The Television Instructor - ERICUses of camera movement 15 Explanation of camera movements 15 Camera...

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The Television Instructor AU-9 Air University Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama

Transcript of The Television Instructor - ERICUses of camera movement 15 Explanation of camera movements 15 Camera...

Page 1: The Television Instructor - ERICUses of camera movement 15 Explanation of camera movements 15 Camera Shots and Lenses 15 Camera shots 15 Lenses 17 Switching 17 Selecting the picture

The Television Instructor

AU-9

Air UniversityMaxwell Air Force Base, Alabama

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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH.EDUCATION & WELFAREOFFICE OF EDUCATION

THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRO-DUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROMTHE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIG-INATING IT POINTS OF VIEW OR OPIN-IONS STATED DO NOT NECESSARILYREPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDU-CATION POSITION OR POLICY_

The Television Instructor

AU-9

Prepariq by

Television Teaching Laboratory

Academic Instructor and Allied Officer School

and

Air University Television Center

3825th Support Group (Academic)

Air UniversityMaxwell Air Force Base, Alabama

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November 1965

The material in this manual is directed to the Air Force instructorwho will work in a facility where a television staff is available toassist him in preparing and presenting televised instruction. We recog-nize the existence, value and operational suitability of facilities wheresingle console, instructor controlled telecasts are presented. The greatmajority of TV facilities in the Armed Forces embrace the instructor-production team concept. Consequently, the facets of instructor producedtelecasts, which are essentially modifications of concept -and techniquesdescribed herein, are not given separate treatment.

This publication has been reviewed and approved by competent personnel of the preparingcommand in accordance with current directives on doctrine, policy, e-sentiality, propriety,

and quality.

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Contents

Chapter Page

1 WHY TELEVISION? 1

AdvantagesDistribution 1

Attention 1

SelectionAmplificationPresence 3

Flexibility 3

Standardization 3

Limitations 3

Lack of feedback 3

Restricted movement 4Preparation requirements 4

2 TELEVISION AND THE LEARNING PROCESS 5

The Laws of Learning 5

The law of participation (response) 5

The law of effect (reward) 5

The law of frequency (repetition) 6

The law of readiness (motivation) 6

The law of intensity (vividness) 6

The law of primacy (first impression) 6

The law of recency ((ast impressions) 7

The law of individual differences 7

Television and the Laws of Learning 7

Summary

3 LESSON PLANNING 9

Lesson Objective and Learning Outcomes 9Selecting a Method 9Lecture 10

Demonstration-Performance 10Discussion Method 10Interview 11

Panel 11

The Use of Problems 11

Conducting Research 11

Organizing the Lesson 13

The Lesson Plan 13

4 BASIC TELEVISION FOR THE INSTRUCTOR 14

The Production Crew 14

The program director 14The technical director 14The audio engineer 15

The. video engineer 15

The cameraman 15

The floor director 15

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5 PREPARING THE TELECAST

6 INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS FOR TELEVISION

Audio

Films and Slides

Program Assistance

Program Conferences

Preparing the Script

Rehearsals

Choosing the Right Aid

MicrophonesRecordingsSound on filmAudio mixing

Film projection

The multiplexerSlide projection

The program dircctorThe television coordinator

The graphic artistThe technical writer

The initial script conferenceThe visual aids conferenceThe final script conference

The verbatim scriptThe outline scriptThe openingThe closing

FilmsRecordings

Slides

The camera rehearsal

The dry runThe walk through

Visual aids for TVMotivational aidsExplanatory aids

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Camera Movements 15

Uses of camera movement 15

Explanation of camera movements 15

Camera Shots and Lenses 15

Camera shots 15

Lenses 17

Switching 17

Selecting the picture 17

Switching effects 17

Lighting 18

Aids for variety 30

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Chapter Page

Displaying Aids on Television 30

The film camera chain 30

Rear projection 30Camaa cards 31

Continuity devices 31

Suspense devices 31

Models and mockups 31

Audio devices 31

Principles of TV Aids 32Aspect ratioEdge loss and safety field 32Lettering 33Size 33

The gray scale 33

7 MAKING YOUR OWN VISUAL AIDS 35

Quick Lettering 35Frcchand 35Lettering devices 35

Preparing Slides 36Types of slides 36

Still Pictures 39Mounted stills 39Use of the opaque projector 39

Tabs 39Magnetic on metal 39Sandpaper on felt 39Hook tabs on pegboard 39

8 THE INSTRUCTOR ON CAMERA 40

Camera Presence 40Delivery 40Personal appearance 41

Working With Visual AidsUse of Microphones 42

The microphone check 42The lavalier 43The table microphone 43The boom microphone 43

Cues and Signals 43Hand signals 43The tally lights 44The studio monitor 45Cues from the insti uc tor 46

Prompting Devices 46The roll up prompter 46Cue cards 47Notes 47Quotation cards 48

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Chapter Page

9 TELEVISION AND THE CLASSROOM TEACIIER 49

Team Teaching 49

Relationship of TV-classroom instructor team 49

Before the telecast 49

During the telecast 51

After the telecast 52

Television as an Instructional Aid 52

Television as an Instructional Device 52

10 EVALUATION WITH TELEVISION 54

Testing Student Achievement 54

Specific objectives 54Better tests 54

Continuous evaluation 55

Use of Television as a Testing Medium 55Dramatized situations 55

Instructor observation 55

Limitations of TV testing 56

Evaluating Teacher Performance 57

Self-Critiquing with Video Tape 57

References for Further Reading 59

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Why Television?11

TELEVISION, like all other new develop-ments in the fields of education and training,

requires those who use it to alter somewhat theirways of thinking, acting, and planning. It is

necessary that the instructor realize that TV doesnot, of itself, produce or teach a lesson; it doesnot make a lesson good or bad, nor does itautomatically make a lesson more interesting orchallenging.

The effectiveness of the television medium inteaching depends upon how intelligently andimaginatively it is used. Like any other medium ofinstruction it has both advantages and limitations.To enhance the effectiveness of his presentationthe instructor must capitalize on the advantagesoffered while at the same time recognize andminimize the limitations. With this in mind, let'sexamine some of the general advantages of thetelevision medium.

1. AdvantagesDistribution.In order to stay abreast of a

changing and advancing world and meet theincreasing demand for more and better profession-al training in the Air Force, personnel have tospend an increasing amount of time in schools.Therefore, the real problem is how to reach thegreatest number of people with a reasonableexpenditure of manpower and facilities. Televisionhelps solve the problem by sharply increasing thestudent to faculty ratio. In short, television canhelp us solve the problem of more instruction formore people.

While resolving the need for quantity, qualityof instruction need not be sacrificed. In fact,quality can actually be improved in many ways.

Att,:ntion.A television screen seems to act asa magnet for attention. It is difficult to avoid

1

CHAPTER 1

looking at a television set which is turned on inthe room. The student in the classroom may beexpected to react similarly, so it has a "built-in"advantage not possessed by any other method.

While studies have shown that students canlearn as readily from a simple television presenta-tion as from an elaborate production, it is ob-vious that attention must not only be gained butalso maintained throughout the lesson. The easeand effectiveness by which the medium of televi-sion can be used to hold the viewer's attentionprovide the instructor with a distinct advantage.He can achieve attention with a minimum ofpersonal activity. Such basic capabilities as audio

Figure 1. Multiple monitors provide a greater number ofstudents with a better view of the teaching performance.

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2 THE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR

and visual effects, superimposurcs and variety ofviewing angles lend interest to the telecast andaid in maintaining the student's attention.

SelectiomBy means of selective televisiontechniques, the student's attention can be focusedon specific material with no distractions. Forexample, if the subject matter is an electricalwiring diagram, the camera may show only thatpart of the diagram being described. Anotherexample is the panel discussionthe camera canselect thc member who is talking and concentrateon him, thereby insurihg that attention will notwander to other participants, objects or activities.Thus TV directs attention to the proper placewhile at the same time it eliminates normal dis-tractions. This is an advantage long associatedwith the usc of film in teaching. When thisadvantage is coupled with the natural attractionof the television screen and when the viewingroom is devoid of major distractions, the ability ofthe student to concentrate on the desired materialis enhanced.

Why Television?

Amplification.Television can magnify smallobjects in such a manner that they may be seenby a large number of people at the same time.This characteristic is especially valuable in medi-cal and dental schools. Whereas in the past, onlya few medical or dental students could observe anoperation or extraction, now an almost unlimitednumbcr may witness the event. This capabilitycan bc applied to instruction in many areas, butis especially useful in the magnification of minutetechnical equipment and delicate demonstrations.

In many instances, television reduces the re-quirements for the production of instructionalaids. A postage stamp can be seen on a televisionscreen with almost as much clarity as if it wereseen under a magnifying glass. A small map,diagram or photograph from a book or magazineneed not be expensively reproduced in order forit to be seen by a large class. The camera iscapable of transmitting the material directly fromthe printed page. It is also possible to useoriginal pieces of small equipment for illustration

LIMITATIONS

1 LACK OF FEEDBACK

2 RESTP'C i ED MOVEMENT

3 TIEPARATION 9EQUOMENES

41) 'CID

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MAO ex.

ex.

Figure 2. Television permits the student to view only the material which the instructor wishes him to see.

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Why Television?

in lieu of large and costly mock-ups. Hence, smalltraining aids, such as aircraft models, which couldnot be properly used in large classrooms are wellsuited to television use.

Presence.Television provides the immediacyof the classroom and the intimacy of film. The"you-are-there" feeling lends interest and authen-ticity to the lesson. At the same time the instruc-tor can establish a personal, conversational rela-tionship with each student. The "eye contact" oftelevision gives each student the feeling that theinstructor is talking directly to him. An instruc-tor's sincerity and enthusiasm can become conta-gious and result in increased student motivation.

Many lessons which were once restricted tosmall intimate groups can now, through theadvantage of television presence, be taught tolarge gr ips without a loss of instructor person-ality.

Flexibility.Television can lend unusual flexi-bility and versatility to the instructor. In theaverage classrooms the use of conventional train-ing aids gives rise to many problems. For exam-ple, if the teacher plans to use a film, he has toarrange for the projection equipment, transport itto the classroom, set it up, adjust the screen andlights. Furthermore, projector noise can be aproblem, and a darkened room makes it difficultfor the students to take notes. Television minim-izes these frustrations.

The student's view can be switched from onelive scene to another or to a film sequence. Hecan be transported from one educational situationto another without leaving his seat. Slides, chartsand remote demonstrations can be integrated intoa lesson with ease. Several methods of teaching,such as lecture, panel and symposium, can beused in a single presentation without creating adistraction. Kinescope and video tape capabilitiesadd to television's flexibility. Recorded telecastsare not dependent upon availability of instructorsat specific times, thus the problem of scheduling issimplified.

Standardization.Standardization, a long stand-ing goal of military training, particularly intechnical fields, is being achieved through the useof television. The use of prepared scripts andprompting devices has tended to standardize livetelecasts w!)en repeated to succeeding classes.The, use of kinescope and video-tape recordingsalso has tended to standardize lesson content and

THE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR - 3

instructor delivery of a single lesson to manyclasses. Through this standardization, classes canbe evaluated with greater validity than everbefore.

The advantages discussed above do not pre-tend to be an exhaustive listing. The instructorwill discover others as he becomes more familiarwith the medium.

2. Limitations

There are certain limitations inherent in televi-sion. Good lesson planning carries with it anobligation to cope with limitations; therefore, theyshould be recognized so that their influence maybe minimized.

Lack of feedback.This is probably the mostuniversally recognized limitation of educationaltelevision. Teachers have come to expect ques-tions and comments from their students as ameans of judging the effectiveness of their presen-tation. With the precise timing of televisionlessons and the extensive use of recorded periodsof instruction, the historical system of questionperiods has not worked for television. Even theelaborate and expensive "talk-back" systemswhich were installed for television classes havenot proved effective in judging how well thestudents have learned the material or how wellthe instructor has taught it. As in conventionalclassrooms, there are those students who raisequestions for personal recognition by the teacheror the class and there are those who are reluctantto ask for clarification when they are confused orunsure of the material. Furthermore, the questionsasked are often poorly worded and the answersgiven equally vague. Remedial techniques rareavailable to the teacher on television such ascareful lesson planning to identify difficult areasof his lesson; the team teaching system (seeChapter 9, "Television and the Classroom Teach-er") where a classroom teacher can answerquestions; periodic testing and review; and eventhe submission of written and therefore betterstated questions for direct answer or later discus-sion on television for benefit of the whole class.

Another limitation of television feedback whichconcerns many instructors is the inability to judgeaudience reaction during the lesson. Training andexperience on the part of the instructor to speakconversationally and confidently to an unseenaudience helps to solve this problem. It is also

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4 THE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR

appropriate to put a sample student group in thestudio for the benefit of the instructor where thistype of feedback is essential. This would providean audience reaction, teacher motivation, andfeedback from at least a sampling of students.

Restricted movement.The span of view of thetelevision camera for the most commonly usedshots (medium and close-up) is considerablysmaller than that of the human eye. Movement,therefore, within this restricted field is greatlyexaggerated. The instructor may distract or losehis viewer unless he trains himself to slow,deliberate movements. He must confine his workand body movements to the camera viewing area.He must maintain a consciousness of this limita-tion throughout his presentation. This problemcan, to a large extent, be overcome by rehearsalprior to the telecast.

Preparation requirements.Many teachers,when first confronted with this new medium, arereluctant to incorporate new techniques whichdistinguish television from conventional instruc-tion. This attitude is difficult to overcome andnecessitates an in-service training program toreorient teacher techniques for the medium. Pcr-haps the most startling drawback is the additionalpreparation timc required for even the mostexperienced teacher. Objectives must be clearlyidentified and the lesson organized to meet thoseobjectives. In planning for the television lessonevery effort must be made to take advantage ofthe capabilities and minimize the limitations of the

Why TeleriAion?

television medium, for herein lies the key to theeffective use of television for teaching. While theamount of preparation varies with teachers andsubject material, it still takes hours of preparationand rehearsal to put on an effective telecast. It isnow customary in a great number of educationalinstitutions to divorce the television teacher fromall classroom responsibilities so that he mayconcentrate on his research and preparation ofthe televised lesson.

Review Questions

1. Aside from saving in teachers, how does theability of televised instruction to reach morestudents help instruction in Air Force techni-cal schools?

2. What are some of the ways that attentionmay be gained and maintained in a televisionlesson?

3. How would the selectivity of the televisionlesson be used in a panel discussion?

4. Identify two ways in which the ability oftelevision to magnify small objects is useful.

5. How does the use of television differ from theuse of training films in the classroom?

6. How might the lack of feedback be over-come if no classroom teacher is used? Fromthe standpoint of the student? From thestandpoint of the instructor?

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CHAP T ER 2

Television and the Learning Process

EVERY TEACHER, whether teaching via themedium of television or in the regular class-

room situation, should understand the learningprocess. He needs to know what happens whenthe student learns and what he can do to accen-tuate, intensify, and make more positive the teach-ing-learning process. It is this student-centeredconcept of learning with which this chapter isconcerned.

One of man's unique characteristics is that heis a learner. He learns from the time he is bornuntil he dies. Sometimeswhen the individualdaydreams, performs tasks that he can do auto-matically, or sleepsthe learning process almostceases. At other timesin the classroom, the

laboratory, the library, or the television work;.shopthe learning process is focused or intensi-fied. Thus, by understanding the process of learn-ing as it takes place in the mind of the student,the teacher can do more to increase his students'effectiveness in the classroom.

To be able to vitalize the learning process, theteacher must first know what learning is. Learninghas been defined in many ways, but all definitionsand schools of thought have one idea in common:learning is an active process. It is not a passiveprocess in which the student automatically absorbsknowledge. The learner may expand his knowl-edge, alter his response to a certain stimulus,acquire a skill, gain a new insight, or change hisbehavior in some other way. These are all theresult of an active student process of learning.Whatever he learns, he undergoes a change whenhe learns it. Learning is an active process andresults in changed behavior. Because of thischange, the student responds to a stimulus in adifferent way.

Not only must the teacher understand thechanges that make up learning, but he must beable to define, observe, measure, and evaluatethese changes. More importantly, he must be ableto bring them about. To induce a desired changein the students, to help them, the instructor needsto understand what constitutes a good learningenvironment, why some students learn more thanothers, what makes some lessons effective whileothers are not, and why one technique fails whereothers succeed. Indeed, he needs to know whatlearning is and how to help bring it about in thestudent.

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3. The laws of Learning

Some authorities call the laws of learning

"principles"; others say they are neither laws norprinciples, but "learning factors." Still others callthem "rules." But these words are only labelsand consequently are not of primary concern here.A survey of textbooks on learning will not bringto light a fixed and final set of laws, principles,or rules. Learning is a subjective thing, and totreat it completely and with depth would be todelve into psychology, biology, physiology, andalmost every science having to do with man.Obviously, that approach is impossible andimpractical in this textbook. For that reason,although the following laws of learning are sound,the list is necessarily arbitrary and incomplete.

The law of participation (response).Studentslearn best when they are active. Participation ina lesson is action. This type of action is a factorthat profoundly influences learning. Because thecompetent teacher realizes that idleness, eithermental or physical, can be detrimental to learning,he plans a variety of activities for his students.

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6 TELEVISION A D TIIE LEARN IN G PHOCESS

Activity can take many form s : thinkiniz, 1 istcning,

observing, recalling, reasoning, generalizing, dis-criminating, imagining, writing, discussing, answer-ing, questioning, believimi, disagreeing, feeling,

touching, moving, doing, and speaking. All ofthese can help the studeut learn.

The law of effect (reward).This law is

based on the emotional rcaction of the learner.

It states that learning is strengt hened whcn accom-panied by a ploasant or satisfying feeling andthat learning is weakened when associated withan unpleasant feeling. An experience that pro-duces feelings of defeat, frustration, anger, con-fusion, or futility in the student is unpleasant forhim. If an instructor pilot attempts to tcach acro-batic maneuvers to an aviation cadet on his firstflight, the student is likely to feel inferior and tobe dissatisfied. As a demonstration that showsthe student his goal, the aerobatics might moti-vate the studcnt, but as something to be learnedimmediately, thc aerobatics would be frustrating.In tcrms of the learning objective, this experiencewould be unpleasant.

Teachers should be cautious about using nega-tive motivation in the classroom. Impressing stu-dents with the scorning impossibility of a problemcan make the teaching task difficult. Usually it isbetter to show a student that a problem is notimpossible at all but is within his capability tounderstand and solve. Whatever the learning sit-uation, it should contain elements that affect thestudent positively and give him a feeling of satis-faction. Every learning experience does not haveto be entirely successful, nor does the studenthave to master each lesson completely. But astudent's chance of success will be increased if thelearning experience is pleasant.

The law of frequency (repetition).Thislaw states that thosc things most oftcn repeatedare best remembered, It is the basis of practiceand drill. The human mcmory is not infallible.The mind can rarely retain, evaluate, and applynew concepts or practices after a single exposure.A student does not learn touch typing at onc sit-ting. 1-fc learns by applying what he has beentold, and every time he practices, his learning con-tinues. Thc teacher must provide opportunities forstudents to practice or repeat, and the studentmust scc that this process is directed toward agoal. Repetition can be of many types, including

Why Television?

recall, review, restatement, manual drill, andphysical application.

The law of readiness (motivation).The fac-tor that has perhaps the greatest influence onlearning is motivation, the f orce that causes a per-son to move toward a goal. This force is dormantin some people and active in others, but it is al-ways present in some degree, It can be rooted inany or all of thc personal-social needs of the stu-dent, for example, the need for security, for newexperience, for recognition, for self-esteem, forconformity, or the need to help othcrs. Suchnceds compel people to act, to move, to startworking toward an objective, or to achieve a pur-pose. Thc teacher's responsibility is first to recog-nize and identify these needs and then tc seekways of satisfying them through his teaching.

