48

The topic selected for the study is a fervent one and of paramount

importance for the present day school education. The reviews consist of

varied literature in the form of documents, dissertations, books, articles,

etc., collected both from the western researches along with the similar

studies conducted in our country. A succinct summary of each is

chronologically presented as under:

2.1.0. Review of Researches Conducted Abroad Pertinent to the Present Study

Magoon A, Jon (1997) – Constructivist Approaches in Educational

Research. The author studied the rationale for a constructivist approach

to behavioural and social science research. Further, studies which have

applied this methodology, were also reviewed. The author suggests that

ethnographic techniques of explaining behaviour patterns may be as valuable

as or more appropriate than traditional behavioral science methods.

Sue Gibson & Roberta McKay (1999) presented sessions on What

Constructivism Brain Research have to Offer Social Studies at the 8th

International Thinking Conference in 1999. Since both brain research

and constructivist theory are beginning to impact current North American

social studies curriculum. This article summarizes insights from these

two areas that should influence social studies for the 21st

century.

Particular attention has been paid to instructional innovations that are

consistent with findings from brain research and application of theories of

constructivism. Arguments have been made for a social studies curriculum

49

that is based on the classic reflective inquiry conceptualization of social

studies because it stems from a constructivist position and is supported by

brain-based views of teaching and learning.

Dexter S, Anderson R.E & Becker H.J (1999) – Teachers’ Views

of Computers as Catalysts for Changes in their Teaching Practice. In this

study they examined the use of computers by teachers in their

instructional practices and their perception of the impact of computers on

changes they have made to their classroom practice. The data was drawn

from 47 teachers from 20 K-12 schools across 3 states who each

completed a questionnaire, participated in 3 semi-structured interviews,

and allowed 3 observations of their classroom. The teachers who had

adopted more progressive teaching practices over a period of time felt

computers helped them to change but they did not acknowledge

computers as the catalyst for change. One can conclude that in order for

teachers to implement the use of educational technology in a

constructivist manner, they must have opportunities to construct pedagogical

knowledge in a supportive climate.

Greer Margaret A, Hudson Lynne M & Wiersma William (1999) –

The Constructivist Teaching Inventory: A New Instrument for Assessing

Constructivist Teaching Practices in the Elementary Grades . An instrument

to evaluate the effectiveness of constructivist teaching methods, the

Constructivist Teaching Inventory (CTI), was developed and assessed, the

assessment focusing on the validity and reliability of the instrument. A

50

pool of items measuring the presence of identified elements of

constructivist teaching was developed; items were grouped into four

subscales representing teaching strategies, verbal interaction in the

community of learners, learning activities, and curriculum. The classes of

10 primary school teachers in a large urban school distric t were studied.

Results suggest that the Constructivist Teaching Inventory was able to

identify the extent of constructivist teaching effectively and that the

variability associated with teacher, content, and grade level, supports the

validity of the instrument and the construct it measures. The reliability of

a self-report form of the instrument was also investigated with the same

teachers, and data suggest that the self-report form may be appropriate for

use in professional development activities.

Vrasidas, C (2000) – Constructivism Versus Objectivism: Implications

for Interaction, Course Design, and Evaluation in Distance Education. The

paper discusses the basic philosophical assumptions of objectivism and

constructivism including their implications for course design, interaction,

and evaluation in distance education. First, a brief overview of the construct

of interaction as it is used in the field of distance education was provided.

Second, the major philosophical ideas of objectivism and constructivism as

they relate to education were addressed. Third how curriculum designers

from each paradigm design a distance education course was discussed.

Finally, the two approaches to distance education course design was

compared and contrasted and suggestions for practitioner were provided.

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Detel, W (2001) – Social Constructivism in its Original Version,

Social Constructivism is a view about the Social Nature of Science. The

study rests on the methodological assumption that a sociological analysis

of science and scientific knowledge can be empirically fruitful and

epistemologically illuminating. This approach has generated detailed

empirical studies of scientific practices (for instance, of what is going on

in laboratories on a day-to-day basis). According to social constructivism,

these studies show that it does not depend exclusively on the objective

external world which scientific beliefs are held to be true or false, and

thus, what are the scientific facts, but rather also (or even mainly or

exclusively) on social arrangements resulting from negotiations between

scientists taking place in the course of scientific practices. It is in this

sense that scientific knowledge and scientific facts are supposed to be

socially constructed. Social constructivism is not a unique specified

doctrine, however, but rather a bunch of related studies representing

different versions of the general approach.

James M. Applefield, Richard Huber & Mahnaz Moallem (2001)

– Constructivism in Theory and Practice: Toward a Better Understanding .

This paper explicates some of the theoretical background of constructivism

and then presents a detailed example in which a traditional classroom

lesson and a constructivist version of the same lesson are described and

analyzed. Also discussed are pervasive myths and important instructional

52

issues of this widely advocated and increasingly popular philosophical

framework for teaching across the entire K-12 curriculum.

Heather Fehring (2002) – Ethical Considerations within the

Constructivist Research Paradigm. The author in his doctoral study uses

a constructivist paradigm to investigate influences on teachers ‟ judgments

of students‟ literacy development in the Victorian context. Some of the

ethical issues involved in undertaking research based on naturalistic

inquiry are examined and the author argues that involving oneself as a

researcher in the lives of others raises a number of ethical issues. These

include access, power, privilege and confidentiality of data. The fine line

that researchers often tread between participant observer and non-participant

observer, between confidential and objective data gatherer, and between

collector of private information and disseminator of knowledge, is discussed.

Peter E. Doolittle & David Hicks (2003) – Constructivism as a

Theoretical Foundation for the Use of Technology in Social Studies. The

National Council for Social Studies has explicitly advocated technology

integration into the social studies classroom to transform the teaching and

learning of key social studies content and skills. While the call for

technology integration into the social studies classroom is clear, the

application of technology within the realm of social studies has

traditionally been theoretically under-developed. Within this paper the

current relationship between social studies education and technology is

explored, the nature of constructivist philosophy, theory, and pedagogy is

53

also delineated, and principles for the integration of technology in social

studies that supports an explicit constructivist foundation are posited.

