken o k an jite iru bakari de haku, sarani Sei-Oo shihon-

shugikoku no keik i kootai o. yosoo sum tokoro kara, sono k e ik i k a ifu -

kusaku to sh ite s e i 1Oogawa ga iyo iyo gunbi kyooka o hakaru mono to m ite,

sensoo n i taisuru fuankan o tsuyomete. i m 0

Not only does the Soviet Union fee l, t he danger of an a n ti-S o v ie t

. war o f containment w ith in the West European m ilitary and economic unity

they see in such things as the Marshall Plan.and the NATO Treaty but,

furthermore, they have strengthened.-:their apprehension about warj an- ■

t ic ip a tin g a depression among Western c a p ita l is t nations, th ey see .th e . .

West’s increased build up of m ilitary in s ta lla t io n s as a plan for the

recovery o f prosperity.

Bakari-ka., (More c o llo q u ia l. and, emphatic than -.‘’’bakari de wa nal ) —3

Example 1 : Kare’wa benkyoo o sh inai bakari ka sh igoto mo sh in a i.

Not only won’t he study, he won't work e ith e r 0

16

Example 2 ; Sore ga nodo v a p ita r l shaberanal bakari ka, hajime .■

. wa hita-kakushi n i kakushite yaganda.

W ell, th is time not only has he shut up lik e a clam , but for a

while he's been stubbornly covering up,

. .o-Te bakari ir u ,

Example 1 ; Sonna n i asonde bakari in a id e , sukoshi wa benlgroo

sh i nasal, ,

Instead of ju st playing around, do study some, •

Bakari n i . . (Conjunctive usage)

Example I s Roodoo-kumiai ga kore o kobanda bakari n i , -Shakai

Minshutoo kakuryoo n o s o o ta ij in ga okori5 sore ga kekkydku minshu-shugi

no te k i no tame n i michi o hiraku kien o tsukatta ,.

Just because the labor union rejected i t , the mass resignation

of the S ocia l Democratic cabinet occurred and th a t, as a r e s u lt , pro­

vided the opportunity for the enemies of democracy.to get th e ir fo o t in

the dooro-

Expressing an impending situ a tio n .

Example I s Sukkari nizukuri o s h ite , hakobi-dasu bakari n i n atte

iruo

I 'v e completely fin ish ed packing and am ready to carry i t out,

. -N bakari . /

Example Is Aite wa kubi o katamukete, makoto n i fu sh ig i na o - .

tazune da to iwan bakari no kao o suru0.

The other.guy cocked his head/with an about-to-say-"What a

strange question'* expression on his face*

Example 2 ; Tatamj n i h ita i o suri-tsu k e su r i-tsu k i5 gookyuu sen

bakari no wabikata d atta .

The way he apologized was to rub h is head back and forth on the •

tatami on the verge o f v io le n t tea rs,

.To_ba^|ri- .

Example I s Koowa k a ig i to iu yoo na kokuminteki kadai o karugam-

shiku toriatsukai,: sore mo kokkai kaikaichuu wa yatoo n i enryo Sh ite ka

moku-shi, heikai to naru ya matte i ta to bakari n i i c h i j i no seiryakuteki

toori-tooryaku da majime na kokumin n i aranu yume o id ak esetari suru0

They treated l ig h t ly a matter of such national concern as the

Peace Conference, and. w hile the D iet was in sess io n , perhaps out o f re­

gard fo r the Opposition Party, they remained s i le n t about i t j and, as i f

ju st w aiting fo r the se ss io n to end, as a temporary p o l i t ic a l expediency,

they had the people embrace a fa ls e dream*

Example 2 ; Tanaka-san ga yuuwai de am to bakari, kenji wa2 • -hanashitsuzuketa*

The prosecuting attorney kept on talk ing ju st as i f Mr* Tanaka

were gu ilty*

Indicating a s itu a tio n th at has ju st occurred

•Example l i Obsaka Sakaisuji de saru juuyokka shoogo goro onna-

jim u-in fu ta r i o jidoosha de o so i, girikoo kara h ik idashita bakari,no

■ ■ 2* This example has been e l ic i t e d from our.native speaker,S h io ji H iroki. .

' ' ' ■ : ; ; v v ; 1 8 : ;genlcin yaku pokuman1 en o goodatsu sh it a gyanguda.n jiken ga aru.

About noon of the lltth in Osaka's Sakaisuji there was a gang

incident in whieh^- using a car, they attacked two women o f f ic e workers '

and robbed them of about 60,000 yen they had:just withdrawn from the banks.

Dake3

D elineating the degree or extent of the s itu a tio n , action or thing.

Example I s M nshu-shugi to iu kotoba naraba dare mo ga s h it te

iruo Shikashi minshu-shugi no hontoo no i m i o s h it te iru h ito ga, dore

dake aru daroo ka.

Everybody knows the term "democracy, 11 but I wonder ju st how

many persons know the true meaning of democracy.

•qoo ooo dake *00

'Example 1 ; . Kane o mookereba mookeru dake, n ingenga iyashiku

naru no ga ippan de aru®

Generally speaking, the more -money one makes . the meaner one gets®

Examnle 2% Ano h ito n i aeba au dake aitakunaku naru®' ■ . ' ' ' ' - - k " - 'The_more .1 meet that guy the le s s I. want, to meet hdmio

o .00Bake sore dake® ® ®.

Example 1 : Ano mise wa takai® Ga ne ga takai dake sore dake- ;'

shina. ga yasu i ..koto, mo tashika da® •

3® The follow ing examples have been taken from the KKK Report- - .( I 9 5 l) , 6I4-660 '

. It® This .example has been e l ic i t e d from our native speaker,S h io ji H iroki, ; - , " .

19

That store i s expensive. And you may be sure th a t the q u a lity

i s Just as cheap as the price i s high.! '

Example 2s Tanaka-san no nooto -wa gojuu-en desu. Shimizu-san' v ' ■

no nooto wa nana-juu-go-en desu* Shimizu-san no nooto wa nijuu-go-en

bun dake sore dake a tu si desu, .

Tanaka1s notebook i s f i f t y yen, Shimizu* s i s seven ty -five yen ,

Shimizu's notebook i s tw enty-five yen 's ..worth th icker (th icker ju st by

the amant of tw enty-five y en )c

Example 3 ° Kawa no mizu wa ame ga fureba furu dake sore dake

fueru, .

. The water in the r iver increases only by as much as i t ra in s,

, . oDekiru dake, , ,

. . . Example.1 ; O oi-ni hatsugen sh ite itadaku k ikai o dekiru dake

tsukuru to iu henshuubu no i to daroo to omoimasu.

I t appears to be the in ten t of th e e d ito r ia l o f f ic e s to create

as fa r .as p ossib le opportunities to.have you speak out f u l ly , •

, , .Dake no koto wa aru

Example, 1 : Kono kazokti ka ig i wa mainichiyoobi gogo hirakareta,

Sosh ite tok i to sh ite awaya kenka sawagi no naroo to sh ita koto mo a tta

gas k a ig i o hiraku dake no koto wa. a t ta .

This, fam ily council was held every'Sunday. And a t time i t

n ea r ly ;wound up in a squabble, but i t was worth th e trouble to hold, the

co u n cils .

20

Dake a tte .

Example 1 ; Da ga sh ikash i5 sasuga wa ten sa i gaka Takizawa E ij i

kun no saku dake a t te , korya subarashii hyoohonzu da0

But th is i s a splendid sample chart ju st because i t i s the work-

of the ta lented a r t is t Takizawa E ij i (by v irtu e df i t s being. <,«,) „

.Dake n i.

Example I s Chuukyoo-gawa ga korio yoo: na jinbutsu n i kyooryoku o

motometa koto wa hajimete de aru dake ni toku ni.chuumoku saPeru,

I t i s a l l the more noteworthy j u st because th is i s the f i r s t

time the Chinese Communist side.has sought the cooperation of th is so r t

o f person.

Limiting the scope to that expressed immediately before

Example 1; Koto n i kyooiku bumon n i kanshite wa gakkoo dake

kyooiku suru ba de wa nai no de aru.

In p a rticu la r , as far. as educati. onal f ie ld s are concerned, the

school alone (s o le ly ) i s not the place fo r education,

. Example 2s Nan to naku fu ta r i dake de hanashitaku natta .

Somehow I began to want to ta lk , ju st the two of us.

Dake de (wa) nai.

Example I s Koto wa kyooiku bumon dake de.wa n a i.

This matter i s not only the province of education.

. Example 2: ■ Kore wa Chuugoku jinmin no shoori de aru dake de naku

Zensekai jinmin no shoori de aru.

21

This Is not ju st a v ic t o r y , for the Chinese people.. I t i s a

v ictory fo r the people of the .whole world.

Hodo'V.

Indicating approximate qunatity or degree s follow ing the pre-noun ko-so-a-do ser ie s .

Example 1 ; Sono j in s e i kooroo no ue ni dore hodo no meian ga

atta de aroo ka.

How many3 one wonders s were the pains and pleasures o f his l i f e 1s

. path? -

Example 2 : Hawaii kanojo no uchi 'h i, kore hodo mo shikkari to ,

ch i-n i-a sh i-o -tsu k eta kangawkata ga hisonde i ta no ka to miharu omoi de -

aru0

I t was eye opening to fin d a p ra ctica l way o f thinking lurking

th is strong in th is sweet . . l i t t le g i r l , .

Having brought up a given matter, in d icates degree of action or condition (of that matter.).

Example I s Okuyakashii kappa, ga, amai taishuu to to k e -a tte ,

nayamashii hodo n i, kanojo no hana o utsu no d esh ita .

The elegant scen t, blending with her sweet body odor, bombarded

.his nose a lmost d is tr e s s in g ly (to the point of being a te a s e ) . .

Example 2 ; Kazue wa soo tazu n eta .tsumori deshita ga, kuchi kara

• soto e koe n i natte deta ka, denakatta no ka wakaranai hodo,.deta to

sh ite mo, sore wa, hikui koe datta no d esu ..

Kazue meant to have inquired, but, assuming she did speak, her

$ 0 The follow ing examoles have been taken from.the KKK ReportCi95i ) s 205-206o ■

■ 22

voice was go low that i t was im possible to t e l l whether sound l e f t her

mouth or not.

Hodo no koto wa nai

Example 1 : Masahiro-kun no hoo wa. . .sh inpai sh ita hodo no koto

wa n a lo , Ureshi-soo n i nikoniko waratte iru de wa nai ka«

There's no c a l l to worry about Masahiro0 Wasn't he grinning as

i f he were happy?

Nani hodo no. . . . omo nai . ' _

Example 1: Kojin no s e i j i t s u nado nani hodo no koto de mo n a i, •

Such things as individual s in c e r ity amount, to nothing at a l l .

Example 2 g Hi;to no issho n i kane nado nani hodo no- mono de mo '■ ' . 6 , v -. O :;:■■■ ■ . ■ ■naio

In a man's l i f e money■and the l ik e have no s ig n ifica n ce whatso- ,

ever.

Expressing a b asis for comparative degrees

Example 1 ; Rinyuu to iu no wa seigo shichihachikagetsu n i naru

to bonyuu bakari de wa te tsu sonota no akachan no hatsuiku n i hitsuyoo :

na seibun ga fuSofcu sh ite kuru tame to 5 ima made hodo suibun o hitsuyoo

to shinaku n ari5..bonyuu no suiban: ga oosugite hitsuyoo na yoobun ga

tori-nikuku naru tame n i hajimeru no desu,

. The reasons, fo r weaning a r e ; ; (1) a fter the ch ild i s seven to

eight.months o l d w i t h mother's milk alone there w i l l be a lack of iron

6o This example has been e l ic i te d from our native speaker, . .Tom O kita. .