To be successful, the student must feel a needto know, to understand, to believe, to act, or toacquire a skill. The wisc teacher realizes that theseneeds arc not separate and distinct from the per-sonal-social needs of the student. In fact, the mosteffective motivation trades heavily on this aware-ness. The tcachcr must make students want tolearn and, in some cases, must remove obstaclesthat students have placed in the paths of theirown learning. The student must have a reasonfor learning, and if he cannot find it for himself,the teacher must find it for him. The Air Forceteacher must establish himself as a "partner inlearning" with the student. Students should beplainly told why it is important that they learnthe lesson and how it will bc of benefit to themand the Air Force.

A need to learn presupposes goals or objectives.If the motivation is of the right kind, thc studentwill know,what these goals arc and how he canreach them. In the learning situation, the teacherusually establishes the objective for students,making surc that it is clear and specific. Withoutan objective, neither thc student nor the teachercan measure progress or evaluate achievements.

The law of intensity (vividness).A vivid,dramatic, or exciting learning experience teachesmore than a routine or boring experience. A stu-dent of literature is likely to gain greater under-standing and appreciation of the play Macbethfrom seeing it performed than from merely read-ing it. Hc can learn more about firc fighting fromwatching someone light a fire than from listeningto a lecture on the subject. The law of intensity,

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Why Television?

then, implies that a student will learn more fromthe real thing than from a substitute. Since theclassroom imposes limitations on the amount ofrealism that can be brought into teaching, theteacher should use imagination in approachingreality as closely as possible. Mock-ups, coloredslides, movies, filmstrips, charts, posters, photo-graphs, and other audio-visual aids can add viv-idness to classroom instruction. Demonstrations,skits, and panels do much to stimulate the learn-ing experiences of students. Televising a lessonmay make it more interesting to the receivingstudents.

The law of primacy (first impression).Primacy, the state of being first, often creates astrong, almost unshakable impression. For theteacher, this means that what he teaches mustbe right the first time. Unteaching is more diffi-cult than teaching. If a new piano pupil learnsincorrect finger pbsitions, his teacher will have adifficult task in unteaching the bad habits andreteaching good ones. Every student should bestarted right. His first experience should be posi-tive and functional so that it can prepare him,lay the foundation, for all that is to follow.

The law of recency (last impressions).Other things being equal, the last things learnedare best remembered. Conversely, the farther astudent is removed time-wise from a new fact orunderstanding, the more difficulty hc has inremembering it. It is sometimes easy, for example,to recall a telephone number dialed a few minutespreviously, but it is usually impossible to recall anunfamiliar number dialed a week earlier. Theteacher recognizes the law of recency when hecarefully plans a summary for a lesson or aneffective conclusion for a lecture. He repeats,restates, or reemphasizes important matters at theend of a lesson to make sure that the studentremembers them instead of inconsequential de-tails. The law of recency can often be appliedadvantageously in determining the relative posi-tions of lectures within a course of instruction,and it is followed in scheduling briefings imme-diately before missions.

The law of individual differences.--A newteacher is likely to be discouraged when he dis-covers that a well-planned lesson does not teachall of his students with equal effectiveness, Usu-ally, however, he soon sees that this is a naturaland predictable state of affairs. One manifestation

TELEVISION AND THE LEARNING PROCESS - 7

of the difference between students is that theyseldom learn at the same rate. Differences in ratesof learning arc based on differences in nativeintelligence; background; experience; interests;desire to learn; and countless psychological, emo-tional, and physical factors. That students are dif-ferent is a hard fact of life that teachers must copewith and recognize as the factor which largelydictates how much can be taught at what rateand when.

Since students do not karn at the same rate,it follows that the levels of student understandingwill not be the same at any given moment. Inother words, all students will not learn the samething to identical degrees. The teacher must detectthe differences; that is, he must determine individ-ual levels of understanding. Otherwise, he cannotknow how well he has taught, whether or not hisjob is finished, and what, if anything, he shoulddo next.

The teacher has several gauges with which hecan measure a student's understanding or masteryof a lesson. Student discussions afterwards arehelpful and generally reliable. A study of students'test and achievement scores sometimes providesobjective assessments. Personal conferences, con-tacts in the classroom, written assignments, andinformal talks can also indicate a student's statusand progress.

4. Television and the Laws of Learning

A televised lesson, like any other lesson, mustbe prepared with the student in mind. By care-fully planning to maximize the advantages of themedium and minimizing its limitations, learningcan be enhanced and intensified in accordancewith the laws described above.

In our discussion of the laws of learning, westated, first, that learning is an active processwhich requires student participation. The properlystaged television lesson may stimulate studentactivity to a degree not possible in the large class-room or lecture ball. The flexibility of the mediumand the employment of effective production tech-niques can facilitate listening and observing, canmake the student feel that he is actively engagedin a discussion with the instructor, and can thusreinforce learning throughout the lesson.

The laws of effect and readiness deal primarilywith the student's emotional reactions to thelearning situation. Viewing television is usually

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8 TELEVISION AND THE LEARNING PROCESS

thought to be a pleasant pastime, whereas class-room instruction may be regarded as anythingbut pleasant. The student accepts televised instruc-tion because he wants to watch television Con-sequently, the task of gaining student attention isreduced in the televised lesson simply because apleasant experience is anticipated. Productiontechniques can intensify the pleasantness of theexperience. Close-up shots of detailed procedure,a wide variety of visual illUstrations of abstractideas, and thoroughly planned and rehearsed les-son content can all combine to greatly reduce theconfusion and frustration that is frequently en-countered in the classroom.

Motivation is facilitated in the television lesson.The selection of varied and realistic material willbetter enable the student to visualize the type ofaction that can or should be taken to achieve hisgoal. Variety in the selection of audio and visualstimuli enables the television instructor to appealto the needs of a wide range of students.

Television can make repetition, dictated by thelaw of frequency, pleasant and productive. A con-cept can be illustrated in many ways and in manylocations and situations. Probably most importantis the fact that these varied illusrrations can bereadily visualized because of the flexibility of themedium.

The ability of television to provide a vivid anddramatic learning experience, as described in thelaw of intensity, is limited only by thc imaginationof the instructor. The wide range of visual aidsthat can be used during a television lesson wouldclutter a classroom to the extent that there mightnot be room for students. Visual aids coupledwith the use of mood music, close-up shots, spe-cial effects, and zoom techniques can regenerateinterest, relieve monotony, change pace, and pro-vide a vivid realistic experience.

We have often heard the phrase "first impres-sions are lasting impressions," which is simplyanother way of stating the law of primacy, itwould be a waste of time for the instructor tospend much effort unteaching. Consequently, wecan use television to insure that errors in teachingare eliminated. Television lessons are carefullyplanned. The best informed instructors can beused to present the lesson to a large number ofstudents. The lesson can be video taped to presentthe material in the identical manner each time itis given, and can thereby lay a firm and correct

Why Television?

foundation for what is to follow. Since the tele-vised lesson can be made pleasam, a pleasantfirst impression will probably increase the reten-tion of the material by the student.

We have found that we can advantageouslyapply the law of recency when we determine thesequence of lessons within a course. A videotaped lesson can be scheduled and offered at themost propitious time, for we need not face theproblems of instructor availability, the availability9f facilities which we do not control, nor theavailability of transportation. Consequently,material can be presented as we think best forstudent retention.

We might think that televised lessons cannotcater to or meet individual differences. This neednot be so. The flexibility of the medium enablesus to use a wide range of techniques wherebywe can provide variety in the visualization of con-cepts. This enables us to accommodate manybackgrounds, intelligence levels, and interestlevels. Taped lessons can be replayed for thebenefit of the slow learner and thus free theinstructor to devote more individual attention tothe rest of the class.

5. Summary

Learning is an active process that produceschanges in the students. The teacher must under-stand these changes. To achieve this goal, heneeds to understand the laws of learning and toadapt his teaching to the individual differences ofhis students. Television as a teaching medium canhelp the learning process by intensifying the effectof some of these laws or factors. The televisionteacher should capitalize on the strengths of themedium and compensate for its inherent weak-nesses.

A knowledge of the laws of lealning helps theteacher to understand and take advantage ofthese factors that affect learning: participatiOn,effect, frequency, readiness, intensity, primacy,recency, and individual differences. Students musthave a need to know, to understand, to believe,to act, or to acquire a skill. All of these needs,which make up motivation, are inseparable fromthe personal-social needs of the students. Studentslearn best when they are active, when they par-ticipate. When purposeful activity is associatedwith learning, it makes the learning more per-manent. Because of differences in experience.

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Why Television?

background, intelligence, interests, desire to learn,and psychological, emotional, and physical factors,students learn at different rates. The teacher mustrecognize these individual differences and gearhis teaching to reach all students, whatever theircapabilities and abilities.

Television can enhance learning when used inaccordance with the laws of learning. It can stim-ulate student participation and motivation. It canbe used to advantage to provide lasting impres-sions, to increase learning, and to accommodateindividual differences. It can intensify the emo-tional reactions of the learner and can intensifythe learning experience. But perhaps the mostvaluable aspect of a televised lesson is its ability

TELEVISION AND THE LEARNING PROCESS 9

to provide variety, relieve monotony, and therebymake the learning experience vivid and exciting.

Review Questions

1. Define learning.

2. Why must a television teacher understand thelearning process?

3. How can the television teacher adjust hisinstruction to the individual differences of hisstudents?

4. Why is motivation so important to the learningprocess?

5. How does participation affect a student's learn-ing?

6. How may television enhance learning?

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CHAPTER 3

Lesson Planning

ESSON planning for television instructiondiffers little from conventional lesson plan-

ning. The necessity for it and some of the activitiesinvolved are identical. In all cases, the essence oflesson planning is the careful selection of instruc-tor-student activities which are compatible withindividual abilities and haerests. The functionscommon to both television and the classroom arcestablishing the lesson objective and desired learn-ing outcomes, conducting research and organizingthe material. TV lesson planning differs in theemphasis placed on teamwork. The results aree-r:ain planning factors unique to the television

6. Lesson Objective and Learning Outcomes

The lesson objective should be a dear, concisestatement of what the student is to learn from thelesson. Care must be taken to insure that thesubject is manageable forthe time allotted. It mustbe limited to fit the class period. It is also

imperative that the objective be stated so thatactivity is focused on the student. In brief, theobjective as stated should indicate that the stu-dent is to learn something, not that the instructoris to teach something.

After the objective is established, the learningoutcomes should be identified. These are the

student accomplishments which directly contributeto the achievement of the lesson objective. Thesum total of the desired learning outcomes shouldequal the lesson objective. They shoffld not bevague generalizations, but should identify thespecific learning to be acquired. Clear, directstatements of the lesson objective and desiredlearning outcomes will lend direction to the

research.7. Selecting a Method

After the teacher has planned the objectives to

10

be accomplished by the lesson, he must decidehow to attain the right student outcomes. Thisshould be based on an understanding of howlearning is acquired: by doing, discussing, listen-ing, observing, and participating. Then he selectsthe most effective method to insure that learningtakes place. In other words, the outcomes desiredwill dictate the method by which the best exper-ience can be provided for the student. Theteacher's job, then, is to provide activity that willresult in meaningful experience.

The teacher cannot always provide the activitythat he feels is best for a particular outcome.Class sizes, facilities, environment, time available,school policy, nature or character of the class, hisown personalityany one of these factors maylimit his ability to cause students to engage in thetype of activity that he feels would result in thebest student experience. Consequently, the teach-er, using the desired student outcome as the mostimportant criterion, frequently is forced to selecthis method of instruction by making the bestcompromise between what he believes he shoulddo and what he knows he can do.

Method can be defined as a way of reaching adesired learning outcome by a series of acts.Method implies a planned sequence of proce-dures. It is the use of any device, technique orprocedure to help the student learn. Put anotherway, an instructional method is a combination oftechniques used by a teacher to cause studentactivity which in turn results in meaningfi ' exper-ience.

Many educational psychologists feel that stu-dents learn best when specific methods are usedto get a particular type of student response oractivity. Method selecfion should be based on thedesired learning outcomes or level of learning

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Lesson Plaiming

desired. It should be borne in mind that for the"viewing" students the experiences can be largelyvicarious. Any extension of the classroom there-fore which allows direct participation by thestudent will contribute to the effectiveness of thelearning. The teaching method selected thenshould employ to a maximum degree the besttechniques for involving the students directly inthe learning activity. Such activity will often beinfluenced by technical capability and limitationsof the television staff.

8. Lecture

No attempt will be made here to discuss theadvantages or limitations of the lecture methodper se but only as it may be adapted to use inthe medium of television. Early television practicewas largely limited to the use of the lecture. Aninstructor presented his regular classroom materialby standing in front of a camera and talking tothe audience. The basic sense of sight was notalways stimulated, though a few charts or trainingaids were used. The lecture presented in the

classroom may be offered on television with

distinct advantages in two areas: teaching effec-tiveness and scheduling.

Teaching effectiveness does not necessarilyincrease merely by use of television. When usedonly as a communication medium it can exagger-ate, rather than improve, ineffective teaching. Onthe other hand, television uses certain techniqueswhich can enhance a lecture. The close-up andlong shot for variety, various types of "superim-posures," split screen techniques and animatedillustrations are but a few. The ability to portraydifferent types of information simultaneously givesthe teacher an opportunity to make comparisonsand to provide well illustrated examples. It is

possible to present "right" and "wrong" examples,or to relate nomenclature to parts.

Scheduling is comparatively simple when thelecture is used. For example, one instructor canteach as many students as the number of receiverswill permit. Thus, a maximum number of studentscan be reached with great ease by a single

instructor. Lectures can be viewed in one largeauditorium on receivers along the wall, or theymay be televised to a number of rooms. Thelecture may be supplemented by a recitation orlaboratory under the guidance of classroom in-structors.

THE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR 11

9. Demonstration-Peformance

This method involves direct participation bythe student and is best suited for teaching aspecific skill, such as jet engine repair. Theimprovement that television makes to the normalclassroom demonstration is in extending the num-ber of people who may view a demonstration atcloc range, and in magnifying a function, involv-ing small movable parts. Thus, an instrumentrepairman could demonstrate how to repair abombsight before hundreds of students at workbenches who could not otherwise crowd aroundthe instructor for a good view. Conversely, largeitems of equipment that cannot be brought intothe classroom can be effectively taught throughtelevised lessons, thereby eliminating the need forfield trips in many cases.

10. Discussion Method

A good solo performance by the teacher shouldnot overshadow the value of class discussions toachieve the same goals. Discussion should domore than muster facts; it should develop ideas inorder to achieve a "working" knowledge, orunderstanding, of the relationship of these ideas.

Television discussion benefits the teacher, andthe students. It is a stimulus to the instructorwhen there are students present in the studio, forthey give him a gauge by which he can measurehis efforts. If the students in the studio arc a partof the discussion the rest of the class is motivatedto see how their contemporaries make out. Thishas an added bonus of holding the attention ofthe class. If the period of instruction is unre-hearsed, many stimulating and thought provokingquestions may develop. As in the lecture method,scheduling problems are simplified when the dis-cussion method is used.

The televised discussion could operate in thismanner: One group of students will be in thestudio with the TV instructor while the otherstudents will be in classrooms under the supervi-sion of classroom instructors. The members of thestudio group and the studio instructor will be "oncamera" and telecast to the other classrooms. Thegroups in the classrooms can see and hear what

is going on, although they cannot communicatewith the studio group. While the responsibilityfor the discussion normally will belong to thestudio group, the classroom instructor may callupon students in his group and may allow them

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12 THE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR

to ask questions and make comments. Thus,where it is desired that the classroom studentparticipate in the discussion, close coordinationmust be accomplished between the studio teacherand the classroom teacher. Where possible, black-outs should be provided during the lesson toallow the classroom students time to discuss thepoints being brought out in the studio discussion.A bell or buzzer can be. used to warn theclassroom that the TV presentation will be re-sumed.

Most teachers want to be able to gauge studentreaction by feedback. The group discussion por-tion of the lesson enables the classroom teacherto get feedback from the classroom students. Theclassroom teacher can clarify, elaborate on certainpoints, and assist those students who need help.

11. Interview

As a method of teaching, the interview is aninformal conversation between two people for thebenefit of a large group. In an informal interview,conversation tends to be in familiar idiom andeasier to understand. The instructor guides theconversation by carefully chosen questions thatexplore areas and ideas of value and interest tothe students. It is a method adaptable to mostsubject areas if the interviewee is selected withcare. Students may participate by questions di-rected to the interviewee or through discussionled by classroom instructors after the presenta-tion.

12. Panel

"Meet the Press" is a good example of a TVpanel. As a method of teaching it is the exchangeof ideas among carefully chosen panel membersfor the benefit of a large group. This approach todiscussion allows a group which is well informedin a subject area to cover the basic ideas in anorderly manner. It conserves the advantages ofsmall group discussion for the benefit cf largernumbers. Use of the panel enables the instructorto promote constructive thinking among the panelmembers as well as the viewers. Panel membersshould be selected on the basis of knowledge of asubject, and capability to discuss it interestinglyand in terms meaningful to the audience.

13. The Use of Problems

Problems as a teaching method are many and

Lesson Planning

varied, ranging from individual problem assign-ments to group problem-solving exercises. Prob-lems pose a challenge to students, an obstacle toovercome by reflective thinking, analysis, synthe-sis of ideas, and the application of knowledgeand understanding. The objective of a problem-solving period might vary from the application ofknowledge in a narrow subject area to a broadapplication of knowledge to several subject areas.

Television can be used to advantage for prob-lem-solving lessons. With individual problem as-signments the instructor can make sure thatuniform instructions are given to all students. Hecan also insure that the best solutions are pre-sented and explained after the assignment is

completed.Similarly group problem-solving lessons are

adaptable to TV teaching. Facts and conditionsof a problem can be presented to many groups atonce, thereby giving each group a uniform basefrom which to operate. By careful monitoring andreporting on the progress of various groups hecan control the rate of progress of the groups,and thus the rate of the entire class. He canprevent one group from spending too much timeon a certain aspect of the problem or slow downa faster group.

14. Conducting Research

The next step in lesson planning for a telecastis to develop the background and knowledge inthe subject area. Research for a TV presentationis in essence no different, from an ordinary classperiod. A few adaptations, however, are neededin a television lesson. As the instructor researcheshis material he must constantly consider its ap-propriateness for the medium. For example, ma-terial that requires student responses is obviouslyunsuited for a TV lesson. On the other hand, theteacher may make excellent use of film clips,

slides, panels, mock-ups, and a variety of otheraids which would not be possible in conventionalclassrooms. One of the most important things toremember in this research process is to limit thesubject to workable proportions. If the instructorhas established his lesson objective and set forthhis desired learning outcomes, then he has alreadyestablished direction for his research. Keepingclose to these points will insure that he doesn'tget far afield and prepare extraneous material forthe telecast.

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LESSON PLAN

TITLE: Teaching by TelevisionCODE: A1C-465INSTRUCTOR: Major John M. Blank, Jr.

PART I - OVERVIEW

LESSON OBJEC TIVE: The objective of this lesson is for each student to know that tele-vised lessons must be carefully planned in order to make the most effective use ofthe medium.

DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES: Each student should:(1) Lnow that the advantages and limitations of television affect its use in teaching.(2) know that planning for a televised lesson is more complicated than planning for

a conventional lesson.

INSTRUCTOR REFERENCES:1. Carpenter, C.A., and Greenhill, L. p, , An Investigation of Closed - Circuit

Television for Teaching University Courses (Instructional Television Rese:-.rchReport Number Two), Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Penn-sylvania, Spring 1958.

