This article was downloaded by: [University of Boras]On: 04 October 2014, At: 05:01Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales RegisteredNumber: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Cognition and EmotionPublication details, includinginstructions for authors andsubscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/pcem20

The Structure ofPositive and NegativeAutomatic CognitionFred B. Bryant & W. Jeff BaxterPublished online: 18 Aug 2010.

To cite this article: Fred B. Bryant & W. Jeff Baxter (1997) TheStructure of Positive and Negative Automatic Cognition, Cognition andEmotion, 11:3, 225-258

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/026999397379908

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy ofall the information (the “Content”) contained in the publicationson our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and ourlicensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever asto the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purposeof the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in thispublication are the opinions and views of the authors, andare not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. Theaccuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and shouldbe independently verified with primary sources of information.

Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions,claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, andother liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directlyor indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out ofthe use of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and privatestudy purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction,redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply,or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden.Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

oras

] at

05:

01 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

T he Structure of P ositive and N egative

A utom atic C ognition

F red B . B ryan t and W . Jeff B axter

L oyo la U n ive rs ity o f C h icago , U SA

Con ® rmatory fac tor analy s is (CFA) w as used to te s t hypothe se s about the

struc ture of positive and neg ative autom atic cogni tions, us ing the respons es

of 304 col le ge stude nts to separate que stionnaire s asse ssing pos itiv e (ATQ-

P; Ingram & W isnicki, 19 88 ) and negativ e (ATQ-N; Hol lon & Kendal l,

1980 ) autom atic thoug hts . For each ins trum ent, an obli que vers ion of the

four-f ac tor m ode l orig inally propos ed by the dev elope rs (ATQ-N: Personal

Maladjus tm ent, Neg ative Expec tations, Low S e lf -e s teem , Giv ing Up/Hope -

le ssne ss ; ATQ-P: Pos itiv e Daily Func tioni ng , P ositiv e S elf -e valuation,

Othe r’ s Evaluations of Se lf, Pos itiv e Future Expec tations) prov ide d a m ar-

g inal ly acceptab le ® t to the data (m edian re lativ e - ® t indi ce s = .87 and .89 ,

respe c tive ly ). W hereas the struc ture of pos iti ve autom atic c ognition w as

inv ariant w ith respe c t to gende r, w om en’ s negativ e autom atic cogni tions

w ere m ore com plex ly inte rre lated than m en’ s , and di ffe rent cogni tions

w ere diagnos tic of negative autom atic th inking for m ale s and fem ale s.

W ithin each ATQ m ode l , the four fac tors w e re hig hly inte rcorre lated

(m e dian standardi sed f s = .87 and .82 , respe c tive ly ) and large ly re ¯ ec ted

a sing le , dom inant second-orde r fac tor. Supporti ng th is c onc lus ion, a hie r-

archical m ode l that pos its an overarching `̀ supe r’ ’ fac tor unde rly ing the four

® rs t-orde r fac tors ® ts the data of each instrum ent be tte r than did the popul ar

total sc ore m ode l ( i.e . one ® rst-o rder fac tor). Analyse s of conv ergent and

dis c rim inant val idi ty us ing m easure s of pe rsonali ty and em otion prov ide d

m ix ed support for the separate four- fac tor m ode ls, w ith s trong er ev ide nce of

dis c rim inant validity for the m ode l com posed of tw o, corre lated sec ond-

orde r fac tors (s tandardised f = 2 .5 3 ) . W hen conside red tog e ther, pos itiv e

and negative autom atic thoug hts are m ost accurate ly conc eptual is ed as

separate , ne gative ly corre lated, highe r-orde r dom ains of cogni tive e xpe ri-

enc e , each com posed of m ul tiple , inte rre late d subdim ensions .

CO GNITIO N A ND E M OTIO N, 1 9 9 7 , 1 1 (3 ), 2 25 ± 2 5 8

Re que sts for re prin ts should be se nt to Dr Fre d B . B ry ant, De partm ent of Psy cholog y ,

Loy ola U niv e rs ity of Chic ag o, 65 2 5 North S he ridan Road, Chicag o, Ill in ois 6 0 6 2 6 , US A .

The authors w is h to thank Ev e ly n Pe rloff for he lp in in s trum entation, Robe rt Russe ll and

Pau l Y arnold for adv ic e in data analys is , and S usan Nole n-Hoe kse m a and the anony m ous

re v ie w e rs for in s ig htful fe edbac k on an earli e r draft of this m anusc ript.

Ó 1 9 9 7 Psy cholog y Pre ss , an im print of E rlb aum (U K) Tay lor & Franc i s Ltd

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

oras

] at

05:

01 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

226 BRY AN T AN D B AXTER

INTRODUCTIO N

Much theory and research has em phas ised the role of neg ative cognitions in

the ae tiology , m ainte nance, and treatm ent of psy chopatholog y (e .g . B eck,

19 67 , 197 6 ; E ll is & Gre ige r, 1 977 ). A s a consequence , various se lf-report

m easures hav e been deve loped to asse s s the qual ity and quanti ty of

people ’ s negative thoug hts . A m ong the m ost w ide ly used m easures of

negative cog nition has been the Autom atic Thoughts Q uestionnaire

(A TQ -N; Hollon & Kendal l , 198 0 ), w ith w hich respondents indicate how

ofte n during the past w eek they hav e expe rienced eac h of 30 negativ e

``autom ati c thoughts ’ ’ (e .g . ``My life ’ s not going the w ay I w ant it to’ ’ ;

``I’ m a lose r’ ’ ; ``No one unde rstands m e ’ ’ ) .

O the r w ork has s tre ss ed the role of positiv e cognitions in unde rs tanding

and treating psycholog ical dysfunction (e .g . Kendal l , How ard, & Hay s,

19 89 ; Me ichenbaum , 197 7 ). Paral le l ing w ork on neg ative cognition, a

corresponding se lf-report m easure has been deve loped to asse ss the qual i ty

and quanti ty of positiv e autom atic thoughts : The Autom atic Thoug hts

Q uestionnaire -Positiv e (A TQ-P; Ingram & W isnicki , 19 88 ). As w ith the

A TQ -N, the ATQ -P instruc ts re spondents to indicate how ofte n during the

pas t w eek they hav e expe rienced eac h of 30 positiv e ``autom ati c thoughts ’ ’

(e .g . ``My future looks bright’ ’ ; `` I hav e m any good qual i tie s ’ ’ ; ``Life is

exc iting ’ ’ ). To gain a m ore com plete as se ssm ent of cognitiv e se lf-state m ents

in disorde r, som e researche rs (e .g . B urge ss & Haag a, 1994 ) hav e com bine d

A TQ -N and A TQ -P total scores to c reate `̀ s tate s-of-m ind’ ’ ratios of auto-

m ati c thought ( cf. S chw artz , 19 92 ; S chw artz & Garam oni, 198 9 ).

The prim ary g oal of the prese nt study w as to com pare alte rnativ e

m easurem ent m ode ls for the ATQ-N and the ATQ-P (w hen analy sed

separate ly and toge ther) in te rm s of the ir goodne ss -of- ® t to the data, the

re l iab il i ty of the ir fac tors, and the ir re lationship w ith m easures of pe rson-

al i ty and e m otion. In s tudy ing autom ati c cognitions , prev ious rese archers

hav e typical ly scored both the A TQ -N and A TQ -P in the sam e g lobal

fashion, by sum ming indiv iduals ’ re sponse s to obtain a separate total

score for eac h instrum ent. A TQ -N total score has been found to disc ri-

m inate ac curate ly be tw e en depress ed and nondepres sed populations

(Dobson & S haw , 1 986 ; Hil l , O e i, & Hil l , 1989 ; Hollon & Kendal l,

19 80 ), betw een psychiatric and normal control subje c ts , and be tw een

c l inical ly depressed and nondepressed psychiatric populations (Harre l l

& Ryon, 198 3 ; Hollon, Kendal l , & Lum ry , 1 986 ). Othe r inve stig ators

hav e found that A TQ -P total s core has a s trong negative corre lation

w ith depress iv e sym ptom s (B urge s s & Haag a, 1 994 ) and hav e used

A TQ -P total score to differentiate s tudents w ith e levate d depress iv e

sy m ptom s f rom norm al g roups (Ing ram , 198 9 ). Supporting a unidim en-

sional conceptual isation, both A TQ -N and A TQ-P total scores appear

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

oras

] at

05:

01 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

S TR UC TU RE O F PO SIT IVE AN D N EG ATIVE C OG N ITIO N 227

inte rnal ly consis te nt and gene ral ly show high coe f ® c ient alphas (i .e . > .90 )

in published research reports.

De spite the com m on prac tic e of pooling response s and analy sing the

resulting total score , how eve r, the re is reason to be l ie ve that both the ATQ-

N and A TQ -P are m ultidim ensional . In deve loping the A TQ -N, for exam -

ple , Hollon and Kendal l (19 80 ) pe rformed a princ ipal -c om ponents analy sis

w ith varim ax rotati ons on the response s of 348 unde rgraduate s and found

four fac tors on w hich 1 6 of the A TQ -N ite m s loaded: (1 ) Pe rsonal Mal-

adjustm ent and Desire for Change ; (2 ) Negative Se lf-concept and Negative

Expec tations; (3 ) Low Se lf-e ste em ; and (4 ) Giv ing Up/Hope le ssne ss.

Alte rnative ly , Deardorf, Hopkins, and Finch (1984 ) analy sed the

response s of 14 4 fac tory w orke rs and found three orthogonal fac tors

(Neg ative Se lf-state m ent, Giv ing Up, W eakne ss ) on w hich 15 A TQ -N

ite m s loaded; and Joseph (19 94 ) analy sed the response s of 18 0 unde r-

g raduate s and found an oblique tw o-fac tor m ode l (Negative Se lf -c oncept/

Ne gative Ex pec tati ons and Pe rsonal Maladjustm ent/De sire for Change ) on

w hich 27 A TQ-N ite m s loaded. Moreove r, a m ultidim ensional v iew of

negativ e cognition is consiste nt w ith B eck’ s (1967 , 19 76 ) m ode l of depres-

s iv e cognitiv e distortions surrounding the se lf , the w orld, and the future .

Positiv e autom ati c cognitions m ay also be m ultidim ensional . In dev el-

oping the A TQ -P, for exam ple, Ingram and W isnicki (1988 ) conduc te d a

varim ax princ ipal-com ponents analy sis of the response s of 4 80 unde rgrad-

uate s and found four fac tors on w hich 22 of the A TQ-P ite m s loaded: (1 )

Positiv e Daily Func tioning ; (2 ) Positiv e S e lf -e valuation; (3 ) O the r’ s Eva-

luations of S e lf ; and (4 ) Positiv e Future Expec tations. For both the A TQ -N

and the A TQ -P, the com mon prac tic e of analy sing total score m ay be

inappropriate , i f autom atic cognition is in fac t m ultidim ensional.

If, on the one hand, A TQ fac tors are highly inte rre late d, then total scores

m ay be reasonably inform ative , e spec ially w hen one ’ s purpose is to ass e ss

the re lationship betw een psy chopathology and g lobal negativ e th inking . If,

on the othe r hand, A TQ subscale s are re lativ e ly independent (as inte nded

by the ir orig inators), then total scores m ay g los s ove r im portant cognitiv e

distinctions (e .g . the frequency of positiv e or neg ative cognitions along one

spec i ® c dim ension but not othe rs), the reby produc ing m isleading ev idence

of construc t gene rali ty (c f. Ashton, Jackson, Paunonen, He lm es , & Roth-

ste in, 19 95 ). This is particularly c ritic al w hen res earche rs se ek greate r

conceptual and predic tiv e prec is ion to pinpoint spec i ® c cognitiv e corre -

late s of e m otional expe rience .

Research Objectives

The present study had four purpose s. First, w e sought to de te rm ine the m os t

appropriate m easurem ent m ode ls for explaining response s to the A TQ -N

and to the ATQ-P. W hat prov ide s a be tte r representati on of response s to

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

oras

] at

05:

01 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

eac h instrum entÐ a unidim ens ional m ode l (i .e . total s core ) or a m ultidi-

m ensional m ode l w ith spec i ® c subscale s cores? W hereas prev ious

researche rs hav e re lied exc lusive ly on princ ipal-com ponents analy s is to

explore the struc ture of autom atic cognitions, w e used m ax im um -l ike l i -

hood con ® rm atory fac tor analy sis (CFA) to evaluate sy ste m ati cal ly various

m easurem ent m odels for the A TQ -N and for the A TQ -P. This allow ed us to

im pose a varie ty of alte rnativ e m odels on the data and to com pare the ir

goodne ss -of- ® t.

A se cond purpose w as to inv es tigate re lationships be tw een positiv e and

negative cognitions. Com paring results ac ross 1 1 studie s , Ingram , Kendal l,

S ieg le , Guarino, and McLaughlin (19 95 ) found a m edian corre lation of

2 .28 (i .e . 8% shared variance ) betw een A TQ -N and A TQ -P total scores.