' ' \ ' 23

and other elements necessary fo r a baby’s development, (2) when not so

much f lu id as h itherto i s necessary, there i s too much f lu id content in

mother’s milk and the intake of necessary nourishment becomes d if f ic u lt*

Hodo,».-wa n a i- •

Example I t Hataraita ato de g u tta r i-to tsukarete ie n i kaette

k ite , sanjoo hitoma no jibun no kashima de fu ta r i de kaki-komu shokuji

hodo, o is h ii mono wa arimasen deshita *

There •was nothing SO d e lic io u s as to come home from, work u tte r ly :

exhausted and, in our own s ix by nine ( three mat) room, to eat together*

Example 2 g Shigoto no ato no tsumetai b ijru hodo o is h i i mono

wa nai*- 7

There i s nothing so d e lic io u s as a cold beer a fter work*

Used when a r ise in the degree of one thing or s itu a tio n i s equaled by proportionate r is e in the other thing or s itu a tio n ,

■ Example Is Mingen to iu mono wa, kane o mookeru hodo, kechi-

kusaku naru mono da*

The more money people earn, the s t in g ie r they get*

o * * “*5s * ooo hodo

Example I s Sore n i, tsukuzuku to nagamereba nagameru hodo, , ojoo-

sama wa, utsukushiku, kedakaku, shitoyaku na no desu*

And b esid es, the more you watch the ojoosama, th e more b ea u tifu l,

d ig n if ied and la d y -lik e she seems *

7o This example has been e l ic i t e d from our native speaker,Tom Old. ta * . . .

Following an in terro g a tiv e , forms an in d e fin ite

Example I s Kaku byooto no akari ga. nanika o sasayaku yoo n i

shiznka n i yurete iru«

The lanterns of each ■ward are q u ie tly swaying as i f whispering :

somethingo

Example 2 ; Shikashi fu ta r i wa, dooshitara ju tsu ga tokeru no ka

wakaranai no de, (akirameta)

But s in ce neither understood how the magic might be figured out^

(they gave up).

Ikura-ka . nanda-ka. naze-ka. .

Example 1 ; Sore de wa dooshite-mo ikura-ka kurui ga demasu kara .. -;-.y : 10 . ■■ - - . •

(hoka no hoohoo o kangaete kudasai)»

Well then, since some discrepancies w i l l turn up no matter what:x

you do, (p lease think up another method)e

Example 2 ; . Uraganashii omoi n i sasowarete, sonna mono ornoi n i .

shizunde iru uchi n i, Kazue wa, nanda-ka hidoku nemutaku natte kim ashita0

Seduced by sad th o u g h ts,w h ile deep in that kind of r e f le c t io n ,

Kazue,.without knowing why, became extremely sleepy .

So The follow ing e xamples have been taken, from the KKK Report(195%), l l - l^ o

9 , This sentence has been completed by our native speaker,S h io ji Hiroki,

10, This sentence has been completed by our n ative speaker,.S h io ji Hiroki, .

Example 3 : Watashi mo, naze^ka namida ga afurete k ite , sMkata

ga nakatta.

For no particular reason my tea rs , too, began to w ell up and I

couldn’t do anything about i t .

Kanj-ka nashi ni« nani-ka (suru koto) (kangaeru koto) nashi ni '(sim ilar to nani ga 'nashi 'rii)

Example 1 : Onaka no su ite iru kodorao wa, nani-ka: nashi n i tsukue■ " ; ' 11 '

no ue no tabemono o tab eta ,

The hungry ch ild ate the food on the tab le without a second

thought. . .

. Example 2 ; Sore ga Nihon kokumin n i taisuru "zooyo11 de aru no

ka, Nihon se ifu n i taisuru '’Kashitsukekin” de aru no ka, j it s u wa izen

to sh ite meikaku de wa naku, nani-ka nashi n i s e ifu wa dore o uketotte

tsukatte iru kakko n i .nafte i t a 0

The fa c t i s th at i t was not yet c lea r whether i t was a g i f t to

the Japanese people or a loan to the Japanese government, but i t seemed

that the Japanese government had accepted i t and was using i t without

regards for the consequences<>

Following other words which express conjecture or a fe e lin g of doubt, carries a meaning of ’’perhaps”

. dr the subjunctive mood of English.

Example i s K i-no-sei ka, kaoiro ga sukoshi aozamete sa b ish ii soo

de, Kazue o mite iru me ga, namida de urunde demo iru yoo na no desu.

Perhaps i t was ( i t might have.been) my fancy, but his complexion :

11. ' T his.example has. been e l ic i t e d from our native speaker, S h io ji Kiroki. . v

■ ■ 26

was a l i t t l e pale and sad and i t did even seem that the eyes with which i;

he .was looking at Kazue.were dimmed, w ith tea rs ,.

Example 2 ; Gobyooki n i sawaranu yoo n i .sulcoshi zutsu o -k ik i- /

suru watakushi no to i n i, shizuka n i kotawte kudasaru, Omoinashi ka

Junko-san no hitome wa, kirakira to nurete iru yoo n i, watakushi n i wa

omowareta.

To the questions that I asked a few at a time so as not to a f­

f e c t her i l ln e s s , she q u ie tly rep lied . Perhaps i t was my imagination

but i t seemed to me that Junko's-pupils were sparkling with tea rs,

Kamo sh ire n a i, ■ '

Example I s Sore wa j iyuu no kotenteki gainen de am to i t t e mo

y o i kamo sh iren a i.

Perhaps one may say that i t i s the c la s s ic a l concept o f freedom,

. . K iri12 .

Expressing a sense of lim ita tio n .

Example 1 : Futari k ir i de soo y a tte , kata no koranu seken-

banashi o sh ite iru no o, kare wa kono ue mo naku a r ig a ta i mono n i

omowarete naranakatta.

He couldn't help thinking that there was nothing more welcome

than engaging in l ig h t ta lk —ju st the two of them.

Example 2: "Osewa-ni-narimashita, Hayamizu-san," K eikichi wa, .

r e i no to o r i, damatte unazuita k ir i deshita,.

“ Thank you very much fo r your help , Mr, Hayamizu," K eikichi , ■

ju st nodded his head s i le n t ly , as usual.

1 2 , The .fo llo w in g example's have b een ta k e n from th e KKK R e p o rt(1951), Uo-ui,

■ / - . 2?

■ Example 3 : “Ma, ,Ken-chan tara } 11 Yasue wa soo i t t a k ir i j Isolde

tsukue no futa o ooimashita.-

Just as Yasue sa id , Ken-chan i s i t l , 11 he hurriedly closed

the l id of the desk.

Generally acting in concert "with a negative verb, carries a meaning of " sin ce ,11 "therefore," "afterwards," or "as of*"

Example 1 : Etsuo fu ifu to narande Isamu ga suwatte iru ,

Yuketsu o sh ite kureta k ir i , byooin n i mo kao o das zu, kyoo no shootai

n i mo Etsuo no kage n i kakurete suwatte iru no d atta , ""

, Isamu sa t beside Etsuo and h is w ife . Since giving me a blood

transfusion he had not shown his face in the h osp ita l and even on today’s

v i s i t by in v ita tio n he was s i t t in g hidden behind Etsuo,

Example. 2 ; (w ith a p o sit iv e verb)s Shookichi wa, gakkoo wa kyoo13

k ir i fuyu-yas.umi n i hairu, '

For Shookichi the school winter recess s ta r ts as of today.

S ore(k )k ir i •

Example .1; "Omine-sama. Tashika n i choodai itashim asu."

Tsutsut to dete i t t a . Sorekkiri, moo Ono no sugata mb Omine-sama mo

Ryuukokuji kaiwai kara mattaku mirarenai,

"Omine-sama, I 111 d e f in ite ly take i t ." He s t e a l t h i ly went out,

. From then on neither hide nor hair . of Ono or Omine was se e n :around t h e •

Ryuukokuji (temple) anymore,.:.

13o T his'example- has been e l ic i t e d from our native speaker, S h io ji Fhroki,

Kurai (Qurai)^

Indicating approximate amount or degree.

Example 1 ; Myooshun no Sangi-in senkyo n i wa H injitoo to sh ite

wa hachi-juu-mei kurai no toosen o mokuhyoo to suru.

The Minjitoo (Democratic Liberal Party) aims to have about

eighty e lected persons in the e le c tio n for the Sangi-in (House of Coun­

c i lo r s ) next springo-

Example 2 ; Ato, dono kurai kakarimasu kashira, .

About how much longer do you suppose i t w i l l take?

Indicating the extent or degree of a condition or an action:

Example 1 : Sumi-kara-sumi-made umorete mieru kurai na no

d esh ita .

I t almost seemed to be buried under, every nook and corner0

Example 2 ; fa no k isetsu n i is a rinyuu-keika no ic h i n ich i de

susumu tokoro demo, natsu wa n i-san n ich i kakeru kurai n i shimashooo

A lthough,it i s the progress made by one day of the process of

weaning in other seasons, in summer l e t ' s nearly take two or three days.

- -Kurai dakara (By:emphasizing an extreme c a s e / i t _ se ts up the argument that the other cases w i l l •

follow the same pattern) " ' ' ' •

. Example 1 ; Sonna koto o iu kurai dakara, a itsu nani o shi-dekasu

ka wakaranaio

Judging from the fa c t that he has said such a th ing, th ere1s no

t e l l in g what he might do,

lU« The fo llo w in g exam ples have been ta k e n from th e KKK R eo o rt ., (1951), hi-1,3.

Providing a basis for comparison.

Example 1 : Hayabamai ga sakunen kurai hayaku dereba kootensuru

to omou.

I think the .situation w i l l improve i f the r ic e show up as early

as la s t year,

• Example 2 ; . Nanishiro, ooki na uchi kurai mo aru kyooso nan

dakara ne.

Because, . you know, i t was a g igantic elephant, as_ big as_ a house.

Kurai.. ..wa n a i. kurai. ...w a mare de',' k u ra i....w a sukunai

Example 1 ; Kyoo no Nihon de wareware kurai j iyiju n i nan demo

yareru mono wa n a il

In present day Japan nobody can do things as fr e e ly as we can.

Weakening or. soften ing a.statem ent by i l lu s tr a t io n

Example I s Warera n i kawatte saiban sarete iru no da to iu

kimochi gurai wa a tte mo you no de wa nai ka.

I sn ’t i t b etter that, we, rather f e e l (more or l e s s , f e e l) that

they have been tr ied in our p lace, ■

. . . Kurai- nara

Example 1; Kare noypo ningen to soko e iku kurai nara shinda

hoo ga y o i,

. I would rather die than go there with a man l ik e him.

30

• Made^

Indicating the sp a tia l extent of the action or condition , -

. Example 1 : Nani h ito tsu , Icoko made wa kikoete kimasen.

One hears nothing (ou t« as far as) here.

Example 2 ; Ooyoo no kata ...wa uketsuke made.

For those of you who have business p lease come to ( as far as)

the information desk.

...K a ra .,,.m a d e , ( functions Hike a case p a r t ic le )-

Example I s Mizokuchi kara Asakusa made ich ijik a n no doraibu wa,

Masahiro-kun- n i to t te umarete hajimete no tanoShii keiken daroo.

An hour’s drive from Mizokuchi to Asakusa w i l l p r o b a b ly be for .

Masahiro the f i r s t pleasant experience sin ce he was born.

Indicating the temporal extent of the action or condition.

Example 1 : Rinyuu o aki made npbashite yoj baal to warui baai

to arimasu.

There are cases when i t ’s good andlcasesA when i t ’s bad to post-*-

pone weaning u n t i l .f a l l .

Example 2; Shikashi, wareware to sh ite mottomo chuumoku seneba

naranu.no wa kyootei s e ir i t s u ni itaru made no Soren no taido no

kyuuhen d e a r i , sono sh in ’i de aru.

However, what we most have to pay atten tion to i s the sudden

change in Russian a ttitu d e and th e ir true fee lin g s prior to th e -c o n -..

e lu sion of the agreement.

l5 . The follow ing examples' have been.taken from the KKK Report(1931), 206- 208. ;

' . ;■ 31», .Made - n l •„

Example 1 ; J ik i kokkai made n i Mihju to Mnshu Inukal-ha to no

goodoo wa ari-eru kamo sh iren a i, .