2. Costello, Lawrence F. , and Gordon, George N. , Teach With Television: A Guideto Instruc tional TV, Hastings House, New York, 1961.

3. Schramm, Wilbur L. (ed), The Impact of Educational Television, Universityof Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, 1960.

4. The Television Instructor, AU-9, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1965.

INSTRUCTOR AIDS: 35mm slides, 3x4 slides for film chain, and magnetic board with tabs.

STUDENT PREPARATION: Read Chapter 9, Principles and Techniques of Instruction,AIAOS.

HANDOUT MATERIAL: None

TIME REQUIRED: 45 minutes

PLAN OF PRESENTATION: The lesson will be introduced with a brief description ofhow television is being used in Air Force schools. The advantages and limitationsof television will be explained and examples given. Finally, televised lesson plan-ning procedures will be explained and compared with conventional lesson planningprocedure.

PART II - TEACHING GUIDE

S TUDENT OU TCOMES STUDENT ACTIVITY INSTRUCTOR ACTIVITY

IN TRODUC TION1. Realize that the Air 1. Listens and takes 1. Describes how televisionFor ce is making exten- notes. is being used in Air Forcesive use of television in schools:its schools. a. Air University

b. Air Training Com-mand

c. Air Force Academy2. Recognize that Air 2. Visualize instance 2. Describe trends towardForce instructors may where he might bepre- expansion of televised in-anticipate becoming senting a televised struction in Air Forcetelevision instructors. l-sson. Schools.

Figure 3. Sample lesson plan.

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14 THE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR

15. Organizing the Lesson

If the telecast is to be successful then it must

be well organized. All main points and ideas mustbe related and support the lesson objective.

The introduction of the lesson is designed toarrest attention of the viewers, motivate them towant to learn, and to present the lesson outlineor overview. The instructor should be aware andtake advantage of the unique television tech-

niques that may be used to enliven his introduc-tion. Team planning between instructor and TVstaff begins to pay visible dividends at this stage.

Any one of five patterns may be used todevelop the lesson: timc, space, reason, enumera-tion (topical), or problem solution. Each isdiscussed at length in AFM 10-4. Each isadaptable to a television presentation. Ordinarily,material should be organized so as to progressfrom the simple to the complex, the known to theunknown or the common to the rare. During thescript conference (see Chapter 5, "Preparing theTelecast") the television staff will advise the

instructor how he can best develop his mainpoints using the characteristics inherent in theTV medium.

The conclusion of the telecast should forcefullysummarize the key points in terms of the lessonobjective. It should also motivate the students andestablish closure. Closure can be made particular-ly effective with background music, the fade-outand other studio techniques.

Planning a telecast, like planning for any

lesson, considers the instructor-student relation-ship. It must be student-centered at all times iflearning is to take place. TV does not require theinstructor to assume a new role just because he isbefore the cameras. The lesson is a matter ofinstruction, not entertainment, although humorand originality can assist the teachcr to good

ad vant age.When planning to present a course on televi-

sion, the teacher should plan activities to deter-

Lesson Planning

mir i. the progress of his viewers. Televisionlessons can be alternated with conventional les-sons to give the instructor an opportunity toquestion his students and otherwise gauge theirprogress. It will also serve to re-establish student-instructor rapport as well as provide guidance forrevision of future lessons.

16. The Lesson Plan

The written lesson plan is a record of theinstructor's activities in planning the lesson. Pre-paring this plan is a necessary prerequisite toaccomplishing a good television script. The lessonplan is divided into two parts, which are shownin sample lesson plan (Figure 3).

Part I of the lesson plan is an overviewconsisting of such general information as thelesson objective, the desired learning outcomes,references, and the plan of presentation. Part II,the teaching guide, helps the instructor view allthe students' activities as well as his own in termsof what he wishes the students to gain from thelesson. Part II consists of a step-by-step list ofstudent outcomes, student activities, and instruc-tor activities. These items are listed in the threecolumns under appropriate headings, as shown inthe sample plan. This part forms the basis for theaudio column of the program script which will becovered in a subsequent chapter.

Review Questions

1 . Why should desired learning outcomes beestablished prior to selecting the method ofinstruction?

2. Wlmt are the methods which demand studentparticipation?

3. What type of student participation may beused in the lecture method?

4. Why is a lesson plan important to a televisedlesson?

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Basic Television for the Instructor

MANY books have been written on the subjectof television production and no two

authors completely agree on all phases. Proce-dures, personnel and equipment will vary fromone studio to another so there can be no definiteassessment of the facilities available to you at agiven television studio. No attempt has been madein this chapter to explain the "hows" but ratherthe "whats" and the "whys" of television produc-tion. We will, therefore, now discuss the equip-ment and personnel with which you, the instruc-or, will be working. A basic knowledge oftelevision production helps to eliminate some ofthe fears confronting new television instructors,improves communication between the instructorand the television staff, helps the instructor to beat ease in the environment of television and,consequently, improves the effectiveness of thepresentation.

17. The Production Crew

All television studios maintain a productioncrew of some kind. There are numerous crewpositions which may be filled, depending uponavailable manpower and the extent of productionwork done by the studio. There are basically sixpositions necessary to put on a telecast.

The program director.The instructor worksmore closely with the program director than anyother crewman and receives more direct assistancefrom him than from other members of the TVcrew. The program director is involved with theinstructor from the initial script conferencethrough the actual presentation. (The responsibil-ities of the program director as a member of theplanning staff arc discussed in Chapter 5, "Pre-paring thc Telecast.")

Once underway, the program director assumes

15

CHAPTER 4

the responsibility for all elements of the telecast,and he is, or should be, in complete control, withan crewmen following his directions. The pro-r-...am director is in direct communication with allcrewmen, either by voice or by the intercommuni-cations system. Any cues or directions intendedfor the instructor, however, i-nust be relayed bythe lloor director or cameraman by use of handsignals. (See Chapter 7, "The Instructor OnCamera.")

Sitting in the control room, the program direc-tor gives instructions to all crew members, followsthe script, watches the camera monitors, callscamera shots, gives audio and visual aid cues,and gives cues to the instructor. He has beforehim the program script which he uses as a guideto coordinate the efforts of the respective crew-men, and to integrate all separate elements of thepresentation into a smooth, transitional telecast.

The technical director.The technical directoris the persevi who operates the switcher-faderunit to set up and achieve the desired picturechanges and visual effects, such as cuts, fades,dissolves, superimposures, etc. He takes his cuesfrom the program director, and is generally re-ferred to as "the switcher."

In TV stations where remote controls for slidesand film are built into the video console, thetechnical director may also operate the switcher-fader, select and change slides, cue film, and stopand start the film projector.

Depending upon the available manpower, thecomplexity of the presentation or the programdirector's personal preference, the program direc-tor may do his own switching, thereby eliminatingthc need for a technical director. In any case, theperson who operates the switcher-fader is respon-sible for getting thc picture from the desired

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16 - THE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR

camera "on the air" at the right time with theright visual effect.

The auaio engineer.The audio engineer isresponsible for all audio portions of the telecastincluding the sound from studio microphones,audio tape, record discs, film sound and soundfrom remote sources. He assists the programdirector in the selection of mugic, sound effects,and other audio aids, and is responsible for

taping these audio aids before the telecast.Immediately prior to the telecast, the audio

engineer places and adjusts the microphones to beused, obtains voice levels from the instructor, andcues audio tapes and record discs to be used.

During the telecast, the audio engineer opal--ates the audio tape recorder, the turntable, andthe audio console (audio mixer), controllingsound levels and bringing sound in and out ofthe telecast as required.

The video engineer.The video engineer isresponsible for the technical quality of the visualportion of the telecast. Prior to the telecast heelectronically builds the pictures on all cameras tobe used, adjusting the controls to achieve the bestpossible picture.

During the telecast, the video engineer sits atthe video console, keeping a close watch on thecamera controls, maintaining the required signallevel, and making adjustments as required.

The cameraman.Before air time, each cam-eraman sets up his first camera shot, positions thecamera for desired distance and angle, selects thelens, focuses the image, composes, balances andframes, the picture, and waits for the telecast tobegin.

During the telecast, while one camera is on theair, the operator of the other camera sets up hisnext shot so that he is ready with it when theprogram director calls for it. When his camera ison the air, he may hold the same shot until hiscamera is "off the air," or he may be required tofollow the instructor about the set, moving thecamera, focusing the image, and maintaining ba-lance and framing. When there are more than twocameras used, the cameras which are not on theair are being readied for their next respective shots.

The floor director.The floor director is thecommunication link between the instructor andthe program director. During the telecast, all cuesand signals intended for the instructor are re-layed to him by the floor director, who utilizes a

Basic Television for the Instructor

form of sign language called "hand signals," (SeeChapter 7, "The Instructor on Camera.")

The floor director may, in addition to relayingcues and signals, perform other duties such asholding or changing cue cards, operAng cuingdevices, moving props and visual aids, assisting inmoving camera cables, etc. If the presentation iscomplex, he may have an assistant who performssuch duties. In telecasts of a very simple nature,a floor director would normally not be requiredand the instructor would receive his cues fromone of the cameramen.

ia Camera MovementsUses of camera movement. Almost all studio

cameras are equipped with a mechanism whichpermits free movement of the camera, both hori-zontally and vertically, and a set of wheels whichpermits movement of the camera and its support-ing base about the studio floor.

There are eight basic uses of camera movementin a telecast. They are:

To obtain pleasing picture composition andframing.

To add or delete material in the picture.To change the scene.To maintain a relative distance or angle from

the subject, when the subject is moving.a To shnulate motion within the scene.

To achieve variety.To assure continuity.To produce a dramatic effect.

Exphination of camera movements.The termi-nology used in describing camera movements ispurposefully standard in order to avoid misinter-pretation or confusion. There are five basiccamera movements and any of them may becombined to achieve almost complete mobility.The five basic camera movements arc shown inFigures 4a-4e.

VC Camera Shots and Lenses

The television camera is the student's view-point, in that the student sees only what thecamera sees. A camera "shot," then, is a scenewhich contains whatever visual material the in-structor wishes the student to see.

Camera shots.One way of describing camerashots is by specifying the relative distance fromthe student, via the camera lens, to the center ofinterest, A shot may be long, medium, or close-uponly in relation to other camera shots that are

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Basic Television for the Instructor

Figure 4a. Pan.A rotation of the camera up to 3600on a horizontal plane around a fixed axis. The direc-tion of the ntovement is designated by "pan left," or "pan

right."

used with it. As we go from a long shot to amedium shot, to a close-up using the same centerof interest, the student moves progressively closer,seeing less of the subject. For example, a longshot may show the instructor from the knees up,however on a close-up the instructor's head andshoulders would fill the frame (Figure 5).

Another way of describing camera shots is byspecifying how much of the instructor should be

Figure 4b. Tilt.A rotation of the camera up to ap-proximately 180° on a vertical plane, around a fixedaxis. When the front of the camera is pointed up, thisis a "tilt up" and ivhen the front of the camera is

pointed down, this is a "tilt down."

THE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR - 17

Figure 4c, Dolly,A movement of the camera and ;.tssupporting base about the studio in a line from the frontof the camera to the subject. The movement may betoward the subject"dolly in," or away from the sub-

ject"dolly out."

in the picture. The instructor's anatomy is used todescribe this type of shot: therefore, a knee shotmeans that the instructor is in the picture fromhis knees up; a waist shot, from the waist up;bust shot, from the bust up; and a shoulder shot,from the shoulders up.

The number of the centers of interest in agiven camera shot affords another way to de-

Figure 4d. TruckA movement of the camera and hssupporting base about the studio floor parallel to a hori-zontal line drawn through tlw subject laterally. Thedirection of the movement is either "truck right" or

"truck left."

A

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18 THE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR

-------- lam .0

Figure 4e. Boom.A movement changing the distmice ofthe camera from the studio floor. The extent of a boommovement is dependent upon the type of equipment usedand some types of mum' equipment cannot "boom" atall. The directions of movement are, of course, either

"boom up" or "boom down."

scribe shots. A shot with two centers of interest,for example, two instructors in the same picture, iscalled a two-shot, three centers of interest, athree-shot, and more than three, a group-shot.

One other type of shot which is used ratherfrequently in television is the cover shot. Manytimes when there are two cameras available, theprogram director will assign the close-ups to onecamera and will assign the responsibility to theother camera of staying with the instructor sothat he is "covered" as he moves about the set.(See Chapter 7, "The I nstructor on Camera".)

Lenses.The camera lens serves as the eyes ofthe student. Basically speaking, light is reflectedinto the lens which in turn focuses the light ontothe face of the pickup tube in the camera. Fromthere the image is reproduced electronically andconveyed to the classroom monitor where thestudent sees it.

Most cameras have a lens complement of fourlenses which are screwed into a rotational devicecalled a lens turret, mounted on the front of thecamera. The turret is rotated from the rear of thecamera until the desired lens is lined up with thepickup tube in the camera. When any one of thefour lenses is lined up with the pickup tube, thatparticular lens is referred to as the "hot lens."

The lens complement usually includes a 50mmlens which is a wide angle lens giving a wide

Basic Television for tile Instructor

angle of view. The 90mm and the 135mni lens arcalso standard and provide a progressively narrowangle of view but more magnification. The81/2-inch telephoto lens is found in most lenscomplements. It provides a very narrow angle ofview and is used almost exclusively for close-ups.Sonic types of cameras employ a lens complementconsisting of I-, 2-, 3-, and 4-inch lenses in thesame manner as the lenses mentioned above(Figure 6).

The zoom lens is a special type of lens whosefocal length can be changed while the camera ison the air. As the focal length changes, so doesthe angle of view. The zoom can go from a longshot to a close-up and back again without losingfocus or changing lenses. The zooming effect issimilar to that of a fast dolly movement, however,the camera itself does not move when zooming.

20. Switching

A great amount of flexibility can be achievedthrough the use of camera movement and a lenscomplement which provides a variety of lenses. Ifthe program director were to use only one camerato go from one scene to another, or from a longshot to a close-up by camera movements and lenschanges, the resulting effects would be annoyingto the student, and picture continuity, in mostcases, would be poor. Most studios have at leasttwo studio cameras, each possessing mobility andthe flexibility of a lens turret. While one camerais on the air, the other camera is being movedinto position, the required lens selected and it is

focused for the next shot.Selecting the picture.The electronic capabil-

ity of switching from a picture on one camera toa picture on another camera improves the picturecontinuity of a telecast and adds flexibility. Theprogram director selects the next picture that thestudent is to see, and the switching from onecamera to the other is accomplished through theuse of a switcher-fader unit (Figure 7). Thefader knobs of this unit and the rows of buttons,each button corresponding to a camera, enablethe person doing the switching to cut from onecamera to another. The effects that can be

achieved depend upon the kind of switcher-faderused.

Switching effects.There are four basic effectsthat can be achieved by most switcher-faderunits:

tr; 17-t..0

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Basic Television for the Instructor

Lon: Shot or Knee Shot

THE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR 19

Clomp or Bust Shot

Medium Shot or Waist Shot

Figure 5. Relative camera shots.

Cut. This occurs when the viewer's pictureis switched instantaneously from the picture onone camera to the picture on another camera.This effect may also be referred to as .a "take."

Fade. This effect may be called either a

"fade in" or a "fade to black." To fade in meansto increase the image intensity of a picture fromzero to full intensity. The fade to black is thedirect opposite in which the image intensity of apicture is diminished from full intensity to zero.

Dissolve. This technique serves to diminishthe image intensity of one picture to zero andincrease the image intensity of another picture atthe same time. It gives the effect of a differentpicture from each of two cameras on the air atthe same time. As one picture fades out, the otherfades in.

Superimposure. This is the point in a dis-solve where the visual material from each cameracan be seen clearly by the student. "Supers" canlast for any length of time and they are mostuseful in TV teaching. One example of a super isfor key words or phrases to suddenly appear

across the instructor's chest and just as suddenlydisappear when they are no longer needed.

21. LightingSince average room light levels are not general-

ly sufficient for television, additional light must beintroduced on the set to produce a satisfactorypicture signal. The amount of light required tolight a set will vary with the subject and the typeof equipment.

Most television studios have an overhead pipegrid from which lights are suspended (Figure 8).The grid provides a capability for lighting almostany portion of the studio from all directions. Thelights and light cables are not in the camera'sway and neither the camera nor camera operatorcan block the light. Portable floor lamps aresometimes used in set lighting to fill in dark areasor as a low level light to eliminate or "wash out"shadows.

When you walk onto a lighted set, there willbe lights of varying intensity shining on you fromdifferent directions. A set is lighted with threebasic lighting objectives in mind:

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20 THE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR Basic Television for the Instructor

Figure 6. Lens complements of two different types of TV equipment.Left-50mm, 90mm, 135mm, and 8-1/2 inch lenses.

Right--1-inch, 2-inch, 3-inch and 4-inch lenses.

I . To provide a main source of illumination.2. To separate the subject from the back-

ground, bringing out the three dimensional qual-ity.

3. To fill in shadow areas not washed out byother lights.

The physical characteristics of the instructor,such as skin tone and hair coloring, determinehow he is to be lighted. An instructor with lightcomplexion and light hair wearing a light suit

I

requires less light than a dark-complexionedperson with dark hair wearing a dark suit.

Objects having a "glossy" finish such as jew-elry reflect light into the camera lens. The result-ing effect is a black blob in the picture, commonlyreferred to as "bloom." A bald head frequentlypresents a lighting problem since it can alsoreflect light, however, makeup can correct this.(See Chapter 8, "The Instructor on Camera.")

.11Pr.

Figure 7. Switcher-fader unit.Figure 8. Studio lights are suspended from overhead

pipe grid.

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Basic Television for the Instructor

22. I Audio

Television is not entirely a visual medium. Itcombines picture with sound, and would besomewhat lacking if the audio ,portion of thelesson were left out. The audio and the videoshould complement and clarify each other. Sincesound, like the picture, must be electronicallyreproduced, microphones and recordings must beused to reproduce sound.

Microphones.Several types of microphonesmay be used, such as the lavalier, table and boommicrophones.

Lavalier.The most popular microphone usedby instructors is the lavalier which is a smallmicrophone normally suspended from a cordaround the instructor's neck. The cord permitsfree movement since the microphone goes wher-ever the instAuctor goes within the limits of themicrophone cord. The lavalier is small, compact,and unobtrusive.

Table microplione.Any mike mounted on ashort stand which sits on the table or desk iscalled a table mike. Some table mikes are bi-directional and others have a multi-directionalpickup with different coverage patterns so thatmore than one person can use the same micro-phone. The table mike restricts movement in thatthe instructor cannot move out of the micro-phone's pickup pattern.

Boom microphone.The boom microphone issimply a microphone suspended from a long poleor boom. Microphone movement and pickup di-rection is controlled by a boom operator so thatthe microphone stays a constant distance from theinstructor, and the "live" side of the mike ispointed toward him. The boom affords the in-structor unlimited movement about the set anddoes not encumber him with a mike cable.

Recordings.The two types of recordings mostfrequently used are audio tapes and record discs.

Audio tapes.Most studios possess at leastone audio tape recorder. Sound portions can betaped before the telecast, permitting erasing andretaping until they are perfect. Existing tapesmade with practically any conventional taperecorder can be utilized since most audio taperecorders used in TV studios have at least a two-speed capability. Audio tape can be cut and aportion from another tape spliced in. Most stu-dios have the capability of taping sound from theturntables or from film. Many times the entire

THE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR - 21

audio portion of the telecast, other than theinstructor's voice, is recorded on a single tape.This makes cuing easy and places all of thesound portions at one source.

Records.:The record turntable is standardequipment in most television studios. The turnta-ble generally has three speed settings so thatrecords which play at 33%, 45 or 78 RPM maybe used. Records, unlike audio tape, may getscratched, cracked, or warped, and become unu-sable. The most common use of records in televi-sion teaching is for theme music and soundeffects.