Ali Ahmed (2004) – Application of Constructivist Learning Styles.

This paper describes a mid-western university certificate program‟s

application of constructivist learning styles. In traditional learning

practices whereby students simply receive and consume knowledge, they

fail mostly to utilize and develop their potential, and end up typically

becoming part of the traditional graduates with limited real life

experiences. Constructivism allows students to experience learning and

construct knowledge. Critics argue that applying constructivist principles

is impractical. However, the theory can be implemented if the learning

environment is organized to facilitate the application of constructivist

styles without discarding parts of the traditional structure that is helpful.

A hybrid of different styles that do not conflict, but instead complement

one another, is a significant way to deliver instruction effectively.

Alison Pickard & Pat Dixon (2004) – The Applicability of

Constructivist User Studies: How Can Constructivist Inquiry Inform

Service Providers and Systems Designers? This paper has attempted to

clarify the ways in which individual, holistic case studies, produced

through constructivist inquiry, can be tested for trustworthiness and

applied to other, similar situations. Service providers and systems

designers need contextual information concerning their users in order to

design and provide systems and services that will function effectively and

54

efficiently within those contexts. Abstract models can only provide

abstract insight into human behaviour and this is rarely sufficient. The

methodological issues which surround the applicability of individual,

holistic case studies are discussed, explaining the concept of „contextual

applicability‟. The relevance and usefulness of in-depth case study

research to systems designers and service providers is highlighted.

Deborah J. Gallagher (2004) – The Importance of Constructivism

and Constructivist Pedagogy for Disability Studies in Education. Many in

disability studies approach disability as a culturally constructed experience,

owing its existence to the beliefs and practices built around how any given

society responds to human difference. This approach is predicated on the

belief that all knowledge is socially constructed. Offered insights into

how the constructivist perspective alters not only their understanding of

individual differences, but also its potential for changing teaching practices.

Loretta M Jervis & Les Jervis (2005) – What is the Constructivism

in Constructive Alignment? This paper examines the concept of

constructive alignment in respect of science education. The concept is

placed in the context of its two contributory components – constructivism

and instructional alignment. The former has a well-established body of

critical literature that highlights the challenges of constructivism for both

science and science education. The instructional alignment component is

a long-standing behaviourist approach to curriculum planning. This

approach appears to have the uncritical support of key organizations in

55

UK Higher Education. However, the authors suggest that linking two

contested theories is unlikely to lead to generally sound advice on either

curriculum design or approaches to science teaching.

Roland Pourdavood, Lawrence V. Svec & Lynn M. Cowen (2005)

– Social Constructivism in Practice: Case Study of an Elementary School’s

Mathematics Program. This research investigated implications for the

implementation of social constructivist epistemology on teaching/learning

of mathematics in a K-4 public school with particular focus on African

American fourth grade students. In addition, the study examined the

impact of social constructivist theory on the structure and culture of the

school. Constructivist inquiry was used to make sense of the data. In th is

paper, there is a discussion of lessons learned from this study with

particular emphasis on structural changes, cultural changes, politics of

reforming mathematics education, and the impact of social constructivist

teaching on African American students‟ achievement.

Bryce Christensen (2005) – The Problematics of a Social

Constructivist Approach to Science. Bryce Christensen takes John Gray‟s

hope that science can serve as a remedy for anthropocentrism as an entry

point for discussing the debate between scientific realists and social

constructivists. Christensen examines the way science appears to buttress

the realist position when it confronts humans with truths that contradict

their expectations and desires. In his discussion, Christensen also surveys

the ways that science fits within social constructivist theory when it

56

serves identifiable social needs or advances identifiable group interests.

Further, Christensen identifies eschatological cosmology as an extreme

test case for social constructivism because its bleak final predictions do

not serve any of the group interests that social constructivists typically

highlight as the driving force in their theoretical paradigm. Christensen

concludes by suggesting that when social constructivists insist that the ir

theory accounts for all of science, they risk creating a quasi theological

justification for new Inquisitors of the sort who once condemned Galileo

for reporting observations that did not fit within their worldview.

Kim Jong Suk (2005) – The Effects of a Constructivist Teaching

Approach on Student Academic Achievement, Self -Concept, and Learning

Strategies. The effects of a constructivist approach on academic

achievement, self-concept and learning strategies, and student preference

were investigated. The 76 students of grader were divided into two

groups. The experimental group was taught using the constructivist

approach while the control group was taught using the traditional

approach. A total of 40 hours over nine weeks was used to implement the

experiment. The instruments used were mathematics tests administered by

the teacher, self-concept inventory, learning strategies inventory, and a

classroom environment survey. The results emerged out of the study were

(a) constructivist teaching is more effective than traditional teaching in

terms of academic achievement (b) constructivist teaching is not effective

in relation to self-concept and learning strategy, but had some effect upon

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motivation, anxiety towards learning and self-monitoring (c) constructivist

environment was preferred to a traditional classroom.

Steele M.M (2005) – Teaching Students with Learning Disabilities:

Constructivism or Behaviorism? There is much controversy concerning

the use of constructivist and behaviorist principles for teaching children

with learning disabilities. Although many educators support the use of

one paradigm exclusively, the author recommends combining ideas from

both perspectives for the most effective instruction. This article includes

a brief discussion of learning disabilities, a summary of key constructivist

and behaviorist principles and their impact on students with learning

disabilities, and a list of recommendations for practice in the classroom etc.