I t may be that there can be a merger between the Liberal Demo­

cra tic Party (Minshuu Jimintoo) and the Inukai fa c tio n of the Democratic

Party (Minshuutoo) by the next sessio n of the D iet,

Example 2 ; “Yukkui dekiru tsumori datta kedo, sanji-han made, n l

kaeranakerya naranai no y o ,n

“I t was my in ten tion to be able to stay longer, but I have to

return home b^ th re e -th ir ty ,

Itsumade.mo • '

Example 1 ; Kazue mo, nazeka, jibun demo wakaranai nakidashisdo

na kimochi de, ojoosama to mukai-atta mama, itsumademo j i t t o damari-

konde im ashita,

Feeling as i f she were about to cry—fo r reasons she h erse lf

didn’t understand—Kazue, a lso , s t i l l facing the Gjoosama, subsided in to

m otionless s ile n c e fo r a (an in d e fin ite period of) tim e,

o o oKara,. . .made, .

Example 1: Zensai kara dezaato-koosu m ade,,.

From appetizers to d e s s e r t ,„,

Limiting

Example 1 s Sono nagasa no hanbun gurai made d a ita i onaji fukasa

. n i nui, . ;

Sew a seam o f ab o u t th e same w id th to a p p ro x im a te ly th e .halfw ay . :

p o in t o f th e l e n g t h , . , . ' .

. 32

Example 2 : Jiko no seinpo o kyokugen n i made tenkai sh i-e ta to

lu tegotae sonomono no uchi ni aru.

(S a tisfa ctio n ) l i e s in the challenge i t s e l f of having been able

to d isp lay one’s own a b i l i t ie s to the utmost,

...Made n i. (ind icating the extremity o f the degree) :

Example 1 ; Mata kono sho wa toku n i kyoosan-shugi nomi o hihah

sh ite iru wake de wa naku5 Hitoraa ya'Musorini j id a i no iwayuru F ash i-

zumm. ,hi t s u ite mp kanpu-naki made ni hihan sh isa tte iru no de aru.

' This doesn’t mean that th is book p articu larly c r i t ic iz e s Commun­

ism alone, but a lso scath ingly (to th e :extentrof leaving nothing un­

c r it ic iz e d ) c r i t ic iz e s the so -ca lled Fascism of the H itler-M ussolin i

Period.

...Made mo. . (in d icatin g the.extrem ity of the d egree).

. Example I s "Anata wa ..sonna n i made mo boku no koto o omotte

kudasaru n desu k a .”

”Do you think about me that much (to that e x te n t)? 1’

Example 2 ; Sakana wa. hen na a j i ga suru dake de naku3 n io i 16made m owaruio

I t ’s not ju s t that the f is h ta s te s funny, even i t ’s sm ell i s bad.

Made (no koto) da

Example 1 ; Teiden sh itara nete shimau made da.

When th ere’s a power fa ilu re I ju st go to s le e p .

16o.; This example has been e l ic i te d from our native speaker,Tom Okita.

- 33

Example 2 : Sonna in takai.no nara, kawanai made no koto da.

IVhen ( i f ) i t ' s that expensive we ju st don't (won't) buy i t «

. . »Made- t o o . nai (made no koto wa nai)

Example 1 : .¥aga too mo Kyoosantoo to wa a i- ir e n a i koto wa iu

made mo nai.

I t goes without saying that my party a lso i s not compatible w ith

the Communist Party,

Example 2 ; Korio kurasu wa tetsuya sh ite benkyoo sum made no .

koto wa n a i, " V

For th is c la ss you don't have to study a l l n ig h t ,^ .

• Doko made■

Example I s Anna koto o iu nante doko made zuuzuushii n daroo.

How impudent can you g e t , . saying things lik e th a t. ■18Example 2; ..Kare wa doko made tsu yo i no ka wakaranai.

There's no t e l l in g how strong he i s ,

Aku made.

Example I s Misuta Teiraa wa aku. made mo kanojo to omo n i toobyoo

sh i, kenkoo no shoori o e te kara hontoo no kekkon o suru no d a , . . t o , maru

ikkanen byooin de hatarakinagara kanojo no zenkai o matte ir u , .

Mr. Taylor p er s is te n tly (to the utmost) fought o ff her i l ln e s s at

her side:, (Saying) that they'd achieve a rea l marriage a fter she'd

achieved a health v ictory; and he waited for her complete recovery for a

f u l l year, w hile working a t the h o sp ita l.

' 17. This example has -been e l ic i t e d from our native speaker,.Tom Okita.

l 8 . This example has been e l ic i t e d .from our native speaker, Tom Okita.

3 k :

Presenting and emphasizing an extreme case and implying other unexpressed cases.

Example 1 ; Shikashi, sukkari uma no tsumori n i natte iru saim in-

ju tsu -sh i a'a s uma no kuse made arawashite, atoashi de pokari (to ketta) o

However, the hypnotist who completely b elieved him self to be a

horse, exhibited even the behavior of a horse, (kicking out) 1 crack *

with h is hind legs*

Nado (Nazo, Nanzo, Nanka)^

Exem plification and epitom ization. S ettin g up one thing as exemplary of i t s class,.

Example 1 : Abekawa mochi nado goku yoi mono desu.

■ Such t hings as Abekawa r ice cakes would be very good.

Example. 2 s . Shuuberuto, "Mikansei1* nanka daisuki.

I very much l ik e such things as Shubert! s “Unfinished Symphony011

S ettin g up a l l previously, enumerated things as exemplary (representative)

. Example 1: A jisa i ya benitsubaki ya shakuyaku ya kakitsubata

nado, hana no saki-m idareta hirobiro to sh ita niwa no naka o (tanoshiku

aru ita),,'^

¥e (enjoyed walking) through the spacious gardens in which such

flow ers as hydrangea, red cam ellias, peonies, i r i s (and the l ik e ) were

blooming in profusion,

19o The follow ing examples.have been taken from the KKK Report( 1 9 5 1 ) ,1 3 1 -1 3 3 .

20o - This sentence has been completed ..by bur native speaker,Tom Okita, '

Example 2 ; Ka ya hae j a nanka. irdru to , boku wa yahari Icami

nanka ga nai no da to iu k i ga sh ite kuru n .da. '• •

■ When I see the lik e s of mosquitos and f l i e s I s ta r t to f e e l as

i f there were no God or whatever (Power) a fter a lio -

A manner of speaking which makes l ig h t of or reduces the force of what has ju st been c ite d , removing i t to the realm of i l lu s tr a t io n or abstraction rather ■ than an actual s itu a tio n .

Example 1 ; Watakushi wa gunkoku-shugi n i doku-sareta h itob ito

no sokuseki o nokosoo nado to iu i s h i .wa mochiron motte inai«

To be sure I have no intentldri of doing any such thing a s;;re-

ta in ing traces of persons poisoned by militarism o

Example 2 : Sh iirareta kekkon nanka, shitaku arimasen wa ne,

yappario

I won’t, have, anything at a l l to do laith any such thing as a

forced marriagef : .

. Nomi^: ■

Expressing lim ita tio n of something,

• Example I s Mata kono sho wa toku n i kyoosan-shugi noml o hihan

sh ite iru wake de wa naku, Hitoraa. ya Musorini j id a i no iwayuru Fashi-

zumu rd tsu ite mo kanpu-naki made n i hihan sh i sa tte iru no de aru.

This i s not to sa y ,that th is book p articu lar ly c r i t ic iz e s Com­

munism alone, but a lso scath ingly c r i t ic i s e s the so -c a lled Fascism o f

the. - H itler-M ussplini ■'peidpdo vrif .

. • 21 o The follow ing examples have been taken from the KKK Heport(19<1), 179-180. . . , ; , :

- ' . ' 36

Example.2 ; Puroretaria dokusai no noto de wa, sonzai sh i-eru

se ito o wa tada .h ito tsu , Kyoosantoo aru nomi de am .

Under the d ictatorsh ip o f the p ro le ta r ia t, the only party able

to e x is t i s the Communist Party a lone.

Nomj narazu.

Example 1 : Ga, sore haku sh ite kojin wa ikirarenu nomi narazu,

shakai mo mata, sone naku sh ite sonzai shi-enu de arooe

But, -without i t , not only cannot the ind iv idual e x is t , (but)

neither can society* .

Conjunctive use of nomi narazu.

Example 1 : Wareware wa.sude•n i, . .„ soto kara ataerareta jiyuu

wa, ooo jiyuu to sh ite wa mansoku na mono de wa nai koto o m ita. Nomi

narazu kano s e i j i t e k i jiyoo mo, ..» g en jitsu n i wa n a r ita ta n a i.koto ga

shirareru de aroo „

¥e have already observed that freedom bestowed from without i s ■

n o t sa tis fa c to r y as freedom* And not only th a t, but ( furthermore) i t

i s rea lized that in truth such p o l i t ic a l freedom i s not real* . ;

, Tara22

Following an in terrogative w ord,. in d icatin g in d efin iten ess or uncertainty.

- Example. 1 : Te o fu r i kao o yugamete nanika sakende iru ga nan- •...

no-koto yara wakaranai*

He i s waving h is 'hands, making a face and shouting somthing, but

. w hat/'(it i s ) I don't know,

22 * The fo llo w in g exam ples have been ta k e n from the-KKK R e p o rt(195D, 225-226* v ;

37

Example 2 ; Kyuushin bunshi. dake ga '•‘Tennoosei o ta o se l!V to

iu koto o iid asu no desu ga, ippan n i wa nan no koto yara sappari waka-.

ranai. '

Only the rad ical elements are saying: "Down with the emperor

system lR but in general one . can 't make anything of i t a t a l l ,

Wa doko e ■vara-

Example 1 : Katte no tsuyogari ya puraido wa doko e yara, ima %a

niko no Daifukumochi n i kokoro o ugokasareru no de atta*

Previous bravado and pride ca st a sid e , now.he’s moved by (a g i f t ,

of even) two "daifuku" r ic e cakes«

Example 2 : Kinoo made no shinpai wa doko e yara, kyoowa ■

koofuku-s oo-ni kurashite ir u 0

Yesterday’s worries a l l forgotten , today he l iv e s in seeming

happinesso

D oo^ara..

Example 1 : Futari ga..,hanashinagara aru ite iku uchi n i doo yara

michi o machigaeta-rashiku, tondemonai tokoro e dete shimaimashita„

While the two of them were walking along ta lk in g , apparently •

they took the wrong road somehow and ended up in an u n lik ely p lace0

Example 2 : Sono meshitaki mo, doo yara hitorimae n i natta koro

0osaka n i h a itta no da ga„ '

That-apprentice too had entered Osaka about the time that.he'd

barely come of age. ' •

' Example. 3 ° .Akegata kara ame ga yande doo yara wa sukoshi wa

harema no miesso na asa de aru.

The rain l e t up at dawn and i t ' s a morning when i t appears that

we ju st might have a few clear periods.

Nani yaray

. Example.1 ; Nani yara nazomekashii kotoba o nokoshite, ikibotoke

wa choodo sebone no a ta r i n i hane demo haete k ita yoo n i , ukiuki-to

Ryuukokuji n i kaette i t t a 0

Leaving behind somewhat enigmatic words, the sa in t ly p r iest -

went ja u n tily back to the Ryuukokuji, ju st as i f he'd sprouted wings

near his backbone„

Example 2 : Kono ikibotoke ga muramichi o shirota.bi n i feru to -

ura no s e t ta , kesa no sode no naka h i juzu :o tsumaguri-nagara, nahi yara

okonai-sumashita kao de aru ite yuku t o , . , .

As the sa in tly p r ie s t , w ith a somehow smugly benign expression,"

went walking down the v i l la g e s tr e e ts wearing white tab i in f e l t lin ed

se tta (san d als), while fingering the beads of his rosary w ith in the

s leev es of his s u r p l i c e , .

Itsunomaniyara. .

Example 1 : . . .Karadajuu o atsuku s h ite , itsunomaniyara te o

a g eta ri, ashibumi s h ita r i sh ite , kokoro kara tokekonde u ta tte im ashita.