Sound on film.--Sound on film is anotheraudio source which may be used in conjunctionwith the film picture or independently with apicture from another source. The instructor mayuse the film picture without the film sound or hemay use film sound without the film picture,depending upon what he wishes the student tohear and see.

Audio Mixing.The audio console (Figure 9)or audio mixer is the equipment which controlsthe selection and volume of all sound leaving thestudio or control room. Each audio source has avolume control and an off and on switch, so thatsound from a given source can be cut on the airor off the air. Sound can be faded in or out ascalled for. Sound can be "cross faded" so that asone sound fades out, the other fades in. Soundscan also be superimposed over each other. Forexample, the instructor is talking while music isheard faintly or the instructor is heard over thesound of an airplane engine.

Figure 9. All sound is controlled from audio mixing unit.1:0

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22 THE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR

35mm

Slide Prejector

Beam Splitting Cube

16mm or 35mm

Film Projector

Beam Splitting Cube

ield Lens (I)

Basic Television for the Instructor

Mirror

-------- Vidicon Camera

I .

tJ

16mm or 35mm

Film Projector

Lens (Il)

Front Surface Mirror

Figure 10. Diagram of a multiplexer unit.

23. Films and SlidesFilm projection.The 16mm film projector is

standard equipment. Every television studio willpmsess at least one and most of them will havetwo. Any 16mm film can be used in part, or infull, as long as the film is in good shape. Colorfilms can be shown over black and white televi-sion systems, however, they appear on the monitoras black and white.

Slide projection.The 2"x2", 35mm slide pro-jector is the most common used in television. Somestudios have the capability for showing 31/4"x 4"glass slides so that existing auditorium slides canbe used. Some studios have a homemade light boxfor showing transparencies since overhead projec-tion in most cases is washed out by the studiolighting. Rear screen projection can bc accom-plished using either the 2" x 2" or the 31/4" x4" slides.

The multiplexer.This is a system of mirrorsor prisms which allows more than one projectorto be fed to a single film-pickup camera (Figure10). The multiplexer is stationary and is usuallyused in conjunction with two film-pickup cameras,two 16mm film projectors and two 35mm slideprojectors with rotating drums. Smaller studiosmay possess only one camera, one film projectorand one slide projector in conjunction with the

clOpaque

Slide Projector

multiplexer. The 31/4" x 4" slide projectors arestill used with the multiplexer in some studioswhere the requirement for showing these slidesexists. The multiplexer is only one part of theprojection system; however, through common us-age the word has come to mean the system ofmirrors and all projectors used in connection withit..

The projection system is operated from thecontrol room placing the responsibility for show-ing the visuals on the program director. Themultiplexer affords the selection of any of theassociated projectors to be fed to the pickupcamera.

Review Questions

1. What member of the production crew is themost involved with the telecast?

2. Describe the five basic camera movements.

3. What is a "camera shot"?

4. What is the "hot" lens?

5. What physical characteristics of the instructordetermine how he is to be lighted?

6. What sources of sound effects can be used intelevision?

7. What is a multiplexer?

c.)(01

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Preparing the Telecast

XT OW THAT you have an outline and lessonplan, you are ready to start building a

television lesson. The purpose of this chapter isto provide sufficient guidance for the instructor inthe preparation of a lesson to be televised. Anunprepared televised lesson will be no moreeffective than a lesson presented in the auditoriumor in the classroom.

The preparation time required varies with thetelevision teaching experience of the instructorand the complexity .of the lesson to be presented.The adaptability of the individual instructor totelevision teaching is also a determining factor inthe amount of time required to sufficiently preparea lesson for television.

24. Program AssistanceWhether the instructor presents a single tele-

cast or a series, certain personnel are available toassist him with his program. These personnel areexperienced in television and will work directlywith the instructor.

The television coordinator.In most schools,there is a person responsible for the overalltelevision mission. He advises the faculty on theuses of the television system and the selection ofcontent areas which could be improved by theuse of television. He plans, schedules, and coor-dinates the programming of all telecasts, andassumes the responsibility for their productionquality and effectiveness. The title of this positionwill vary from one organization to another,however, the responsibilities are generally thesame, and he is usually called the televisioncoordinator.

The program director.One responsibility ofthe program director is to advise and assist theinstructor in the planning, preparation and use ofthe script, and instructional aids. He will also

23

CHAPTER 5

stage the presentation, conduct rehearsals, andcoach the instructor on television teaching tech-niques and other areas of production. In short,his task is to achieve a fluid, unfaltering presen-tation. The person who does all these things maybe called the production director or producer-director, however, the duties and responsibilitiesare generally the same.

The graphic artistThere are very few televi-sion presentations which do not include somevisual aids, therefore the artist is an important

antrihutor to the television presentation. He willadvise the instructor on what types of visual aidsto be used and when and where to use them.Usually the artist will suggest, visualize andprepare the visual aids for the instructor. Mosttelevision installations have an artist-illustratorwho works exclusively in the television mediumsince there are distinct differences in the prepara-tion of art work for television and art work forother instructional media (see Chapter 6, "In-structional Aids for Television").

Some installations may have a visualizer whoadvises on the use of visual aids and visualizesthem. He then makes preliminary sketches andsends them to the graphic aids department whichactually makes the aids.

Other television stations may not have anartist. If no artist is available, the programdirector will advise on the use of visual aids, andwill coordinate with the graphics aids departmenton the actual making of the aids.

The technical writer.Mel instructors are re-quired to write their own scripts. Some installa-tions employ technical writers who take theoutline resulting from the instructor's researchand arrange this material into an effective speak-ing script. Some schools only require the instruc-tor to present the material, and a technical writer

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24 THE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR

does the research, outline, and the arranging ofthe material.

25. Program Conferences

The initial script conference.Following thedecision to televise a lesson, the instructor shouldcontact the television coordinator and schedule ascript conference. At this conference the instruc-tor discusses the lesson plan and the outline ofhis lesson with the television staff.

In this initial script conference, the instructoris concerned with the content and delivery of hislesson. The television staff is concerned with theproduction techniques and materials required toaccomplish the objectives of the presentation.

The program director and the graphic artist areusually the television personnel who work withthe instructor in the initial script conference.Other personnel may attend, such as the televi-sion coordinator, the instructional aids consultantor other persons concerned with the curriculum.

Ideally, this initial meeting will provide anopportunity to discuss and agree upon the treat-ment, settings, and format of the presentation aswell as to schedule other conferences, rehearsals,and the actual telecast.

The visual aids conference.Some installationsprefer to have a visual aids conference betweenthe instructor and the artist after the instructorhas had an initial script conference with theprogram director. The instructor should bring tothis meeting any visual material he might have aswell as any ideas he might have for furthervisualization of the content material. The entirepresentation should be talked through, discussingvisuals, sketching, etc. The "talk through" is amajor step in the creative process of the presenta-tion. It provides the artist with an explanation ofwhat his visuals should describe and helps theinstructor to organize his commentary before hewrites the script.

To save time and to prevent duplicated effort,the visual aids conference is usually combinedwith the script conference. This will be discussedlater in the chapter.

The final script conference.After the instruc-tor has had time to write his script, incorporatingthe results of the initial script conference, and theartist has most likely completed the visual aids, afinal script conference is held. This is the time tomake final decisions on the television approach tothe lesson. The method and mood of the presen-

Preparing the Telecast

tation will be determined. The set design, staging,use of audio-visual aids, props, etc., will bediscussed and finalized, and a "walk through"rehearsal is scheduled.

Depending upon the complexity of the lessonto be televised and the experience of the instruc-tor, any of these conferences may be combined.There should be as many meetings with thetelevision staff as the lesson requires. Regardlessof how many conferences are required or whatthey are called, the important thing is for theinstructor to know that there are personnelavailable to advise and assist him. He shouldhave confidence in the television staff and shouldfollow their suggestions since they are as anxiousto present a good lesson as is the instructor. Theinstructor should be free to concentrate on hisarea of responsibility, that of organizing andpresenting the material.

2,6. Preparing the Script

The script should be prepared using the stan-dard television format. The left one-third of thepage is left blank for video information where theprogram director writes in his notes on cameras,lenses, cues, etc. The right two-thirds of the pageis for the instructor's material.

The verbatim script.Where exact wording isessential, the verbatim script (full script) may beused. This means that every word the instructorintends to say is written in the script (Figure11). A verbatim script is suitable for narration,formal addresses, and dramatic or documentarypresentations. The program director can visualizeand picture the complete presentation beforegoing into rehearsal. The program director hasdefinite cue lines and knows what the instructoris going to do and say next.

In writing the verbatim script, type what youplan to say in the "audio" column. Identify majormovements and points where instructional aids areto be shown. One good way to outline movementsand aids is to box in this information so that it isnot confused with the dialogue (Figure 11).Dialogue should be in upper and lower caseletters. All other instructions or identificationshould be in capital letters only. Type double-spaced on one side of the page only.

Some rules should be observed when writingfor television. The most important rule is that thewriter of dialogue should choose his words, notby how they look on paper, but by how they will

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Preparing the Telecast THE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR - 25

VIDEO AUDIO

introduce Captain Anderson, who will discuss the propulsion

system of the missile.

Instructor "C" STANDING AT COUNTER

Thank you, Mr. Fortune. I know all of us have seen

missiles take off and go into space but how many of us

really know how thrust works in pushing the rocket into

space.

INSTRUCTOR RELEASES BALLOON

This balloon is a good example of how a rocket or

missile works. (That looks like a "misguided missile")

The principle that it works on is Sir Isaac Newton's

third law of motion, which is: To every action there is an

equal and opposite reaction.

The action in this case is the air rushing out the neck

of the balloon. INSTRUCTOR HOLDS UP DRAWING

The reaction takes place when the air pushes against the

closed end of the balloon as the air rushes through the

neck of the balloon.

SLIDE 15-9; INSTRUCTOR MOVES TO PROJECTION SCREEN

This cannon is also an example of action and reaction.

The burning powder expands and pushes the cannon ball

out the barrel; this is action. At the same time the

expanding gases are also pushing at the closed end of the

barrel pushing the gun carriage backwards; this is reaction.

..

Figure 11. Sample verbatim script.

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26 Tim TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR

sound when spoken. Narrative should be pre-pared in a conversational style using naturalsounding contractions and sentences. The instruc-tor should keep concern for the student upper-most and present his material in easy-to-under-stand, simple terms.

There are some disadvantages in using averbatim script. The program director must followthe script carefully, placing an additional burdenon him since he already has so many things to doduring the telecast. Should the instructor forget togive the exact text, the shooting procedure andconsequently the overall presentation may beseriously affected.

The outline script.Most instructors communi-cate better when they teach from an outlineespecially prepared for television rather than froma verbatim script which they must read or memor-ize. An outline allows the instructor more freedomto concentrate on his demonstrations and instruc-tional aids.

The outline script differs from the verbatimscript in that the complete narrative is replacedwith an outline containing topics, key words orphrases, major movements, and visual aids se-quence (Figure 12).

In writing the outline script, type in the"audio" column a simple orderly outline of allsubjects to be discussed, plus key words andphrases, major movements and visual aids se-quence. Dialogue should be in upper and lowercase letters. Major movements and visual aidsshould be in capital letters and boxed in. Typedouble-spaced one side of the page only. Leavethe "video" column blank. The program directorwill write in his own notes for cameras, lenses,cues, etc.

The opening.Attention-getting openings aremost important in television teaching. Films,slides, live action and a little imagination togetherwith recorded or live sound can be utilized tocreate a good attention-getting opening.

A lesson which is not a part of a series shouldbe treated individually and should have an open-ing relating to the subject matter covered in thelesson. For a series of lessons, a sequence shouldbe 1-sed that can be presented for each presenta-tion in the series, setting the tone of the se-quence. Each time a new series is presented, anew standard opening should be devised tomatch.

The closing.The closing should be prepared

Preparing the Telecast

with as much care as the openine. The studentshould be left with a pleasant impression of thepresentation. A lesson which is not a part of aseries should be treated individually with aclosing to suit the subject content of the lesson.A series should have a closing to fit the tone ofthe series.

Slides.When indicating slides on the script,the following information should be contained inthe "audio" column of the script :

1. The slide number (all slides should benumbered consecutively and used in that order).

2. A brief descriptive title.Films.When indicating film on your script,

place the following information in the "audio"column:

1. The word "Film" if only one film is to beused.

2. If more than one film is used, "Film Clip#1," "Film Clip #2," etc.

3. A brief descriptive title of each film clip

used.4. If the sound track is to be used, write in

the abbreviation "SOF" (Sound on Film). If theinstructor is to supply the commi.mtary from thestudio, write in "Voice Over."

Recordings.When indicating recordings onyour script, the following information should beincluded in the "Audio" column of the script:

1. Record title.2. Selection title.3. Side and cut number.4. If the instructor speaks over the sound,

indicate as "Voice Over." When audio tape isused, give the tape number and cut number.

27. RehearsalsThe dry run.After you have written your

script, it is a good idea to dry run your materialuntil you are thoroughly familiar with it. Someinstructors prefer to rehearse their material infront of a mirror so they can watch their expres-sions, movements and gestures. Other instructorsdraft a member of the family or a roommate to betheir audience. The presentation should be readthrough at first, then as you become more familiarwith the material, less and less reliance on thescript should be allowed. Dry runs help toeliminate flaWs in content, help the instructor toknow his material, and help clarify in the instruc-tor's mind the television techniques that arerequired.

33

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Preparing the Telecast THE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR - 27

VIDEO AUDIO

TALBERT - WILL ASK QUESTION

KELLENBERGER - WILL BEGIN DISCUSSION ON EFFECTS

1. Thermal Radiation (statement)

a. Misconceptions

b. Relate fireball to sun

Size of fireball CHART

MOVE TO CHALKBOARD I and explain

c. Explain fireball

(1) Formation

(2) Movement (blast wave)

(3) Two pulses

(4) Firestorm (brief)

TALBERT - WILL ASK ANOTHER QUESTION

KELLENBERGER - WILL EXPLAIN

2. Heat transmission

a. Movement

b. Height CHART

TALBERT - WILL ASK QUESTION

KELLENBERGER - WILL EXPLAIN

3. Thermal damage

a. How it affects objects

CHART How paper ignites

b. Type of damage to humans

CHART 1st and 2nd degree burns

Figure 12. The instructor prepares the audio column of this (Maine script.

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28 THE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR Preparing the Telecast

VIDEO AUDIO

TALBERT - WILL ASK QUESTION

0 Rini To Sifor-+KELLENBERGER - WILL BEGIN DISCUSSION ON EFFECTS

1. Thermal Radiation (statement)

a. Misconceptions

b. Relate fireball to sun

0 chc c H4 RV .- Size of fireball CHART

O7:N.4 MOVE TO CHALKBOARDow ro and explainC 14 4 1...K Bo. 4 4 .1)

c. Explain fireball

(1) Formation

(2) Movement (blast wave)

(3) Two pulses

(4) Firestorm (brief)

0 4 S HOT ) TALBERT - WILL ASK ANOTHER QUESTION

KELLENBERGER - WILL EXPLAIN

2. Heat transmission

a. Movement

0 CAL- C-41-4RT ) b. Height CHART

0 R SHOT TALBERT - WILL ASK QUESTION

KELLENBERGER - WILL EXPLAIN

3. Thermal damage

a. How it affects objects

0 at Cif4f1T----).. CHART How paper ignites

b. Type of damage to humans

0 Ca. CRA HT > CHART 1st and 2nd degree burns

Figurc 13. The program director completes the script by filling in the video column.

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Preparing tlw Telecast

The walk through.This rehearsal is held inthe television studio without cameras. The desks,chairs, chalkboard and other visual aids devicesare positioned as they will be for the actualpresentation. A "walk through" should includethe visual aids, demonstrations and all majormovements involved in the presentation.

As the instructor walks through the presenta-tion, the program director makes his notations inthe "Video" column of the program script. Herehe notes such things as the specific camera whichis to take each shot, the type of shot required,and any other cues that he thinks necessary(Figure 13).

The "walk through" is important in savingcamera rehearsal time since the program directoralready has a general idea of how the presenta-tion is to be handled. He can then concentrate ondirecting the camera rehearsal with a minimum ofstopping to block out camera shots.

The camera rehearsal.The final area ofpreparation is the camera rehearsal. Here allelements of production are brought together.Visuals are ready, the program director hasplotted the camera action, and lights, sets andprops are arranged. Camera shots are coordinatedwith the action. The program director is in chargeof all proceedings.

The program director starts the rehearsal withthe shots he has blocked out during the "walkthrough," modifying some, killing some, and ad-ding others until the presentation is tied togetheras a unified whole. At times, siight revisions willbe made and the introduction, conclusion, transi-tions and rough areas may receive additional

THE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR - 29

rehearsals. Usually, the camera rehearsal is inter-rupted only when a mistake has been made thatcannot be corrected at a later date or time. Minorcorrections are made after the camera rehearsal.The instructor should have as many camerarehearsals as it takes to present a smooth andpolished telecast, and no fewer.

A final rehearsal (dress rehearsal) is usuallyscheduled as close to the actual presentation timeas possible. Here the presentation should beperfected and in its final form, everything exactlyas it will be when the presentation goes "live."No changes should be made in the presentationafter the final rehearsal. Such changes can lead toconfusion by one or more of the many personnelinvolved and this could jeopardize the finalpresentation.

Where presentations are being taped, the finalrehearsal may be videotaped and if satisfactory,the final presentation is eliminated altogether. Ifthe video tape of the final rehearsal is notsatisfactory, it serves as a basis for critique priorto the final presentation.

Review 74 uestions

L What islhe purpose of a script conference?

2. What are the advantages of an outline scriptas compared with a verbatim script?

3. Why is a walk-through important?

4. Why is the standard, two-column televisionscript recommended?

5. How many camera rehearsals should an in-structor have for a given presentation?

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CHAPTER 6

Instructional Aids for Television

TELEVISION is primarily a visual mediumof communication: thus, to present a tele-

vised lesson without the effectivrt use of visualaids would be like a Frenchman trying to talkwith his hands in his pockets.

Both audio and visual aids are important tothe television presentation and serve distinct andplanned purposes. The instructor who selfishlyallows his students to view only himself for theentire lesson with few graphic distractions mayfind it hard to hold their attention. On the otherhand, the instructor who fills his screen withcharts and pictures to illustrate ideas which needno explaining can very easily confuse his students.The purpose of an aid is to make an idea morevivid by appealing to additional sensesto clarifya concept or thought which cannot be describedadequately by words alone. The trick is to analyzethe lesson content and determine where an aid canserve a positive purpose toward accomplishing alearning objective.

28. Choosing the Right AidVisual aids for TV.If one were to try to list

the reasons for using an audio or visual aid ontelevision a partial list might be made as follows:

1. To arrest the attention of the viewer.2. To capture and reinforce his intc rest.3. To illustrate functions, methods, and ideac.

4. To increase understanding and clarity ofideas.

5. To convey visual information.

6. To make the presentation more varied anddramatic.

7. To contribute to the setting of scene ormood.

It is easy to see from such a list that the use

of instructional aids generally falls into threecategories: motivation, explanation and variety.