Jong Sukkin (2005) published article entitled “The Effects of a

Constructivist Teaching Approach on Students Academic Achievement,

Self-Concept, and Learning Strategies” in the Journal Asia Pacific

Educational Services, Vol.6, No.1. The purpose of the study was to

determine the effectiveness of a constructivist teaching approach in

mathematics of elementary school education in terms of academic

achievement self-concept and learning strategies. 76 sixth grade students

were selected for this study and were divided into two groups

(experimental and control group). The experimental group was taught

using the constructivist teaching approach and the control group was

taught using the traditional teaching approach. Research design for this

study was of a non-equivalent pre-post test control group design. The

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study concluded that (a) Constructivist teaching is more effective in terms

of academic achievement of students (b) Constructivist teaching is not

effective in terms of students‟ self-concept, enhancement in student

learning. However, it is having some effect upon motivation to learn

academic tasks, causing anxiety in the academic learning process and

self-monitoring in terms of learning for tests.

Sridevi, K.V (2005) conducted a study on “Effectiveness of

Constructivist Approach on Students’ Achievement in Science, Scientific

Attitude and Perception of Nature of Science at Secondary Level” and

submitted Ph.D. Thesis to the Regional Institute of Education, Mysore.

The objectives of the study are (a) To develop science lessons based on

constructivist approach in the selected units of science for eighth standard

students, (b) To study the effectiveness of constructivist approach on the

students‟ achievement in science, (c) To study the effectiveness of

constructivist approach in developing scientific attitude among the students .

The present investigation was carried out to study the effectiveness of

constructivist approach in science. The study was quasi experimental in

nature. Purposive sampling technique was used in the present study. Two

schools normally Demonstration Multipurpose School, RIE, Mysore , and

Kendriya Vidyalaya, Mysore were selected, The 8th

standard belonging

to DMS were treated as experimental group where as the students of

Kendriya Vidyalaya were treated as control group. The intact group of 68

standard students in total including both experimental and control group

59

were taken up for the study. The sample included 37 boys and 31 girls.

Major Findings of the Study are (a) Constructivist approach was found

effective in improving the achievement in science, perception of nature of

science, process skills, scientific attitude, Attitude towards science among

8th

standard students. (b) Constructivist approach was found equally

effective for both girls and boys in improving their achievement in

science, perception of nature of science, science processing skills and

attitude towards science.

McCray Kimeko (2007) in a report „Constructivist Approach:

Improving Social Studies Skills Academic Achievement, Describes a

Programme Designed to Enhance Social Studies Skills and Knowledge‟.

The target areas for enhancement are geography, economics, history and

core-democratic values. The need for strengthening those skills was

documented by literature and surveys. An analysis of probable cause for

lack of social studies skills revealed that constructivist technique may

improve students‟ academic performance and achievement. Social and

cognitive constructivist learning methods were the main focus of the

interventions chosen to help students to achieve higher academic

achievements. Post-intervention data upheld the premise to what extent

these strategies would serve to raise the student skills and understanding

in the area of social studies and community. A qualitative research and

action research design was used in a survey selecting a sample of 25

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teachers between the ages 25 and 50 years old throughout the South East

Michigan, including urban and rural schools.

Rosen, Y & Salomon, G (2007) – The Differential Learning

Achievements of Constructivist Technology – Intensive Learning

Environments as Compared with Traditional Ones: A Meta-Analysis.

Different learning environments provide different learning experiences

and ought to serve different achievement goals. The authors hypothesized

that constructivist learning environments lead to the attainment of

achievements that are consistent with the experiences that such settings

provide. However, more traditional settings lead to the attainments of

other kinds of achievement in accordance with the experiences they

provide. A meta-analytic study was carried out on 32 methodologically-

appropriate experiments in which these two settings were compared.

Results supported one of the formulated hypotheses showing that overall

constructivist learning environments are more effective than traditional

ones (ES=460) and that their superiority increases when tested against

constructivist-appropriate measures (ES=902). However, contrary to

expectations, traditional settings did not differ from constructivist ones

when traditionally-appropriate measures were used. A number of possible

interpretations are offered among them the possibility that traditional

settings have come to incorporate some constructivist elements.

Hidir Karaduman & Mehmet Gültekin (2007) – The Effect of

Constructivist Learning Principles Based Learning Materials to Students’

61

Attitudes, Success and Retention in Social Studies . The present study aims

at to investigate whether the learning materials that based on

constructivist learning principles have an effect on fifth grade social

studies students‟ attitudes, their academic success and their retention. The

study was conducted at Şehit Ali Gaffar Okkan Elementary School,

Eskişehir. The participants of the study were fifth grade students in Şehit

Ali Gaffar Okkan Elementary School. The data was collected in full term

in 2004-2005 academic year. Participants were divided into two groups,

the control group (5-B) and the experimental group (5-C). In the present

study, a questionnaire for demographic information, pre- and post-tests

and open-ended essay-type tests that were used to measure learners‟

academic success and retention level, lesson plans, various teaching

materials for classroom activities, and a questionnaire to gather the

learners‟ perspectives. Social Studies Attitude Scale, developed by

Deveci & Güven (2002), was used to determine students ‟ attitudes. The

data obtained were analyzed using the SPSS program. The means and

standard deviations were calculated for each group. The data were subjected

to t-tests for inter- and between- group comparisons. The significance

level was taken as 0.05. Findings of research indicate that constructivist

learning principles based learning materials increase students ‟ academic

success and retention in social studies but don‟t increase attitudes.

Additionally students think that constructivist learning principles based

learning materials reflect constructivist learning principles.

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Saroj Pandey (2007) – Constructivism and the Pedagogy of

Education for Peace. This paper has been developed against the backdrop

of National Curriculum Framework-2005, which envisages major

paradigm shift from behaviorist approach to learning through

constructivist approach that lays stress on the personal experiences of

learner in the process of knowledge construction. The role of teacher in

this approach has shifted from the transmitter of knowledge to facilitator

of knowledge. The NCF-2005 also emphasizes on education for peace,

not as a part of value education as traditionally been integrated in

schools, but as an independent value in itself. The paper highlights the

implication of this paradigm shift in the approach towards learning for

promoting the culture of peace as, both, the constructivist approach and

peace education are associated with the humanistic philosophy which is

dedicated to developing more mature and self-directed learner – a pre-

requisite for living together. To develop a culture of peace, the pedagogy

of education needs to be broad, diverse and oriented towards lifelong

learning. Active listening, problem-solving, and conflict resolution skills

help in inculcating feeling of living together, which are also basic to the

constructivist way to learning. Therefore, the epistemological shift

suggested in the NCF-2005 provides greater opportunity to promote the

culture of peace than ever before.