A ll aglow, I was pouring my whole heart in to my singing, un­

consciously ra isin g my hands and stamping my fee t and the l ik e .

To vara. ■ (D eliberately muddling the sentence toreduce the emphasis on a certa in thing) , "■ '

Example 1 :• Katsute Kasumingaura de wa p airotto no saiyoo n i

te k ise ik e n te i to yara o ya tte i t a . ' .

P reviously .a t Kasumingaura they were doing some-sort-of* a p ti­

tude t e s t for employing p i lo t s ,

Zutsu^ .

Indicating rep e titio n of equivalent things or matters '

Example 1 : Eakase wa matte iru kanja o h ito r i zutsu ir e ta .

The doctor admitted the w aiting patien ts one by one,

. Example 2 : Zengayu ga taberareru koro n i nareba, matchibakodai.

no shokopan ni joosh itsu no tennen bata o nutta mono, ya, (areba u su giri

no ch iisu o soeru) goku yawarakaku n ita ryooshitsu no udon mo yoku,

mochi mo yanarakaku n ite sukoshi zutsu agemasu.

When..he gets so that he can. eat heavy r ice gruel w e 'l l g ive him

a l i t t l e each of such things as matchbox-size p ieces of bread spread

w ith top q u a lity natural butter (accompanied by th in ly s lic e d cheese i f

you have it .)—good q u a lity wheat noodles (udon) boiled very so ft are a l l

right too—or r ice cakes (mochi) boiled s o f t .

Example 3 1 Kono remshuu o hanjikan gurai zutsu mainichi yaru

' :to, sono kooka wa. mekimeki arawarete kuru yOo. '

I f y o u ' l l do these exercises d a ily , each about a half-hours the

r e su lts w il l r e a lly appear,

. Indicating the d istr ib u tio n of equivalents

Example 1 : Zenki kaku hooan n i o ite wa, izure-mo bengoshi

shikaku .o gensoku to sh ite "Nihon kckumin taru se i-n en sha de a t te ,

shihoo shuushuusei no shuushuu o o ita mono" to sh ita ue (kaku an no

23, The following examoles have been taken from the KKK Report(1959),. 60-61, \

ho

Dai-yon-joo) jakkan zutsu no r e ig a i o k i t e i sh ite iru (doo Dai-Go joo)

no de aru„

In a l l of the previously mentioned b i l l s (a r t ic le four of each),

in addition to s tip u la tin g "an adult Japanese c it iz e n who has completed

ju d ic ia l training" as a general p rincipal for the q u a lif ic a tio n o f law­

yers (they) have provided for some exceptions each (a r t ic le f iv e of each ).

N i . . ozutsu. ■

Example 1; Me de-sorottara , tochoo sh inai yoo ni- h fatari no

yo i tokoro n i d ash ite , honba sanyo-mai no koro roku-senchi heihoo n i ■

hitokabu zutsu ishoku shimasUo

When a l l the buds are out, I put them.in a sunny place so they

won’t get too leggy and when they have three to four leaves I.tran sp lan t

them, one fo r each (every) s ix square centim eters».

Example 2 s "Kazoete mitara, tar in a i n da, Sannin n i fu tatsu

zutsu gurai shika nai n da yo,"

.. "When I tr ied counting them, there wefen’t enough (to go around),

We’ve only got about two for every three persons (two for each three •

person group)0"

CHAPTER 3

KAKART-JOSHI '

Datte^

Indicating things which seem to be particu lar at f i r s t glance but which in r e a lity are not excep- . tions-but merely things'which are sim ilar in circumstance to other general.cases.

. Example 1 : Koko no taishoo d a tte , ammari matomo ja arimasen.

Even .the boss here i s not very honest.

Example 2 ; Ima netsubyoo de shinikakete iru yatsu-ra d atte ,

jibun dake wa shinan to kataku omoi-konde iru n la nai ka.

I s n 't i t so that now even the fellow who i s dying of fever i s

firm ly convinced,that he alone w i l l not d ie .

Example 3 : Ima no kono j i s e i wa, yoppodo benkyoo dita kangaete

minai 10, oya h i datte wakaranai koto ga zuibun takusan aru mono ne«.

At the present tim e3 there are plenty of cases where these

trends are not understandable even to parents unless they study them

and ponder them a. lo t and see ,

Ikura, , , datte.

Example 1 : . Ikura keishichoo datte nengara-nenju oomonodane ga

aru hazu wa arimasen yo ,

No matter how much of a m etropolitan p o lice o f f ic e i t i s , there

i s no reason to expect big news a l l the tim e,

1 , The fo llo w in g exam ples have been ta k e n from th e KKK R ep o rt(1951), 66-68, '

h i

Un­

j o i n i n g a pair of word to make them representative of other comparable, but non-s"bated instances

Example I s Okaasan, i t s u Tookyoo n i kaeru no? Moo otomodachi

. wa minna kaetchatta "wa yo, Uragami~san d a tte , Sugiyama-sah d a tte0e0

Mother, when are we returning- to Tokyo? Already a l l our friends

have returnedI Even Uragami-san and (even) Sugiyama-san,.„

Following an in d e fin ite and in conjunction w ith an a ffirm a tiv e 'word, expresses complete affirm ation- '

Example 1 : nWarui wa, m u rijii suru no, uta nante ki ga muita

tok i ja nakucha utae ua shiriai wa, bkaasama tachi m itai n i i t ta r a , dare •

datte utaenaku naru ja nai no«n

“You mustn't! Forcing her! With things: l ik e songs, you can’t

. sing at a l l i f you're not in the mood. I f you urge (her) l ik e your

mother and your guests (are doing), -wouldn't-anyone at a l l get so she

couldn't sing?"

Following an in d e fin ite or. a word of number, quantity or degree, and in conjunction with a negative word, expresses complete negation. .

Example 1 s Uchi no okamisan wa watashi no sh ita koto n i ippen

datte hantai sh ita koto wa arimasen yo0

My w ife has never opposed what I did, even once.

Demo2

Setting up an extreme" ca se , making i t analogous to other unstated ca ses .

Example I s Satoko wa iwayuru "bijin" de wa naku, kami no:ke wa,

- , 2» The fo llo w in g exam ples have .been ta k e n from th e KKK R e p o rt :(1951), 98-99. ;

■ - h3

sukoshi ,tkuseu ga iru no de, y u ita te no .toki demo, shimada no "mage" ga,,

kokoro mochi nage-yatta . yd n i mieru.

Satoko i s not what you might c a l l a "beauty," and because her

hair i s a l i t t l e unmanageable, even when i t i s ju st done, her shimada

hairdo seems to have an a ir of n eg lect.

Presenting things which seem to d iffe r from other general ca ses , but cannot rea lly bo considered to be exceptions

Example 1 ; Aki kara rinyuu.o hajimeta hoo ga y o i no desu ga,

gyuunyuu ya yagi no ch ich i ga te ni hairanakereba, natsu kara demo

rinyuu n i kakaraneba narimasen.

I t i s b etter to begin weaning from autumn (on), but, i f you

cannot put your hands on cow's milk or goa t1s milk (th en ), you should

begin weaning even in summer. . . . . . .

’ Example 2; Sono yoo na a s se i demo,. ooku no h ito b ito n i to t te wa,

taga i n i toosoo sh ite iru y o r i mo, mushiro tasuke ni naru to kangaerareru

de arooo

Better than struggles among them selves, i t can be judged that ■,

even that sort of oppression i s h elp fu l to the la rg est number of people.

Donna,..demo-

- Example 1 ; Chizuko no in a i j in s e i wa, donna tanosh ii koto ga .

a tte mo kokoro no soko kara warezu, donna o ish ij mono demo, ajiw atte .

iru ki. ga sh inai no deshita . . . .

Life withou'Chizukos . no matter how pleasant thing were, he

couldn’t laugh from the bottom of his heart; no matter how d e lic io u s

things were, he d idn 't enjoy the ta s te , v

hh

Follow ing.an in d e fin ite , rein forces the ■ p o s it iv e in ten t of. the in d efin ite-

_ Example I s Wareware ga mita yoo na, nan,demo i i , nan demo, suru ■

koto ga dekiru, to iu katachi de w a .v ...

I t seems to us to be a s itu a tio n -where one can do anything at

a l l and say anything at a l l .

. Example 2 : Wareware wa j i s s a i no shakai seikatsu de wa, nan

demo suki. na koto o i t t a r i , sh ita r i suru koto wa dekinai6

In actual s o c ia l l i f e we cannot do such th in gs as say or do

whatever we like* .

Presenting. something by way of an.example or i l lu s tr a t io n w ith an im plication that there / may be other more su ita b le things „ . May .carry an innuendo of contempt.

Example.1 : "Oshirogurafu" demo tsukawanakereba 5 namigata no

kansoku wa muzukashii.

I t i s d i f f i c u l t to measure the wave s iz e unless you use a t . l e a s t

an oscillograp h ,

Kosop.t

Emphasizing the nominative.

Example I s Ikkoo no ningun ga ika n i ik ita ka, mata ika n i

shakai n i kooken s h i, aruiwa gai o oyobashita ka, to iu koto koso

ta ise tS u de aru.

How-:, a . man .as ah ind ividual l iv e d his l i f e o r , again, how he

contributed to so c ie ty or did i t injury; such things indeed are s ig n i f i ­

cant , -

3 , The fo llo w in g exam ple 's-have been ta k e n , from th e KFK R ep o rt( 1951) , 50- 52 , .. .

Kosowa

Example 1 : Sore koso wa ippan sangyookai ni o ite goku shoosuu

no kyodai dokusen shihon nomi no kyuusai no tame nShuuchuu Seisan1* to

“Eigyod Goorika'* no na no moto n i kyookoo sh i-tsu tsu aru tokoro no

minzdku sangyoo, chuushoo shookoogyoosha e no futan tenka de a r i , sh ita -

g a tte , roodoosha no tairyoo kubik iri no g i s e i tenka no ikkan de nakereba

naranaio

That (p o licy) indeed i s a sh ift in g of the burden to household-

industries^ that i s , to petty m ercantile companies and in d u stries :whom

(the government) i s putting the squeeze on in the name o f "concentration

of production" and " ra tion a liza tion of industry" to help out only the

grea t m onopolistic c a p ita l is t s who are extremely few.in the in d u str ia l ■.

world as a whole| and, accordingly, i t i s n ecessa rily a lin k (in the

chain of) transferring the sa c r if ic e to the workers (in the form, of)mass

f ir in g s » •::: ,

. Sore koso. (Adverbial usage) .

Example 1 : Nagai a ida, k a je i no shufu to sh ite sugoshite

korareta katagata n i wa, ik in a r i soto no tsutome o motsu to iu koto wa,

sore koso kankyoo no ich id a i kaikaku demo nai k agiri wa, totemo mozomeru

koto de wa nai deshoo„

Unless there i s a great change in circumstances; (unless) that

indeed (happens), having a job Outside the: home a l l o f a sudden i s .

surely something that'those.women who have passed for a long, time th e ir •

l iv e s as housewives can hardly hope fo r 0

, . »Koso.; . . (in tern a l koso of emphasis -which althoughoccurring Intern a lly acts like~& -final p a rtic le )

Example 1: 'iCinoo wa ojama itash im ashiteo’* "lya, kochira koso,

; Okamai\shinai de sh itsu r e i shimashitao.11'..

" I’m afraid I disturbed you yesterday*" "Wo, i t i s I (who am at

f a u l t ) . Excuse me for having been a poor host,"

Example 2 ; Sekai de ichiban takai yama eberesuto. 'NsBnnsnnen no

yuki n i owareta shinpi no yama, Sekaijuu no tozanka wa ware koso to

i t t e ichiban nori o kuwadateta. Daga dare mo tochuu made shika noro~.

renakatta,

E verest, the world’s highest mountain: a mountain o f mystery

under the snows of how many tens, o f thousands o f years. Over the world,

mountain climbers have contrived to be the f i r s t up, to say i t is I

(indeed)» However no one has been able to climb more than part way.