B ased on a corre lation of .29 , Ingram and W isnicki (1988 , p. 90 0 ) orig in-

al ly conc luded that ATQ-N and A TQ -P total s cores ``appear re lativ e ly

indepe ndent and do not sug ge st a bipolar re lation be tw een positiv e and

negative thinking ’ ’ . B ut w hat happens w hen response s to the tw o A TQ

instrum ents are fac tor-analy se d toge the r? Do separate unidim e nsional

struc tures surfac e for positiv e and neg ative cognition, or doe s one com -

bined positiv e -negative bipolar fac tor em erge ? If the A TQ -N and ATQ -P

are both m ultidim ensional , do conceptual ly s im ilar positiv e and negativ e

dim ensions col lapse on to one anothe r to form a reduced se t of bipolar

fac tors (e .g . Positiv e Daily Func tioning v s. Pe rsonal Maladjustm ent, Posi-

tiv e S e lf-evaluation vs . Low S elf-e ste em , Positiv e Future Expec tations v s.

Negative Expec tati ons)? O r is i t m ore ac curate to conceptual is e positiv e

and negativ e autom ati c cognition separate ly in te rm s of corre late d m ultiple

dim ensions? W e also used con® rm atory fac tor analy sis to evaluate com pe t-

ing hie rarchical m eas urem ent m ode ls , in w hich e ithe r one se cond-orde r

latent fac tor (A utom ati c Cognition) or tw o, negative ly corre late d se cond-

orde r late nt fac tors (Neg ative A utom ati c Cog nition and Positiv e A utom ati c

Cognition) w e re presum ed to unde rlie the covariation am ong the m ultiple

A TQ -N and A TQ -P factors (c f. Joreskog & S orbom , 1989 ) .

Figure 1 prov ide s a sc hem atic representation, using a hypothe tic al 12 -

i te m m eas ure, of the thre e diffe rent type s of m eas urem ent m ode ls evalu-

ate d in the present study . First, the unidim ens ional m odel (bottom ) assum es

that a sing le , late nt fac tor explains the covariation am ong al l 12 item s. This

hy pothe tic al m ode l is analogous to the popular `̀ total score ’ ’ conceptual i -

sation of the A TQ -N and the A TQ-P. Second, the m ultidim ens ional m ode l

(c entre ) assum es that four inte rcorre late d fac tors ex plain the covariation

am ong the 12 ite m s. This hypothe tic al m ode l is analogous to an oblique

ve rs ion of the orthogonal fac tor m ode ls orig inal ly proposed by the deve l-

opers of the A TQ -N and ATQ-P. Third, the hie rarchical m easurem ent

m ode l (top) assum es that tw o, corre late d, se cond-orde r fac tors unde rlie

the covariation am ong the four ® rst-orde r fac tors . This hypothe tic al m ode l

228 BRY AN T AN D B AXTER

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

oras

] at

05:

01 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

S TR UC TU RE O F PO SIT IVE AN D N EG ATIVE C OG N ITIO N 229

re sem ble s a hie rarchical m ode l of the com bined A TQ -N and ATQ -P data in

w hich separate se cond-orde r positiv e and neg ative ``super’ ’ fac tors ex plain

the inte rre lationships am ong the m ultiple A TQ-P and ATQ -N fac tors. S uch

parsim onious highe r-orde r m ode ls hav e rec ently proved use ful in unde r-

standing pe rsonal i ty (Novy e t al., 1 994 ), psy cholog ical w e l l -be ing (Ryff,

1995 ), and depress ion (Sheehan, Fi ® e ld, R eis ine , & Tennen, 19 95 ).

FIG 1. Th re e a lte rn ati ve fac tor m od els for a hypo th etic a l 12 - ite m m easure . S q uare s repre sen t

m easu re d variab le s (or i tem s), and c irc le s rep re se nt late nt co nstru cts (o r fac tors ) . A rrow -h ead ed

straig h t lin e s con nec tin g late nt con struc ts to m easure d v ariable s rep re sent i te m fac to r-load ing s .

Tw o-headed , cu rv ed l in es co nnec ting late nt fac to rs rep re se nt fac to r in te rre la tion sh ips ( f coe f fi -

c ie nts ) . T h e u nid im en sio nal m od el (b ottom ) assum es th at a s in gle , ® rs t- o rde r fac tor ex p lains the

covaria tion am o ng the 1 2 i te m s. T he m ultid im en sio nal m o de l ( c en tre ) assum es that fou r, inte r-

corre late d ® rst- ord er fac tors e x p lain th e c o variatio n am o ng the 1 2 ite m s. T he hie rarc hic al m od el

(to p) assum es th at tw o, co rre late d se c on d-o rde r fac tors un derli e th e cov aria tion am on g the fo ur

® rst- ord er fac tors . T o s im pli fy the diag ram , w e hav e o mitte d th e un iqu e e rror te rm s fo r eac h o f the

12 ite m s, as w e ll as the re sidu al e rror te rm s for e ach ® rs t-o rd er fac to r in the h ie rarc hic al m od el.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

oras

] at

05:

01 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

A third purpose w as to inve stigate poss ible g ende r diffe rence s in the

struc ture of autom ati c cog nition. A lthough w om en are som etim es v iew ed

as hav ing a riche r inne r li fe than m en (c f. V eroff, Douvan, & Kulka, 1 981 ),

the re is no direc t ev idence conce rning the im pac t of gende r on the struc ture

of autom atic thinking . If w om en’ s autom ati c cognitions re ¯ e c t a m ore

com plicate d inne r l ife , then the struc ture of autom ati c thought m ay be

m ore com plex for w om en than for m en. B ecause the issue of gende r

invariance has not been dire ctly address ed in the l i te rature , pas t res earch

on autom atic cog nition has had to as sum e that A TQ-N and A TQ -P total

scores are equal ly re liable for m ale s and fem ales . Using the sam e ite m s to

cons truc t subscale scores for m ale s and fem ale s w ould be inappropriate ,

how ev er, i f diffe rent ite m s are diag nostic of autom ati c thinking for m en

and w om en. A ccording ly , w e inve stigate d the invariance of unidim ensional

and m ultidim ensional fac tor m odels of the ATQ-N and ATQ-P sys te m -

ati cal ly , using m ultig roup CFA (Joreskog & Sorbom , 198 9 ).

A ® nal purpose of the present study w as to ass e ss the construc t validity

of m ultidim ensional m ode ls of the A TQ -N and A TQ -P, re lativ e to the

unidim ensional total score , in predic ting pe rsonal ity and em otions. He re ,

w e ex am ined fac tor inte rre lationships both w ith in and ac ross m odels , and

w e ex am ined eac h factor’ s patte rn of re lationships w ith m eas ures of

pe rsonal ity and em otion. W ithin both the A TQ -N and ATQ-P, w e also

te ste d the hy pothe sis that re levant subscale s cores in com bination w ould

explain m ore variance in pe rsonal ity and em otion variab le s than w ould

total score alone . A s a gene ral te st of conve rgent and disc rim inant val idity ,

w e hy pothe sised that: (1 ) negativ e cognitions w ould be m ore s trong ly

re late d to negative em otional ex pe rience (i .e . negativ e af fe c t, anx ie ty ,

and neurotic ism ) than to positiv e em otional ex pe rience ( i.e . positiv e

af fe c t, happine ss, and optim ism ); and (2 ) positiv e cognitions w ould be

m ore strong ly re late d to positiv e em otional expe rience than to negativ e

em otional expe rience .

METHO D

Subjects and Procedure

The sam ple consiste d of 304 unde rgraduate s (181 fem ale s, 1 16 m ale s, and

7 w ho fai led to indicate ge nde r) at a private m e tropolitan unive rsi ty , w ho

rec e ived one ex tra c redit point tow ard the ir course g rade in exchange for

partic ipation. Mean ag e w as 20 .3 years (SD = 3 .2 ). No furthe r inform ation

w as gathe red conce rning othe r charac te ristic s of the sam ple . Groups of

10 ± 15 subjec ts com ple te d a batte ry of se lf-report que stionnaire s , contain-

ing the depe ndent m easures.

230 BRY AN T AN D B AXTER

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

oras

] at

05:

01 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

S TR UC TU RE O F PO SIT IVE AN D N EG ATIVE C OG N ITIO N 231

M easures

Negative (ATQ-N) and Positiv e (ATQ-P) Autom atic Tho ugh ts Q ue s tion -

na ire s . The 30 -ite m A utom ati c Thoug hts Q uestionnaire (A TQ -N; Hollon &

Ke ndal l, 1 980 ) asse s se s the frequency of negative autom ati c thoughts

charac teristic of depress ion. The 30 -ite m Positiv e A utom ati c Thoughts

Questionnaire (A TQ -P; Ingram & W isnicki , 1988 ) as se sse s the frequency

of positiv e autom ati c thoughts . B oth instrum ents inquire about thoughts

expe rienced during the past w eek, using a 5 -point scale (1 = not at all ,

2 = som e tim es, 3 = m oderate ly , 4 = ofte n, 5 = al l the tim e ).

Affe c t Ba lance Sca le (ABS). The A ffe c t B alance S cale (B radburn,

1969 ) as se sse s how ofte n in the ``pas t few w eeks ’ ’ one has expe rienced

5 positiv e fe e l ing s (exc ite d, proud, pleased, happy , optim istic ) and 5

negativ e fe e l ing s (re stles s , lone ly , bored, depressed, upse t) , using a 3 -

point scale (1 = neve r, 2 = som e tim es, 3 = of te n). S eparate subscale scores

are com pute d for Positiv e and Neg ative Affe c t. For present purposes , w e

m odi ® e d the AB S to ass es s fe e ling s ove r the past w eek. S upporting the

re liabi l ity of separate positiv e and negative subscale s, B radburn (1 969 )

reported a 3 -day te st-rete st re l iabil i ty of .83 and .81 , re spec tiv e ly . S ignif i-

c ant corre lations of A B S total s core w ith ques tions tapping reported

happine ss , pe rce ived grati ® cation, and l i fe sati sfac tion support the conv er-

gent val idity of the A B S as a m easure of af fec tiv e expe rience (B radburn,

1969 ).

Beck Anxiety Inv en to ry (BAI). The 21 -ite m se lf-report B ec k A nx ie ty

Inventory (B eck, Eps te in, B row n, & S tee r, 1 988 ) ass es se s the frequency of

som ati c sy m ptom s of anx ie ty . S ubje c ts are asked to indicate how m uch

they hav e been bothe red ov er the past w eek by eac h sym ptom , using a four-

point s cale (0 = not at al l , 3 = could bare ly s tand it) . The B A I has been

found to hav e g ood inte rnal cons iste ncy , stable tes t-re te st re l iabi l i ty , and

ac ceptab le conve rgent and disc rim inant val idity in prev ious research (B eck

e t al ., 198 8 ; Fydrich, Dow dall , & Cham ble ss , 1 992 ). Using a c l inical

sam ple , for exam ple , B ec k e t al. (198 8 ) found that the B AI had a Cron-

bac h’ s alpha of .92 and a 1 -w eek te st-re te st corre lation of .75 , and that the

B A I ac curate ly dis c rim inate d anx ious diag nostic g roups from nonanx ious

diag nos tic g roups.

Eysenck Neu ro tic ism Sca le (ENS). The Eysenck Neurotic ism S cale

(Eysenck & Eysenck, 1975 ) as ks respondents w he the r or not (ye s/no)

they ex hibit 24 com m on sym ptom s of neuros is . Re sponse s are sum m ed to

obtain a total sc ore for eac h subjec t. Supporting the re liabi li ty of ENS total

score , Eysenck and Ey senck (19 75 ) reported a Cronbach ’ s alpha of .84 and a

4 -w eek te st-re te st corre lation of .86 . S upporting v alidity , Eysenck and

Eysenck (1 975 ) found that total sc ore on the ENS w as sig ni ® c antly corre-

late d w ith anx ie ty , s le ep disruption, and psychosom atic com plaints .

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

oras

] at

05:

01 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

F ordyc e Happ ine ss Me asure s . The Fordy ce Happine ss Measures

(Fordyce , 1 987 ) as se ss (a) present le ve l of happine s s (on a 1 0 -point

scale ), and (b) the av e rage pe rcentag e of tim e ove r the past w eek that

respondents fe lt happy , unhappy , and neutral. Total pe rcentag e s m ust equal

10 0% . S upporting the re l iabi l ity of the com bination score , Fordy ce

(19 87 ) reported te st-re te st rel iabi li tie s of .98 for a 2 -day inte rval , .87

for a 2 -w eek inte rval , .81 for 1 m onth, and .64 for 4 m onths. The re is

al so ex te nsive ev idence supporting the val idity of the Happine ss

Measures , inc luding strong and consiste nt conve rgence w ith a w ide array

of recognised happine ss, w e l l-be ing , and em otion instrum ents , re liable

re lationships w ith im portant pe rsonal i ty and atti tudinal v ariable s , and

predic tiv e util i ty in disc rim inating be tw een know n happy and unhappy

groups (Fordy ce , 1 987 ).