Motivational aids.It is an essential practice ofTV teaching to appeal to the viewer's motives forlearning or perhaps to provide him with a motiveto learn, to remember and to put into play theknowledge and skills he is taught. Thus, motiva-tiun in television is primarily allied with the open-ing and closing of the lesson. The tenets of show-manshipopen with a bang and leave 'em beggingfor moreare as applicable to television asto the stage. Perhaps this is true because the tele-vision performer, whether he is a comedian or ateacher, must bring his audience right into thepicture with him, establish rapport, and make theviewer feel a sense of personal participation inthe scene. Motivational aids are not limited to theopening and closing of a program, but generally inTV the effort of motivation should be to make thestudent want to watch the lesson and remember itafterwards. Some motivational aids are the atten-tion getter, such as the use of sound and filmclips; the curiosity bit, wherein an incomplete sceneis shown, or the audience is teased by a peek be-hind the scenes; the startling fact such as the useof astronomical statistics or presenting a threat tothe viewers welfare; and the emotional appeal asis the case of martial music, patriotic speeches,etc.

It is not possible, of course, to appeal to every-one to the same extent with a motivational ef-fort. The instructor can expect to alienate a fewviewers in motivating the majority. The best pol-icy is to pitch the entire lesson, its opening as wellas its content, to the expected audience.

Explanatory aids.The great bulk of instruc-tional aids on TV fall into this category. Theseare the pictures that are worth the thousands of

30

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lotructional Aids for Television

wordsbut only if words cannot properly explainthe concept or idea.

There is still a requirement on TV to diagramcut-away views of objects which cannot be takenapart. However the use of charts. or pictures ofsmall objects which otherwise could not be seen, iseliminated in TV by using close-up camera shotsof the actual object, sometimes called realia. Theuse of television does not lessen the need for aidsto explain complex thoughts or conceptsit simplymakes it easier to use the visuals. It can also en-courage the overuse of visual aids to overexplainor belabor the point, therefore, the instructorshould insure that every aid has a purpose.

Aids for variety.Perhaps this use of audioand visual aids will seem to contradict the cau-tions stated above. Certainly aids will be used toprovide a variety of stimuli in order that the im-pression be more vivid and retained longer. Agood example of this concept is the use of verballistings on charts which the instructor calls off oneat a time while both he and the student read iton the chart. In effect, there are two senses be-ing usedsight and hearingwhich should bebetter than only one. However, this multiple stim-uli reinforces only the memorization of the wordsand not the understanding of their meaning. Adifferent visual, perhaps illustrating the idea thatthe words convey, would be a better use of thechart. Here the variety of visuals would sustain theinterest of the student and undoubtedly increasehis understanding as well.

29. Displaying aids on Television

Not only is the selection of the right aid im-portant but the manner in which it is presented tothe viewer is also a matter requiring careful con-sideration. It may be presented with or withoutthe instructor appearing in the scene. It may be aclo,e-up or a two shot. It may require motion toachieve transition and it may require a buildup ofseveral ideas to complete a picture. Interest, un-derstanding, and retention are all affected by themanner in which a stimulus is presented to thestudent.

The film camera chain.One of the most ver-satile ways of displaying visual material on televi-sion is the film camera chain. This piece ofequipment projects transparent visuals, slides andmovie film directly into a camera and by use ofthe multiplexer most studios can handle several

THE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR - 31

Figure 14. Film camera chain (multiplexer).

sizes of slides as well as 16mm. sound films (seeChapter 4, "Basic Television for the Instuctor").

The most important display feature of the filmchain multiplexer arrangement is the ability toswitch quickly from slide to slide, regardless ofsize, and to motion pictures. This effect of rapidtransition would be almost impossible by any othermeans.

Rear projection.There are times when the in-structor would need to work before the camerawith a projected aid. It is easy to see that to pro-ject a slide onto a conventional screen wouldproduce ugly shadows as the instructor stood be-fore it. Also the studio lighting would tend to"wash out" the image on the screen. For this rea-

14-t-A;)*,

Figure 15. A rear projection in use In a studio.

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32 THE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR

son, television studios use rear projection, con-sisting of a translucent screen and projectorswhich will allow images to be reversed. The imageactually comes through the screen from the rearand is seen by the camera on the reverse side.Now the instructor may stand in front of thescreen without a shadow.and studio lighting is nolonger a drawback. Rear screens are made in avat_ety of sizes including large background screenswhich may be used for set decoration. Due to theloss of light from rear projections, slides usedshould be light with sharp detail and good con-trast.

Another type of rear projection uses no screen.This is the transparency box by which large ace-tate transparencies such as used on overhead pro-jectors are lighted from behind. The camera ac-tually shoots the rear-lighted transparency.

Camera cards.This means of display includesall mounted flat visuals except transparencies re-gardless of size. They may be set up on easels,pegboard or stuck on the wall with tape. Regard-less of how they are held in place, they display pic-tures, charts, graphs, etc., so that the camera canframe the visual with sufficient border so that theedge of the card does not show. They may beused individually or as a series and may be placedin a stack so that each one may be removed todisplay the card underneath. Camera cards whichare to be shown as close-ups do not create aproblem of size as do those which will be displayedwith the instructor in a two-shot. Photographs

Figure 16. A typical transparency box.

Instructional Aids for Television

Figure 17. Camera card mounted on easel,

which are not glossy and pictures from magazinesmake excellent camera cards when mounted on acardboard backing.

Continuity devices.In many instances, the in-structor will want to show a series of visuals in aparticular sequence and in a minimum of time.The object would be to proceed through a seriesof ideas rather than to dwell on any single visual.In other cases it may be that a view would be sowide or so tall as to require the camera to scanacross the visual without a break in the viewer'sattention. Certain devices have been developedto achieve this goal. The movie and rapid changeslide projector of the film chain are the bestknown but there are other devices which accom-plish this purpose; devices which roll up anddown such as the roll board and the drum; theturntable for horizontal rotation; devices whichbring flat pictures into view such as the flip downstand, turning disk, and revolving stands; and thepan-tilt device to allow the camera to pan a widevisual or tilt a high visual without losing focus.

Suspense devkes.Often an instructor willwant to uncover only a part of his visual at atime or to build piece by piece a complete pictureto illustrate his point. Certain devices are partic-ularly suited to this purpose. The sliding strip or

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Instructional Aids for Television

embossograph board, and the transparency boxwith overlay all permit the uncovering of parts ofthe visual. Still another way to build up an ideaand keep the viewer hi suspense is with tabs heldin place by magnets on metal background, sand-paper on flannel, or hooked on to pegboard, etc.Let us not forget the old reliable chalkboard fordeveloping ideas in front of the class.

Models and mock-ups. A model is a three-di-mensional representation of an object and is bestdisplayed placed on the floor or on a demonstra-tion table in its normal recognizable position. Theturntable is a good device for displaying models.

A mock-up is usually an object which has beenrearranged from its normal appearance to enableits functions to be better seen. Such a rearrange-ment may also include cut-away parts so that in-teriors of objects may be seen as well as the ex-teriors. Since the television camera will probablyfollow the process being described and take close-up shots of the parts, this type of visual is bestdisplayed mounted vertically.

Audio devices.Most of the recording devicesfor sound are operated from the audio-console ofa television control room. The tape recorder,phonograph turntable, and sound from movie filmprovide inputs into the sound system which can beblended and superimposed to achieve the desired

Arirs

'SA

Figure 18. The instructor shows all sides of his aid byusing a turntable.

THE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR 33

effect. Devices operated in the studio requirespecial pickup to put the sound into the system.The microphones in the studio may be used topick up sounds of equipment being operated, etc.,for added realism.

30. Principles of TV AidsIn many respects, aids prepared for use on tele-

vision require more rigid standards of preparationthan do aids used in the conventional classroom orauditorium. A knowledge and appreciation of thepeculiarities of television visual aids is an essentialpart of the in st ructor's training.

Aspect ratio.The relationship of height towidth which approximates the proportion of theTV monitor is the aspect ratio. In TV, the ratiois 3 x 4 (three units high by four units wide) andincludes all elements of a TV visual presentationsuch as the camera view finder, studio and con-trol room monitors, and classroom monitors. Allvisuals constructed for television should have the3 x 4 aspect ratio to insure that all of the neces-sary visual material is seen on the monitor. Figure19 shows a visual aid with the wrong aspect ratio.Notice that in order to show the aid from top tobottom, there is blank space on each side. Toframe the aid from side to side cuts material at thetop and bottom. Figure 20 shows the same aid re-vised to the proper 3 x 4 aspect ratio. Noticethat the entire aid is on the monitor screen withno blank spaces at top, bottom or sides and no ma-terial is cut.

Edge loss and safety field.A problem closelyrelated to the TV aspect ratio is the edge loss andsafety field. The television system tends to cropthe edges of all picture material. With slides, film,and artwork prepared for opaque projection, thefirst cropping is done by th.2 projector. The filmpickup camera and the studio camera crop morearea, and finally the classroom receiver itselfmakes an additional cropping. Art work materialmust be prepared to keep the important subjectmatter within a safety field so that all of it willappear on the classroom receiver. Artwork pre-pared for studio coverage is not as critical sincethe cameraman can allow for an additional safetymargin.

The one-sixth rule for determining the safearea is useful and easy to understand. Divide thecamera field, which is the total area of the pic-ture, into six equal subdivisions vertically and

40

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34 THE TELEVISION INSTUCTOR

Figure 19. Wrong aspect ratio.

horizontally and the area covered by the siXteencentral rectangles will be the safe arca (Figurc21). A mask, corresponding to the overall size ofthe visual with the safe arca cut out, is useful inmaking visual aids. Just place the mask, which canbe made from paper or cardboard, on the cardyou plan to use to make your visual, and print ordraw in the cut-out area.

Lettering.Lettering techniques may rangefrom rough hand lettering to machine printedprofessional lettering. Any type of lettering deviceis satisfactory, such as a speedball pen, brush,Leroy, rubbcr stamp, stick on letters, etc. The im-portant consideration in lettering is legibility. Agood standard of legibility is 35 characters (includ-ing spaces) per line.

Lettering size is controlled by the amount oflettering required for a given piece of artwork.The minimum height of lettering should be 1A th

of the height of the aid to be seen on the monitor.Leave space between letters proportionate to theirheight and width. Letters with adjacent verticalsides should be spaced farther apart than letterswith one vertical and one curved adjacent side.Letters with two curved adjacent sides should beclosest together; however, there is an exception tothis rule. An "L" followed by a "T" should becloser together than two curved letters. 'Slantingvertical letters should overlap (Figure 23).

Words should not be hyphenated at the end ofa line. If there is not enough room to completethe word, write the entire word on the next line.Begin and end all sentences on the same card. If

Instructional Aids f or Television

1961

1962

1963

10 15 20r I,

A

r Ar

ACost Per Month

Figure 20. Corrected aspect ratio.

there isn't enough room, begin the sentence onthe next card.

Size.The size of cards, posters, signs, andother graphics will depend upon the way in whichthe aid will be used. If the cards are to be handledby the instructor, they should be small enough tohandle easily. Most instructors prefer hand heldcards or flip cards to be made on 11" x 14" stiffartboard. Cards that are to be mounted on an easelor other mounting devices should be larger, usually30" x 40" cards made of TV artboard are pre-ferred. Graphics intended to be reduced to slideform should be made on 11" x 14" cards.

Whenever possible, all finished artwork for agiven presentation should be of the same size.This provides two advantages:

I . A camera can cover an entire sequence ofcards without being moved or focused, and

vs

Illsaal materialhi thIst,area...

Figure 21. Applying the one-sixth rule.

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Instructional Aids for Television

ietterootiessillan.:: = =

Figure 22. Minimum lettering height.

2. Artwork of the same size is easier to handle.The gray scale.All colors are seen in shades

of gray on black and white television. The grayscale distinguishes a number of steps from blackto white. The human eye can distinguish a grayscale of twenty steps; however, the televisioncamera distinguishes an average of eight to twelvesteps. This range in tonality is called the grayscale (Figure 24). Two or more different colorsmay appear on television as the same shade of

8 1 6 5

THE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR - 35

Visual SPACING

Figure 23. Proper spacing of letters.

gray, therefore, there will be little or no contrastwhen these colors are adjacent. For example, redchalk on a blackboard may not be discernibleon television. If you are in doubt about color con-trast, check the colors out on camera before youprepare the aid.

In the gray scale, the two extremes of blackand whitc should not be used adjacent to eachother. Yellow letters on a black card are betterthan white letters on a black card. The importantthing to remember is that there should be suf-ficient contrast between the letter and the back-ground. Too much contrast can cause halo andhorizontal streaking while too little contrast resultsin a flat, poorly defined picture.

4

Figure 24. The gray scale.

Review Questions

1. What is the aspect ratio and why is it impor-tant?

2. What is the 1,;; rule and why is it important?

2 1

3. What is the formula for determinine the heightof kttering?

4. What determines the size of graphic aids?

5. What is the gray scale?

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CHAPTER 7

Making Your Own Visual Aids

THERE ARE many visual aids that can beprepared for television use and many others

that can he adapted. The only limitations formaking aids for television are the principles ofconstruction and the instructor's ingenuity. Thischapter covers a sampling of the wide variety ofaids which the instructor can easily and econom-ically prepare with a minimum of facilities andmaterial. However, if professional assistance andlead time is available, take advantage of it.

31. Quick LetteringFreehand.The freehand method of lettering

is, of course, the quickest and most economicalfor the instructor, and the materials discussedhere are usually readily available.

Felt tip pen.This pen is available in manydifferent sizes and colors. The felt tip pen or mark-ing pen contains ink which soaks into the felt tip.Some types of pens have a metal cap which isunscrewed to refill the pen, however, these tendto leak under hot lights. The glass bottle type ismuch preferred over the metal cylinder type fortwo reasons: the glass bottle does not leak ink,and the felt tip is cut for more than one width.For very wide lettering use the broad side of thetip, for medium size lettering use the narrowside, and for fine lettering use the sharp edge.Black, red, or purple is recommended when usingthese marking pens since the colors are repro-duced into dark shades of gray by the TV cam-era.

Grease pencil (China marker)A grease pen-cil, or China marker, can be used for quick letter-ing. The grease pencil will write on most types ofpaper and on clear glass slides. Lettering donewith a grease pencil is not as clean and profes:

36

sional looking as lettering done with the felt tipmarking pen.

Chalk.Chalk can be used as effectively onTV as in the classroom. Material can be preparedon the chalkboard prior to the telecast and re-vealed by the camera at the opportune time ormaterial can be developed on camera. Some thingsto remember when lettering with chalk are:

a. Use soft chalk so that it won't squeak.b. Do not use colored chalk unless you know

the gray scale values. Use yellow chalk on ablack chalkboard and yellow or white chalk on agreen chalkboard.

c. Print, using bold strokes.d. Follow the height of lettering rule (mini-

mum height of letters 1A:I height of aid) and re-member that the camera can frame any portion ofthe board so know what portion of the boardwill be seen on the monitor when determining theheight of letteringif the aid is to be read in atwo-shot, the letters must be larger since the stu-dent will see the board from a greater distancethan when the aid is used in a close-up.

e. Be careful with the dotting of "i's," the cross-ing of "es," and punctuation marks when you'rewriting on camera as the resulting noise can soundlike pistol shots.

Lettering devices.There are many devices onthe market which are easy and simple to use,and result in more "tailored" and uniform letter-ing than the freehand manner.

The menu board. This quick lettering devicehas been used for many years by restaurants andmess halls. It consists of a slotted felt board anda variety of tabbed, plastic letters. The tabs onthe letters are inserted into the slots and letteringis quick and simple. The menu board is an eco-nomical device for lettering lesson titles, unit num-

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Making Your Own Visual Aids

bers, instructors' names, etc. The letters can beused over and over on the same board. No art-work is necessary.

Stick letters.Thcse letters are available invarious sizes and colors. Select .the letter heightthat bcst corresponds to the 1/ 5 letter to aid ratio.Ether yellow or white colors are preferred. Theletters are made of paper with an adhering sub-stance on the plain side. Wet the plain side of theletters and place them on artboard or stiff paperto make your charts and posters. Stick lea:-.1s canbe used for name plates, charts, posters and manyother visual aids.

Prestype letters.These letters are attached toa transfer sheet. To transfer a letter from thetransfer sheet to an aid, place the transfer sheeti'SVer the artwork, align the desired letter ver-tically and horizontally. Rub the transfer sheetfirmly with a fingernail or a hard smooth, control-lable object, taking care not to overrun adjacentletters which can be unintentionally transferred tothe artwork. Prestype letters are available in avariety of sizes and colors. Select your letters ac-cording to the height by aid ratio and contrastwith the background.

Rubber stamp.This method of quick letter-ing involves rubber blocks with raised letters andan ink pad. Select the letter you want, stamp it onthe ink pad and press the block on your artwork.Sometimes the ink won't transfer completely.When this occurs, complete the letter using amarking pen or a grease pencil.

32. Preparing SlidesNow for some general rules that apply to the

preparation of all types of slides. If your slide isto be truly effective it must be visually fluent. Itmust convey your ideas clearly and simply. Sim-plicity should be your watchword in making slides.

Restrict your slides to one idea; avoid clutter;don't try to put too much on one slide for it willonly tend to confuse your viewers. Make surethat the artwork is functional and not ornate.Remember, the purpose of a slide is to inform andnot to dazzle or impress your audience.

Don't attack the task of preparing slides in ahelter-skelter fashion. Plan for the job. Do yourlayout on a piece of paper first; this will saveyou time and material. Check it for balance,clarity and simplicity. Ask yourself: Will it

achieve my objective?Remember when a slide is used with the multi-

THE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR - 37

plexer system, the film pickup camera is station-ary and cannot be moved for framing. Use therule of six when determining the safe area of yourslide. The same rule for height of lettering (min-imum height of letters 1/5 the height of the aid)alsO applies to slides.

Types of slides..Some of the many types ofslides, the materials used, and the methods of pre-paring them are discussed briefly in the followingparagraphs.

Clear glass slides.---Glass slides, usually 31/4"x 4" in size, are very useful for rear screen pro-jection in the studio and for projection throughthe multiplexer unit if it is equipped with theproper projector.

The following procedure is recommended forpreparing a clear glass slide. First, determine ex-actly what you want on the slide. Gather an thematerials you will need. Then work out your de-sign or lettering on a piece of paper. Your artwork can be freehand drawing, however, in manycases you can copy a picture from a book ormagazine by using tracing paper. You can use aLeroy printing set to do any lettering you mayneed. In any case, make sure that the dimensions

'of your bask layout will fit the glass slide. Yournext step is to tape the slide to the paper andtrace your design or lettering onto the glass. Thespecific type of writing implement that you mayuse for the tracing job will vary with the type ofslide being made.

Enwnel spray slides.Only India and trans-parent colored inks may be used. Line definitionis excellent and it is an easy slide to prepare.This slide is made ready for use by spraying alight film of clear enamel on the glass. Make surethat the coating of enamel is light and even orthere may be distortion when the slide is pro-jected. The enamel comes packaged in an aerosoltype container and can be obtained through normalsupply channels or pule:lased locally at almostany paint store. Print or draw desired informa-tion on the glass and your slide is ready to use.

Etched glass slides.Etched glass slides arealso known as frosted glass slides. The glass istreated with acid which gives it a milky color. Inaddition, the surface of the glass becomes some-what roughened which permits a wide latitude inthe choice of drawing implements. You can uselead pencils, colored inks and Lumuchrome col-ored pencils on these slides. Particular care shouldbe given to the tracing of your design when using

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38 TIIE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR

etched glass. Erasures and corrections should beavoided because they will show up as smudgeswhen projected. When you have finished yourslide apply a light coat of plastic spray to it. Thiswill prevent smudging. In addition, the slide willbecome clear and the milky color (frosted ef-fect) will be removed resulting in better projec-tion qualities for your slide.

Sandwich slides.As the name implies, thistype of slide is a sandwich, consisting of two piecesof glass with some kind of transparent materialbetween them. Generally, this material is cello-phane but any transparent material can be usedsuch as acetate, Ozalid foil, or positive film.