Emphasizing words other than the subject

Example 1 : Kurushii keiko no naka n i koso, daisenshu ga umareru

no da,

. I t i s in hard training i t s e l f ( i t i s by v irtue o f hard tra in in g) f

that the great player i s produced.

Example 2 ; .Kyojin no dajtin wa sanban no Aota desu. Benpushii

mo sakan n i ashimoto o katamete, kondo koso kenmei no r ik ito o desu.

Third on the Giant’s batting order i s Ao ta , ' Even.(the p itcher)

Dempsey i s firm ly planting his f e e t on the ground, and th is time fo r

sure At w i l l be touch and go.

Example I s Mata k y o j in no Nakashima uyokushu ima de k o s o '

“b e n c h i11 n i i t e hotondo s h i a l 'n i dgmasen g a 3 w akai g en k i na koro „

S t i l l th e G ia n t 's Nakashim a, th e r ig h t f ie ld e r - —n o w ,,i t i s t r u e ,

he s i t s on th e b en ch , h a rd ly e n te r in g th e game^ b u t i n h is day o f y o u th ­

f u l v ig o r .

Example 2s Kirai kara .e h u u 'i o s h ito k u n nara kansha koso s u r e s

ok'dfu k o to wa arumaio

I f th e a d v ic e comes from y o u , h e ' l l a p p r e c ia te i t to be s u r e , . y

and -won't g e t mad*.'

Example 3 : K uchi n i koso o -d a s h i-n i -n a r a n a k a ita kedo k u y a sh i-

k a t ta deshoo n e .

You d id n ' t p u t i t in t o so many w ord s, t h a t ' s t r u e , b u t I b e t you

w ere g n a sh in g you r t e e t h .

Mo

I n d ic a t in g th e c o e x is t e n c e o f s e v e r a l m a tte rs o f s im i la r c ir c u m sta n c e s

Exam ple I t M attaku c h i mo namida mo n a i k esh ik a ra n u h an ash i de

aru* .

I t i s a sc a n d a lo u s s t o r y c o m p le te ly w ith o u t e i t h e r b lo o d or ..

t e a r s ( c o ld h e a r t e d ) 0

Example 2 s . Konna in sam ui no n i , sum i mo maki mo k a en a i n j a , ..

y a r ik ir e n a i . , .

ito The f o l lo w in g exam p les have b een tak en from th e KKK R ep ort(1 9 5 1 ) , 209- 218.

Not being able to buy e ith er charcoal or wood, even.when i t i s

th is co ld , i s in tolerab leo

Example 3 s Muzukashii shigoto no te-kagen o oboeteshimau to ,

Kazue n i to t te mo, Chizuko n i to t te mo, hataraku koto wa,, sonna ni tsu -

ra i koto wa arimasen d esh ita .

The work was not so trying e ith er for Kazue or for Chizuko when

they learned the knack of d i f f i c u l t work.

Placing things together a rb itra r ily ,

Example 1 : Arae mo furu sh i, kaze mo fuku®

The rain f a l l s j a lso the wind blows®

.ooGa (wa).o.mQo (In th is case the matters are placed together in orders . . ,ga occurs before and figu res more importantly than" , . » m o ) ~ ' "

Example Is Hiryoo yoosoo ni t su ite ch isso ga motomo kankei ga

fukaku, k a r i, rinsan, mo tashoo kankei suru®

Concerning the elements in f e r t i l i s e r , nitrogen /has the deepest

rela tion sh ip ; potassium and phosphoric acid a ls o .have some rela tionsh ip

Example 2 s Ojoosama ga, heya e agatte kuru to , orizuru-tachi

mo, w are-o-arasotte kaette kita®

.When the Ojoosama came in to her room, the “orizuru" (folded

paper storks) a lso came crowding back (into, her; memory)„

Example 3 s , Ninensei ho tanki-daigaku ga dekiru.nara, sannensei

no kookoo o ninen enchdo s h i , kyuusei koosen o yokosuberi n i sh ita

gonensei no kootoo gakkoo mo dekite yoi®

I f we can have a two-year junior c o lle g e , then by extending the

three year high' school system by two years we might as. w ell have a lso

a f iv e y e a r h ig h sc h o o l t h a t w ould s l i p back in t o th e o ld h ig h s c h o o l-

S etting up a pair of words as representative of a l l cases -

Example 1 ; Inaka kara} inkinari daitokai no manmannaka e hoori-

dasareta n jay n ish i mo higashi mo wakaranaku naru no wa, atarimae ja

nai ka«

I f one i s abruptly flung from the country plop down in the.mid­

d le of a big c i t y , i s n ' t i t only natural to wind up so confused that you

know neither East nor West, . - •: .

Following an in d e fin ite and in conjunction with an affirm ative hord, expresses, to ta l affirm ation

Example 1: Minshushugi t o . i u kotoba naraba, dare mo ga sh ite

iruv,

I f i t ' s the word "democracy," everyone known ito

Following an in d e fin ite or word o f number, quantity or degree, ..and in conjunction with a negative, expresses complete negation-

Example 1: Nan no kankei mo nai. to kangaerareru ka mo shirenai.;

I t may be thought ..to have, no rela tion sh ip at a l l .

Example 2 s Hitotsu mo nai no de a ru ,.

There i s not any at a l l . (There i s not even one)„

Example 3? Konnichi, odorokubeki koto n i h ito r i no s e i j i

hihyooka m o,sonzai..shinai de wa nai ka. vn . .

Surprisingly enough, these days doesn't i t seem that there does

not e x is t even a s in g le p o l i t ic a l c r i t i c .

v .

Presenting matters in a form, ■which makes an analogyz hinting at the ex isten ce o f other things in sim ilar circumstances already known or anticipated .

' Example I s Goshujin ga amerika no hoc dakara daroo, eigoo ga

nakanaka tassha de, sore mo ookina tsuyomi daroo to omou.

She i s very flu en t in E nglish, probably because her husband i s

an American—th a t, a lso i s a big strong p oin t, I think.

Example 2 : Soo iwareru to Kazue mo, t s u i sono k i ni nari, byooki

de mo nai ojoosama o byoonin atsukai n i suru hata no h ito ta ch i no hoo.ga .

ikenai no da to omoimashita.

■Having been to ld th a t, Eaaui too came around read ily enough and

thought to be wrong those others who accorded sick-bed treatment to the

ojoosama who wasn't r e a lly s ick a t a l l . .

Example 3 : Uchi e kaereba ta tta h ito r i de imooto no kantoku mo

shinakereba n a ra n a i..

When she returns home, she must a lso supervise her one and only

younger s i s t e r .

Example h :..S o r e wa shakai zen ta i n i t su ite mo onaji yoo n i

kangaerarete yo i no de wa nai ka.

Even w ith regard to the whole of so c ie ty , i s n ' t i t so th a t i t

...Mo aroo n i ,

Examole 1? Hi to mo aroo ni, ano ra'nboosha ra ta te o tsuku to wa,

■ kimi mo yoppodo dokyoo no aru otoko da . ne, ' V ■'

To think of taking on that ru ffia n , of a l l people—-you a lso are

, a man w ith .a lo t 'o f guts!

Presenting;the topic of immediate- concern, suggesting ■ that i t has been included in some su itab le category or other, without saying c lea r ly to what i t i s sim ilar .

Exampl e 1 : . Nagai Chuugoku no haisen mo ima ya kyuushoku ni

shuuketsu n i chikazuite iru«

The■ long Chinese C iv il War a lso i s now sw ift ly approaching an

end0 /

■ , Example 2 : Koo sureba,. natsu no rinyuu.mo anshin sh ite dekimasu.

I f you do i t th is way, you can accomplish even summer weaning

peacefully*

Example 3 ° Sooren no i to ni t s u ite wa, seioogawa ni mo shuju no

kansoku ga aru=

Concerning the S o v ie t’s in ten tio n s , in Western Europe a lso there

are various opinions,

o * »Ivlo i i ga

Example 1 s Eiga o mi n i iku no mo i i ga, a no hito-gom i no koto':

o kangaeru to chotto n i no ashi o fumazaru o enai.

Going to see a movie i s •a l l r ig h t to o , but when I consider th ose::

crowds, I cannot help having second thoughts.

««°Ka mo shirenai

Example 1 ; Sore wa jiyuu no kotenteki na gainen de aru to i t t e

mo y o i ka mo . sh iren a i„

- I t may be that (perhaps) one can say i t was the c la s s ic a l con- .

cept of freed o m o .

52

Sore mo-

Example 1 ; S h iite , bishoo o kao n i ukabeyoo to sh ita no deshita

ga, sore mb kuchi no a ta r i ga fushizen n i h ik itsu tta dake no koto d esh ita .

He tr ied to force a gr in , but even with that ( even then) a l l that

happened w as.that his-mouth twitched,

. . .T o mo ieru , , . . t o mo kangaeraferu. , . , t o mo mirareru. (Amoderate opinion, an expression of.m ild in sis ten ce ) *

Example I s Kore wa h itotsu no sokubaku de a f i , jiyuu no. seigen

de aru to mo kangaerareru.

This can a lso be thought of as (be considered a s) an ob stacle , a

r e s tr ic t io n on freedom. ;.-

. . ..T e mo y o i .

Example I s Sore wa jiyuu ho kotenteki na gainen de aru to i t t e

mo y o i ka mo sh iren a i, . •

Perhaps one may say (i t . i s a l l r ig h t to say) that that i s a .

c la s s ic a l concept of freedom.

Presenting the inconspicuous or unusual case to stand fo r the whole sphere which extends to the stated exaggeration ..

Example 1 ; Ghuukyoo to sh ite wa jikoku senpaku mo fusoku n i

' kangami,. g.enzai yori mo ooku no gaikokusen ga Ghuugoku n i d e ir i sum

. koto o nozonde o r i, hitsuyoo to areba.:. gaikokusen o c ha at a a suru koto

mo kangaete iru .

Cp^hhnist China, fo r :heh:.part.> in View of the lack o f nationally .^h

owned shipping . and -wanting far. mOre foreign ships than a t present to

' • . . ■ 53

have tra i'fie with :China, has been thinking even of chartering foreign

ships- i f need be.

Expressing a strong .negative assertion when . accompanying a negative predicate

Example 1 ; Moo mimuki mo sh inai de, , , . tsukue o tsum i-agete i t a .

He was stacking desks without even looking around any longer.

Example 2 : Ojoosama.no kao ga, usuyami no naka n i honojiroku

ulciagatta mama, sh ita o sashi-utsum uite, bidoo mo sh in a i no desu,

The Ojoosama's face continuing to f l o a t .dimly white in the gloom,

she lowers her gaze and doesn't so much as s t i r .

I llu s tr a t in g an approximate degree, when followed by a word of doubt or conjecture-

Example 1 ; Ni-juu metoru mo aroo ka to omowareru takai tenmaku

no teppen de wa. hashigo-nori no kyokogei ga hajimatte iru .

At the top of a ten t .which could be thought to be a l l of twenty

. meters high, the ladder-top stunts have begun.

Emphasis

Example I s Kore hodo mo shikkari to , ch i n i ash i o tsuketa

kangaekata ga hisbnde i ta no ka to , me o miharu omoi de aru.

That adult thinking, stab le even to th is ex ten t, l i e s hidden .

ju st under the surface, i s a thought to open wide one's eyes,

, , oYori mo

. Example .1 ; Hons ho zentai no buns hop .wa junsui dokorb. de wa naku,

. "gskkyuu" no buntai yori mo jaariarisuto no b u n ta i.n i ch ikai zokushuu no

:aru mono da,

The composition o f • the en tire tex t i s not only a l i t t l e impure,

i t i s a work of vu lgarity approaching the .journalistic s ty le more so

than the academic s ty le .

. . .Ni mo kakawarazu

Example 1: Kojin" no s e i j i t s u ga keibetsu sareru shakai wa insan

na s a ig i no r in r itsu no uchi n i mizukara horobite yukaneba naranu. Ni

mo kakawarazu, kojin no s e i j i t s u wa akiraka n i genkai n i ta ssh ite ir u 6

A so c ie ty which scorns ind iv idual s in c e r ity must continue to

perish of i t s e l f in a fo r e st of sad and gloomy susp icion . Nonetheless, .

in d iv idual s in c e r ity has c lea r ly attained the l im it .