Th e Life O rien ta tion Tes t (LOT). The e ight- i te m Life O rientati on Test

(Carve r & Scheie r, 1 985 ; Sche ie r & C arv e r, 1985 ) as se sse s the leve l of

dispositional optim ism that one charac te ris tic al ly pos se sse s in re lation to

the future . Re spondents use a 5 -point Like rt-ty pe scale to indicate how

m uch they ag ree w ith s tate m ents re ¯ e c ting a hope ful ve rsus hope le ss

orientati on tow ard l ife . Supporting the re l iabi l ity of LO T total score ,

S che ie r and Carve r (1985 ) reported a C ronbac h’ s alpha of .76 and a

4 -w eek te st-re te st corre lation of .79 . A n ac cum ulating body of ev idence

supports the LOT’ s v al idity in predic ting heal th outcom es, coping s ty le s ,

and adjustm ent to li fe transitions (S che ie r & Carve r, 1992 ). A lthoug h som e

c ritic s hav e sug ge sted that the LO T is m ore a m easure of neurotic ism than

it is of optim ism (S m ith, Pope , Rhodew alt, & Poulton, 198 9 ), rec ent

ev idence supports the dis c rim inant val idity of the LO T as distinc t from

gene ral negative af fe c tiv ity (S che ie r, Carve r, & B ridge s, 19 94 ).

The Measurem ent M odels Evaluated in this Study

Alte rna tive mo de ls fo r th e ATQ-N . A syste m atic li te rature s earch

revealed four diffe rent m easurem ent m ode ls for the ATQ-N currently in

use : (1 ) a one -fac tor m ode l that assum es al l 30 ite m s load on the sam e

unde rly ing g lobal fac tor (A TQ -N total s core );1

(2 ) Hollon and Kendal l’ s

232 BRY AN T AN D B AXTER

1Technic ally , usin g the 3 0 - item total score for e ithe r autom atic c og nit ion ins trum ent

assum es a dif fe re nt m easure m ent m ode l than that proposed by the orig inators of the A TQ -N

(1 6 item s loadin g on four fac tors ; Holl on & Kendall, 1 9 8 0 ) and the A TQ -P (2 2 i tem s loading

on four fac tors ; Ing ram & W is nic ki, 1 9 8 8 ). S um m in g re sponse s to all 3 0 item s assum es that

each autom atic c og nitio n re ¯ e c ts the sam e la tent construc t. If this s ing le , g lobal dim ens ion is

conce ptuali sed as a hie rarc hic al fac tor, then it should inc lude only the c onstituent item s for

the ® rs t-orde r fac tors o f each in s trum ent and not al l 3 0 i tem s. Thus , the 3 0 -item total score

im pli c it ly conceptuali se s autom atic cog nitio n as re ¯ e c ting a s in g le ® rs t-orde r fac tor for eac h

ins trum ent.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

oras

] at

05:

01 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

S TR UC TU RE O F PO SIT IVE AN D N EG ATIVE C OG N ITIO N 233

(1980 , p. 39 2 ) four-fac tor m ode l for a subse t of 16 A TQ -N ite m s; (3 )

De ardorf e t al . (19 84 , p. 7 09 ) three -fac tor m ode l for a subse t of 15

ATQ -N ite m s; and (4 ) Joseph’ s (1994 , p. 368 ) tw o-fac tor m ode l for a

subse t of 27 A TQ-N item s. W e used con® rm atory fac tor analy sis to

im pose eac h of the se four m easurem ent m ode ls on the A TQ -N data and

to com pare their goodne ss-of- ® t. W e also evaluate d the goodne s s-of- ® t of a

hie rarchical m easure m ent m ode l that assum es a sing le se cond-orde r fac tor

(i.e . ``Negative Thinking ’ ’ ) unde rlie s the cov ariation am ong the ® rst-orde r

ATQ -N fac tors .

Alte rn a tiv e m od els fo r th e ATQ-P . W e evaluate d tw o diffe rent m ea-

surem ent m odels for the A TQ-P currently found in the l ite rature : (1 ) a one -

fac tor m ode l that assum es al l 30 ite m s load on the sam e unde rly ing g lobal

fac tor (A TQ -P total score ); and (2 ) Ingram and W isnicki ’ s (1988 , p. 900 )

four-fac tor m ode l for 22 ATQ -P ite m s. A s w ith the A TQ -N, w e also

evaluated the goodne ss-of- ® t of a hie rarchical m eas urem ent m ode l for

the A TQ-P that assum es a sing le se cond-orde r fac tor (i .e . ``Positiv e Think-

ing ’ ’ ) unde rlie s the covariation am ong the four A TQ -P ® rst-orde r fac tors .

Alte rn a tiv e mo de ls fo r th e co mb ined ATQ-N a nd ATQ-P da ta se ts .

Hav ing de te rm ined appropriate m easurem ent m ode ls for the A TQ -N and

ATQ -P separate ly , w e nex t ev aluate d ® v e al te rnative m ode ls for the data of

both instrum ents analy sed toge the r. Firs t, w e evaluated a com bined one -

fac tor m odel that assum es al l 60 ATQ-N and ATQ-P ite m s load bipolarly

on the sam e late nt dim ens ion (A utom ati c C ognition). S e cond, w e ev aluate d

a tw o-fac tor m odel that as sum es the A TQ -N and A TQ -P item s load on

separate , negative ly corre late d dim ensions Ð Negativ e Cog nition and Pos i-

tiv e C og nition, re spec tiv e ly . This tw o-fac tor m ode l is cons iste nt w ith the

com m on prac tic e of analy sing the ATQ-N and the A TQ-P as separate total

scores, treating positiv e and negativ e cognition as distinc t unidim ens ional

dom ains (e .g . Ing ram & W isnicki , 1 988 ). Third, w e im posed an oblique

m ode l on the com bined data s e t that m erge d the appropriate m easurem ent

m ode ls found separate ly for the A TQ -N and for the A TQ -P. The las t tw o

m easurem ent m ode ls for the com bined A TQ -N and A TQ -P data se ts w e re

com pe ting hie rarchical m odels , in w hich e ithe r one se cond-orde r fac tor

(A utom atic Cognition) or tw o, negative ly corre late d se cond-orde r fac tors

(Pos itiv e C ognition and Neg ative Cognition) w e re presum ed to unde rlie the

covariation am ong m ultiple positiv e and negativ e ® rst-o rde r fac tors.

RESU LTS

Overview

Our analy se s address ed four m ain que stions. (1 ) W hat is the m ost appro-

priate m easurem e nt m ode l for the A TQ -N and for the ATQ -P? To address

this que stion, w e used con ® rmatory fac tor analy s is (C FA) to im pose

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

oras

] at

05:

01 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

al ternative fac tor m ode ls on the data and to e valuate the ir goodne ss-of- ® t

sy ste m atical ly . (2 ) A re the sam e m easurem ent m ode ls w arranted for m ale s

and fem ale s? Here w e used m ultig roup C FA to te st hypothese s about the

fac torial invariance of A TQ -N and A TQ -P m ode ls w ith respec t to gende r.

(3 ) W hat is the be st m easurem ent m ode l w hen the ATQ-N and A TQ -P are

cons ide red tog e the r? To address this que stion, w e used C FA to te st

com pe ting fac tor m ode ls for the com bined ATQ-N and A TQ -P data se t.

(4 ) How do the ATQ -N and A TQ -P factors re late to one anothe r and to

positiv e and negativ e subje c tiv e expe rience ? He re , w e used CFA to te st

hy pothe se s about re lationships am ong the ATQ -N fac tors, the ATQ -P

fac tors, and the c rite rion m easures.

Analysis Strategy

The analy sis unfolded in three s tag e s . In S tag e One , w e ® rst exam ined the

fac tor struc ture of positiv e and neg ative autom ati c thoug hts s eparate ly , us ing

con® rmatory fac tor analy sis v ia LISREL 7 (Joreskog & Sorbom , 198 9 ) to

evaluate the goodne ss-of- ® t of the ® v e al ternative m easurem ent m ode ls for

the ATQ -N ite m s and the three al te rnative m ode ls for the A TQ -P. W e then

used CFA to com pare ® v e al te rnative struc tural m ode ls for the data of the

A TQ -N and ATQ -P analy s ed toge the r. In al l m ultidim ensional m odels ,

i te m s w ere forced to hav e a sing le loading , fac tors w e re standardised (i .e .

variance s ® x ed at 1 ), and unique e rrors w e re conside red independent.

The m ain advantag e s of con® rm atory fac tor analy sis (CFA) are that it

enab le s one to evaluate and com pare the ® t of al te rnative fac tor m ode ls

sy ste m atical ly , to re ® ne m ode ls w ith m arg inal ® t so as to im prove the ir

explanatory pow er, and to te s t hypothe se s about equal i ty in fac tor struc ture

be tw een g roups and about equal ity in param ete r e stim ate s w ithin a parti -

cular m ode l . CFA requires the use r to spec ify w hich ite m s load on w hic h

fac tors, how the se fac tors inte rcorre late (i f the re is m ore than one fac tor),

and the re lations am ong unique -e rror te rm s for the obse rved indicators . In

pe rform ing CFA, the fac tor m ode l hy pothe sis ed by the use r is to produce a

m atrix of predic te d inte rre lations am ong the m easured variable s ( S ) , w hic h

are then subtrac te d from the ac tual, obse rved inte rre lations (S ) to obtain a

m atrix of residuals (S 2 S ) . A m ax im um -l ike lihood chi-square v alue is

then com pute d e stim ating the probabili ty that this re s idual m atrix is

diffe rent from ze ro. C ontrary to othe r infe rential s tati s tic al te sts for w hich

signi ® c ant P -value s represent g reate r acc urac y of predic tion, w ith C FA a

statis tic al ly s igni ® c ant chi-square denote s a m ode l that fai ls to reproduce

the obse rved data ac curate ly (i .e . the residuals i t g ene rate s are s ig ni ® c antly

diffe rent from ze ro).

A c ritic al issue in con® rmatory fac tor analy s is conce rns how bes t to

evaluate the ® t of a g iven m ode l to the data (se e B entle r, 1990 ). Eac h CFA

234 BRY AN T AN D B AXTER

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

oras

] at

05:

01 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

S TR UC TU RE O F PO SIT IVE AN D N EG ATIVE C OG N ITIO N 235

m ode l gene rate s a m ax im um -l ike l ihood chi-square that re ¯ e c ts the degree

to w hich the cov ariance m atrix predic te d by the particular m ode l dev iate s

from the ac tual obse rved covariance m atrix Ð the large r the chi-square , the

w orse the m ode l ® ts the data. B ecause chi- square is ex tre m e ly sensitiv e to

sam ple s iz e , how eve r, i t is of l ittle v alue in evaluating ove ral l goodne ss-of-

® t w hen sam ple s are large . W ith siz eab le sam ple s, e ven reas onable m odels

are like ly to produce stati stic al ly s ig ni ® c ant chi-square value s (se e A lw in

& Jackson, 1 980 ; B entle r, 199 0 ). For this reason, diffe rence s in chi-square

value s across al te rnative m ode ls are usual ly m ore inform ative than the c hi-

square value s them se lve s.

W he n c om peting m ode ls are ``ne ste d’ ’ , for exam ple , then the ir chi-

square s can be direc tly contraste d to tes t the hypothe sis that one m ode l

® ts the data be tte r than the other. Fac tor m odels are conside red to be ne ste d

w hen one , w hich is m ore restric tiv e and contains m ore ® x ed param e te rs,

c an be obtained by im posing cons traints on the othe r, w hich inc lude s m ore

free param e te rs to be e s tim ate d. For ex am ple , an orthogonal (re stric tiv e )

ve rsion of a tw o-fac tor m ode l is obtained w hen the covariance be tw een the

tw o fac tors is ® x ed at z e ro. This orthog onal m ode l has al l of the sam e

param e te rs as the le ss re stric tiv e , obl ique tw o-fac tor m ode l , e xc ept that one

param e te r (the fac tor covariance ) has been ® x ed at a prede te rm ined value ,

in contrast to the oblique m ode l in w hich the fac tor covariance is free to

vary . Thus, the orthog onal m ode l is ne ste d w ithin the oblique m ode l , and

the chi-square for the latte r m ode l can be subtrac te d from that for the

form er (w ith diffe rence in d f = 1), to te st the hypothe sis that the tw o fac tors

are corre lated.

In evaluating the ® t of a g iven m ode l, a m ore m eaning ful standard is

needed, ag ainst w hich to com pare the g oodne s s-of- ® t chi-square for a

particular m ode l. Indeed, re searche rs hav e deve loped a dive rsi ty of re la-

tiv e ® t indice s for prec ise ly this reason (B entle r, 1990 ; Tanaka, 199 3 ).