Taber K.S (2008) – Exploring the Student Learning from a

Constructivist Perspective in Diverse Educational Contexts. This paper

63

discusses the nature of different types of research that can contribute to

our understanding of learners‟ ideas and learning in science topics. The

paper considers the limitations of different types of research, and the

expectations placed on researchers in carrying out their studies. A

distinction is made between the standards expected of work that offers

new empirical findings, and the higher expectations for theoretical

novelty when looking to publish studies in international research journals.

The importance of studying learners‟ ideas in different educational

contexts is considered, and it is suggested that being able to relate

research findings to specific features of the cultural or educational

context may increase the theoretical importance of research reports.

Donna Ashcraft, Thomas Treadwell & Krishna Kumar V (2008)

in an article “Collaborative Online Learning: A Constructivist Example”

describes a constructivist method to teach group processes. Pre-test /

Post-test data indicate this type of learning experience results in significant

increases in students‟ content knowledge in four targeted areas (American

Psychological Association writing style, group processes, social psychology,

and research methodology) from the beginning to the end of the semester.

Student perception data indicate students learned “content” as well as

“process” information in the online collaborative course.

Michèle Stears (2009) – How Social and Critical Constructivism

can Inform Science Curriculum Design: A Study from South Africa. The

article reports on research conducted to probe learners ‟ responses to a

64

science curriculum informed by social and critical constructivist

principles, and discusses the possible implications of such curricula for

science education. In this small scale, qualitative study, pupils‟ responses

suggested that this approach allowed for greater participation by learners,

as they had considerable input with regard to the chosen theme. Activities

were learner-centered and drew on learners‟ everyday experiences.

Although this was a series of science lessons, it was clear that the social

issues also needed to be addressed in the lessons. The strategy allowed

learners to take ownership of their learning, as they could make choices

regarding the curriculum. The response of the learners to this type of

science curriculum raises questions about curriculum design, the nature of

science and purpose of science education. A science curriculum informed

by social and critical constructivist principles has the potential to

facilitate the achievement of outcomes other than science outcomes. It

allows for the personal and social needs of learners to be met and this

may enable them to function more effectively in broader society.

Hickman Larry A (Ed.) (2009) – John Dewey between Pragmatism

and Constructivism. This study consists of three parts: Part one is a basic

survey of Dewey‟s pragmatism and its implications for contemporary

constructivism. Part Two examines the implications of the connections

between Deweyan pragmatism and contemporary constructivism. Part

Three presents a lively exchange among the contributors, as they

challenge one another and defend their positions and perspectives. As

65

they seek common ground, they articulate concepts such as power, truth,

relativism, inquiry, and democracy from pragmatist and interactive

constructivist vantage points in ways that are designed to render the

preceding essays even more accessible. This concluding discussion

demonstrates both the enduring relevance of classical pragmatism and the

challenge of its reconstruction from the perspective of the Cologne

programme of interactive constructivism.

Sofie M.M, Loyens Remy M, Rikers J.P & Henk G. Schmidt

(2009) – Students’ Conceptions of Constructivist Learning in Different

Programme Years and Different Learning Environments. The study

investigated students‟ conceptions of constructivist learning. Do students

with greater experience in their academic programme differ in their

conceptions of constructivist learning compared to students with less

experience? Three groups (i.e. first-year, second-year, and third-year

students) in two different curricula (i.e. conventional, lecture -based and

constructivist, problem-based) were tested. A cross-sectional design was

used. Students‟ conceptions of constructivist activities (i.e. knowledge

construction, cooperative learning, self-regulation, use of authentic

problems, self-perceived inability to learn, and motivation to learn) were

measured by a questionnaire. Data were analyzed using a two-way

multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). Differences in conceptions

can be perceived between students who enter a new learning programme

(i.e. higher education) and students who already have one year of

66

experience in higher education. Among students with more than one year

of educational experience, differences disappear. Furthermore, this study

shows that the learning environment can make a difference with respect

to students‟ conceptions of constructivist learning activities.

Julie Rainer Dangel (2010) – An Analysis of Research on

Constructivist Teacher Education. This review of research (1990 to 2009)

on constructivist teacher education synthesizes a growing but fragmented

body of research and links it to practice in teacher education; it provides

a guide for future research, programme development, and policy and

practice development which is consistent with empirical evidence. It

includes a selection of 27 studies on pre-service efforts; efforts which

include programs, courses, and field experiences. First, an analysis of the

research suggests a variety of effects from both short- and long- term

experiences. Effects are identified in two categories (a) conceptual

understandings {with three sub-categories: understanding of content,

pedagogy, and the self as learner} and (b) classroom practice. Then, based

on the findings, six mediatory experiences are suggested that facilitate

pre-service teachers‟ growth. Finally, the studies are assessed using a

framework (Darling Hammond, 2006) to determine gaps in the research.

Sultan W.H, Woods P.C & Koo A.C (2011) – A Constructivist

Approach for Digital Learning: Malaysian Schools Case Study . The

purpose of this study was to investigate the influences of Constructivist

Learning Environments (CLEs) through the use of laptops supported

67

within 1:1 e-learning education in Malaysian schools. The important

objectives of this study were to investigate (a) different possible gaps

between constructivist theory and classroom practices in Malaysian

schools, (b) success, if any, of the classroom students who would

undertake Classmate PC (CMPC) classroom putting while into practice a

constructivist approach to learning, and (c) develop a conceptual framework

model based on students‟ communication in a constructivist learning

environment. Yet, (d) there is a strong need to address Constructivist

Learning Environments (CLEs) practices on local Malaysian settings. A

modified Constructivist Learning Environment Questionnaire (CLEQ)

survey used in this study was multiply regressed against student Perceived

Learning Outcomes (PRCVD). Findings revealed different aspects of

students‟ learning outcomes and enforcement to use creative thinking in

building students‟ knowledge within constructivist learning context.