' Example 2 s Sosh ite sorekara demo sude-ni yonjuunen o essh ite

iru . Sore n i mo kakawarazu ima-nao seihookei-ue ka chOohbokei-ue ka to , -

taue no ta b i n i omoi-mayou hito no ooi no wa dooshita koto de aroo ka.

And even sin ce then we've been reviewing (the subject) for fo rty

years already. In sp ite o f which, how is i t th at, at r ic e planting time,'

there are so. many people confused over whether (to use) rectangular or

square p lanting.

. . .Ni mo sevo. ' .

' Example 1 : Shirooto no bokura n i wa, to o te i wakaranai sekai de

aru n i mo seyo, tobaku to iu yakuzateki. senzai ga Nihon no minshuka no

seichoo o mushibande iru koto dake wa tashika de aru.

• Granted that to us amateurs i t i s an u tte r ly incomprehensible

world, s t i l l i t is. certain; that: the w orthless ex istence c a lled gambling,- ,

i s worm-eating.', the" development of Japanese dem ocratization.

• - ; 55

.e.Hade mo nal . - /

. Example I s . ¥aga too.-mo kyooritsutoo to a i- ir e n a i koto >ja iu

made mo n a i.. .

I t i s needless to say that- our party .also, i s incompatible w ith

the Communist party.

. . o .Taya mo sureba., . . . t o mo suru t o .. . , _

Example I s Sakkon no Nihon n i m s .:3 to mo suru to busshitsu no

tame n i te iso o o kaeriminai yoo na asahaka ha jo se i ga i t e , sono tame n i

hontoo ni ju n 'a i kara shuppatsu sh ita mono mo; fujun na mono to machi-

gauareru osore ga aru.

In today's Japan there are sometimes (l ik e ly to be) fr ivo lou s .

■women o f the type who forget th e ir ch a stity fo r the sake of m aterial

thingsj and because o f them th ere 's the danger that even what r ea lly

started out as pure love w il l be mistaken for the s u llie d th in g , -.

’ Example 2 g Korera no mondai .no rongi n i s a i- s h ite tsuukan suru ..

koto wa5 ronsha ga, yaya mo sureba kongo no.5 shoorai n i okeru bengoshi .

ga ika n i aru beki ka, mata, a tte h osh ii ka to iu iwaba shoorairon, .

risboron to 3 genzai no bengoshi naish i bengoshikai aruiwa, moo h ito tsu

hiroku i t t e bengoshi seido no genjoo ga koo de aru kara sh ita g a tte , kore

o kooshitara, to iu genzairon, genjitsuron to ga, toriagerareru gutai.

mcndai' o koto-ni-suru goto n i, mata wa, kore o ronzuru h ito no tachiba o

koto-ni-suru goto n i, hana.hadashiku konsen saserarete iru to iu koto

de aru. . . '

What one fe e ls most keenly when these problems are being d is ­

cussed i s that there i s the lik elih ood for the disputants to become ’

entangled in so -ca lled futurism and idealism (what the lawyer o f the

future ought to be and what we'd l ik e to have him b e), to become en­

tangled with presentism and realism (because the present s itu a tio n i s

what i t i s with regard to everything from lawyers to th e bar a sso c ia tio n -

or, expressed a l i t t l e more w idely, sin ce things are as they are in the"

lawyer system- i f we do thus and so about i t * . . ) every time th ere's a

d ifferen ce between the concrete -problems taken up, and every time th ere's

a d ifferen ce in the standpoints o f the d isputants»

dNante ■

I llu stra tin g - something w ith a fee lin g of wishing to se t i t aside or ignore i t as being contemptible,

Example 1 : Onna n i amattareru nante,. otoko rashiku nai wa yo0

■ Fawning over a woman and th e .lik e i s unmanly!.

- - 5 - ■ ■Nari (Mari t o ) .

Presenting something as an i l lu s tr a t io n w ith the' unspoken im plication of the lik e lih ood of the ex isten ce of better,.examples -

. Example 1 : Boku n i n ari chotto i t t e kure sae shitara yokatta no

m. ne» ; ■

. I wish he had only mentioned, i t even to me ( i f only to me)e •

Example 2 : “Izure e nari to haizoku sasete ita d a k ita i, yaku n i

wa tatanaku tomo, kiken na tokoro nara izuku domo kekkoo desu,'* to k a ita .

He wrote, “I want to be assigned anywhere a t a l l ; though I may be

of no use, a s-lon g .as i t i s a dangerous place, any place i s f in e ," ,;

5o The follow ing examples have been taken from the KKK Report(195D, 13i4o

6. The follow ing examples have been taken from the KKK Report. .' (1951), 133.

.57■ ' 7 ’ ‘ . -Sae

I llu s tr a t in g by emphasizing an extreme.' case, thus suggesting the other general cases

Example 1 : Sore ga sokkoojo no kiroku to hotondo i t c h i sh ite

iru to iu hpokoku sae aru.

There i s even a report that that almost agrees w ith the records

of the weather s ta tio n .

■ Example 2 : Shujin n i wa shosai ga. a r i , kodomo n i wa ascbiba ga ■

a r ij jochuu n i sae jochuubeya to iu supeesu ga mookerarete iru . Shikashi

shufushitsu no aru juutaku wa kiwamete sukuna.i0

Fop the master of the house there i s a studyj fo r the children,

there i s a playroom; why, even for the maid there has been provided, a

space c a lled the maid's room. However, there are very few residences

which have a housew ife's room#

o o.Sae mo •

Example 1 : .Nanajuunana-s.ai no konnichi de sae mo mada sono

migonashi to kizen to sh ita arukikata wa, kare ga umarenagara.no undooka

de aru koto o shim eshite iru .

Even today at seventy-seven years o ld , his s t i l l dauntless manner,

of walking and his carriage in d icate that he i s a born a th e le te . ...

. . .S a e . . .dakara. .

"Example 1: Otona de sae. ichoo o sokdnau koto ga ooi no desu

kara, binkan na akach.2n no ichoo. wa chotto sh ita ijo o no sugu eikyoo.

sare, tachimachi g er i o okoshite shimairaasu. '.

. 7 o The following., examples have been 'taken from the. KKK Report(1951) ; 5U-55- •

Because there, are.many cases of in te s t in a l disorders even among

ad u lts , the g a s tr o -in te s tin a l tract of a se n s it iv e in fant w i l l be a f­

fected immediately by the s l ig h te s t abnormality and quickly contract,

diarrhea. 1'

In the form of . .y s a e . . »ba,-. expresses’ a hypothetical condition Which, i f i t e x is t s , % ill produce certa in consequences

Example I s Anata ga suki da .sae areba, hareru n i tsu rete

jootatsu shimasu,

■ I f you only lik e i t , you w ill-im prove as you g et used to i t .

' Shika8 . -

Expressing-complete denial n ith 'th e exception of a s p e c if ic th ing, when in conjunction with a negative f in a l verb.

Example 1 : Rokujoo hitoma de, tsukue to honbako shika dbogu wa

nakatta.

I t was a six-m at room and had no furniture but (other than) a

desk and a bookcase,. :.

Example 2 % Taigan no hi de -atte wa naranu hazu no mono de wa

aru ga, j i j i t s u u a ta ig a n no hi de shika nakatta no de aru.

I t shouldn’t have been (ju st) fo r others to concern/themselves

in ( l i t e r a l ly , ’’a f ir e on the other bank"),, but, as a matter of fa c t , i t

'

8. The follow ing examples have been, taken, from- the KEK Report .

5'9

Shimo-

Holding a thing up for sp ec ia l emphasis.

Example .1: Kore o shimo "jidoo no kenkoo oyobi fukushi ni

yuugai de naku, katsu- sono roodoo ga k e i ' i de aru—Rookihoo dai-gojuu-

roku joo ic h i11 to ieru sagyop de aroo kae

the health and ■welfare of children and th a t, in addition , such work w i l l

be l ig h t and easy—Labor Standards Act, Section 56, A rtic le 1."

. . »Mada shimo ... •

Example 1; Joochoo no mutonjaku.ni kuraberu nara, sono h ito no

ayamatta handan ya muchi no hoo ga mada shimo yurushi-ya su i no desu.

When compared w ith h is superiors' in d ifferen ce , h is mistaken

judgment and ignorance i s s t i l l somewhat ea sier to forg ive .

In conjunction with an in d e fin ite , it- expresses to ta l affirm ation.

Example 1 : Tooku sokoku o omoi, fubo, s a is h i , p n -a i no. kizuna

tach igatak i wa, dare shimo motsu kojin no kanjod de aru.

Thinking o f one’s homeland fa r away, and the d if f ic u lty o f

severing the bonds of father and mother, w ife and ch ildren , and love and

kindness— (th ese) are the fee lin g s o f anyone at a l l .

The co llo ca tio n kanarazu.shimo. :

I wonder i f we can c a l l even t h is , work "that i s not harmful to

Example 1:■ Besuto seraa kana s himo, ryoosho de wa n a i.

A best s e l le r i s not n ecessarily a jgood book. ■

9 . The follow ing examples have been taken from the KKK Report(1951)5 59-60

Emphasizing something by in d icating i t s le a s t extreme case, thus suggesting other general cases

Example 1 : Fukai imi ga aru dokoro ka, sono kotoba doori no

imi sura a r i wa shinai*

There i s not even any l i t e r a l meaning, l e t alone any profound.

meaning.

Example 2 ; Sashizume Ka-wanakajima de ik in a r i Uesugi Kenshin n i

kiritsukerar.eta Takeda Shingen to i t t a tokoro da, ly a , Shingen via tossa

n i, sa tto gunbai de tach i o uketometa ga, Mori-no-Ishimatsu wa sono

gunbai o dasu koto sura wasurete iru .

At the moment he (Mori-no-Ishimatsu) can be compared to Takeda

Shingen »ho was slashed-suddenly by Uesugi Kenshin at Kawanakjima, No!11Shingen in sta n tly parried the sword-with-.his, gunbai, - but Mori-no-

Ishimatsu has forgotten even to take his gunbai outo -

Example I s Mata kogarashi ga fu it e k ite omoide sura mo fu k ito -

basuo ■'

A cold winter began blowing again, blowing away even our mem­

ories 0 .

10o The follow ing examoles have been taken from the KKK Report .(1951), 61-62o

11, A gum ai i s - a large , ceremonial fan carried by high-ranking m ilitary p erso n n e l,'

61

Example 1 ; Sasayaka naru shizuku sura, nagare-yukeba uni to

naru<, Ai no ch iisa k i w za sura mo, ch i oba kami no kuni to nasan.

Just as a tin y drop of water flows on to become an ocean, so

a lso , the l i t t l e arts of love may make a paradise on earth»

i . .S u ra ga

■Example 1 : Nihonjin to iu Tooa no bunkaken no naka.ni sodatta

ningen ga, seiyoo bunmei—sore o uni-dashita honke-honmoto no se iy o o jin

sura ga hotondo mote-amishikakete iru mono—o wazuka hanseiki hodo no

aida n i shori. sh i sokonetakara to te , aruiwa sore hodo no ookina chijoku

de mo nai ka mo sh iren a i.

I t may be not such a huge disgrace that the people raised in the

Eastern Asian cu ltu ra l sphere, such as the Japanese, have fa ile d to cope

in a short h a lf century w ith Western cu ltu re—which even the Westerner,

whose homeland gave b irth to i t , has begun to find too much to.cope witho

12Tara (Ttara)

. Indicating a person as the topic and makes him ; /the object of blame or critic ism -

Example 1 5 Kaoru-san, tara , narti yo kono kakkoo wa„

Oh, Kaoru-san, what kind of appearance.is that?

Example 2 ; Doo sh ita n deshod ne. Otoosan tara .