Cut your cellophane to fit the glass-31/4" x4". Now you can type or draw on the cellophanebut in either, you must use a carbon sheet with it.When typing, fold a piece of carbon paper andplace the cellophane inside. Insert the material inthe typewriter and set the machine for stencilwork. Type through the carbon, and this will pro-duce lettering on both sides of the cellophane re-sulting in a better projected image. Remove thecellophane from the typewriter and bind betweentwo pieces of glass. To bind the slide, you placethe cellophane between two pieces of glass makingsure that the "message" is properly centered.Then unroll about 16 inches of scotch tape, andstarting at the point fartherest from the roll, placethe edge of your sandwich in the center of thetape. Press the overlapping tape down onto thesides of the glass. Then roll the slide on its cor-ners, along the tape, and press down the over-lapping tape once again. Complete the processuntil four sides of the slide are taped. Cut the tapeand press the remaining tape into place. If Pola-roid frames are available, they are easier andfaster to mount, more economical, and may beused over and over. However, for permanentslides, glass mounting is better since Polaroidframes provide no protection.

Photographic slides.Photographic slides arethe most widely used type of glass slides. Thereare several good reasons for this popt.12rity. Theycan be made in any size to fit -ill projectors.They provide excellent definition of detail. Youdon't have to worry about smudging the picture asyou do with enamel spray slides. Photographicslides can be described as the "pro" in the glassslide field.

Whenever you want to use photographic slidesto support a lesson, make sure you plan well in

Making Your Own Visual Aids

advance. It often takes considerable time to getyour slides back from the photo lab. The periodinvolved will usually vary according to your prior-ity and the workload of the lab.

Clear acetate slides.This is the simplest formof the acetate family to use. It is a clear, transpar-ent piece of plastic. You can write on it with agrease pencil, India ink, or magic marker. Greasepencil, regardless of color, shows black on yourprojected image because it is opaque.

One advantage of the clear acetate slide is thatit provides a measure of flexibility to the instructorthat he does not enjoy from the more sophisti-cated slides. For example, if you were to get anidea for a slide just before you were to give atalk, you could quickly make one using greasepencil. As a matter of fact, you could make theslide right on camera and explain your idea asyou draw it. If you were using photographic slides,this ability to adjust and adapt would not be pos-sible.

You should not infer from these remarks thatall clear acetate slides must be crude of necessity.Actually, through careful planning and prepara-tion, you can make excellent slides using clearacetate. You should, of course, follow the sameprocedures we outlined concerning glass slides.Plan your layout, put it on a piece of paper, andthen trace it on the acetate. Since the acetate istransparent you can also trace pictures directlyfrom books and magazines.

You can also type on the clear acetate slide.This is of particular value if your slide containsa considerable amount of lettering. Make a sand-wich with a piece of carbon paper and your ace-tate. The carbon side of the paper should be facingthe acetate. Place the sandwich in a typewriterand type directly on the carbon paper. The car-bon will stick to the acetate resulting in a neatslide ready fot projection. Only pencil or dittocarbon will work.

When making slides, make sure you keep theacetate clean. If oil from your hands or any kindof grease gets on the acetate, the grease pencilwill skip when you write. Inks will itot stick tothe acetate if it is greasy. You can remove the oiland grease with lighter fluid or other cleaningfluid. If you make mistakes while preparing theslide, you can make erasuras with a cloth. Greasepencil and ink will rub off quite easily.

Hand made slides of grease pencil and ink areonly semipermanent. If they are to be used re-

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Making Your Own Visual Aids

peatedly, you should protect them by placing an-other clear piece of acetate on top of your slide.Tape it firmly in place and you will then have apermanent slide.

Acetate slides cannot be used with the multi-plexer, nor can a vugraph machine be used be-cause of studio lighting. Many studios have a spe-cial device called a light box or transparencybox for using acetate slides. (See Chapter 6,"Instructional Aids for Television.")

Carbon slides.A carbon slide consists of alight sheet of acetate coated with a black carbonbacking. It is a commercially prepared productto be used with the overhead projector. It pro-videS the same flexibility to an instructor as theclear acetate slide. You can use it to prepareslides just prior to or during a class. You can typeor use an ordinary lead pencil to write on the car-bon slide. The projected image appears as awhite line on a black ground. This occurs becausethe carbon is scraped away from the acetate asyou write. The result is a very vivid and dramaticeffect. The comments.we made regarding the lay-out and design of clear acetate slides also apply tocarbon slides. Carbon slides work very well withrear screen projection.

Etched acetate slides.Etehed acetate slidespossess all the properties of etched glass slides.Please refer to the section on etched glass slidesfor details on how to work with etched acetate.The difference is that you may type on frostedacetate.

Diazochrorne slides.The diazochrome processis a method of reproducing copy material on ace-tate foil. To make a slide using this process youmust first put your basic drawing on translucentpaper (paper such as onionskin or tracing paper).Drawings should be prepared with black drawingink or a dark, soft pencil. You may also type onthe paper. Whenever you type or use a pencil,place a piece of carbon paper under the tracingpaper, so that the letters or lines will register onthe reverse side of your paper. This will makethe letters or lines more opaque, resulting in astronger image on ydur finished transparency.

Since the size of your basic art work is quitelarge it is easier to work with than small slidedrawings. You have a wider choice of picturesto copy. You can get more detail on the slide.You can work with bolder strokes. Another ad-vantage is that you can literally cut out mistakes.If you are doing sonic lettering and make a mis-

THE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR - 39

take, you can simply cut out the offending partand tape a new section in place. Take care toinsure that the new section is properly aligned andcentered.

After your basic art work or "master" is fin-ished, your job is practically done. You merelyhave to place your master on top of a piece ofsensitized foil, used by Graphics, Base Installa-tions Office, or Weather, and place it in the drydeveloper machine. The machine exposes the"master" and foil to ultra-violet light and thenbathes the foil in ammonia fumes. The result is aclear, sharp, colored slide. The developing proc-ess is all done automatically. The same effect canbe achieved with a sunlamp, and an ammoniavapor bath using a gallon jar with a grid to keepfoil from contact with ammonia. A sponge in thebottom of the jar saturated with ammonia willsuffice.

There will be many occasions when you willwant to show your audience only one part of aslide at a time. This is particularly true if you areexplaining complicated equipment or procedures.You can break down the components of an entiresystem so that the information can be given insmall bite-sizes if you use the overlay technique.Process each overlay sheet separately. Startingwith the basic overlay, tape the next overlay tothe first so that they will be hinged to fold oneon top of the other. Then tape the next overlayto the first two, in the same manner. Continue theprocess until all the overlays are in place. Youcan hinge all the overlays from the same side, orfrom two sides, and alternate placing the over-lays on the stack, or from all four sides and alter-nate stacking. Hinging from just one side is aseffective as any method and much the easiest touse.

In order to keep your "Diazo" slides fromwarping, you should mount them in frames.Commercially prepared frames are available oryou can make them very easily. Manila foldersor heavier cardboard can be used. Since yourtransparencies will be on 8" x 10" foil, you shouldcut a 71/4" x 91/4" opening in the cardboard.This will permit the foil to extend beyond theedges of the frame opening. Then use maskingtape to tape the foil to the frame. Do not usestaples. They can cause damage to the slides dur-ing handling and filing. Trim the frame so theslides will fit in a standard filing cabinet but

46

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40 THE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR

leave at least a 1" margin all the way around theslide to provide the desired rigidity.

Polaroid slides.Polareid slides are photo-graphic slides. They are discussed separately inthis chapter because, unlike other photographicslides, you can do the processing job yourself quiteeasily. It would be fruitless for us to cover allthe details in the processing of the slides sincethis is covered very well in the instruction bookthat accompanies each camera. A few commentsabout Polaroid slides in general are in order,however. The biggest advantage of Polaroidslides is the speed with which they can be made.A high quality photographic slide can be turnedout in less than 5 minutes.

Polaroid slides are processed in the same man-ner as the regular Polaroid pictures, with whichmost of us are familiar. The slides come in twosizes, 2" x 2" and 31/4" x 4". You can make asmany copies of the same slide as you desire. Eachcopy takes only a few minutes to make.

Polaroid slides can be mounted either in a cel-luloid frame or as a glass sandwich. The celluloidframe is inexpensive and very easy to use. Youmerely snap the frame together encompassing theslide. If you are going to use the slide repeatedly,it would be better to mount the slide between twopieces of glass. This will prevent it from beingscratched or marred.

33. Still Pictures

Mounted stills.Almost any picture which issmall enough and has good contrast can bemounted on a card and shot with the TV cameraor shot directly from a book or magazine. Stillscan be mounted on a card by a hot-press ma-chine, with glue, or even masking tape. Theremay be times when the only picture availabledoesn't have the 3 x 4 aspect ratio. When thisoccurs, use the picture and the camera operatorwill usually either frame inside the picture orovershoot. Stills are mounted on cards for tworeasons: if the camera must overshoot, the cardprovides a neutral edge or background aroundthe picture. The card, which should be stiff, makesthe picture stable, keeping it from bending andfalling.

Use of the opaque projector.The advantageof using the opaque projector is that it can helpyou to be aq artist. For example, you may havea picture in a book or magazine and you don'twant to use all of the information in the picture.

Making Your Own Visual Aids

Place the book or magazine into the projectorand project an enlarged image of it on the wall.Tape a piece of paper on the wall and trace thepicture onto your paper. Mount the paper on acard and shoot it with the camera. The sametechnique can be used to draw on the chalkboardprior to the telecast. The opaque projector is mostuseful in the preparation of graphs, charts,schematics, and diagrams.

34. TabsMagnetic on metal.To construct magnetic

tabs (mag tabs), make your artwork on TV artboard. Attach small magnets to the rear of theaid with masking tape. When the mag tab isplaced on a metal-backed board, the magnetswill hold it up. Through the use of mag tabs,you can use words, symbols, cutouts, etc., andtake them away as you desire. Some chalkboardshave metal backing which permits the combina-tion of mag tab and chalkboard techniques. Thiscombination can be very effective for showing dia-grams, schematics etc.

Sandpaper on felt.The construction of sand-paper tabs is the same as the construction of magtabs except that sandpaper strips are used ratherthan magnets and the sandpaper tab must bemounted on a felt covered board. Sandpaper tabscan be used in much the same way as mag tabs.

Hook tabs on pegboard.To construct the hooktab, make your artwork on a piece of TV artboard. Punch two holes in the top of the card sothat the distance between the holes in the card willbe the same as the distance between the holes inthe pegboard. Insert "S" hooks in the pegboard tocorrespond to the holes in the tab. When you areready to use the tab, hang it on the "S" hooks inthe pegboard.

Review Questions1. Which type of felt tip pen is recommended

for lettering?

2. What is the quickest and most economicallettering device for quick lettering?

3. How can diazachrome slides be made withoutthe use of a machine to process the sensitizedfoil?

4. Why is the use of Polaroid frames not advis-able if the slide is to be permanent?

5. Why should still' pictures be mounted?

6. What is the advantage of using the opaqueprojector?

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CHAPTER 8

The Instructor on Camera

AS THE planning and preparation of your pre-1 sentation hai progressed, you have receivedadvice and assistance from the television staff.Now the time for the actual presentation has ar-rived. This time it's not a rehearsal. You can'tstop the presentation and, start again from the be-ginning. This chapter, then, is devoted to thoseareas of television instructing which most directlyaffect you as you teach before the camera.35. Camera Presence

While television magnifies the positive qualitiesof an instructor, it also emphasizes the negativequalities. You must retain those qualities whichmake you a distinct and human individual, yetrid yourself of those habits-and mannerisms whichmay detract from your lesson. You should showa vital interest in what you are saying or doing.Fidgeting, staring around the studio and lookingnervous or bored will only call to the student'sattention that you are indeed disinterested, ner-vous or bored. The movements and actions of thestudio crew should be ignored, with the excep-tion of the floor director. If you watch somethingoff the stt, you know what you are seeing but thestudent does not. This becomes distracting to himbecause he wants to see what you are seeing. Ifyou are speaking with another instructor on cam-era, look at him when you speak; however, anyremarks intended for the student should be ad-dressed to the camera. When two or more cam-eras are used, you should know which camera ison-the-air so that you will address the right cam-era and thus remain in direct contact with the stu-dent.

Motion helps to maintain student interest. Inorder to achieve smooth camera movements, sit-ting, standing, pointing and other movementsshould be performed slowly and deliberately. Sit

or stand in a natural and comfortable positionand be natural in your expressions and gestures.

Be watchful for any mannerisms which, whenmagnified by television, may become distracting.The most obvious of these are tie fixing, fingerdrumming, swaying or rocking on the heels,slumping and scratching. There are, of course,countless other little gestures, movements, and ac-tions which we all employ in a tense situation.

Delivery.The natural personality of the in-structor is projected by the television camera. Benatural, not perfect. Be spontaneous and try toavoid giving the student the impression that heis hearing a "canned" lecture. Varying the pace ofdelivery avoids monotonous voice patterns andhelps to sustain student attention. A pause fromtime to time for emphasis can be most effective.

You communicate directly with each individualstudent through the camera. It is not necessaryto project your voice as you might in an audi-torium or lecture hall. Try to achieve a confiden-tial and intimate quality in your delivery. Yourspeech can be effective with very little force orpush. The best way to achieve this intimate qual-ity is to address your remarks directly to the cam-era operator. Psychologically and technically, thiswill be a great help in building an easy, conver-sational style.

It is natural to experience tenseness before go-ing on-the-air. Those who are so impassive thatbeing on camera stirs no emotion in them areoften lifeless in performance. Excitement, whencontrolled, is a desirable aid toward a dynamicpresentation. Since no one is perfect, some errorsare to be expected. Correct your errors in a nat-ural way without calling undue attention to them.

Allow ample time to cover each point you wantto make, and remember to keep your ideas simple

41

48

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42 THE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR

and direct. Your students, in most cases cannotask you to slow down, repeat a statement, or toclarify a vague point. Remember that televisionis an excellent medium for illustrating your ideas.You should show rather than simply tell.

Personal appearance.The personal appear-ance of the television instructordress, acces-

sories, and makeupare of major importance.Dress.Military instructors should wear the

proper uniform. Most Air Force insignia does notpresent a glare problem since it is not highly pol-ished. Army brass is highly reflective, however, itcan be sprayed with a dulling spray which can beeasily wiped off after the telecast. Lieutenant'sand captain's bars are highly reflective and usuollymust be sprayed (Figure 25). Eagles and starsmay also present a problem in this area but notquite as much as bars.

Civilian instructors should wear neat, wellpressed business suits unless conditions will notpermit them. The real determinant of what coloris suitable for black-and-white television wear isthe glare effect when too much contrast is present.Extremes between black and white cause prob-lems in shading the picture. The deeper the con-trast, as between El black suit and a starchedwhite shirt, the more difficult clear rendition be-cnmes. Pastel blue, gray, or tan shirts are pre-ferred to white, which is reflective, and may washout facial features (Figure 26). Clothing that isdistinctly seasonal and will "date" a video-topedprogram should be avoided.

Accessories.Accessories should be kept to aminimum. Metal cuff links, tie clips and similar

Figure 25 . Shiny insignia climes glare.

The Instructor on Cwnera

Figure 26. Reflection from white shirt washes otafeatures .

items should be avoided. Some name tags arehighly reflective and should be either sprayedwith dulling spray or removed if permitted. Neck-ties should be conservative, in contrasting colorswith small stripes or patterns, or in solid shades.Eyeglasses may be worn if they are necessary.

Women instructors will have the same contrastproblems as the men so they should avoid ex-tremes. Dark blue will give the same slimming ef-fect as black on television, but without the con-trast problem. Horizontal stripes should beavoided even if the instructor is slim enough towear them in the classroom. Horizontal stripeswill tend to make the slim look heavy and the

c, heavy look preposterous. Horizontal stripes alsocreate a technical problem called streaking. Ver-tical stripes will have the same effect as in ordi-nary wear, provided they are not too contrasting.Avoid shiny jewelry such as bracelets, earrings,pins, etc.

Makeup for television.Normally, no specialmakeup is used on men. Men should be cleanshaven and may use a little neutral powder totone down beard shadow, pale complexion orfacial glare. TV Pan Stik makeup is used exten-sively in television. When applying Pan Stik, applyseveral light strokes to the face and forehead. Usethe fingers or a damp sponge to blend it until itcovers the entire face and neck. For dark beards,apply a thin film of Pan Stik into the beard area,under the jaw, and over the neck to the collar

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The Instructor on Camera

line, If TV Pan Stik is not available, pancakemakeup or even leg makeup may be used.Women instructors should wear normal streetmakeup with a medium shade of lipstick and nailpolish.

36. Working With Visual Aids

Since the selecting, constructing and displayingof visual aids has been discussed in Chapter 6,"Instructional Aids for Television," it is approp-riate to provide you with information as to whatyou should and should not do with visual aidsbefore the television camera. The following then,is a list of things for you to keep in mind and putinto practice each time you work with visual aidson television:

Visuals mounted on display devices:(1) Stay close to the aid in a two shot since

distance is exaggerated by television.(2) Move away from the aid when you are

through with it, move to it when you are readyfor it.

(3) Don't block the aid with your body.(4) If you change your own cards on the

east', slide the front card off to the side, reveal-ing the next card.

Hand-held visuals:(1) Hold the visual steady. A piece of mask-

ing tape on the table is useful in marking the posi-tion and preventing slipping when you rest thevisual on the table.

(2) Be sure that the student gets a good lookat the visual.

(3) Tilt as necessary to eliminate glare.(4) Keep fingers or thumb out of the picture.Objects:(1) Support objects on a table or when hold-

ing objects, support the hands on the table (Fig-ure 27).

(2) If an object is in closeup, be careful ofmoving it or picking it up since a small movementcan take the object out of the picture.

(3) Turn objects to the closeup camera if acloseup shot is planned.

(4). Show only one item at a time unless youare comparing one object with another.

(5) To change objects on a closeup, move thenew item in front of the old, then remove the oldobject.

(6) Don't ignore obvious accidents. Explainwhat happened and go on with your teaching.

THE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR - 43

Use of the pointer:(1) Use the pointer only when necessary to

call attention.(2) Hold the pointer steady on the visual,(3) When moving the pointer from one point

to another, for example, on a map, move it slowly.(4) Remove the pointer from the visual when

the pointer is no longer needed.(5) Most studios have pointers in a variety

of sizes. Use the pointer that best suits your need.Making your visual aid on camera:(1 ) Print your material unless you write ex-

ceptionally well.(2) Keep your written material in the three-

by-four aspect ratio. Keeping the length of thelines short will help.

(3) Keep writing or illustrations close together.Don't write or draw all over the board.

(4) Again, don't block the visual.(5) When using the chalkboard, use a soft

chalk and print heavy.

37. Use of Microphones

Some people become so engrossed with thevisual impact imparted by television thattend to forget that television is also a medium ofsound. The microphone is important in that it is

the instrument which links the instructor's voicewith the student's ear. It should convey to thestudent only what is intended for him to hear.

The microphone cheek.When using any typeof microphone, it is important to check the mikeprior to air time. When the audio engineer re-

Fiore 27. Hands rested on table keep objects steady.

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44 THE TELEVISION .NSTRUCTOR

quests a mike check, he wants to know if themicrophone is working; also, he wants to knowwhat your voice level will be so that he can setthis level and keep it the same throughout thepresentation. The recommended method for giv-ing a mike check is to read or recite a few sen-tences of your presentation in your normal voice.Never whistle or Now into a microphone for amike check and, as they are delicate instruments,never thump or rap on them. Counting from oneto ten is not desired as a mike check because itdoesn't tell the audio engineer what he wants toknow. When you go on-the-air, speak with thesame volume you spoke with when you gave themike check.