Cheu-jey George Lee (2011) – Reconsidering Constructivism in

Qualitative Research, Educational Philosophy and Theory. This article

examines constructivism, a paradigm in qualitative research that has been

propagated by Egon Guba, Yvonna Lincoln, and Norman Denzin. A

distinction is made between whether the basic presuppositions of

constructivism are credible compared to those of a competing paradigm

and whether constructivism‟s beliefs are internally consistent. The latter

approach, i.e. whether constructivism is internally consistent, was the

focus of this article. The issues singled out for discussion are concerned

68

with the constructivist ontology and epistemology. This article shows that

constructivism‟s paradigmatic beliefs are internally in tension.

2.2.0. Review of Researches Conducted in India Pertinent to the Present Study

Sood, J.K (2004) published an article entitled “Constructivism: A

New Perspective in Teaching Science”. In the article an attempt has been

made to explain the concept and meaning of constructivism, practices

associated with constructivism teacher in teaching science. The author

highlighted the impact of constructivism on pedagogy and implications of

constructivism on classroom practice. Wheatly‟s (1991) model of

constructivist teaching was prepared by the author. This approach has

three components and Tasks, graps and sharing. The author explained the

4e‟s constructivist learning and teaching model (i.e.) Explore provide

opportunities for students to explore through all senses. Explain – Interact

with students to discover their ideas. Expand – help children develop

their ideas through additional physical and mental activities. Evaluate –

conception by examining changes in children ideas and their mastery of

science process skills. The author concluded the article by saying that

there is a need for further research to strengthen constructivist by

providing specific theoretical ideas as well as methodological parameters.

There is a need for concrete analysis of processes and activities that exist

in the background of knowledge construction.

69

Senapathy H.K & Nityananda Pradhan (2005) published an article

titled “Constructionist Pedagogy in Classroom – A Paradigm Shift”. The

author recognized learner as constructor of knowledge and an active

participant in the process of learning. This article presents the salient

features of constructionist pedagogy and explains the pertinent role of

teachers in making the child a constructor of knowledge. The primary

belief that the paper postulates as base for the constructionist pedagogy

are (1) learning takes place in authentic and real world environment

(2) learning should involve social negotiation and mediation (3) content

and skills should be made relevant to the learner (4) content and skill

should be understood with the framework of learners prior knowledge

(5) students should become self-regulatory, self-oriented and self-aware

(6) teachers primarily as guides and facilitators of learning.

Sridevi, K.V (2007) published an article titled “Constructivism – A

Shift in the Paradigm of Teaching-Learning Process”. The author expresses

that there is a shift from teacher-centered education to learner-entered

education and now it is towards learning-centered education. The emphasis

is on the process of learning rather than the individuals. Constructivism

believes that all knowledge is constructed on the basis of preexisting

knowledge of the learners. The researcher findings suggest that there are

three factors, which characterize the constructivist teaching-learning

situations in the classrooms. They are (1) student autonomy (2) classroom

interaction (3) cognitive exploration leading to higher order thinking skills.

70

Teacher should no longer transmit the knowledge, rather must allow

students the chances to construct it for themselves. Hence, in a constructivist

classroom the role of teacher changes from transmitter to facilitator of

knowledge and cognitive guide providing bridging or scaffolding, helping

to extend the learners zone of proximal development. The article also

discussed the role of teacher that can enhance the process of constructivist

learning for the learner in turn it also stresses the necessity of the learning

programme for both pre-service and in-service teacher on theoretical and

practical knowledge about the constructivist approach.

Vasundhara Padmanabhan (2007) published an article titled

“Constructivism and Reflective Teaching in Teacher Education”. The

author viewed that most of us teach our lessons just as planned, without

adopting them to fit the needs of our students. The concept of multiple-

intelligence respects the wonderful range or multiple talents and

capacities of all individuals regardless of cultural, intellectual or gender

differences. This article tries to focus on these two concepts , their

interrelation and proceeds to focus on the application of the same to

teacher education in India.

Padmanabhan Jubile (2007) conducted a study on “Effectiveness

of Constructivist Approach on the Achievement and Problem Solving

Ability in Science of VII Standard Students” and submitted M.Ed.

Dissertation to the Regional Institute of Education (RIE), NCERT,

Mysore. The objectives of the study were (a) To develop constructivist

71

based lesson plans on selected units of science for class VII (b) To study

the effectiveness of constructivist approach on the students ‟ achievement

in science. (c) To study the reaction of students towards the constructivist

approach. The study is of quasi-experimental in nature, where in a control

and an experimental groups are employed. A non-randomized pre-test

post-test design was used. The intact classes of seventh standard as a

whole were considered as experimental and control group for the study.

The subjects of the study were the students of Class-VII of Manasarovar

Ushkarni Vidya Ashrama, Mysore. The two sections A and B were

selected where one section served as the experimental group, while the

other section sewed as the control group. The sampling is of purposive

cluster sampling. The sample consisted of 40 pairs of students (i.e) 40

students from Section-A were considered as experimental group and 40

from Section-B were considered as control group. The experimental

group was taught by the investigator while the control group was taught

by regular teacher. Major findings of the study are (a) The constructivist

approach has a positive effect on the achievement of students in science.

It is evident from the analysis that the students taught by constructivist

approach scored higher than those taught by conventional method in the

control group. (b) Constructivist approach was found equally effective for

both boys and girls in improving their achievement in science.