B ecause our sam ple s iz e is large , w e re lied on m easures of re lativ e ® t

rathe r than on the m ag nitude of the m ax im um -l ike lihood chi-square to

evaluate how w e ll CFA m ode ls ® t the data.

S ix diffe rent m easures of goodnes s-of- ® t w e re used to ass es s CFA

m ode ls . (1 ) The ratio of chi-square to degree s of fre edom ( c 2/d f ) , w hich

dec rease s and approache s z e ro as the ® t of the g iven m ode l im prove s

(Hoe tle r, 198 3 ). (2 ) The root m ean squared residual (RMSR; i .e . a m ea-

sure of the av e rage diffe rence be tw e en the predic te d and obse rv ed ite m -

covariance s for the particular m ode l) , w hich also approac he s z e ro as the ® t

of the g iven m ode l im prov e s (Joreskog & Sorbom , 1988 ). (3 ) The g ood-

ne ss-of - ® t index (GFI; Joreskog & S orbom , 1988 ; Tanaka & Huba, 198 4 ).

(4 ) The adjuste d goodne ss-of - ® t index (AGFI; Joreskog & S orbom , 198 8 ).

(5 ) The noncentralised norm ed ® t index (NCNI; B entle r, 1990 ). (6 ) The

Tucke r± L ew is coe f ® c ient (TLC; Tucke r & Lew is, 1973 ).

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

oras

] at

05:

01 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

These las t three indic es of re lati v e ® t bas ical ly re ¯ e c t how m uch be tte r a

g iven CFA m ode l ® ts the data (adjusting for the num ber of param e ters

e stim ate d) re lati v e to a null m odel in w hich sam pling e rror alone is

assum ed to in¯ uence response s (Tanaka, 19 93 ). GFI, A GFI, TLC, and

NCNI eac h rang e from ze ro to one ; as they inc rease , the ® t of the g iven

m ode l im prove s. As a rough guide l ine , B entle r and B one tt (198 0 ) propose d

.90 as a m inim um sati sfac tory leve l of m ode l ® t.

The se m ultiple m easures of m ode l ® t prov ide com plem entary inform a-

tion about how w e ll a particular m odel ex plains the data and should not be

cons trued as redundant (c f. B yrne , B aron, & Cam pbe l l , 1993 ; McDonald &

Marsh, 1 990 ). For exam ple , A GFI, NC NI, and TLC eac h adjusts diffe rently

for the num ber of free param e te rs inc luded in the m ode l, w ith AGFI

typical ly being m ost conserv ative . Using m ultiple m easures of relativ e ® t

av oids the pote ntial bias of re ly ing exc lusive ly on any one stati stic al

indicator in judg ing m odel adequac y .

In S tag e Tw o, w e construc te d com posite indic e s for furthe r analy s is and

ass e ss ed the ir re l iabil i tie s . This enta iled ® rs t com puting unit-w e ighte d fac tor

scores for the A TQ -N and ATQ-P fac tors, and then using Cronbac h’ s alpha

as a re l iabi l i ty coe f ® c ient to asse ss the inte rnal consiste ncy of the se com po-

site indic es . W e also exam ined inte rre lationships am ong the various A TQ -N

and A TQ -P fac tors, to evaluate ov erlap both w ithin and ac ross m ode ls .

In S tag e Three , w e exam ined the disc rim inant validity of the m ultiple

A TQ -N and A TQ -P factors found in S tag e O ne . W e used CFA to te st

hy pothe se s about re lationships be tw een (a) positiv e and ne gative autom ati c

cognitions (as represente d by the ATQ-N fac tors and A TQ -P fac tors ), and

(b) af fe c t, anx ie ty , neurotic ism , and optim ism (as represente d by the ir

re spec tiv e com posite indic e s), partial ling out m easurem ent e rror. In this

® nal s tag e of the research, w e sought ev idence conce rning the val idity of

distinc tions am ong diffe rent dim ens ions of autom ati c cog nition.

Assessing Statistical Signi® cance

A sequentially re je c tiv e S idak B onfe rroni-type m ultiple com parisons pro-

c edure w as used to ensure an experim entw ise Type I e rror rate of P < .05

(S olty s ik & Y arnold, 1 993 ). W e re fe r to e ff ec ts that m ee t the ex pe rim ent-

w ise c rite rion as s tati stic al ly s igni ® c ant. W e re fe r to e ffe c ts that m ee t only

the g eneral ised c rite rion for stati stic al s igni ® c ance as stati s tic al ly m arg inal

(pe r com parison P < .05 ).

The Structure of Negative Autom atic Cognition

W e used C FA to evaluate the goodne ss-of- ® t of the unidim ensional m ode l,

the three m ultidim ensional m ode ls , and the hie rarchical m easurem ent

m ode l for the ATQ -N data. W hich m odel , i f any , prov ide s the m ost

236 BRY AN T AN D B AXTER

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

oras

] at

05:

01 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

reasonable repres entati on of response s to th is instrum ent? Table 1 pre -

sents the results of the se analy s e s. Note ® rst that the one -fac tor m odel for

all 3 0 item s (i .e . A TQ -N total score ) is an inadequate m easurem ent m ode l

for the A TQ -N data. A lthough total score is internally consis te nt (C ron-

bac h’ s a = .96 ), a one -fac tor m ode l le av e s too m uch com m on v ariance

unexplained (m edian ® t index = .78 ) to se rv e as a form al m easurem ent

m ode l for the ATQ -N.

Turning nex t to the m ultidim ensional m ode ls , the orig inal , orthogonal

ve rsion of Hollon and Kendal l’ s ( 1980 ) four-fac tor m ode l prov ide s an even

w orse ® t to the data (m edian re lati v e - ® t index = .6 2 ).2

A llow ing the four

fac tors to inte rcorre late , how eve r, s ig ni ® c antly im prove s the m ode l ’ s ® t

[ D c 2(6 , n = 3 04 ) = 78 8 .2 , P < .00001 ] . This oblique four-fac tor m ode l

explains roughly 90 % of the com m on variance in response s to the 1 6 ATQ-

N ite m s (m edian ® t index = .87 ), approac hing ac ceptab le ® t as a m easure -

m ent m odel . Note that a one -f ac tor conceptual is ation of the se sam e 16

ite m s ® ts the data w orse than the oblique four-fac tor m ode l [ D c 2(6 , n =

304 ) = 1 43 .0 , P < .00001 ] , and y ie lds low er re lati v e - ® t indic e s (m edian =

.81 ).

An im portant pie ce of inform ation in the CFA solution is the m atrix

of corre lations am ong the fac tors. Inspec tion of the inter-fac tor corre la-

tions from the oblique C FA solution revealed that Hollon and Ken-

dal l’ s four fac tors are s trong ly inte rcorre late d (m edian standardis ed f = .87 ,

P < .000 01 ). Thus , al though the oblique four-fac tor m ode l ® ts the A TQ -N

data m oderate ly w e ll , i t appears to re ¯ e c t a sing le se cond-orde r fac tor.

Supporting this conc lusion, a hie rarchical m ode l spec ify ing a sing le se c -

ond-orde r Negative Cognition fac tor unde rly ing the se four ATQ-N fac tors

prov ide s nearly equiv alent goodnes s-of- ® t indic e s (m edian = .86 ) as an

oblique ve rsion of Hollon and Kendall ’ s four-fac tor m ode l , al though the

latte r ® ts the data sign ® cantly be tte r [ D c 2(2 , n = 3 04 ) = 16 .9 , P < .00 03 ] .

The se cond m ultidim ensional m ode l tes te d w as Deardorf e t al.’ s (1 984 )

orthogonal three -fac tor m ode l ( i .e . Neg ative Se lf-state m ents, Giv ing Up,

W eakne ss) for 1 5 A TQ -N ite m s. A s w ith Hollon and Kendal l ’ s m ode l : (a)

indic es of re lati v e ® t for Deardorf e t al .’ s orthogonal m ode l w e re re lativ e ly

low (m edian = .62 ); (b) allow ing the three fac tors to inte rcorre late s ig -

ni ® c antly im proved the m ode l ’ s ® t [ D c 2(3 , n = 304 ) = 53 7 .1 , P < .0000 1 ] ,

and produced a m easure m ent m ode l w ith m inim ally ac c eptable re lati v e - ® t

S TR UC TU RE O F PO SIT IVE AN D N EG ATIVE C OG N ITIO N 237

2W here as the total score (one -fac tor) m ode l in c lude s all 3 0 item s for e ithe r the A TQ -N or

the A TQ -P, each m ultid im e ns ional m ode l in c lude s a dif fe re nt subse t of item s . Thus, for both

the A TQ -N and A TQ -P, m ul tifac tor m ode ls are not ne sted w i thin the c orre spondin g one -

fac tor m ode l, and the g oodne ss -of- ® t ch i- square s of uni- and m ult idim ens ional m ode ls

cannot be dire c tly contras ted.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

oras

] at

05:

01 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

238

TA

BL

E1

Go

od

ne

ss-

of-

Fit

Sta

tist

ics

for

Va

rio

us

Fa

cto

rM

od

els

of

the

AT

Q-N

Mea

su

res

of

Rela

tive

Fit

Fa

cto

rM

odel

No.

of

Ite

ms

c2d

fc

2/d

fR

MS

RG

FI

AG

FI

NC

NI

TL

C

1fa

cto

r(T

ota

lS

co

re)

30

13

47

.94

05

3.3

.05

6.7

4.7

0.8

3.8

2

Holl

on

&K

end

all

(19

80

):

4o

rth

og

on

al

fac

tors

16

11

94

.21

04

11

.5.4

00

.67

.57

.65

.59

4o

bli

qu

efa

cto

rs1

64

06

.09

84

.1.0

55

.86

.80

.90

.88

1g

lob

al

fac

tor

16

54

9.0

10

45

.3.0

60

.79

.73

.86

.83

41

st-

ord

er

facto

rs1

64

22

.99

64

.4.0

56

.85

.78

.90

.87

&1

2n

d-o

rder

fac

tor

Dea

rdo

rfe

ta

l.(1

98

4):

3o

rth

og

on

al

fac

tors

15

86

8.6

90

9.7

.35

4.7

4.6

6.6

9.6

3

3o

bli

qu

efa

cto

rs1

53

31

.48

73

.8.0

60

.87

.82

.90

.88

2o

bli

qu

efa

cto

rs1

53

32

.18

93

.7.0

60

.87

.82

.90

.89

1g

lob

al

fac

tor

15

44

1.4

90

4.9

.06

4.8

0.7

4.8

6.8

4

Jo

se

ph

(19

94

):

2o

bli

qu

efa

cto

rs2

71

07

7.2

32

33

.3.0

56

.77

.73

.85

.84

1g

lob

al

fac

tor

27

11

27

.43

24

3.5

.05

6.7

6.7

2.8

4.8

2

Note

:c2

/df,

rati

oo

fc

hi-

squ

are

tod

eg

ree

so

ffr

ee

do

m;

RM

SR

,ro

ot

mea

nsq

uare

resid

ua

l;G

FI,

the

go

od

ness-o

f-®

tin

dex

;A

GF

I,th

ea

dju

ste

d

go

od

ness-

of-

®t

ind

ex

;N

CN

I,th

en

on

ce

ntr

ali

sed

no

rmed

®t

ind

ex

;T

LC

,th

eT

uck

er±

Lew

isco

ef®

cie

nt.

Th

efa

cto

rs(a

nd

AT

Q-N

ite

ms)

co

nst

itu

tin

g

ea

ch

mo

del

are

as

foll

ow

s:

AT

Q-N

To

tal

Sco

re

(1±

30

);H

oll

on

&K

en

dall

:P

erso

nal

Mal

ad

just

men

t(7

,10

,14

,20

,26

),N

ega

tiv

eE

xp

ec

tati

on

s

(2,3

,9,2

1,2

3,2

4,2

8),

Lo

wS

elf

-est

eem

(17

,18

),a

nd

Giv

ing

Up/H

elp

lessn

ess

(29

,30

);D

eard

orf

et

al.

:N

ega

tiv

eS

elf

-sta

tem

en

ts(1

0,1

7,1

8,2

1±

23

)

an

dG

ivin

gU

p/W

ea

kn

ess

(6,8

,12

,13

,15

,19

,25

,29

,30

);Jo

sep

h:

Neg

ati

ve

Se

lf-c

on

ce

pt

(2,6

±8

,10

±1

2,1

7,1

8,2

0,2

1,2

3,2

4,2

7±

30

);P

ers

on

al

Mal

ad

just

-

men

t(1

,4,5

,9,1

4±

16

,19

,22

,26

).

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

oras

] at

05:

01 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

indic es (m edian = .88 ); and (c ) the three fac tors w e re strong ly inte rcorre-

late d (m edian s tandardised f = .85 , P < .00 001 ). Inspec tion of th is three -

fac tor C FA solution, how eve r, rev ealed that the Giv ing Up and W eakne ss

fac tors are so highly corre lated (s tandardis ed f = .98 , P < .0000 1 ) as to be

v irtual ly indis tinguishable .