The lavalier.The lavalier can be worn overor under the necktie, however, it should be ad-justed so that it is neither too close to the chin nortoo deep in the coal. Highly starched shirts shouldbe avoided if the mike is worn under the tie. Themike rubbing against a starched shirt causes anirritating, scratching sound .

The microphone cord should be tucked in thebelt or pinned to the waist of the female in-structor so that it will trail from the back ratherthan from the front. The coat should then be but-toned with the mike cord inside. Limit your move-ments about the set to the length of the mike cord.

The table microphone.This microphone ismost frequently used for panel type presentations.Once a mike level has been set, don't change thelocation of the microphone. The audio level ofthis type microphone is more critical than othermikes since it is multi-directional and an audiolevel is normally set by the audio engineer priorto the presentation. It has been placed by theaudio engineer for the best pickup. Table micro-phones are sensitive instruments so avoid ex-traneous sound such as pencil tapping, paperrustling, kicking the table or hitting the mike.Small sounds are amplified and are irritating tothe student.

Try to keep the same relative distance andangle from the microphone throughout the pre-sentation. Don't lean toward the mike in order tobe heard. This increases the volume of yourvoice, may cause distortion, and looks bad oncamera.

The boom mierophone.This mike (Figure28) is usually suspended one foot above and onefoot in front of the instructor and the boom oper-

The Instructor on Camera

ator can rotate the mike so that the live side ofthe mike is always facing the instructor. It isn'tnecessary to look at the mike when speaking sodon't be giving worried glances to see if it's stillthere. Some important things to remenitnr whenusing the boom mike are:

(1) Be careful to stay within range of themike.

(2) Don't turn fast because fast turns involvea large amount of boom movement.

(3) When you get up, get up slowly so thatthe boom operator has a chance to raise the mike.

(4) Try to reduce your voice volume whenspeaking with someone who has a weaker voice,otherwise your voice will boom out or his voicewill be barely audible.

(5) Don't talk with your back to the micro-phone. If you are working at a chalkboard, forexample, turn around and face the camera whenyou wish to talk.

38. Cues and Signals

Hand signals.Where accurate timing andcontinuity are to be maintained, reliable cuingsystems are necessary. Naturally, the program di-rector can't speak to the instructor while the tele-cast is in progress. The cues and directions arerelayed by the floor director orliz., the camera

P%a.

operaribtvhen there is no floor, director. .Handsignals p.z.-G.vide visual communication betweenthe program director and the instructor. Whenhand signals are received, it isn't necessary toacknowledge them, just follow them. The hand

.1 /WOW

oVII 1111.vo

.001uMOM M0..1

Figure 28. Instructor using boom mike.

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The Instructor on Camera

v

Figure 29a. Standby.This signal means get ready tobegin speech or action. When the instructor receivesthis signal, he should not move or speak until he receives

a direct cue.

Figure 29b. Cue.This signal is sometimes called a directcue. The instructor receives the cue immediately follow-ing the standby. The cue initiates all on-camera speech

or action.

THE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR - 45

Figure 29c. Speed up.This hand signal tells the in-structor to step up his pace of delivery.

signals shown in Figures 29a-29j are rather stand-ard, but there are many more which are notstandard: Check with the floor director on hisuse of hand signals prior to the telecast.

The tally lights.Located on the front of eachstudio camera are two red lights, one on eachside of the lens turret. These red lights are calledtally lights and they indicate to the instructorwhich camera is on-the-air. When a camera ison-the-air, its tally lights are on and when acamera is not on the air, the tally lights are off.

There are times when the tally lights on twocameras will be on at the same time, during asuperimposure and at the mid-point of a slowdissolve. For this reason, it is not recommendedthat you begin speech or action as soon as 'thetally lights come on. Wait for the cue, even thoughthe tally lights are on, unless you have been in-structed otherwise by the program director.

Figure 29d. Slow-down.This is a slow-down signal toindicate to the instructor that he should slacken his pace

of delivery.

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46 THE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR

/

Figure 29e., Move-to-side.This tells du, instructor thathe should hum, in the direction indicated. This handignal may' be used to move the instructor (I) nearerhis aid, (2) from in front of his aid, (3) from in frontof a distracting background, (4) into a better lighted

area. or (5) to move two instructors closer together.

If you look up from your notes and the tallylights on your camera are not on, don't panic.Shift your eyes to the other camera, then slow);turn your head toward it. Another way of changingfrom one camera to another is when you see thetally lights go out on your camera, drop your eyesand look up at the other camera.

When two cameras are in use, one will usuallystay with the instructor and the other will get theclose-ups. When your camera is off the air andthe other camera is taking a close-up, it isn'tnecessary to look at the camera. Unless you needto see the item that is in close-up or need to watchthe monitor, continue to look at your camera sothat you will be ready when your tally lightscome back on.

Figure 291. Cue-to-"live"-camera.This hand signal tellstlw instructor which camera is on the air. The signal isgiven as the switcher changes cameras. This signal mayalso mean, "You are looking at the wroq camera," or"Stop glancing around the studio and look at the camera."

The Instructor on Camera

Figure 29g. Minute cue.This and the next two timecues tell du, instructor how much time remains so that

lw may adjust his presentatimi accordingly.

Watch the tally lights and use them but don'tignore the floor director. The tally lights and thefloor director give you a double cuing system.

The studio monitor.Every television studiothat you may telecast from will have a monitor inthe studio. The studio monitor is simply a tele-

Figure 29h. The 30-Second cue.---This cue tells tlw in-structor that he has 30 seconds of time remaining. The30-second cue may be given in either of two ways. Thecrossed forefingers is the most common; however, ifthe cameraman is cuing, he may give the crooked fore-finger cue, since one hand may be busy with the camera.

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The Instructor on Camera

Figure 291. The 15-seemul cue.The clenched fist tellsthe instructor that he has only 15 seconds of dine remain-

ing and he should fini,th what he luis to say or do.

vision set placed in the studio so that the in-structor can watch the telecast. The instructorshould use the monitor to read visual aids beingshown through the multiplexer system, narrateover film, or to watch aids in close-up.

The monitor is not placed in the studio for theinstructor to see himself. When he looks at him-self in the monitor, he loses his eye contact withthe student and the student will wonder what theinstructor is seeing.

In addition to visual cues, the instructor mayreceive aural cues from the dialogue of a co-instructor, sound from recordings or film, or from

`I /

:\s

Figure 29f. Cat.The cut signal tells the instructor tofinish what he is saying or doing as soon as possible with-out giving the impression of haste. If the cut signal isgiven in the middle of a sentence. by all means he shouldfinish the sentence and go 0fi the air gracefully. Sincesplit-second timing is not as important on educationalTV cs it is in commercial television, the cut signal is not

used very often.

THE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR - 47

the program director while a film or record soundis on the air.

Cues from the instructor.The instructor canmake the program director's job easier by subtleaudio cues. If you wish to tell the program di-rector that you are going to move to another partof the set, you may say, for example, "Let's lookat the map," or, "Let's go over to the demonstra-tion table, and actually see. . . " These cues willsound natural to the student, who is generally un-aware of th e. reaction triggered in the controlroom and studio by these seemingly unimportantremarks.

Care should be exercised in cuing visual ma-terial, especially if it is unrehearsed. For example,you must be specific when you cue unrehearsedvisual material. You can alert the program di-rector to an upcoming slide by saying, "The firstpicture shows. . . ." Do not say, "Slide on,""Slide Off," or, "Roll the film please." Asking forvisuals in this manner disrupts the continuity ofthe telecast and makes it seem unprepared. Tryto alert the program director as subtly as possible,but not so subtly that he doesn't get the message.Alert the program director but don't try to tellhim thc obvious, and don't try to direct the tele-cast and insruct at the same time. For example,nothing is more irritating to the program directorthan the instructor who says, "Bring that cameraover here for a closeup," or "Put the camera backon me." This type of cuing is not only irritatingto the program director but also to the student.

39. Prompting Devices

While the focus of our efforts is the mind andmemory of the student receiving the message, weshould remember that the mind and memory ofthe instructor might need assistance in deliveringthe message.

The roll up prompter.The most convenientand serviceable device for use in those situationswhere the speaker wishes to have a word-for-word account of his material before him is theelectronic speech prompter. This prompter is avertical roll device which contains the full text orcue lines and is usually mounted on the front-ofthe camera. The device moves a paper roll pastthe reading point at an adjustable rate of speed(Figure 30). The instructor, a floor director, ora co-instructor can control the rate of speed ofthe prompter while the telecast is in progress,adjusting the speed to the instructor's own speak-

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48 THE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR

JOT s I r

10:,1:

1110t. 1 r..0 ;(00..r-11:.1:+ . ./

Figure 30. The vertical roll prompter.

ing rate. A king size typewriter is normally usedto print the copy but it is possible to print thecopy with a marking pencil. The instructor mayread the copy from the prompter and yet givethe impression that he is looking directly intothe lens.

Some studios may have a manually opeptt,A,homemade prompter, consisting of two,;21.1i:rs anda hand crank. The homemade dev15es'are usuallylimited to an outline rather than. 'a word-for-wordtext.

Cue cards.An outline of the instructor's les-son, including cue words or phrases may be printedon cards for cuing purposes. These cards may beheld by a floor man and changed as required(Figure 31). The outline can be printed onpaper and attached to the camera by a piece ofmasking tape (Figure 32). If you use cue cardsor cue sheets, don't try to put your entire word-for-word text on them but rather an outline withcue words and phrases.

Notes.The use of outline notes on the tableor desk in front of you is permissible in mostcases but be carefal that you do not look at themtoo often as a bobbing head is most distracting.Outline notes may be placed anywhere in the

The Instructor on Camera

1 ' 1

I

It, OA,1,211114110,

PL/116 TO

ItD,4rfortto eft,TOMILITAfty juvtosueoe4 CO1C(Cin

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Figure 31. The hand-held cue 91:41.

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Figure 32. Cue card attached to camera.

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The Instructor on Camera

studio, even on the floor and referred to oc-casionally. The important thing to remember isnot to give the student the impression that youare reading your lesson.

Quotation cards.If you wish to give a directquotation, it is quite all right to read it. No oneexpects you to remember a quotation verbatim.If you have only one quotation, read it directlyfrom the book or magazine if available. Whenmore than one quotation is to be made, many in-structors type their quotations on three by fivecards. Each quotation is typed on one card andthe instructor simply picks up the card and readshis quote on camera.

Review Questions

1. What is a good way to achieve an intimatequality in your delivery?

2. What is theis suitablewear?

THE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR - 49

real determinant of what colorfor black-and-white television

3. When should you use a pointer?

4. What is the best way to givecheck?

5. What should you do when you are using theboom mike and your co-instructor has a

weaker voice than you?

6. What should you do if you receive a cut sig-nal?

7. What are two situations when the tally lightson both cameras will be on?

8. What is the purpose of the studio monitor?

9. Why are outline notes preferred to verbatimnotes?

a microphone

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CHAPTER 9

Velevision and the Classroom Teacher

THE TWO principal ways in which instruc-tional television can be used are: (1) as total

instruction. and (2) as supplementary instruc-tion.

In total instruction, practically all teaching isdone by the television instructor. This type oftelevision instruction is not prevalent in Air Forceschools at the present time but may become morewidely used in the future. It is helpful, however,in circumstances where few highly qualified in-structors are available, such as teaching highlyspecialized subjects like foreign languages or ad-vanced science. The classroom instructor in thissituation acts as a proctor and handles routineadministrative duties connected with the televisedlesson.

The purpose of this chapter is to present tothe classroom instructor the information which willaid in using television as supplementary instruc-tion to his normal classroom activities.

40. Team Teaching

Most Air Force TV instruction is the supple-mental type. Parts of the curriculum are pre-sented on television and classroom instructorsconduct important additional activities which con-tribute to the lessons. These can be in the formof discussions, laboratories, assignments, tests,etc., but the classroom instructor plays a keyrole in the teacher-learning situation; the class-room instructor's knowledge, skill, competence,and imagination determine to a large degree theamount of learning accomplished and the attitudeshis students will possess. The studio instructorand classroom instructor in supplemental teach-ing must perform as a team (Figure 33).

Relationship of TV-classroom instructor team.When Air Force instructors become involvedin the use of television, they soon realize that

50

although there are differences in procedures, thebasic principles and objectives of instruction re-main constant. Both the TV teacher and theclassroom instructor strive to create the bestteaching-learning situation, each in his own roleand in partnership with each other.

The use of TV presents an excellent oppor-tunity to exchange ideas and to become familiarwith different points of view and different ap-proaches in teaching. Both instructors have thesame objective: the transfer of knowledge to theirstudents. Instruction by television does not implythat traditional teaching techniques are obsolete,rather a combination of old and new emergesaccording to the needs of the students and theimagination of the teacher.

The preparation of the studio instructor for atelecast has been outlined in Chapter 5, "Prepai'ngthe Telecast." The classroom instructor likewisehas certain distinct responsibilities and duties ifthe TV lesson is to be successful. These can bedivided into three parts: before the telecast, dur-ing the telecast, and after the telecast.

Before the telecast. The attitude of the class-room instructor is important for effective tele-vision instruction. He must realize that for ef-fective learning to take place in his classroom hemust motivate not only his students but himself.Through preparation he can build interest in thelesson which is to be telecast. He should know asmuch about the lesson as possible. In addition toknowing the subject matter the classroom in-structor should confer with the studio teacherand familiarize himself with the proposed presen-tation. If at all possible he should preview theprogram. By doing this he will be better able toprepare the students before the telecast and addsupplementary instruction after the presentation.In some schools which utilize team teaching, the

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Television and the Classroom Teacher

t-L

:ve

THE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR 51

t 7fo'rrb

.eShFigure 33. The teaching team in action.

studio and classroom instructors plan the lessonas a team.

The instructor must next prepare the physicalfacilities of his room for the reception of the tele-vised lesson so that maximum learning can takeplace. If all requirements for satisfactory televisingof material from the studio are met but the learn-ing environment (student location) is not ade-quate, then the entire communication processbreaks down. The student must be able to seeand hear comfortably that which appears on themonitor. School officials and instructor personnelshould be aware of the necessary receiving roomrequirements for proper viewing. Experimentshave shown that a maximum viewing distance of12 times the width of the television screen, orI foot of viewing distance per I inch of screenwidth, is approximately the extent of normal vis-ual acuity. Furthermore, the student should notview the monitor at extreme angles from theverical plane of the picture tube, as the loss oflegibility becomes pronounced. The minimum dis-tance from which a student can comfortably viewthe monitor is between 6 feet and 8 feet. The actual

number of students possible to be placed be-tween the minimum and the maximum distance,and the maximum angle, depends upon the spac-ing between students (Figure 34).

The monitor should be placed high enough sothat students can view over the heads of the stu-dents in front of them. It should be placed on thewall opposite windows in such a manner as not toreflect either artificial or natural light and, ifnecessary, a hood may be installed around themonitor. Usually the normal lighting in classroomsis satisfactory. A light level of not less than live(5) footeandles is recommended for viewing andnote taking.

The student must be able to hear as well as seethe monitor. Many sets have poor quality speakersystems, usually only four inch speakers. It is

suggested that the speaker be at least six inchesin size or possibly eight inches. This may mean anadditional speaker box attached to the monitoror, if there is room, the installation of one withinthe set. In large receiving areas where studentsare grouped around a number of monitors, a highquality public address system may be necessary.

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52 THE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR Television and the Classroom Teacher

21" Monitor (19' screen x 12 = 228" or 19')

450

I 61-81

Figure 34. Recommended viewing area.

Monitors are usually placed in the corner orcentered against one wall of a classroom. If a smallroom is set up specifically for TV, curving arcs ofthe seating arrangement are desirable for ade-quate viewing. In large viewing areas, monitorsmay be placed across the front and down the cen-ter and sides of the room. This is the usual ar-rangement, although it is somewhat uncomfortableto those students whose seats are not in line withthe monitors and who must turn the head or thebody for viewing. Consideration should be givento various arrangements of students and monitorsto provide the best possible viewing. One arrange-ment is to divide the students into several seg-ments and have them face inward to a number ofsets grouped together, which have been separatedby dividers for each segment of students. A circu-lar pattern of seating may also be considered.Students in this circular pattern would face a

(Scale: 1/4=1")

number of sets with dividers at the axis of thecircle.

Pre-class preparation also includes orientingthe students to television instruction. If this is thefirst "telecast" then the policies and ground rulesshould be explained. The instructor may also needadditional teaching materials such as textbooks,maps, diagrams, and audio-visual aids to reinforcethe television lesson. These should all be providedfor and arranged prior to the telecast.

During the telecast.Most instructors regardstudent reaction or feedback as essential to ef-fective teaching. The very nature of television in-struction tends to prevent feedback, since thestudio instructor is physically removed from thelearner. Consequently, there is a loss of the inti-mate student-teacher relationship that exists instandard classrooms. Some Air Force schoolshave employed electronic devices that allow the

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Television and the Classroom Teacher

student to be in two-way communication with thestudio teacher. On the other hand, the lack of in-teraction in classrooms Scan be greatly alleviatedthrough the participation of the classroom teach-er. If he anticipates questions and problems dur-ing the telecast and then conducts discussions asfollow-up to the lesson, this problem of interac-tion can be greatly reduced.

While the telecast is in progress the classroominstructor should take notes on highlights of thelesson and encourage his students to do likewise.

An important function of the classroom in-structor during the telecast is to maintain propersupervision and control of his class. The degreeof control depends in large part on the maturityand motivation of his students. Less mature stu-dents may have to be reminded that the televisedlesson is for learning, not entertainment.

Finally, the classroom teacher must be readyto supplement the TV lesson in case of electronicdifficulties. If he has been in on the planning andrehearsals of the telecast then he will be betterprepared to take over in this type situation.

After the telecast.The activities of the class-room instructor in this phase will vary dependingupon the nature of the class and the subjecttaught. In most circumstances, however, this is

the time when the classroom teacher can strength-en the learning process. He should be familiarwith the areas of instruction which need reinforc-ing and clarification. A good start is to pose stim-ulating and pertinent questions regarding the mainpoints in the telecast. Good discussions can pin-point the learning objectives and outcomes.

Also during this time the TV instruction shouldbe evaluated by short tests so the instructor candetermine the areas of instruction which need tobe re-emphasized. He should keep in mind that ef-fective evaluation must have a direct relationshipto the purpose of the telecast.

41. Television as an Instructional Aid

Not all facilities or courses are equipped forteam teaching, however, a teacher in the classroomcan still use television effectively to enhance theclassroom lesson. Many classrooms are equippedto receive broadcasts directly from educational orcommercial television stations; others may beconnected only to a closed circuit system butcapable of obtaining broadcast programs from

TinE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR - 53

the central stulio by prior arrangement. This ar-rangement may include tape recording the pro-grams for playback at a later time.

With either of the above capabilities, the class-room teacher should consult the schedules ofstudios nearby for programs that could vitalizematerial which the teacher may wish to communi-cate to the student. While this use is not alwaysas pertinent to the lesson as may be desired, itdoes broaden the base of knowledge in a subjectarea and gives the teacher an opportunity to il-lustrate many complex ideas.

The television program is used in the samemanner as a film or reading assignment to illus-trate material to be covered or to stimulate dis-cussion by the students. The problems of viewingare the same as discussed above and should bejust as carefully attended to as if the completelesson was televised.

42. Television as an Instructional Device

As a minimum use of TV, the instructor whohas a monitor-equipped classroom tied into theschool studio may use the closed-circuit systemas a means of projecting visual material to hisclass. Several classroom devices are on the mar-ket which permit the classroom instructor to usethe amplification and attention of television topresent material better than he is able to with con-ventional instructional devices (Figure 35).

Figure 35. Instructor can use television to project hisvisual material.