Pachaury, A.C (2008) published an article under the title of

“Constructivist Approach in Teaching and Learning Science”. In this article

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an attempt has been made to explain constructivist approach to teaching

and learning science, how constructivist approach can be accomplished

on the basis of investigating activity. The conclusions drawn out of the

study were (a) Constructivist teaching does not mean transmission of the

ready made information to the pupils, (b) Similarly constructivist learning

does not mean passive acceptance of the transmitted information but

instead it is rather active construction of the meanings in a wide variety

of ways, (c) Teacher‟s role in constructivist way of learning science has

in facilitation of concept development and nurturing it further and the

teachers had to be co-learners as well because extended learning is

needed by them for expanding their conceptual width.

Sood, J.K (2008) published an article titled “Learning Science as a

Constructivist / Conceptual Change Process”. The author highlighted

three issues in contemporary science education mentioned in NCF-2005.

First, science education is not achieving the goal of equity and

inclusiveness, second, science education is developing competence, but

does not encourage inventiveness and creativity third science education is

dominated by traditional examination system, there is a need of an

equitable science curriculum, in which both the content and the pedagogy

are inclusive of all students enabling them to participate in ways that are

appropriate for them.

Marlow Ediger (2008) published an article titled “Constructivism

and the Science Curriculum”. The article deals with constructivism, the

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constructivist teacher, his/her educational philosophy, the primacy of the

pupils and the framework of learning community in the process of

curriculum transaction, Piaget‟s individualist perspective and Vygotsky‟s

social theory perspectives on construction and the need for reflective

teaching while transacting the curriculum. Constructivism is a

psychological term emphasized in the school curriculum. It stresses

pupil‟s, individually or collectively, to be initial or at the heart in

ongoing learning activities, science objectives, learning activities,

evaluation techniques are pupil-centered. This presents a unique paradigm

and role for the science teacher. He/she is no longer a central actor in the

classroom, but provides opportunities for pupils to be dominant member

in ongoing lessons and units in the science curriculum. The pupil is the

learner and must be encouraged to achieve, learn and grow.

Santosh Sharma (2008) published an article titled “Constructivist

Teaching in Primary Classes”. The author expressed that the shift to

constructivist teaching requires teaches to relook into their roles in the

classroom. Constructivist teaching and reflect upon their existing

practices. The article highlighted the principles in constructivist teaching

and observations from the classroom. The topic light and shadows, was

taught to students of Class-V of MCD School, New Delhi by

constructivist approach. Various activities were taken up in and outside

the classroom namely the formation of shadows, changing shape of

shadow, observing the shadows at different times, shadows and eclipse

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formation. The author concluded that students should be encouraged to

design activities, do experiments, record observations, draw conclusions

and provide alternate explanation, encourage them to work in groups,

allow them to discuss their ideas among themselves, engaging all the

students to participate in activities.

Harani, S (2008) conducted a study on “Effectiveness of

Constructivist Based Approach for Teaching Mathematics at Secondary

Level” and submitted the M.Phil. Thesis to Annamalai University,

Tamilnadu. The objectives of the study were (a) To prepare the

constructivist based lesson plans for the development of problem-solving

skills in mathematics among secondary level students. (b) To know the

effectiveness of constructivist approach on achievement in mathematics.

The method adopted for this study was two group pre- post- test design,

where control group is exposed to conventional method of teaching where

as experimental group is exposed to constructivist based approach. The

sample of the study were the students of Class-VIII of Government

composite pre university college, Bangalore. The two sections of 8th

standard were selected as experimental and control group where there

were 30 students in each class with girls and boys in experimental and

control group respectively. The sampling technique used was that of

purposive sampling method. Major findings of the study are (a) The

experimental group is significantly higher than the control group in

learning mathematics after the intervention. (b) There is no significant

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difference between boys and girls in their achievement in mathematics

among the experimental group after the intervention. (c) There is no

significant difference among the students of experimental group belonging

to various parental occupations in their achievement in mathematics.

Kasinath, H.M (2009) published an article titled “Constructivism

and Instructional Strategies”. The author opinioned that constructivists

believe that knowledge is the result of individual construction of reality.

Cognitive constructivism, social constructivism, radical constructivism

are the three different views in constructivism. Knowledge is the result of

the accurate internalization and reconstruction of extended reality. Cognitive

knowledge is the outcome of social interaction (social, knowledge is

constructed from one‟s experience but is not an accurate representation of

external reality / radical). The instructional issue in the constructivist

learning is the role of social interaction. Thus, the focus is on how to

facilitate cognitive processes in learners through social interaction .

Instructional methods such as team teaching, brain storming, experiential

learning, cooperative learning, cognitive apprenticeship, problem based

learning, discovery learning strategies require that a student learns as a

part of a group. Different assumptions and various experiences provided

under their instructional approaches lead to different knowledge.

Sasi Kumar, P (2009) published an article titled “Constructivism

and Evaluation – A General Perspective”. Averring that the central idea

of construction is human learning, the author says the teacher should

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realize that the purpose of evaluation is not to get some scores but to

make the student progress in the learning activity. The author concluded

that since the central idea of construction is human learning. It is

construed that learners build new knowledge upon the formulation of

previous knowledge. Constructivist evaluation needs some efforts but not

much. A determined, enthusiastic and creative teacher can do it

meaningfully and effectively. What is needed here is an open and

thinking mind with patience and flexibility. The students should feel that

the present scores are not the end but the windows for progress.

Pradhan, H.C & Mody, A.K (2009) published an article titled

“Constructivism Applied to Physics Teaching for Capacity Building

among Undergraduate Students”. The author explained important

principles of teaching and learning (1) the constructivist principle (2) the

context principle (3) the change principle (4) the distribution function

principle (5) communication principle (6) principle of scaffolding and

enculturation. Three well known constructivist approaches were also

explained (1) situated or context based learning (2) cognitive apprenticeship

(3) problem solving. The results drawn out the study were, the post-score

analysis of 27 students from various colleges of Mumbai who took the

course showed that average students scores in post-test was higher than

the pre-test scores. The difference between pre- and post- test scores were

statistically significant to high level (0.01) it was found that control

group pre- post- test scores were not significantly different. This

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indicates that it was the treatment (course) which resulted in better

performance of experimental group in the post-test thereby indicating the

effectiveness of the problem solving course.