According ly , w e ass es sed the goodne ss-of- ® t of an oblique tw o-f ac tor

ve rsion of Deardorf e t al .’ s m ode l that com bined Giv ing Up and W eakne ss

into a sing le He lple s sne ss fac tor. This m odi ® e d tw o-factor m ode l y ie lded a

nons ig ni ® c ant change in goodne ss-of- ® t com pared to the orig inal three -

fac tor m ode l [ D c 2(2 , n = 304 ) = .7 , P > .70 ] , and prov ided equivalent

re lati v e - ® t indic es (m edian ® t index = .88 ). Thus, Deardorf e t al .’ s ortho-

gonal m ode l is m ore ac curate ly conceptualised as tw o strong ly corre late d

fac tors (s tandardis ed f = .8 5 , P < .0000 1 ). Ag ain, note that a one -f ac tor

conceptual isation of the se sam e 15 item s ® ts the data w orse than the

oblique tw o-fac tor m ode l [ D c 2(1 , n = 304 ) = 1 09 .3 , P < .00001 ] , and

y ie lds low er re lativ e- ® t indic e s (m edian = .79 ).

W e evaluate d one othe r m ultidim ensional m ode l of the ATQ -N: Joseph’ s

(1994 ) obl ique tw o-fac tor m ode l ( i .e . Negative S e lf-concept/Negative

Expec tations, Pe rsonal Malad jus tm ent/Desire for Change ) for 27 A TQ -N

ite m s. As se en in Table 1 , this m ode l prov ided only m ediocre goodne ss-of-

® t (m edian re lativ e- ® t index = .80 ). Inspec tion of the CFA solution

reveale d that the tw o fac tors w e re highly corre late d (standardised f = .93 ,

P < .00 001 ).3

Indeed, al though a one -fac tor m ode l prov ide s a signi ® c antly

w orse ® t to the data for the se 2 7 ATQ-N ite m s, [ D c 2(1 , n = 304 ) = 109 .3 ,

P < .0 0001 ] , the one -fac tor m ode l y ie lds alm ost identical re lati v e - ® t

indic es (m edian = .79 ). Joseph ’ s tw o-fac tor m ode l is a one -fac tor m ode l

in disguis e . Cons ide red toge the r, the CFA results sugge s t that response s to

the A TQ -N are bes t conceptual ised in te rm s of e ithe r tw o oblique dim en-

sions (i.e . the m odi ® ed ve rsion of Deardorf e t al .’ s m ode l) or four oblique

dim ens ions (i .e . Hollon & Kendal l ’ s m ode l) , all of w hich re ¯ e c t a s ing le

se cond-orde r dom ain of negative cognition.

The Structure of Positive Autom atic Cognition

W e used C FA to e valuate the g oodne s s-of- ® t of the unidim ensional m ode l ,

the m ultidim ensional m odel , and the hie rarc hical m ode l for the A TQ -P

data. W hich m ode l , i f any , prov ide s the be s t repres entati on of response s to

this instrum ent? Table 2 pres ents the results of the se analy se s. As w as the

case for the ATQ-N, the one -fac tor m ode l for all 30 A TQ-P ite m s (i .e .

S TR UC TU RE O F PO SIT IVE AN D N EG ATIVE C OG N ITIO N 239

3Joseph (1 9 9 4 ) did not re port the in ter-fac tor c orre la tion for his obli que two-fac tor

solution.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

oras

] at

05:

01 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

240

TA

BL

E2

Go

od

ne

ss-

of-

Fit

Sta

tist

ics

for

Va

rio

us

Fa

cto

rM

od

els

of

the

AT

Q-P

Mea

su

res

of

Rela

tiv

eF

it

Fa

cto

rM

ode

lN

o.

of

Item

sc

2d

fc2

/df

RM

SR

GF

IA

GF

IN

CN

IT

LC

1fa

cto

r(T

ota

lS

co

re)

30

14

74

.34

05

3.6

.05

8.7

3.6

9.8

6.8

5

Ing

ram

&W

isn

ick

i(1

98

8):

4o

rth

og

on

al

facto

rs2

21

38

3.9

20

96

.6.3

79

.70

.64

.72

.69

4o

bli

qu

efa

cto

rs

22

53

5.2

20

32

.6.0

45

.86

.83

.92

.91

1g

lob

al

facto

r2

28

36

.02

09

4.0

.05

5.7

9.7

5.8

5.8

4

41

st-

ord

er

fac

tors

22

53

8.9

20

12

.7.0

46

.86

.82

.92

.91

&1

2n

d-o

rder

fac

tor

Note

:T

he

facto

rs(a

nd

AT

Q-P

ite

ms)

co

nst

itu

tin

gea

ch

mo

del

are

as

foll

ow

s:

AT

Q-P

To

tal

Sc

ore

(1±

30

);In

gra

m&

Wis

nic

ki

(19

88

):P

osit

ive

Dai

lyF

un

cti

on

ing

(6,7

,11

,13

±1

5,1

7,1

9,2

0,2

9),

Po

siti

ve

Se

lf-e

va

lua

tio

ns

(10

,21

±2

3,2

5,2

8),

Oth

ers

’E

va

lua

tio

ns

of

Se

lf(1

,2,5

,12

),a

nd

Po

sit

ive

Futu

re

Ex

pe

cta

tio

ns

(3,4

).

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

oras

] at

05:

01 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

ATQ -P total score ), al thoug h inte rnal ly consiste nt (Cronbac h’ s a = .9 6 ),

leav e s too m uch com m on variance unexplained (m edian re lati v e - ® t index

= .7 9 ) to be a formal m eas urem ent m ode l for the A TQ -P.

Turning nex t to the m ultidim ensional m ode l, the orig inal , orthogonal

ve rsion of Ing ram and W isnicki’ s (1988 ) four-fac tor m ode l prov ide s an

even w orse ® t to the data (m edian re lativ e - ® t index = .70 ). A llow ing the

four fac tors to inte rcorre late , how eve r, y ie lds a highly s igni ® c ant im prove -

m ent in ® t [ D c 2(6 , n = 3 04 ) = 848 .7 , P < .00 001 ] . This oblique four-fac tor

m ode l explained roughly 90% of the com m on variance in response s to the

16 ATQ -N ite m s (m edian ® t index = .8 7 ), approac hing ac ceptable ® t as a

m easurem ent m ode l. Note that a one -fac tor conceptual isation of the se

sam e 16 ite m s ® ts the data w orse than the oblique four-fac tor m ode l

[ D c 2(6 , n = 30 4 ) = 300 .8 , P < .000 01 ] .

How strong ly inte rre late d are the se four A TQ -P fac tors? As w ith the

ATQ -N, inspection of the inte r-fac tor correlations from the standardised

CFA solution rev ealed that the four A TQ -P fac tors w e re strong ly inte r-

corre late d (m edian f = .82 , P < .00 001 ). Thus, as w as the case for Hollon

and Kendall ’ s m ode l, Ingram and W isnicki ’ s four fac tors appear to re ¯ e c t a

sing le se cond-orde r fac tor. Supporting this conc lus ion, the hie rarchical

m ode l w ith one se cond-orde r Pos itiv e C ognition fac tor unde rly ing the

four A TQ -P fac tors prov ide s goodne ss -of- ® t indic e s (m e dian = .8 9 ) equiva-

lent to an oblique ve rsion of Ingram and W isnicki’ s m ode l ; and the

diffe rence in the goodne ss-of- ® t be tw een the se tw o ne ste d m ode ls is

nons ig ni ® c ant [ D c 2(2 , n = 3 04 ) = 3 .7 , P > .1 5 ] . The se ® ndings sugg es t

that re sponses to the A TQ-P are struc tured along four strong ly corre late d

dim ens ions that re ¯ e c t a sing le se cond-orde r dom ain of pos itiv e thought.

Testing the Gender Invariance of ATQ-N and ATQ -PFactor M odels

W e inve stigate d the gende r invariance of unidim ens ional and m ultidim en-

sional fac tor m odels of the ATQ-N and ATQ-P syste m ati cally , using

m ultig roup CFA (Joreskog & Sorbom , 19 89 ). This entai led contrasting

the g oodne s s-of- ® t chi-square s of tw o com peting ne ste d m ode ls : one

constraining the m ag nitude s of the fac tor loadings to be equal for m ale s

and fem ale s ; the othe r om itting th is invariance constraint. A signi ® c ant

diffe rence in chi-square s indicate s that the g iven m ode l y ie lds diff erent

fac tor loadings for m en and w om en (cf . B ryant & V eroff, 1982 ).

Us ing the expe rim entw ise alpha c rite rion, none of the al te rnative

m ode ls for the A TQ -N w ere invariant w ith respec t to gende r. The one -

fac tor m odel [ D c 2(28 ) = 73 .7 , P < .00001 ] , m odi ® e d Deardorf e t al. tw o-

fac tor m ode l [ D c 2(13 ) = 277 .1 , P < .00 001 ] , and Hollon and Kendal l

four-fac tor m odel [ D c 2(1 2 ) = 31 .1 , P < .0 02 ] , al l produced nonequivalent

S TR UC TU RE O F PO SIT IVE AN D N EG ATIVE C OG N ITIO N 241

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

oras

] at

05:

01 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

fac tor loadings for m ale s and fem ale s. In contrast, b o th fac tor m ode ls for

the A TQ -PÐ that is , total score [ D c 2(2 8 ) = 30 .9 , P > .32 ] , and Ingram and

W isnicki ’ s four fac tors [ D c 2(18 ) = 13 .5 , P > .7 6 ] Ð w e re invariant w ith

respec t to gende r. Additional invariance te sts revealed that both the ATQ -P

total s core m ode l [ D c 2(5 9 ) = 76 .1 , P > .07 ] , and Ing ram and W isnicki’ s

m ode l [ D c 2(50 ) = 42 .9 , P > .7 5 ] , produced equivalent fac tor loadings,

fac tor variance s-covariance s, and unique e rror te rms for m ale s and

fem ale s. In othe r w ords, al thoug h diffe rent cognitions are diag nostic of

nega tiv e autom atic thinking am ong m en and w om en, the sam e cog nitions

de ® ne positiv e autom atic th inking ac ros s g ende r.4

The Combined Structure of Positive and NegativeAutom atic Cognition

How do re sponse s to the A TQ -N and A TQ -P re late to one anothe r, and

w hat m easurem ent m ode l is m ost appropriate w hen the data of the se tw o

instrum ents are analy sed toge the r? W e ® rst conside red w he the r positiv e

and negative cognitions are be tte r represente d as s eparate , corre late d

unidim ensional structures (i .e . ATQ -P total score and ATQ -N total score ,

re spec tiv e ly ) or as a sing le , com bined positiv e -negative bipolar dim ension.

A s se en in Table 3 , a sing le , bipolar late nt fac tor is a poorly ® tting m ode l

for the com bined A TQ-N and ATQ -P data (m edian re lativ e - ® t index = .44 ).

Positing tw o, corre late d ® rst-orde r fac tors (Positiv e and Negative C ogni-

tion) for the com bined ATQ-N and A TQ -P data prov ide s a highly signif i -

c ant im prov em ent in ® t ov er the bipolar one -fac tor m ode l [ D c 2(1 , n = 304 )

= 256 9 .2 , P < .00001 ] . This ev idence indicate s that positiv e and negativ e

autom ati c cognitions are be tte r conc eptual ised as distinct dom ains of

242 BRY AN T AN D B AXTER

4W e also tes ted for poss ible g ende r di ffe re nce s in m ean sc ore s on the m easure s of

automatic cog nitio n, pe rsonali ty, and e m otion. Cons i s tent w ith pre v ious re searc h (Holl on

& Kendall , 1 9 8 0 ; Ing ram & W is nic ki, 1 9 88 ) , m ix ed m ode l analy se s of v ariance (inc luding

both w ithin-subje c ts and be tw een-g roups e ffe c ts) re v eale d no s ig ni ® c an t m ean dif fe re nce s

be twee n m ale s and fem ale s on A TQ -N total score , A TQ-P total score , or on any of the

com pos i te in dic e s of pos itiv e and ne g ativ e em otional ex pe rie nce [ F (1 ,2 9 5 )s < 3 .5 , P s > .0 7 ] .