■ h’hat in the world could have happened. Oh Father I '

12o The fo llow in g examples have been taken from the KKK Report(1951)s 660 ' ■ -

; ' ' ■ ' ; .62

Teba (Tteba)13

Indicating -a person as the to p ic , making him 'the object of blame or cr it ic ism , . : '

■ • Example 1 : Otoosan teba akambo n i in m itai na koto, os sham

uda mono„

You know father ( l i t e r a l ly , Iri f i t ' s father you’re talk ing

about11) , h e ' l l speak to me as i f he were talking to a baby»

Tote^^

Indicating something that cannot be considered an exception, but i s sim ilar to other g en era l.ca ses , .

Example 1 ; Washinton Daigaku no mondai wa shuuritsu daigaku de-

atta tame h i shuu no ham-Kyooritsu Hoo n i y o tte okotta no da ga, sh ir itsu

daigaku to te mo k essh ite nami-shizuka de wa naio

The U niversity o f Washington’s problem happened because i t i s a

s ta te u n iversity subject to the s ta te 's anti-Communist le g is la t io n , but

even for the private u n iversity the waters are by no means calm0

I t e 15

Making-a word or phrase the top icj performing the same function as to iu no wa -

.. Example 1 ; lya da, kowai h ito i t e nani sa„

Gome o ff i t , what do you mean—c a llin g me a frigh t?

13o The follow ing examples have, been taken from the KKK Report(1 9 5 1 )/9 2 o

lito The follow ing examples have been taken, from the KICK Report (1951), 123. '

15 o :. . The follow ing examples, have been taken from the KKK Report..(1951) , 7lto

■: : \ : ;/ : . ■; ■ : . ■ 63

S etting up part: o f a question as the topic .o f the answer, to parry a question.

Example 1 ; Doo suru t t e , Tookyoo de wa shigoto ga mitsukaranai :■

kara, toobun kochira de kurasti y o r i shikata ga nai no desu.

n¥hat".do do?" you ,ask— (w ell.) sin ce I cannot find work in Tokyo,

there i s no choice but to make my liv in g here for the present.

Indicating the e s ta b lish ed . topic as d is t in c t from- other general cases

Example 1 ; Konnichi no kyooiku wa kokumin zentai no tame kyoblku.

de aruo ■ "

(As fo r ) Today's education, ( i t ) i s education for a l l the people»

Example 2% Hihyoo se ish in wa naruhodo gen jitsu o kyohi suru»" ....

(As fo r ) The c r i t ic a l s p ir i t , ( i t ) indeed denies r e a lity . ;

To wa 'y :

Example 1: Hihycoka n i t o t t e - - iy a , sono mae n i , bokutachi

ippanj in n i to tte--k oj:in no s e i j i t s u to wa i t t a i nani mono de aroo ka„.

To the c r i t i c —no, before th a t, to us ordinary people—what in

heaven's name kind of thing i s that which we c a l l the s in c e r ity of the

in d iv idu al.

Indicating a-top ic by v irtu e of being previously sta ted , or righ t before one's eyes. • -• /

Example I s . Shashin wa 2n gyoosei inchoo0 j

' The photograph i s En, the head of the adm inistration.

■ loo The following examples have been taken from the KKK Report. .; ( i ? 3 i ) , i 8 o - ip h , I .- ' : ' ;- .

: . : 6u _

Example 2 : Boku ga kore made kataratte k ita koto wa, tannaru

,thihj'-ooka no seishin" ni suginu .mono de atta, no ka„

Has what I've been speaking about, u n til now been nothing more .

than ju s t the ns p ir i t o f the c r i t ic ? ”

- Example 3s Mochiron, boku wa hihyoo se ish in no kyokuhoku o

kangaete iru no da.

Of c o u r s e I am considering the extreme of the c r i t ic a l s p ir i t .

. Example It; J i j i t s u wa, kono yop na kinoo-shugisha n i . to t te , ■ *

kooka ga tasserareru to iu j i t a i wa okori-enu no de a r u ... Sore wa naze

de arod ka..

In fa c t , fo r th is kind of fu n c tio n a lis t , a s ta te of a ffa ir s in

which resu lts are achieved i s im possible. As f or th a t, why, do you sup­

pose, i t ’s so .

...G a (or another con ju nctive). . .kore (or another dem onstrative)...w a.

Example 1 ; Mb's hi konnichi, hihyoo ka-taru koto no fukoo ga aru

to sureba, sore wa gendai no Nihon no ippan shakaijin no uchi ni',

so sh ite s e ij ik a ya kagakusha no uchi n i, hihyooka ga ik i t e in a i kara de

a r i, sara n i kare o y o r i ijo o n i fukoo n i sasete iru mono ga aru to

sureba, sore wa hoka no. nani mono yori mo.' shoosetsvka ya s h ij in no uchi

n i sore ga nai to iu j i j i t s u de aru to i t t e sashi-tsukae aru mai0.

I f there i s a problem in being a c r i t ic today, that i s because

there are no c r i t ic s among the general members of Japanese so c ie ty today

nor ..among' statesmen 'and s c ie n t is t s ; and, i f - there-:.is - that which-.further ■

aggravates th is s itu a tio n , i t i s probably not too much to .sa y that i t i s

65

more than anything e ls e because of the fa c t that there are no c r i t ic s

among authors and p oets„

V « . K o s o wa

Example 1: Sore koso -wa .».«.minsbku sangyoo, shuu-shoo shoo-

koogyoosha e no futan tenka de a r ie. 0

That indeed lays the burden on the household in d u stries and the

small and medium merchants and in d u s tr ia l is t s .

,.No gotoki "wa.

Example 1 : Tsuuka zoohatsu no gotoki %a kono kaikyuuteki

shuudatsu seisaku kara h itsuzentek i n i motarasareru kekkateki genshoo

ni suginaio.

Such things as the increased issu e of currency are nothing more

than phenomena in ev itab ly resu lting .from th is class-plundering ggverrunent

p o licy .

. . . No (koto) w a .. . d e a r a .■

. Example 1 ; Sono uchi, mottomo chuumoku o h iita no_wa, id made '

mo nakUj "Beikoku. Ta in ic hi -En j o-Mika eru -S hik in- Tokub e twu-Ka ikei" d ea r u .

Needless to say , that •which a ttra cts the most a tten tio n , _is the

Special Account of the- Counterpart Fund ..of the United States Aid to

Japan.

Koto (hoka, bazu, tsumori e t c .) wa n a i.

Example 1 : Mareware wa Honbushoo ya chosakusha no kata o motsu

tsumori wa nai ga, kyookasho to sh ite happyoo sareta koto o yorokubu. .

/ . ' . ‘ 66

We do not intend to side with the educators and authors, but we

rejo ice that i t has been published as a te x t .

Example. 2s K esshite hyootari-aiirezaru gotoki shosetsu no

ta ir it s u funkyuu o k itasu koto w a n a i .yoo ni omou no de aru.

I'm sure that t h is .w i l l never occasion such a com plication as

the opposition of various theories mutually incompatible,

. . - Example 3 : Kekkyoku korera kunoo ya kiken no ooi to o sakete,

fuanteinagara mo renkai-dakyoo ni yoru k e ish ik i de yotoo-sensen no

kyooka o hakaru hoka wa nai daroo.

After a l l , avoiding the path of these agonies and dangers, a l ­

though i t i s s ta b le , perhaps th ere 's no other way than to plan the

strengthening of party lin e s in the form of cooperation and compromise, .

Example U: Sonna hazu wa n a i, boku wa "Hihyoo Seishin" n i t s u ite

katatte k ita no da»

That's not n ecessarily so; I 'v e been talk ing about " ttb c r it ic a l

Example 5 .; Shikashi, sono onna wa geisha de aru sh i, sore n i,

Yuuhi wa, sono onna n i, kanjoo wa ikuraka waruku shika kamo shirenai ga,

meiwaku o kakeru koto mo, fu g ir i o sh ita koto mo, mattaku nai no de aru

kara, "Moshi aereba" nado to kangaeru wake wa h ito tsu mo nai no de aru

ga, Yuuhi no "Hikkomijian" no se ish itsu no s e i de a t ta 0 .

■ W ell,: a fter a l l , she i s a geisha—and, besides th a t, Yuuhi may

have hurt her fee lin g s a l i t t l e , but since there was ab so lu tely no .

question of Yuuhi's having caused her any trouble or of having been re­

miss : in h is ob ligations toward her there was no reason why he should.

. ... • V 67

have been thinking such things as "If only I could meet herj" but that

could be attributed to Yuuhi's noverly considerate and conservative"

nature0 .

HodOoi.wa nai . '

Example 1 : Sanjoo-hitoma no jibun karima d e f u t a r i de kaki- ■

komu shokuji hodo, p ish ii mono ^a arlmasen deshita®

There i s nothing so d e lic io u s as a meal eaten together in our ;

three-mat rented room0

Singles out the object of. d iscu ssion .

Example 1 ; Watakushi wa gunkokushugi n i doku-sareta h ito b ito no

sokuseki o nokosoo nado to in. i s h i pa5 mbchiron motte in a i .

The in ten tio n of leaving a record of people poisoned by m ilita ­

rism—th a t, of course, I don’t have,

. Example 2;. Ghuugokujin n i wa yuigon sonchooheki ga hikakuteki

sukunai koto o miru-1o kono Nihonjin no seikoo ka Jukyoo nomi o motte

sh ite vja setsumei sh i-e n a i.

Considering that respect fo r the l a s t 'w il l and testament i s n o t.

•widespread as a t r a it among Chinese, as for th is propensity among

Japanese, i t cannot be explained by Confuciansim alone,

, . ,¥ a . . .Kore o. ■

. Example-1 ;. .Hitobito o toosakeru- yoo na, muchi ya kimagure ya

wagamama n i motozuku genkoo. way tsuyoku kore.o seigen shinskereba . .

naranal.de aroo, •

: ■ ■ ■' , .- - 68

As fo r speech' and.behavior based on ignorance, -whim and selfish™ .

ness and such things as keep people away from people—th is we must firm

l y r e s tr ic t .

Comparing two d iffer in g circumstances or th in gs.

■ Example 1 ; S eifu gun zenheiryoku wa genzai demo hyaku ni-juu-go

man n aish i yaku go-juu man nobori, sono uchi hyakuman wa hondo n i a r i ,

nokori wa; Taiwan n i shuuketsu sh ite iru«

The to ta l m ilitary force of the government army amounts to from

one m illio n two hundred and f i f t y thousand to one m illio n f iv e hundred

thousand; of which one m illio n are on the mainland, the r e s t concen­

trated on Taiwan, . ..

ooo '/Ja 0,0 da ga , o o .wa »co da

Example 1 : Kumo wa aikawarazu hiku-t.arete imashita ga, iwareta

to o r i, ame wa yande:ita 0 : . •

The - clouds .were hanging- low as usual, but as you sa id , the r a in .

stopped, .

o o,Wa moc hi iOh t . .., mo ,

Example Is Koko n i noberarete iru.yoo. na koto wa sekai no ooku

na kuniguni de, wa mochirpn,. Nihon demo shuusen ir a i sude-ni ippan ch i-

s h ik ij in no aida de wa hotondo jooshikika sh ite iru kotogara bakari de

am , - - -

• The kind of thing that has been stated here i s ju st a matter/.of :

common knowledge among the general in te l le c tu a l community of many nations

of the. w o r ld " o f course, and i n Japan, a lso since the end o f the war, ■ v i

■ ' 69

Setting up a topic without expressing the object of comparison, or in cases where the object of comoarison i s other than wa

Example 1 : Saibansho de wa sanseki sum jiken o sabakiy uchi e

kaereba, ta tta h ito r i no imooto n o ,„Okantoku shinakereb- naranai.

At court she j.u.dges p ile s of cases and when she retu rn s. home she

must supervise her only younger s is t e r .

Example 2 s Natsu no rinyuu wa naze muzukashii ka,

. ‘Why i s summer weaning such a problem?