Marlow Ediger (2010) published an article entitled “Constructivism

and the Social Studies”. According to the author, while constructivists

stress that sequence resides within the pupils, the behaviorists emphasize

predetermined or mandated objectives properly ordered to determine

sequence in teaching to the pupils. The conclusions drawn out of the

study were constructivism is more open-ended to student input into the

curriculum. Thus, the learner is centered in the teaching, selects

objectives, design learning activities to ascertain if the precise ends have

been attained. Constructivism stresses the use of teacher observation,

along with learner self evaluation, to notice pupil‟s progress.

Behaviourism emphasis is on using tests to ascertain pupil‟s achievement.

Mohamed Amin (2010) conducted a study on “Constructivism in

the Design of Online Learning Tools”. This paper discusses a research

carried out in order to determine the kinds of online tools that are normally

associated with the constructivist theory of learning. The aim of the paper

was to provide a mapping of the principle of constructivism onto the

design of tools for online learning based on selected literature on the

subject of online learning. It is hoped that the findings could be used as

one of the guidelines for education in higher institutes of learning to decide

on their choice of platforms for online learning. The researcher used a

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qualitative approach by analyzing selected documents (journals/articles)

and they are analyzed for mentions of the use of constructivism in the

context of online learning. The paper presented the results normally

associated with constructivism in the context of online learning. Based on

data, constructivism is used mainly in the context of communication and

collaboration. However, it is also used as the theoretical basis for pupils ‟

construction of knowledge. This reflects the two-sided nature of

constructivism personal and social reflects.

Vijayalatha, R & Krishnaiah, R (2011) conducted a study on

“Effectiveness of Constructivist Approach on Teaching Learning Process

of Social Science at Secondary Level – A Study”. The objectives of the

study were (a) To study the effect of constructivist approach on the

achievement of IX standard students in social science, (b) To compare the

effect of constructivist approach on achievement of IX standard boys and

girls in social science. The present study was an experimental research,

therefore, experimental design used in the present study was pre-test

post-test equivalent group design. The sample of the study consists of 60

IX standard students of Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayam, Mamnoor,

Warangal District. The 60 students were divided into two groups (i.e.) 30

students to experimental and 30 students to control group. Major findings

of the study were (a) There was no significant difference in the mean

achievement scores of both experimental group and control group in the

pre-test. (b) The achievement test scores in the post-test of experimental

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group students were higher than the scores of control group students

(c) There was no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of

boys and girls in experimental group in the post-test. The conclusions

drawn were the traditional methods of teaching which was in vogue in our

classrooms are to be replaced by the constructivist approach, which is

having strong coherence in structuring and organizing the knowledge.

This will enable the students to construct new vistas of knowledge.

Hence, a paradigm shift in teacher education is required. The need of the

hour is to recast the policies and practices of teacher education for the

creation of knowledge society which is the dream of 21st

century.

Haseen Taj (2011) published an article titled “Constructivists

Approach to Teaching and Learning”. The author expressed that as the

structure of K-12 education has evolved the methods of teaching. In general,

reform minded teachers are now emphasizing active learning over passive

learning. The constructivist learning theory says that children learn best

when they construct a personal understanding based on experiencing

things and reflecting on those experiences. There are two key principles

for teaching and learning in constructivism. They are (1) learning is an

active process. Direct experience, making errors, and looking for solutions

are vital for the assimilation and acquisition of information, (2) learning

should be whole, authentic and real, whole activities, as opposed to

isolated skill exercises. Authentic activities which are inherently

interesting and meaningful to the students.

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Nirupama Barpanda (2012) presented an article titled “Constructivism

and Changing Role of Teachers”. The author highlighted the principles of

critical pedagogy in the class room which include (a) Teachers do not

lecture, they ask critical questions and discuss with students. They are

facilitators who instruct through dialogue. (b) Critical pedagogy does not

ignore life‟s reality in the classroom. (c) Critical pedagogy does not

maintain the status-quo, it is essentially transformative. The role of

teacher in constructivist classroom can make learning happen and

transform the learners and the teacher by the new knowledge. It is able to

transform the present life which we live. Constructivism may bring

answer to most of our present day challenges in education.

Panda, B.N (2012) presented an article titled “Collaboration

Learning – An Approach in Constructivism”. The paper has been

developed against the backdrop of constructivism which envisages major

shift from behaviorist approach to learning to constructivist approach that

lays stress on the personal experiences of learner in the process of

knowledge construction. This article reflects collaborative learning as one

of the pedagogical model under constructivist approach. Collaboration

learning has been explained here in its origin and its aspects in support o f

constructivism. The benefits of implementation and evaluation of

collaborative learning have also been discussed.

Indram Verma (2012) conducted a study on “The Effect of Usage

of Constructivism in Teaching at Elementary Level in Relation with

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Creativity of Students”. The objectives of the study were (a) To study the

effect of use of constructivism in teaching on elaboration skill, originality,

flexibility and total creativity of students. The study was conducted on

the selected sample of VIII class students studying in government and

public schools of rural and urban areas of Ghaziabad district. A sample of

48 teachers and 1177 students have been taken for the purpose of study.

The following conclusions were drawn out of the study (a) The use of

constructivism in teaching significantly effect the elaboration skill of

students, (b) The use of constructivism in teaching does not effect originality

of students significantly, (c) The use of constructivism in teaching

significantly effect flexibility skill and creative thinking of students.

Sandeep Kumar (2012) conducted a study on “How Children

Construct Meanings”. The purpose of this paper was to engage educators

in thoughtful discussion and reflection on some of the issues faced when

attempting to structure classroom practices using constructivist learning

theory. Further, the paper discussed how children construct meaning.