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54 THE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR

It would be possible and desirable for filmsnormally shown in the classrooms to be put onTV. Slides and camera cards as well could beshown to the students on the monitor rather thanon a screen. Such use of the closed-circuit systemwould require coordination with the studio butthe advantage of viewing the material in a lighted

room would be worth the effort. Where the ca-pability exists, the imagination of the instructor

would be the only limiting factor.

Television and the Classroom Teacher

Review Questions

1. Does the studio teacher have the same objec-tive as the, classroom teacher when workingas a team?

2. In a team-taught lesson, who is responsible formotivation of the students?

3. Why should planning be accomplished jointlyby the studio and classroom teachers?

4. What are some of the physical arrangementsnecessary in the classroom for good televisionviewing?

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Evaluation with Television

EVALUATION is usually needed to deter-mine the degree to which students have

achieved the objectives of instruction and in-structors meet current performance standards.Television instruction has emphasized this need intwo ways: first, by offering a new medium formeasuring student achievement of course objec-tives; and second, by providing a means of eval-uating teacher performance not available throughany other medium.

Television has been used for instruction formore than ten years. Much instruction duringthis period has been experimental to explore thepossibilities of the medium. Numerous studieshave compared effectiveness of TV instructionand conventional classroom instruction. Fewstudies, however, have dealt with the best way ofevaluating student learning gained through TVinstruction. Even less attention has been given tothe use of TV for measuring student achieve-ment. The studies emphasize a continuing needto explore possibilities for using tests in conjunc-tion with TV instruction. The need for improvedtests and test items to measure student achieve-ment of course objectives has been brought intosharp focus. If teacher-made tests are to be used,most teachers will have to devote more attentionto test preparation. Teachers must understandand apply the principles underlying good test-item construction. They must also be alert to dis-covering better ways to evaluate TV instructionand be willing to experiment in finding new andmore effective ways of using TV to evaluate stu-dent achievement.

43. Testing Student Achievement

Specific objectives.Every report on TV in-struction which has critically examined the tests

55

CHAPTER 10

used to evaluate either effectiveness of instruc-tion or student achievement has emphasized thatgetting teachers to formulate specific objectivesfor a course is a major problem of TV instruc-tion. When the desired achievement has not beenspecified in advance, teacher-made tests to meas-ure student achievement serve no useful purpose.Instructors should arrive at clear, concise state-ments of objectives before attempting to evaluatestudent achievement. If televised instructionforces teachers to a clear statement of instruc-tional objectives, television will have rendered ed-ucation an important service. Not only will moreexact evaluation be possible, but instructionshould improve.

Better tests.Conventional forms of paper andpencil tests to measure student achievement havebeen carried over bodily into TV. Teacher-madetests to evaluate student achievement should bethe best possible tests that can be constructed.Experience shows that the average teacher sim-ply uses the same tests he used when teaching byconventional means. In a majority of instances,such tests proved unreliable. A common objec-tion to them was that they measured only fac-tual recall material, and yet, the teacher basicallywas concerned with student understanding andapplication of important principles. Teacher-madetests should be designed to measure achievementat the level of learning specified in the objectivesfor the course. Standardized tests have been usedto measure the effectiveness of TV teaching.When standardized tests measure course objec-tives at the desired level of learning, testing re-sults have usually been valid. The teacher rarelyfinds a standardized test measuring his exact ob-jectives at the appropriate level of learning and

is forced to construct his own test.

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56 THE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR

Continuous evaluation.In the face-to-faceteaching situation with small classes, thc teachermakes continuous evaluations of individual stu-dent progress in a variety of ways. This is not pos-sible with televised instruction. The teacher haslost the benefits of both rapport with the classand student feedback. TV instruction thus gen-erates a need for constant evaluation. Unless eval-uation is continuous the instructor has little basisto judge student understanding and progress to-ward course objectives. Likewise students them-selves may become confused as to the purpose ofa lesson and be unable to evaluate their ownprogress in the course. This is the more likely tooccur if course objectives are vagne or unclear.There is danger of students becoming confusedas to the real purpose of the lesson or course iftests measure only factual recall. Frequent test-ing provides for flexible teaching. It permitsreteaching when the need is indicated before theend of the course. It permits the teacher tochange subsequent lessons before they are pre-sented. So-called objective tests and periodic face-to-face discussion periods have been used to pro-vide this continuous evaluation. An evaluationprogram combining both discussion periods withoral questions and paper-and-pencil tests appearsto best satisfy the need for continuous evaluation.

44. Use of Television as a Tesfing Medium

TV as a medium for testing offers the teacheradvantages somewhat similar to those attainablewith motion pictures, although with more flexibil-ity and less disturbance in the testing room.

Dramatized situations.Through the use ofdramatized situations, the teacher can create onthe TV screen a near-to-life situation for the stu-dent.

Testing for student understanding or ability toapply principles is particularly suited to dramati-zation. The use of short dramatizations, telecastto students at short intervals, will provide a seriesof question situations. Prior to the telecast stu-dents are furnished with multiple choice alterna-tives to the situation to be dramatized. Alterna-tives can either be listed on an answer sheet ordisplayed in the testing room. Similarly, true-false or completion questions can also be used.Thus, learning is measured in a realistic context.In missile training, a short dramatization of acrew member performing his dutics during a mis-

Evaluation with Television

sile firing can be shown to the students beingtested. Their understanding of the crewman'sduties may then be questioned on each operationperformed during the countdown. Such testing isnear to veality. It gives an excellent idea of thestudent's ability to perform countdown operationsfor any crew position desired.

Dramatization is effective when the teacherwants to evaluate the student's ability to reactrapidly in normal or critical situations. A severethunderstorm, for example, using tape or filmmight be telecast, showing an aircraft buffetedby updraft and heavy rain. A closeup quicklyfollows of the aircraft flight instrument panel. Amultiple-choice question listing four alternativecourses of action for the pilot trainee is an ap-propriate way of measuring his ability to reactwithin an acceptable time period. Reaction timeis measured by the interval between the end ofone dramatization and the beginning of the next.For most effective measurement, students shouldbe instructed to read the alternatives and becomefamiliar with the possible answers prior to tele-casting the drama.

Learning that takes place from watching some-thing done is often neglected in testing. Test ques-tions tend to emphasize learning as a result ofhearing a lecture or reading of course study ma-terials. Accuracy of observation is also an impor-tant part of many skills. Television testing is aneffective way to measure both learning as a re-sult of viewing and the accuracy of observation.For instance, measurement of student-learninggained by watching a military court in action ispossible, or the sequence of steps in assembly ofa complicated electronic unit.

Sometimes it is desirable to give students shorttests to measure factual information, for example,to determine if study assignments are completed.Short televised tests meet this need very well.True-false or completion questions are probablythe most useful for this purpose.

Instructor observation.Telecasting to the stu-dent is only one way TV can be used in studentevaluation. The process can be reversed with theteacher viewing the students (Figure 36). Deter-mining a student's ability to lead a group to thesolution.of a problem is an example. Another isthe effectiveness of the guidance techniques dis-played by a student teacher in group discussion.Many other possibilities will suggest themselves

6 3

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Evaluation with Television

"I!

Figure 36. Evaluating student activity.

to the teacher. A rating scale suitable to the sub-ject and the situation helps to provide more ob-jective grading of student performance.

Limitations of TV testing.Television as atesting medium also has serious limitations. At-tention must be given to minimizing these limita-tions or the success of a testing program designedto measure student achievement may be endan-gered.

Air Force instructional objectives usually spe-cify student learning at the understand or applylevel. Only minor portions of most Air Forcecourses have objectives seeking knowledge of fac-tual materials. Televised tests to measure studentachievement generally test the student's ability torecall factual material. The design of tests tomeasure understanding and application is verydifficult with the type of objective tests availableto the TV teacher.

The technical problem of available screenspace in which to present a complete test ques-tion and the corallary problems of readability andviewing distance arc not easily resolved. Attemptshave been made to eliminate the problem. True-false questions can be used; however, true-falsequestions arc weak in measuring understandingsand abilities to apply learning. Completion testshave been used with some success. Multiple-choice tests have been prepared using one set offour alternative responses for all test questions.Such questions arc difficult to construct for meas-urement of learning higher than the recall level.

THE INSTRUCtoR 57

When tests arc presented to students on thetelevision screen, a compromise on both viewingtime and student working time must be made foreach question. If viewing and working time is setat one minute, for example, some students willneed more and some will need less time. Slowerstudents might more profitably spend all the test-ing time on the first forty questions of a fifty-question test and not attempt the final ten ques-tions. Better students may be wasting time oneasy questions that could more profitably be spenton more difficult test items. Any solution to thisproblem is a compromise. That students be per-nthted to work at their own speed is an acceptedprinciple of testing. It appears impossible to ob-serve this principle when using television as thetest medium.

In improperly designed paper and pencil tests,students often arc able to look, back to precedingquestions for clues to help in answering otherquestions. With televised testing, retelecasting ofquestions is teacher-controlled. Students cannotreadily get clues or answers from preceding items.Some increases in validity may result for improp-erly designed tests through televising. However,the properly designed test does not rely on suchdevices to achieve or increase validity.

The effect upon students of TV tests vary.Vigorous student objections can be expected tofollow any but very short quizzes. Students be-lieve they are unable to do their best on lengthytelevised tests. On the other hand, student ac-ceptability of short tests, ten questions or less, isgenerally good. The fact that short tests usuallycarry less weight in a student's overall grade thanlonger tests may account for this.

The psychological effects of any test on stu-dents have been recognized. It is generally agreedthat these psychological factors may affect stu-dent performance. Well constructed tests arc de-signed to minimize adverse psychological effects.If students continue to believe that televised testsdo not give them a fair chance to show what theycan do, psychological factors may be significantto validity.

Economy in manpower is desirable in testing.TV examinations can be wasteful of manpowerunless tests arc given in large rooms providedwith adequate receivers. If small rooms arc used,

13. tors arc required to protect the integrity of

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58 THE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR

test items, and prevent students assisting eachother during examinations.

45. Evaluating Teacher Performance

While the ultimate test of a teacher's abilityto communicate knowledge may be thought to bethe students' scores on examination, it becomesapparent quite readily upon closer inspection thatthe ability to impart facts is a poor measure of ateacher. The more understanding the instructorseeks to achieve in his students, the more diffi-cult is the designing of tests and measurementsfor student learning.

Still, all in all, the teacher and school officialswant to know how well the teacher communicatesskills and ideas to his students and more than that,how much the teacher motivates and inspires thestudents to learn. Some means of evaluating theinstructor's performance is an important part ofteacher training and upgrading.

One of the most prevalent ways of evaluating ateacher's performance is by the pretesting andpost-testing method. The test is given to the classbefore the lesson or course and again afterwards.The teacher's effectiveness is measured by thedifference in student achievement disclosed bythese tests. Of course, this type of test must ofnecessity be a test of reasoning rather than fact,else the student should always make a zero on thepre-test. Another evaluation of the teacher comeswhen analyzing student factual knowledge or abil-ity to solve problems at various stages of thecourse. The validity of these methods is accept-able but not guaranteed since the variables whichmake a comparison difficulttime of day, size ofsample group, intellectual level of class, studydistractions, etc.all tend to lessen the possibil-ity of achieving a perfect test.

Since the so called objective test is not perfectit behooves the teacher to accept as equally validthe critique method of evaluating his performAce.In this case a set of standards must be establiShedwhich if met perfectly would produce the idealteaching. Whether or not the student learns a thing,the teacher is evaluated by his effort. This isreally more valid and fairer to the individual.The television lesson is a performance that isstaged for the viewer. It represents the teamwork

Evahmtion with Television

of talent and production personnel and, there-fore, if it is critiqued by one trained in the tech-nique of comparing the performance of instructorand production crew against a standard estab-lished to represent the ideal, then it will havebeen evaluated with as much validity as is hu-manly possible. The teacher will be able to im-prove as will those behind the camera.

46. Self-Critiquing With Video Tape

The one great step which has been taken intelevision from the standpoint of evaluation is

the development of video tape recording andplayback. This new capability of the televisionmedium has revolutionized the art of critiquingfor it allows the person being critiqued to see forhimself and forces the "critiquer" to be implicitlyaccurate. In addition, it overcomes the innate dif-ficulty and distasteful reaction of being told yourfaults by another.

Video tare recording and playback is the foun-dation of the teaching concept of the TelevisionTeaching Laboratory, Academic Instructor Course,Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama. In orderto produce teachers capable of presenting a cred-itable television lesson, it is essential that thestudent TV teacher see himself at every opportun-ity by means of video tape. This same techniqueis of great use in the in-service training of allteachers and will eventually be commonplacethrough the use of low cost TV tape recorders(Figure 37). Most military installations havingtelevision facilities will have the capability oftaping and playing back an instructor's rehearsal.Such a capability should not be wasted and will

f

cv,

Figure 37. Video tape affords instructor immediate andcomplete self critique.

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Evaluation with Television

not be, so long as the Air Force continues to havededicated instructors willing to strive for self-improvement.

Review Questions

I. Why is a clear statement of instructional ob-jectives necessary for evaluation purposes?

THE TELEVISION INSTRUCTOR - 59

2. What is the most important result of frequenttesting?

3. What is the value of using dramatizations intesting?

4. Why is a standard necessary when using thecritique method of teacher evaluation?

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References for Further Reading

Books

BECKER AND HARSCHBARGER. Television.. Techniques for Planning and Perform-ance, Henry Holt and Co., New York, 1958.

BECKER, SAMUEL L., MURRAY, JAMES N., JR., BECHOLDT, HAROLD P. Teachingby the Discussion Method, State University of Iowa. 1 958.

Bumm-Cox-MCPHERsoN. Television In the Public Interest, Hastings House, 1961.

BRETZ, RUDOLPH. Techniques of Television Production, McGraw-Hill, NewYork, 1962.

BRETZ, RUDY AND EWING, RUSSELL H. Educational Television and Closed CircuitTV; A Manual Directory and Bibliography, Beverly Hills, California, NationalInstitute of Leadership, 1959.

BuTLER, SAMUEL L., DUNLAP, RHODES and GERBER, JOHN C. A Comparison ofThree Methods of Teaching Modern Literature, The State University of Iowa,Iowa City, Iowa, June 1957.

CARPENTER, C.R. AND GREENHILL, T. P. Instructional Television Research, ReportNumber Two, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Penn., Spring1958.

COSTELLO AND GORDON. Teach with Television, Hastines House. 1961.Division of Extension and Higher Education, An Experiment in Instructional TV ,

in the Los Angeles Junior Colleges, Los Angeles City School Districts, Cali-fornia, January 1959.

DUROST, WALTER N. AND PRESCOTT, GEORGE A. Essentials of Measurement forTeachers, New York, Harcourt Brace, 1962.

ERICKSON, CLIFFORD G. AND CHAUSAW, HYMAN M. The Chicago City Junior Col-lege Experiment in Offering College Courses for Credit Viq Open CircuitTelevision, March 1959.

Florida University, Gainesville, College of Education, Education Library, TelevisionIn Education, 2d edition, 1962.

Ford Foundation, Teaching by Television, 47 7 Madison Ave., New York 22, N.Y..May 1959.

Hagerstown Board of Education, Teaching in Washington County Closed-CircuitEducational Television Project, Progress Report, Haeerstown, Maryland, March1959.

HOLLAND, BENJAMIN F., AND OTHERS. Audio-Visual Materials and Devices, Rev. .Ed., Lubbock, Texas, Rodgers Litho, 1958.

JOHNSON, GRACE NICHOLS. The Norfolk City Experiment in Instructional Tele-vision, The Big Picture, September 1957-June 1960, The Educational TelevisionProject, 735 Pembroke Avenue, Norfolk 7, Virginia.

KELLER, ROBERT JR. AND GOULD, ORRIN E. Closed Circuit Television in TeacherEducation, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis 14, Minn., June 1957.

KIDD, JAMES R. How Adults Learn, New York, Association Press, 1959.

60

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KINDER, Jams S. Audio-Visual Materials and Techniques, New York, AmericanBook Company, 1959.

KLAUSME1ER, HERBERT J. Learning and Human Abilities, New York, Harper,1961.

LEPORE, ALBERT R., and WILSON, JACK D. An Experimental Study of CollegeInstruction Using Broadcast Television, San Francisco State College, San Fran-cisco, Calif., Fall, 1958,

LEwls, PHILIP. Educational Television Guidebook, McGraw-Hill Book Company,New York, 1961.

MACOMBER, F. GLEN. Final Report of the Experimental Study in InstructionalProcedures, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, 1960.

Midwest Program on Airborne Television I nstruction, Using TV in the Classroom,Edited by Mary Howard Smith, New York, McGraw-Hill, t9,61.

MILLE RSON, GERALD. The Techniques of Television Production, Hastings House,1961

Mohawk-Hudson Council on Educational Television, Produdny Your EducationalTelevision Program, Schenectady, New York, 1961.

NOLAN, JOHN E. Preparation of Inexpensive Teaching Materials, San Francisco,Calif., Chandler Publishing Co., 1963.

Philadelphia Public Schools, 1958-1959, Second Report of the National Experi-ment of Television Teaching inLarge Classes.

SCHRAMM, WILBUR L. The Impact of Educational Television, Urbana, Ill., Univer-sity of Illinois, I 960,

SHERK, DENNIS H. AND KEPLER, LUTHER, JR. Guide for Television Instructors,Pennsylvania State University, Academic Research & Services Division, Uni-versity Park, Penn., 1961.

SIEPMANN, CHARLES A. TV and Our School Crisis, Dodd, Mead and Co., NewYork, 1958.

SPEAR, JAMES. Creating Visuals for TV , Division of Audiovisual InstructionalService, National Education Association of the U.S.

STANTON, ROBERT S. Performance: A Study of Microphone Teclutiques for Radio,Television and Film. Coral Gables, Fla., University of Miami Press, 1961.

STARL1N, GLENN AND TALLAS, JOHN E. Inter-Institutional Teaching in tlw OregonState System of Higher Education, Oregon State System of Higher Education,Eugene, Oregon, March 1960.

STODDARD, ALEXANDER J. Schools for Tomorrow: An Educator's Blueprint, TheFund for the Advancement of Education, Ncw York 2 1 , N.Y., 1957.

THOMAS, MUKRAY R., and SWARTIIOUT, SHERWIN G. Integrating Teaching Ma-terials. New York, Longman, 1960. Creating Television Programs, Chapter 18.

TRAW, GLEN H. Second Year Report Southwestern Indiana Educational TelevisionCouncil, 1959-1960, Southwestern Indiana Educational Television Center, 425Carpenter St., Evansville 8, Ind.

WALTERS, ROGER L. Training the Teacher for TV; A short course in preparing thenew :eacher for using the medium. Rev. Sacremento State College, Sacremento,Calif., 1960.

Wayne, RCA Invitational Conference on Televised Instruction, Wayne University.Televised Instruction, Lifted by Lee S. Dreyfus and Wallace M. Bradley, Detroit,Mass Communication Center, Wayne State University, 1962.

61

.vor)

k)C.)

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WILLIS, BENJAMIN C. Chicago's TV College, Chicago City Junior College, July1960.

ZETTL, Television Production Handbook, Wadsworth, San Francisco, 1961.

Manuals

Communications Techniques, C5C-1, Command and Staff College, Air University,Maxwell AFB, Alabama, September 1957, Revised January 1960.

Principles and Techniques of Instruction, Academic Instructor and Allied OfficerSchool, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1963.

Training by Television, TM 11-49 1, Department of the Army, 1959.

Patnphlets

Headquarters USAF TV Planning Guide, Secretary of the Air Staff, Staff Manage-ment Division.

Production Planning Guide AFSC I 1-1, Air Force Systems Command, 1962.Program Planning Guide, Television Center, 3 8 2 5th Support Group (Academic),

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