W ithin-subje c ts analy sis of A TQ -N and A TQ -P total score s re v eal ed that pos it iv e auto-

m atic thoug hts occurre d m ore often than did neg ativ e automatic thoug hts [ F (1 ,2 9 5) =

3 9 2 .2 , P < .0 0 0 0 1 ] , and that this w ithin-subje c ts e ffe c t did not interac t w i th g ende r

[ F ( 1 ,2 9 5 ) = 1 .3 , P > .2 5 ] . S im ila r m ix ed-m ode l analy se s of fac tor score s for the m ult i-

dim e ns io nal m ode ls of the ATQ -N and A TQ -P show ed nons ig ni ® c ant m ain e ffe c ts

[ F ( 1 ,2 9 5 )s < 2 .4 , P s > .1 2 ] , and inte rac tions [ F (2 ,8 8 5 ) and F (3 ,8 8 5) s < 1 .6 , P s > .1 9 ] ,

inv olv in g g ende r. The m e an rat io of pos it iv e thoug hts to the sum of pos i tiv e and neg ativ e

thoughts w as .6 4 (S D = .1 2 ), re m arkably c lose to the ex pec ted v alu e of .6 2 6 .0 6 pre dic te d

by the s tates -of-m ind (S O M) m ode l (S chw artz , 1 99 2 ; S chw artz & Garam oni, 1 9 8 9 ). The re

w as no g e nde r dif fe re nce in S OM ratio [ t (2 9 5 ) = .9 , P < .3 8 , 2 -tail ed] .

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

oras

] at

05:

01 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

243

TA

BL

E3

Go

od

ne

ss

-of

Fit

Sta

tist

ics

for

Va

rio

us

Fa

cto

rM

od

els

of

the

Co

mb

ine

dA

TQ

-Na

nd

AT

Q-P

Da

taS

et

Mea

su

re

so

fR

ela

tive

Fit

Fa

cto

rM

ode

lN

o.

of

Item

sc2

df

c2/d

fR

MS

RG

FI

AG

FI

NC

NI

TL

C

1b

ipo

lar

fac

tor:

60

67

54

.91

71

04

.0.1

15

.33

.28

.58

.56

Co

mb

ined

tota

lsc

ore

2o

bli

qu

efa

cto

rs:

60

41

85

.71

70

92

.4.0

56

.66

.64

.80

.79

AT

Q-N

tota

lsc

ore

&

AT

Q-P

tota

lsc

ore

6o

bli

qu

efa

cto

rs:

37

13

20

.36

14

2.2

.05

0.8

1.7

8.9

0.8

8

2-f

ac

tor

vers

ion

of

Dea

rd

orf

et

al.

’sA

TQ

-N

mo

del

an

dIn

gra

m&

Wis

nic

ki’

s

4A

TQ

-Pfa

cto

rs

61

st-

ord

er

fac

tors

&3

71

53

8.5

61

72

.5.1

01

.80

.77

.87

.86

12

nd

-ord

er

fac

tor

61

st-

ord

er

fac

tors

&3

71

34

7.2

61

62

.2.0

54

.80

.78

.90

.88

22

nd

-ord

er

fac

tors

8o

bli

qu

efa

cto

rs:

38

14

69

.16

37

2.3

.04

9.8

0.7

6.9

0.8

8

Holl

on

&K

end

all

’s

4A

TQ

-Nfa

cto

rsa

nd

In

gra

m&

Wis

nic

ki’

s

4A

TQ

-Pfa

cto

rs

81

st-

ord

er

fac

tors

&3

82

08

2.7

64

93

.2.1

15

.72

.69

.81

.80

12

nd

-ord

er

fac

tor

81

st-

ord

er

fac

tors

&3

81

54

0.1

64

82

.4.0

58

.78

.75

.88

.87

22

nd

-ord

er

fac

tors

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

oras

] at

05:

01 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

cognitiv e expe rience rathe r than as opposite ends of a unitary autom ati c

thought dim ension.

It is notew orthy that the Pos itiv e and Negativ e Cog nition fac tors in this

tw o-fac tor CFA solution w ere m oderate ly corre lated (standardised f = 2 .55 ,

P < .00001 ). This re sult sugge sts that, w hen m easurem ent e rror is partial led

out, the tw o ty pe s of autom ati c cognitions share roug hly 30% com m on

variance and are not enti re ly independent. O ur e stim ate of the re lationship

be tw een positiv e and negative cog nition is som ew hat highe r than that of

Ing ram e t al . (199 5 ), w ho found a m edian correlation of 2 .2 8 (i.e . 8%

shared variance ) be tw een A TQ -N and A TQ -P total scores ac ross 11

studie s . (The com parable corre lation coef ® c ient in our data is 2 .53 , i .e .

28 % shared variance .)

A lthough the tw o-fac tor m ode l ( i .e . A TQ -N total s core and A TQ-P total

score) ® ts the com bined data s et be tte r than a bipolar one -fac tor m ode l , i t

prov ide s a poor m easurem ent m ode l in an absolute s ense (m edian relati v e -

® t index = .7 2 ). In search of a m ore appropriate factor struc ture , w e

evaluate d the ® t of tw o alte rnativ e m ultidim ensional m ode ls for the com -

bined A TQ -N and ATQ -P data: (1 ) an e ig ht-fac tor m ode l for 38 ite m s,

cons is ting of Hollon and Kendal l’ s four A TQ -N fac tors (16 ite m s) and

Ing ram and W isnicki’ s four A TQ -P fac tors (22 ite m s); and (2 ) a six -fac tor

m ode l for 37 ite m s, consisting of the tw o-fac tor ve rsion of Deardorf e t al.’ s

A TQ -N m ode l (15 ite m s) and Ingram and W isnicki ’ s four ATQ -P fac tors

(22 ite m s).5

W hat is the m ost appropriate m easurem ent m ode l w hen conside ring the

A TQ -N and ATQ-P in com bination? Con® rm ing the m ultidim ensional i ty

of positiv e and negativ e autom ati c thought, both the six -fac tor and e ig ht-

244 BRY AN T AN D B AXTER

5W e also ev aluated the ® t of a four-fac tor m ode l for the com bin ed A TQ -N and A TQ -P

data se ts that cons is ts of bipolar com binations of Hollon and Kendal l’ s (1 9 8 0 ) four A TQ -N

fac tors and Ing ram and W isnic ki’ s (1 9 8 8 ) four A TQ -P fac tors . In this com bined four-fac tor

m ode l, conceptually s im ila r pos it iv e and neg ativ e dim ens ions are coll aps ed on to one

another to form a re duce d se t of three bipolar fac tors in v olv in g Pe rsonal Func tionin g (i.e .

A TQ -N Personal M aladjustm ent v s . A TQ -P Pos it iv e Dai ly Func tionin g ), S e lf -c oncept (i.e .

A TQ -N L ow S e lf -e s teem v s . A TQ -P Pos it iv e S e lf -e v aluation), and Future O rie ntation

(i .e . A TQ -N Giv ing Up/He lple ssne ss v s . A TQ -P Pos itiv e Future Ex pec tations) , as w e ll as

one unip olar fac tor (i.e . ATQ -P O the rs ’ Pos itiv e Ev aluations , w hic h has no ne g ativ e

counterpart in the ATQ -N). This m ode l o f thre e bipolar fac tors and one unipolar pos itiv e

fac tor prov id ed a poor ® t to the com bin ed A TQ -N and A TQ -P data [ c 2(6 5 9 , n = 3 0 4 ) =

3 0 5 2 .0 , c 2/d f = 4 .6 , RMS R = .1 3 , GFI = .5 4 , A G FI = .4 8 , NCNI = .6 9 , TLC = .6 6 ] , and had

low er re la tiv e - ® t indic e s (m edian ® t index = .57 ) than did e ither the sev en- or e ig ht-fac tor

m ode l (both m edian ® t in dic e s = .8 4 ). The se re sults prov ide addit ional ev ide nce that pos it iv e

and neg ativ e au tom atic thoug hts , althoug h org anis ed around s im il ar dom ains of ex pe rie nce

(i .e . func tionin g , se lf , future ) , are c orre la ted, bu t dis tin c tly se parate form s of cog nitiv e

ex pe rie nce .

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

oras

] at

05:

01 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

fac tor m ode ls hav e highe r re lati v e ® t- indic es (both m edians = .8 4 ) than

doe s a tw o-fac tor m ode l com posed sole ly of separate A TQ -N and A TQ -P

total scores (m edian re lati v e - ® t index = .72 ). In addition, a hie rarchical

m easurem ent m ode l that assum es a sing le se cond-orde r fac tor (A utom atic

Cognition) unde rly ing the m ultiple A TQ-N and ATQ-P fac tors ® ts the data

signi ® c antly w orse re lativ e to both the six -fac tor [ D c 2(3 , n = 304 ) = 218 .2 ,

P < .0000 1 ] and e ight- fac tor m ode l [ D c 2(12 , n = 30 4 ) = 6 13 .6 , P < .0000 1 ] .

In contras t, a ne ste d hie rarchical m ode l w ith tw o oblique se cond-orde r

fac tors (Negative Autom ati c C og nition and Positiv e A utom ati c C ogni-

tion) unde rly ing the A TQ -N and ATQ-P fac tors , re spec tiv e ly , is a signif i-

c ant im prov em ent in ® t ove r the hie rarchical m ode l w ith a s ing le se cond-

orde r fac tor, w hen applied to both the six -fac tor [ D c 2(1 , n = 30 4 ) = 191 .3 ,

P < .00001 ] , and e ight- fac tor m ode l [ D c 2(1 , n = 3 04 ) = 54 2 .6 , P < .0000 1 ] .

(The standardised f re lating the Positiv e and Negative se cond-order fac tors

w as 2 .53 .) Although the hie rarchical m odel w ith tw o second-orde r fac tors

® ts the data w orse than both the ful l s ix -fac tor m ode l [ D c 2(2, n = 3 04 ) =

26 .9 , P < .00 001 ] , and the ful l e ight- fac tor m ode l [ D c 2(11 , n = 304 ) = 71 .0 ,

P < .000 01 ] , in eac h case it prov ide s about the sam e leve l of re lativ e ® t

(m edian indic e s = .84 and .82 , respec tiv e ly ). Conside red toge the r, the se

® ndings sugge st that a reasonable m ode l for the com bined A TQ -N and

ATQ -P data inv olve s four A TQ -P factors and e ithe r tw o or four A TQ -N

fac tors , w ith separate , c orre late d second-orde r fac tors of Positiv e and

Ne gative Autom ati c Cog nition.

Relationships among Positive and NegativeAutomatic Cognitions

It is inform ative to exam ine the deg ree of conve rgence /dive rgence am ong

the various ATQ-N and A TQ -P fac tors. Table 4 presents Pearson corre la-

tion coe f ® c ients inte rre lating unit-w e ighte d fac tor scores (be low the diag -

nonal ) and standardised LISREL estim ate s of phi coe f ® c ients inte rre lating

late nt fac tors (above the diag onal) ,6

for the seven A TQ -N fac tors and the

® v e A TQ -P fac tors .

Asse ss in g redund ancy w ith in mu ltid im ens io na l m ode ls . C onside ring

eac h m ultidim ensional ATQ-N and A TQ -P m odel separate ly , how m uch

S TR UC TU RE O F PO SIT IVE AN D N EG ATIVE C OG N ITIO N 245

6Tw o com binations of dif f e re nt se ts of A TQ -N fac tors produced inadm is sable LIS REL

m ode ls : (1 ) a ® v e -fac tor m ode l c om bin in g total score and Holl on and K endall ’ s four fac tors;

and (2) a s ix - fac tor m ode l c om binin g the two Deardorf e t al. fac tors and Hollo n and

Kendall’ s four fac tors. For the A TQ -P, a ® v e -f ac tor m ode l c om bining total score and

Ing ram and W isnicki’ s four fac tors pre dic ted a m athem atic all y im poss ib le cov ari ance

m atri x (i.e . S w as not pos it iv e de ® nite ) . The se ins tance s of m ode l m is spec i ® c ation re ¯ e c t

the hig h deg re e o f ov e rlap obse rv ed be tween the partic ular f ac tors in que s tion.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

oras

] at

05:

01 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

246

TA

BL

E4

Re

lati

on

sh

ips

am

on

gA

TQ

-Na

nd

AT

Q-P

Fa

cto

rs

Fa

cto

rs

12

34

56

78

91

01

11

2

Holl

on

&K

end

all

(AT

Q-N

):

1.

AT

Q-N

tota

lsc

ore

96

aa

aa

90

96

25

52

56

25

02

41

25

3

2.

Mal

ad

just

men

t9

28

58

87

38

8b

b2

57

25

82

51

24

42

51

3.

Neg

ati

ve

Ex

pecta

tio

ns

92

80

89

87

90

bb

25

12

50

24

62

36

25

4

4.

Lo

wS

elf

-este

em

72

61

74

84

70

bb

24

32

42

24

12

31

24

3

5.

Hel

ple

ssn

ess

80

68

73

54

70

bb

24

52

43

24

12

31

24

5

Dea

rdo

rfet

al.

(AT

Q-N

):

6.

Se

lf-s

tate

men

ts9

07

79

18

77

08

98

52

47

24

72

42

23

32

48

7.

Giv

ing

Up/W

ea

kn

ess

93

81

80

60

82

77

87

25

12

52

24

62

40

24

4

Ing

ram

&W

isn

ick

i(A

TQ

-P):

8.