Indicating in the form - te wa-the s itu a tio n in which an action occurs,

Example .1; Akanboo no nesugata o , tokidoki nozoki n i ki t e wa

nikoniko sum .

I'Thenever she came to peek in at the sleeping baby from time to

time, she sm iled.

To sh ite wa, n i kanshite wa, n io ite 'w a , n i ta is h ite wa, ni t o t t ewa, ni y o tte wa/ n i s'hits 'wa, ni a ta tte wa,' c motte snxue wa.

* Example 1 : Shakaiteki doobutsu to sh ite no j in m i n i to t te wa

taga i n i tasuke-au koto nashi n i wa, tannaru seizon mo konnan to naru •

kara de am .

I t ’s because, for mankind as s o c ia l animals, without mutual

help , sim ple'existence.would be a problem.

Te wa naranai ^

Examole 1; Saakasu-dan no gorotsukidomo to arasotte mo, danko,

kono hidoo o abakanakute wa ■ naranai.

You must expose th is outrage reso lu te ly even i f you fig h t w ith

the circus troupe toughs.

Following a case p a r t ic le , imparts added emphasis.

Example 1 ; Moo ich ido mae yori wa_ ooki na koe de yobimasu to s

"Hal," to h ikui, shiboridasu yoo na koe de, henji ga kikoete kimashita*

When I ca lled again in a voice, stronger than before I began to

hear the reply "Yes" in a low, strained v o ice .

Accompanying adverbs and adverbial m odifiers, emphasizes the adverb.

Example 1 ; Kantoku no Aavingu Haisu wa sh in jin ;de, ganrai wa

kyakuhonka de am g a . . .

The d irector Irving Rice i s a new face and, originally^ was a

p layw righ t... .

Example 2 ; Rinyuu n i kakaru tok i sono mae n i i s h i no

shinsatsu. o ukete akachan no e iy o o -jo o ta l o shirabete moraimashoo.

When, we s ta r t weaning., beforehand l e t ' s have an examination by

the doctor and have the baby's n u tr itio n a l condition checked.

Example , 3 Nihon no mondai. ga yagate wa kokusaikan no mondai •.

to n a ru h i ga aru koto o om oi.. .

I think that there w i l l come a day when Japan's problems, in due

course, w i l l become in tern ation a l problem s.. '''

When in conjunction w ith a negative word in the predicate, expresses an emphatic negation..

Example 1 : Sore wa hihyooka no mono de mo a r i , kagakusha no -

mono de mo a r i , shoosetsuka no mono de mo aru—mashite ya—bungei- -

hihyooka no mono to kagirabe wa seniii - ■

- 71

Just because i t ’s the property of c r i t i c s , s c i e n t i s t s , .and

w riters, i t doesn't follow that i t ’s the property of l ite r a r y c r i t i c s .

Example 2 ; Dootoo wa Minjitoo to wa z e tta i goodoo wa sh inai t o '

seim ei sh ite iru hanmen, kakugai kyooryoku no taido o izen kuzushite wa

orazu,,» ,.

While the Party has declared th a t union with the Democratic

Liberal Party ab so lu tely won't do; as y e t they s t i l l haven’t elim inated

the idea of extra-Cabinet cooperation.

Following the renyookei of a d jec tiv es , and in conjunction with a negative word, adds empha­s is to the negation.

Example 1 ;' Eekkyoku ch i wa mizu y o r i , , .no tatoedoori ni

mochikomi sh id a i de wa yotoogawa n i mawaru koosan mo k essh ite sukanaku

wa n a i.

Blood being th icker than w a ter ,, . the p rob ab ility i s certa in ly .

not s lig h t that he’l l go over to the government party, depending on how

they bring up the question.

Following a gerund and continuing with an a u x ilia ry , when in conjunction with a negative , expresses an emphatic negation.

Example 1 ; Fuantei ha jo o ta i c motomeru hibyoo-s e isb in wa,

kanarazu shimo sore to kakawaru koto n i y o tte , sore o an tei n i m ichi-

bikoo to iu kooka o is h ik i sh ite wa in a i .

.The c r i t ic a l s p ir i t which seeks our unstable, s itu a t io n s , depend­

ing upon what th ey’re concerned w ith , i s not n ecessa r ily conscious o f ;■

the. r e su lts that w i l l lead them to s t a b i l i t y .

». ,T)e wa nai

Example I s ,vAtaranai tenlci yohoo'1 no akuhyoo o noaoku koto mo

tannaru yume de wa aru mai* .

Avoiding adverse cr it ic ism of 11 the Unreliable Weather Report1* i s

probably not ju st a simple dream.

...D e wa nai ka.

Example 1 ; Sore, wa shakai zen ta i n i t su ite mo, onaji yoo n i

kangaete yo i no de wa nai ka.

I s n 't i t a l l r igh t to think about that as the same as so c ie ty as

a whole.

Concessive ( . . .de wa aru ga)

Example 1 ; Shisoo wa motomoto koodoo to soogoo kanren o nasu '

mono de a tte , ikani utsukushii shisoo mo j itsu g en .shiezaru k agiri yume

de wa a tte mo, "shisoo" de wa nai.

A thought i s a thing, which:has mutual re la tion sh ip to action

from the f i r s t , and, a dream though i t may be, i t i s not a "thought"

u n til i t i s r e a lisa b le , ho matter how b eau tifu l a "thought" it: may be.

Imparting emphasis to conjunctions:. Mata wa, n a ish i wa.

Example Is. ...gakkoo kyooikuhoo o k a ise i shite- ninen mat a wa .

sannen no tanki-daigaku o se tch i suru koto n i natta . ’

They revised th e.sch ool education law and i t was decided to .

e sta b lish junior co lleg es of two or three years.. .

. ' 73

Aruiwa, .moshikuwa

Example 1 : . Kakushite, tokubetsu k a ik ei, chihoo z a is e i >?a sono

a k a ii o koojitsu n i . aruiwa, tairyoo kubikirl. n i yp tte,' ta te ni tasuu

shokuin. no g is e i futan o kyookoo suru ka, moshikuwa, chihoo z a ise i no

ba’a i n i toku ni- kencho_.nl mirareru yoo n i , chihoozei o oohaba ni zoo-

choo s h i, amatsusae amakudari k yooseitek i kifukin wariate n i y o tte ,

koohan n i -chihoomin zenpan no g is e i futan. n i shiwayose-o hakaru ka de

aroo» . .

Thus, Special, Accounts, oh the pretext o f lo ca l financing being

in the red, probably i s planning e ith er to v e r t ic a lly force the burden .

of sa c r if ic e onto many employees by mass f ir in g s , jor to imcrease lo ca l

taxation d r a s tic a lly —as i s p articu lar ly conspicuously observable in the

case of lo c a l financing—and, by a l lo t t in g fin a n c ia l contributions fo r ­

c ib ly imposed from above, to s h if t the s a c r i f ic ia l burden onto a l l the ■

lo c a l people on a wide scaleo

LIST OF COLLOCATIONS USING FUKU-JOSHI

Page

Alcu made 33o "e p *** Ba o e ® d a Ice @00 180. „ 0 hodo - . 23Bakari de via nai 13Bakari'-ka 15Bakari n i 16Dake a tte 20Dake de (wa) nai 20Dake n i 20„ „ ..Dake no'koto wa aru . 190 0 eDake sore dake;o,» . 180. oDekiru dake0»0 . 19Doko made 33Doo yara 37Hodo no koto wa.nai - 22Hodo.ooVTa nai . 23Ikura-ka5 nanda-ka, naze-ka 2£tItsumademo . 31I t s unomaniy a r a. ■ 38Kamo sh irenal 2600»Kara0„.made ' . 30, 31-Kural dakara 280 0 oKurai nara ..Kurai'o o n a i, kurai»«.wa

29

mare de, kuraiooi'wa sukunai 290 0 oliade mo0 0 oMade mo nai (made no koto

32

wa nai) : 330ooMade ni .31, 32Made (no koto) da 3.2-N bakari . 16Nani hodo noooomo nai Nani-ka n a sh i-n i, nani-ka

(sum koto) (kangaeru koto)

22

nashi ni . 23Nani yara ' : 38Nio0ozutsu. 30 :Nomi narazu 36Sore(k )k iri 27 :oo.-Te bakari iru '1 6To bakari . 17To yara " , : . ; ; , 38"ila doko e yara.. " 37

; 7-

LIST GF COLLOCATIONS USING KAKARI-JOSHI

Page Page

Arnica, moshikwa . ' 7 3. o .De wa am ga 72«».De wa nai 72. . .De wa nai ka 72

-Donna,o.demo ■ h3o. o Ga .06 kore ©, ©vja 6h© © ©Ga (via) ©, ©mo . WHodo©. ox-ja nai 67Ikura.©©datte . h iKamo sh irenai .51 ,© ©.Koso.o. 14-6Koso. © ©sure (koso© © ©sum ga) hi :©ooKoso >?a > 5 , 65Koto (hoka, hazu, tsumori, e tc ,)wa nai 65

© © ©Mada shimo . 59© ©.Made mo nai 55o © ©Mb aroo n i 5o.... ©Mo' i i ga 5 i .©. ©Ni mo kakawarazu ;■ 55© © ©Ni mo se y o ; 55o© ©No gotoki f/ja 65©.©'dNo {koto) : >)a© © ©de. aru - 65o © ©Sae © © © ba 58© o oSae.o odakara 57. . .S a e mo 57Sore koso 55Sore mo 52©.©Sura ga 61Sura mo 60o«©Sura © © ©sura mp 61© © ©Te mo y o i 52Te v-ia naranai 69. ..T o mo ier ii, © ..to mo .kangaerareru, .© .to momirareru 52 .

To sh ite via (n i kanshite via,n i o ite wa, h i ta is h ite ha, -ni to t te >jas ni y o tte via:, ni

' sh ite wa, ni a ta tte v-?a5 omotte’ sh ite via) . 69

To. ha 63 ..©. ©Wa,, .da ga, ©. ©va.. .da . . 68.©©Ma.©.kore o 67. . ©Wa .mochiron, . ©'©mo 68

o«..Taya mo sureba, mo suru to

o. <,Yori mo

,to5553

LIST .OF REFERENCES

Bloch, Bernardo '.‘Studies in C olloquial Japanese, Part IT, Syntax," Language, Monograph ■ 22, 19U6*

Ekoyama Tsuneaki and Matsumura Akira, comp. Nihon Bumpoo J iten (D ictionary of Japanese grammar). Tokyo; M eiji Shoin, 1963*

Hashimoto Shinkichi. Hashlmoto Hakushi Chos-akushuu-, Vol.. I I , Kokugohoo Yoosetsu (Complete works of Dr, Kashimoto Shinkichi, Vol. I I ,

■ Elements of Japanese grammar). Tokyo; Iwanami Shoten, 19I4.8 .

Hiroshi..-Miyaji, "D efinition and. Usage of P artic les in ContemporaryJapanese," The Journal-Newsletter of the A ssociation of Teachers of Japanese,,V o l. IV, No. 3, 1967, pp. 17-22 ~

KokugO Cakkai (Japanese language s o c ie ty ) , comp. Kokugogaku J iten -d ic tio n a r y .o f Japanese language s tu d ie s ) . . Tokyo; Tookyoodoo, 1963. .

Kokuritsu Kokugo Kenkyuujo (National language research in s t i tu t e ) ,comp. Report No. 3 , Gendaigo n o .Josh i, Jodooshi—Yoohoo to J it s r e l (Present-day p a r tic le s and in fle c te d su ff ix e s—usage and examples). Tokyo; ■ Shuiiei Shuppan, 1951.

Matsumura Akira. “Joshi n i tsu ite" (Concerning p a r t ic le s ) . Kokubungaku (Japanese lite r a tu r e s tu d ie s ) , .Jan. 196?, pp. 8-9

.Matsumura Akira, comp. Gendaigp-Kotengo Joshi-Jodooshi Shoosetsu.,(Present-day and c la s s ic a l p a r tic le s and in fle c ted s u ff ix e s—a de-

; ta ile d study). Tokyo; Gakutoosha, 1969.

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