Some concepts were selected randomly to see the process of their

development for example concept of god, beauty, truth, sorrow, soul,

patriotism, religion, environment, death, fear were taken to understand the

process. These concepts were taken because all these are not only related

to school, but also to their family and social life. The sample of the study

consists of children belonging to the age group of (7-12 years) which

includes 10 boys and 10 girls (total 20 children). Some suggestions given

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by the author (a) Live, authentic and understanding, based environment

should be provided to the student so as to make teaching-learning process

more effective. (b) It is also important to make curriculum more content-

specific and contextual-based. (c) Evaluation process should be continuous.

(d) Teachers should have dialogue with students and should encourage

them to construct their own knowledge. (e) Knowledge should be seen as

dynamic, ever changing with experience

Hima Datta (2012) presented an article titled “The Learner in a

Constructivist Classroom – A Study”. The author expressed that constructivist

teaching is based on the belief learning occurs as learners are actively

involved in a process of knowing the meaning and knowledge construction

rather than passively receiving information. Learners are therefore are the

makers of meaning and knowledge. Thus constructivist teaching fosters

critical thinking and creates motivated and independent learners.

Constructivist classrooms are structured such that the learners are

immersed in experiences within which they may engage in meaning

making, inquiry, action, imagination, invention, interaction and personal

reflection. The author concluded that, it is imperative therefore that once

curriculum construction leaves adequate scope in terms of time and

materials to the students and teachers to ensure the development of

instruction in a constructivist atmosphere.

Pradeep Kumar Mishra (2012) conducted a study on “Adopting

Constructivist Approach in Teaching Learning Process at Elementary Level

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– A Quality Reflection”. The objectives of the study are (a) Constructivist

thinking among children through educative and joyful environment. (b) To

make the children creative, innovative and posture through simple

spiritual empowerment and constructivism. Two primary schools of

Umerkote Education District Nabarangpur (Orissa) were taken as a

sample for the study of which one was control group and the other was

experimental group 40 students of Class-I & II, 20 from each group

sewed as sample. While selecting the sample attention was given to the

level of achievement of the learners of both the groups. The findings of

the study were (a) The new method brought in a great change in the

outlook, attitude and vision of children. (b) Students could learn maximum

in elementary subjects through constructivism. (c) In this approach the

students‟ participation of experimental group was higher than that of

controlled group.

After thorough review of available research studies in the area of

constructivism and its application to various aspects of education

including classroom teaching, it was observed that constructivism intends

to refine students‟ knowledge, develop inquiry skills through critical

thinking, and lead to developing students opinions about the world around

them. According to Cannella, Reiff and Richardson, learning activities in

a constructivist setting are characterized by students‟ active engagement,

inquiry, problem solving, and collaboration with others. According to

Zevin, correct answers and single interpretations are de-emphasized in

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constructivist learning. McKay writes that the constructivist approach is

skill and problem solving-based. Nuthall adds that the teacher needs to

offer multiple perspectives and a variety of formats in which the information

can be presented.

Constructivist learning in social studies is enhanced when students

begin processing what they have learned on multiple levels, which lead to

higher-level thinking and stays away from strict factual information,

whereas in post-colonial conservative communities, socio-cultural

constraints are imposed on the students, hindering the promotion of

constructivist teaching-learning in general, including Social Studies.

According to Ediger, “Social Studies needs to use a variety of methods

and procedures to assist each pupil to achieve as optimally as possible,

learners individually possess diverse learning styles and intelligences”.

When one is talking about social constructivism and teaching social

studies not only addressing the pedagogy and strategies but also to

address the content and how much constructivism is embedded in the

teaching material that coincides with constructivist pedagogy.

Sunal and Hass indicate that meaningful social studies should

develop reflective inquiry skills. Constructivist social studies curriculum

needs to recognize the child as an active constructor of his/her own

meaning within a community of others who provide a forum for the social

negotiation of shared meanings.

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In the past two centuries, the discipline of social studies has

become very complex and dynamic. Worldwide as well as regional

changes are taking place that need to be addressed in social studies as an

academic subject. Nevertheless, in conservative communities, these

changes are not accepted neither on the teachers level nor on the

pedagogical-content level and as a result, the vehicle of a progressive

constructivist social studies teaching is not welcomed.

After going through the plethora of relevant literature , the present

investigator found that majority of the studies were undertaken abroad, as

already pointed out, constructivist approach to teach social sciences in

our country seems to be in an embryonic stage.

It is evident from the review of related literature both from outside

the country and within the country clearly indicate that the constructivism

as a concept is relatively a new intervention in teaching and curriculum

development. Having realized the role of constructivism in developing a

unique ability to think logically and creatively which results in building a

new horizon of thought process among the students. This particular

ability is considered as essential to equip the students in facing the 21st

century challenges. In consequence of that Indian planners too realized

the need for constructivist orientation to the Indian classroom teaching.

Accordingly, NCERT taken up it as a part of NCF (2005) and initiated

discussions across the nation by way of consulting different groups on the

different aspects of constructivism. Ultimately constructivism has become

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a backbone for the NCF (2005) which the NCERT provided to the nation

for reforming the school education. After through deliberations nation

accepted the NCERT document and began to revise their respect ive

curriculum and classroom teaching strategies. In view of such a paradigm

shift even in our country few researches focused on studying some

aspects of constructivism. However, it is such a vast area having attained

prime place in teaching learning process, there is a dire need to carry out

researches touching upon different aspects of constructivism on one hand

and on the other the effectiveness of constructivism in realizing the

intended out comes wherever it is practiced.

As a consequence, “Constructivism and its Approach of Teaching

Social Sciences at Secondary Level – A Critical Survey in Telangana

Region”, was emerged as a new area for research. Accordingly the present

study aimed at to explore certain relatively less-trodden area and the

manner in which the present research has been undertaken is discussed in

the subsequent chapters.