AT

Q-P

To

tal

Sc

ore

25

32

52

24

92

37

23

72

45

24

89

6c

cc

c

9.

Fun

cti

on

ing

25

22

51

24

72

36

23

52

45

24

69

49

18

98

77

4

10

.S

elf

-ev

alu

ati

on

s2

45

24

32

42

23

32

34

23

82

42

90

77

86

88

78

11

.O

thers

’E

va

lua

tio

ns

23

72

37

23

12

25

22

42

29

23

58

37

67

48

47

0

12

.F

utu

reE

xp

ec

tati

on

s2

49

24

62

52

23

72

36

24

42

40

78

67

68

61

91

Note

:D

ecim

al

po

ints

hav

eb

ee

no

mit

ted

.T

ab

led

un

der

the

dia

go

na

la

reP

ea

rso

np

rod

uct-

mo

men

tc

orr

ela

tio

ns

of

un

it-w

eig

hte

dfa

cto

rsc

ore

s.

Tab

led

ab

ov

eth

ed

iag

on

al

are

sta

nd

ard

ise

dL

ISR

EL

esti

ma

tes

off

co

ef®

cie

nts

betw

ee

nla

ten

tc

on

stru

cts

.T

ab

led

alo

ng

the

dia

go

nal

isC

ron

ba

ch

’sa

(an

ind

ex

of

inte

rna

lco

nsis

ten

cy

)fo

re

ach

un

it-w

eig

hte

dfa

cto

rsc

ore

.A

llrs

an

da

llfs

are

sta

tisti

ca

lly

sig

ni®

ca

nt

at

ex

pe

rim

en

twis

eP

<.0

5(2

-

tail

ed

).a

Mod

el

co

mb

inin

g®

ve

AT

Q-N

facto

rsfa

ile

dto

co

nv

erg

ea

fter

10

00

ite

rati

on

s.b

Mod

el

co

mb

inin

gsi

xA

TQ

-Nfa

cto

rs

pro

du

ce

dsta

nd

ard

ise

dfs

>1

.0.

cM

od

el

co

mb

inin

g®

ve

AT

Q-P

facto

rsp

red

icte

da

sin

gu

lar

co

va

ria

nc

em

atr

ix( S

).

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

oras

] at

05:

01 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

redundancy in inform ation is there am ong its constituent fac tors? To

address the que stion, w ith in each m ultidim ensional A TQ -N and A TQ -P

m ode l, w e reg ress ed unit-w e ighte d tota l scores for the eac h of the pe rson-

ali ty and em otion m eas ures on unit-w e ighte d fac tor scores for the consti-

tuent ATQ fac tors. De scriptiv e stati stic s of col l inearity (Norusis , 1 990 )

reveale d ev idence of substantial varianc e ove rlap w ithin eac h m ultifac tor

m ode l. W ith in eac h m ultidim ensional m ode l , the com posite fac tors show ed

re lati v e ly sm al l variab le tolerance s (range = .21 ± .48 ), m ode rate v ariance

in¯ ation fac tors (range = 2 .2 ± 4 .6 ), relativ e ly large condition indic e s (range

= 6 .6 ± 19 .1 ), and sm al l e ig env alue s for the scaled, uncentred c ross -products

m atrix (rang e = .01 2 .11 ). The se results indicate that, w ithin eac h m ulti-

dim ens ional A TQ -N and A TQ -P m odel , the fac tors capture substantially

s im ilar information.7

Asse ss in g redu ndan cy ac ro ss ATQ-N mo de ls . Cons ider nex t the

am ount of ove rlap am ong the fac tors consti tuting the three al te rnative

fac tor-m ode ls of the ATQ -N. W eakening the disc rim inant validity of the

De ardorf e t al . tw o-fac tor m ode l , both of its consti tuent fac tors (a)

corre late .90 or greate r w ith ATQ -N total score , and (b) show a re la-

tiv e ly strong ove rlap w ith al l four of Hollon and Kendall ’ s A TQ-N fac tors

(m edian r = .80 ). Although tw o of Hollon and Kendal l ’ s A TQ -N fac tors

(i.e . Pe rsonal Maladjustm ent and Negativ e Expec tati ons) corre late g reate r

than .90 w ith A TQ -N total score , the othe r tw o Hollon and Kendal l fac tors

(i.e . Low Se lf-e ste em and He lple ssnes s) hav e le s s to do w ith ATQ -N total

score , (zs > 6 .6 , Ps < .00001 ) (Meng , R osenthal , & Rubin, 19 92 ).

Asse ss in g red undan cy ac ro s s ATQ-P m ode ls . Conside ring nex t the

fac tors that constitute the al te rnative m ode ls for the ATQ-P, tw o of Ingram

and W isnicki ’ s four fac tors (i.e . Positiv e Func tioning and Pos itiv e S e lf-

evaluations ) corre late .9 0 or greate r w ith A TQ -P total score , w he reas the

othe r tw o Ingram and W isnicki fac tors (i.e . Othe r’ s Positiv e Ev aluations

and Positiv e Future Expec tations) are le ss corre late d w ith ATQ -P total

score , (zs > 6 .0 , Ps < .00001 ) (Meng e t al ., 1992 ).

Asse ss in g r e la tion sh ip s be tw een ATQ-N and ATQ-P fa c to rs . Turning

nex t to relationships be tw e en positiv e and neg ative autom atic cognitions,

Ingram and W isnicki ’ s four A TQ -P fac tors show m odest ne gative re lation-

ships w ith Hollon and Kendal l ’ s four A TQ -N fac tors (m edian r = 2 .36 ;

S TR UC TU RE O F PO SIT IVE AN D N EG ATIVE C OG N ITIO N 247

7Ex am in ation of chang e s in R

2re v eale d no appre c iable g ain in pre dic tiv e pow e r w hen

us ing m ult iple A TQ-N fac tors v e rsus A TQ -N total sc ore to pre dic t pe rsonali ty and em otion

v ariable s (rang e of chang e in R2

= 2 1 5 % to + 6% ; m edian = 2 2 % ) . Ing ram and W isnicki’ s

four A TQ -P fac tors , in contrast, tog e ther ex pla in ed m ore v ariance in pe rsonali ty and

em otions (ex c ept for Pos iti v e A ffe c t) than did A TQ -P total sc ore , w ith the inc re ase in R2

rang ing from a low of 7 % (O ptim ism ) to a hig h of 6 0 % (A nx ie ty ). The se ® ndin g s sug g e s t

that the A TQ -N fac tors are som ew hat m ore col li near than the A TQ-P fac tors .

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

oras

] at

05:

01 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

m edian f = 2 .45 ) and w ith Deardorf e t al.’ s A TQ -N fac tors (m edian r =

2 .41 ; m edian f = 2 .45 ). The stronge s t re lationship is be tw een Positiv e

Func tioning and Pe rsonal Maladjustm ent (r = 2 .51 ; f = 2 .58 ); the w e ak-

e st, be tw een (a) O the r’ s Positiv e Evaluations and (b) both Low Se lf -e s te em

(r = 2 .25 ; f = 2 .31 ) and He lple ssne ss (r = 2 .24 ; f = 2 .31 ). O f the four

A TQ -P fac tors in Ingram and W isnicki ’ s m ode l, O the r’ s Pos itiv e Evalua-

tions has the leas t to do w ith al l seven A TQ -N fac tors.

Discrim inant Validity of the ATQ-N and ATQ-PFactor M odels

In the ® nal stag e of the analy s is , w e used CFA to te s t hypothe se s about

re lationships be tw een (a) pos itiv e and ne gative autom ati c cognitions (as

represente d by e ithe r the s ix - or e ig ht- fac tor m ode l) , and (b) af fe c t,

optim ism , anx iety , and neurotic ism . W e used LIS REL rathe r than m ultiple

reg ress ion because it al low ed us to e stim ate the re lationship of positiv e and

negative autom atic thoughts to pe rsonal ity and em otions, partial l ing out

m easurem ent e rror. It also enabled us to use equal i ty cons traints (Joreskog

& S orbom , 1989 ) to te st hypothe ses about the s treng th of re lationships

am ong late nt v ariable s . S pec i ® c al ly , w e te ste d diffe rence s in the absolute

m ag nitude of param ete r e stim ate s by contras ting the goodne ss -of- ® t chi-

square s (and degree s of f reedom ) of tw o ne s te d m ode ls : one that con-

strained the param e te rs to hav e equal absolute value ; and one that

contained no equali ty constraint. A signi ® c ant diffe rence in thes e tw o

chi-squares s igni ® e s that the param eters diffe r in absolute value .

To de te rm ine how m any fac tors unde rlie re sponse s to eac h of the

c rite rion ins trum ents, w e used princ ipal- com ponents analy sis (PCA).

PC A revealed one dom inant factor unde rly ing response s to: (a) the B eck

A nx ie ty Inventory (explaining 35 % of total v ariance ); (b) the Eysenck

Neurotic ism Scale (explaining 22% of total variance ); and (c ) the Fordyce

Happine ss Measures (explaining 65% of total v ariance ). Consiste nt w ith

results reported by S che ie r and C arve r (198 5 ), the Life O rientation

(optim ism ) Te st contained one dom inant fac torÐ pe s s im istic , negativ e ly

w orded ite m s (3 , 8 , 9 , 12 ) explaining 45% of total v ariance Ð and one

w eake r fac torÐ optim is tic , pos itiv e ly w orded ite m s (1 , 4 , 5 , 1 1 ) explaining

16 % of total varianc e Ð that w e re m odestly corre late d (.4 2 ) in the oblim in

solution. Supporting B radburn’ s (196 9 ) distinc tion be tw een pos itiv e and

negative af fec t, PCA rev ealed separate AB S fac tors for positiv e (explain-

ing 31% of total variance ) and negative (ex plaining 16% of total variance )

af fe c t that w e re only m ildly correlate d ( 2 .16 ) in the oblim in solution.

To obtain the m ultiple indicato rs required for struc tural equation m ode l-

l ing w hile al so m inim is ing the num ber of m eas ured variable s in the m ode l,

w e spl i t e ac h of the unidim ens ional c rite rion m easures (i .e . Positiv e A ffe c t,

248 BRY AN T AN D B AXTER

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

oras

] at

05:

01 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

Ne gative A ffec t, A nx ie ty , Neurotic ism , and Optim ism ) into tw o com po-

site indicato rs . For Positiv e Af fe c t, A B S ite m s 3 and 5 w ere sum m ed to

c reate one indicator, and A B S ite m s 1 , 7 and 9 w ere sum m ed to c reate a

se cond indicator. For Negative A ffe c t, A B S ite m s 2 and 6 w ere sum m ed

to c reate one indicator, and AB S ite m s 4 , 8 , and 10 w ere sum m ed to

c reate a se cond indicator. For A nx ie ty , the ® rst 10 B A I ite m s w ere

sum m ed to c reate one indicator, and the rem aining 11 B A I ite m s w ere

sum m ed to c reate a s e cond indicator. Total s core on spl it-halve s of the 24 -

ite m ENS se rved as indicators for Neurotic ism . For O ptim ism , the four

negativ e ly -w orded LOT ite m s w ere sum med to c reate one indicator, and

the four positiv e ly w orded LO T ite m s w ere sum m ed to c reate a se cond

indicator. The ® rst three standardised Fordy ce m easures (w hich de ® ned its

dom inant ® rs t fac tor) w e re used as indicato rs of Happine ss . This y ie lded 13

com posite indicators of s ix late nt fac tors. CFA rev ealed that the inte nded

six -fac tor m ode l ( i .e . Pos itiv e A ffe ct, Negative A ffe c t, A nx ie ty , Neuroti-

c ism , Happine ss, and O ptim ism ) w as an ac ceptable m easurem ent for the 13

m easures [ c 2(50 , n = 304 ) = 79 .3 , c 2

/d f = 1 .6 , R MS R = .03 4 , GFI = .96 ,

AGFI = .93 , NCNI = .99 , TLC = .98 ] . W e then analy se d the s e 1 3 m eaures

toge the r w ith the A TQ -N and A TQ -P ite m s de ® ning Neg ative A utom atic

Cognitions (e ithe r Hollon & Kendall ’ s four A TQ -N fac tors or Deardorf e t

al.’ s tw o m odi ® e d A TQ -N fac tors ) and Positiv e Autom ati c C ognitions

(Ingram & W isnicki’ s four A TQ-P fac tors).

Dea rd orf e t a l .’ s tw o ATQ-N fac to rs . Table 5 prese nts standardised

LISREL estim ate s of the re lationships betw een (a) A TQ -N and A TQ -P

fac tors , and (b) the six c riterion m easures . Looking ® rst at the tw o Deardorf

e t al. fac tors , the re is l ittle ev idence for disc rim inant val idity in the patte rn

of re lationships w ith the c rite rion m easures . Although negative cognitions

about Giv ing Up/W eakne s s are m ore s trong ly l inked to anx ie ty (stan-

dardised f = .67 ) than are g ene ral Neg ative Se lf-s tate m ents [ (standardised

f = .52 ), D c 2(1 , n = 303 ) = 14 .9 , P < .000 12 ] , the othe r ® v e c rite rion

m easures show equivalent re lationships w ith the tw o Deardorf e t al . fac tors

[ all D c 2s(1 , n = 303 ) < 2 .0 , Ps > .15 ] . Thus , cons is te nt w ith the earl ie r CFA

results , the distinc tion be tw een the se tw o A TQ -N fac tors appears to hav e

l ittle or no predic tiv e or conceptual uti l ity .

Ho llon an d Kenda ll ’ s fo u r ATQ-N fac to rs . Turning nex t to Hollon and

Ke ndal l’ s four-fac tor A TQ -N m odel , the ev idence for disc rim inant val idity

is m ixed. S upporting disc rim inant val idity , on the one hand, negative

thoughts about Maladjustm ent show stronge r re lationships w ith al l s ix

c rite rion m easures than do negativ e thoughts about Low S elf-e ste em

[ D c 2s (6 , n = 303 ) = 29 .7 , P < .0 0005 ] . This ev idence sugg e sts that the

tw o A TQ -N factors are conceptual ly distinc t. O n the othe r hand, all four of

Hollon and Kendal l’ s A TQ -N fac tors al ike show the sam e patte rn of

stronge r re lationships w ith dispositional optim ism than w ith positiv e

S TR UC TU RE O F PO SIT IVE AN D N EG ATIVE C OG N ITIO N 249

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

oras

] at

05:

01 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

250

TA

BL

E5

Sta

nd

ard

ise

dR

ela

tio

ns

hip

so

fA

TQ

-Na

nd

AT

Q-P

Fa

cto

rsw

ith

the

Cri

teri

on

Me

asu

res

Cri

terio

nM

easu

re

s

La

ten

tA

TQ

Fac

tors

Po

s.A

ffe

ct

Neg

.A

ffec

tA

nx

iety

Neu

ro

ticis

mH

ap

pin

ess

Op

tim

ism

Dea

rdo

rfe

ta

l.(A

TQ

-N:)

Neg

.S

elf

-sta

tem

en

ts2

44

64

52

57

25

62

71

Giv

ing

Up/W

ea

kn

ess

25

07

06

76

22

61

27

2

Holl

on

&K

end

all

(AT

Q-N

):

Mal

ad

just

men

t2

52

77

62

66

26

32

77

Neg

.E

xp

ec

tati

on

s2

46

65

58

61

25

62

75

Lo

wS

elf

-este

em

23

65

64

25

02

48

26

3

Hel

ple

ssn

ess

24

46

26

56

12

47

27

3

2n

d-o

rder

Neg

.C

og

nit

ion

24

97

16

26

62

59

28

0

Ing

ram

&W

isn

ick

i(A

TQ

-P):

Po

s.F

un

cti

on

ing

87

25

82

28

25

37

18

5

Se

lf-e

va

lua

tio

ns

78

23

92

19

24

25

07

8

Oth

ers’

Ev

alu

ati

on

s7

22

40

21

22

38

54

64

Futu

re

Ex

pec

tati

on

s7

22

38

22

62

39

48

76

2n

d-o

rder

Po

s.

Co

gn

itio

n8

72

52

22

52

50

66

84

Note

:T

ab

led

are

sta

nd

ard

ised

fc

oe

f®cie

nts

fro

mC

FA

so

luti

on

s.D

ecim

al

po

ints

ha

ve

be

en

om

itte

d.

All

fsa

rest

ati

stic

all

ysig

ni®

ca

nt

at

ex

pe

rim

en

twis

eP

<.0

5,

ex

ce

pt

for

tho

seb

etw

een

an

xie

tya

nd

Ing

ram

an

dW

isn

ick

i’s

seco

nd

( f=

2.1

9)

an

dth

ird

( f=

2.1

2)

fac

tors

.T

he

se

last

2fs

we

resig

ni®

ca

nt

on

lya

tg

en

era

lise

dP

<.0

5.

Cro

nb

ach

’sa

sfo

rth

e6

cri

teri

on

mea

sure

sw

ere

as

foll

ow

s:P

osit

ive

Aff

ec

t(.

70

);N

ega

tiv

eA

ffe

ct

(.7

5);

An

xie

ty(.

90

);N

euro

ticis

m(.

83

);H

app

iness

(.7

9);

Op

tim

ism

(.8

2).

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

oras

] at

05:

01 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

affe c t [ D c 2s(4 , n = 3 03 ) = 2 7 .9 , P < .000 02 ] . Althoug h the present data

sugg e st that it m ay be use ful to distinguish negativ e thoug hts about one ’ s

gene ral le ve l of func tioning from neg ative thoughts re lating to one ’ s se lf-

e ste em , there is no ev idence to support dis tinc tions am ong other ty pe s of

negativ e cog nition.

Ing ram and Wisn icki ’ s fo u r ATQ-P fa c to rs . W hat ev idence is the re of

disc rim inant val idity for Ingram and W isnicki ’ s four-fac tor m ode l of the

ATQ -P? S upporting dis crim inant validity , on the one hand, thoug hts about

Positiv e Dai ly Functioning show stronge r re lationships w ith eac h of the six

c rite rion m easures than do thoughts about O the r’ s Positiv e Evaluations of

one se lf [ D c 2s(6 , n = 303 ) = 46 .0 , P < .00001 ] . This ev idence sug ge sts that

positiv e autom atic cognitions about inte rpe rsonal conce rns are concep-

tually distinc t from pos itiv e autom ati c cognitions about one ’ s g ene ral

lev el of adjustm ent. On the othe r hand, al l four A TQ -P fac tors alike

show the sam e patte rn of strong er re lationships w ith neurotic ism than

w ith anx ie ty [ D c 2(4 , n = 303 ) = 26 .9 , P < .0 0002 ] . Althoug h autom atic

thoughts about O the rs’ Positiv e Evaluations of the Se lf appear distinct

from autom atic thoughts about Positiv e Func tioning , the other A TQ -P

dim ens ions s ee m le ss conceptual ly distinc t.

Relationships betw een Second-order Autom aticCognition Factors and Personality/Em otion

To exam ine the re lationship betw een se cond-orde r autom atic cognition and

pe rsonali ty /em otion, w e analy s ed unit-w e ighte d factor scores for the four

ATQ -P fac tors , the four A TQ -P fac tors, and the 13 obse rv ed indicators of

pe rsonali ty and em otion. W e used this approac h for tw o reasons. Firs t, in

LISREL the use r m ode ls hig he r-orde r fac tors as late nt independent vari-

ables and ® rst-o rde r fac tors as late nt depe ndent variab le s (Joreskog &

Sorbom , 198 9 , p. 19 2 ). Given our c ros s-se c tional res earc h de sign, how -

eve r, it s e em s m ore de fensible to m ode l the personal ity and em otion fac tors

as correlate d w ith, rather than cause d by , the autom ati c cognition fac tors.

S e cond, analy s ing unit-w e ighte d fac tor scores is cons is te nt w ith how

researche rs w ould use thes e subscale s cores in ac tual prac tic e , and se rve s

to inc rease the gene ral isabi li ty of our results to future studie s .

As expec te d, the m ode l w ith s eparate s ec ond-orde r positiv e and negative

autom ati c cognition fac tors unde rly ing the four A TQ-N subscale s and four

ATQ -P subscale s , respec tiv e ly , and six pe rsonal i ty /em otion factors ® t the

pooled data reasonably w e ll [ c 2(161 , n = 304 ) = 34 6 .3 , c 2

/d f = 2 .2 , RMS R

= .048 , GFI = .90 , AGFI = .8 6 , NCNI = .96 , TLC = .94 ] . Tab le 5 al so

presents standardised e stim ate s of the re lationships betw een (a) the se cond-

orde r positiv e and negative autom atic cog nition fac tors, and (b) the pe r-

sonal i ty and em otion m easures. As be fore , equal ity constraints be tw een

S TR UC TU RE O F PO SIT IVE AN D N EG ATIVE C OG N ITIO N 251

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

oras

] at

05:

01 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

pairs of param e te rs w e re used to te st hypothe se s about diffe rence s in the

absolute value of the se f coe f ® c ients (Joreskog & S orbom , 1989 ).

Con® rm ing a priori hy pothe se s, s e cond-orde r Negativ e A utom ati c Cog -

nition w as m ore s trong ly re late d to Neg ative A ffe c t ( f = .71 ) than to

Positiv e A ffe c t [ ( f = 2 .49 ), D c 2(1 , n = 304 ) = 9 .7 , P < .0 02 ] ; and

se cond-orde r Positiv e A utom ati c Cognition w as m ore strong ly re late d to

Positiv e Affe c t ( f = .87 ) than to Negative A ffe c t ( f = 2 .52 ), D c 2(1 , n = 304 )

= 22 .9 , P < .000 01 ] . Furthe rmore , as se en in Table 5 , Neg ative A ffe ct had

m ore to do w ith Negative A utom ati c Cognition than w ith Positiv e Auto-

m ati c Cognition [ D c 2(1 , n = 304 ) = 1 0 .9 , P < .001 ] ; and Pos itiv e Affe c t had

m ore to do w ith Positiv e A utom atic Cognition than w ith Negativ e Auto-

m ati c Cog nition, [ D c 2(1, n = 3 04 ) = 48 .5 , P < .000 01 ] . A lso, con ® rm ing

hy pothe se s, Anx ie ty [ D c 2(1 , n = 304 ) = 44 .8 , P < .00 001 ] , and Neurotic ism

[ D c 2(1 , n = 304 ) = 1 1 .2 , P < .001 ] , w e re both m ore strong ly l inked to

Negative A utom ati c Thinking than to Positiv e A utom ati c Thinking . Con-

trary to predic tions, how eve r, Positiv e and Neg ative A utom atic Cognitions

show ed equiv alent re lations w ith the s ec ond-orde r fac tors of Happine ss

[ D c 2(1 , n = 30 4 ) = 1 .9 , P > .16 ] , and O ptim ism [ D c 2

(1 , n = 3 04 ) = .6 ,

P > .4 3 ] . Ev idently , happy optim ists not only th ink positiv e ly , but also

av oid negative thinking .

O ur data al so prov ide ev idence concerning the que stion of w he ther the

LO T is bette r v iew ed as a m easure of dispositional optim ism (Scheie r e t

al ., 199 4 ) or as a m easure of neurotic ism (Sm ith al., 1 989 ). A lthough LOT

scores corre late d 2 .54 (P < .00 01 ) w ith ENS (Neurotic ism ) scores,

contrasts of m ode ls w ith and w ithout equal i ty constraints revealed that

LO T total score w as m ore strong ly re late d than Neurotic ism to both the

positiv e [ D c 2(1 ) = 33 .2 , P < .000 01 ] , and negative [ D c 2

(1 ) = 6 .6 , P < .01 ]

se cond-orde r autom atic cognition fac tors. This ® nding sugg es ts that the

LO T is conceptual ly distinc t from m eas ures of gene ral negativ e af fec tiv ity

(S che ie r e t al ., 1994 ).

Final ly , al though not predicte d a priori, i t is note w orthy that Positiv e

A utom ati c C ognition re late d m ore strong ly to Happines s ( f = .66 ) than to

A nx ie ty [ ( f = 2 .25 ), D c 2(1 , n = 304 ) = 4 9 .2 , P < .000 01 ] ; w hereas

Negative A utom ati c Cognition, in contrast, show ed an equal ly strong

re lationship w ith both Happine ss ( f = 2 .59 ) and A nx ie ty [ ( f = .62 ),

D c 2(1 , n = 304 ) = .3 , P > .58 ] . It m ay be that negative autom ati c thoug hts

both am plify anx ie ty and dam pen happine ss, w he reas positiv e autom ati c

thoughts boost happine ss but do l ittle to al lay anx ie ty . Thus, the costs of

negative autom atic thinking m ay be greate r than the bene ® ts of positiv e

autom ati c thinking (c f. Hollon & Kendal l , 1980 ). A lte rnative ly , happine ss

m ay both inc rease positiv e thoughts and dec rease ne gative thoughts ,

w he reas anx ie ty m ay inc reas e negative thinking m ore than it reduce s

positiv e th inking .

252 BRY AN T AN D B AXTER

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

oras

] at

05:

01 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

CO NCLU SIO NS

The present results lead to se ve ral im portant conc lusions about the con-

c eptual isation and m eas urem ent of autom ati c cognitions . First, our ® ndings

indicate that positiv e (A TQ -P) and negativ e (ATQ-N) autom ati c thoughts

are be tte r conceptual ised as separate , negativ ely corre lated, m ulti face te d

dim ens ions of autom ati c cognition, rathe r than as opposite ends of the

sam e , bipolar unidim ensional continuum . The sum m ary ``total score’ ’

com m only used w ith the A TQ -N and ATQ-P m is represents how people

report ex pe rienc ing pos itiv e and negative autom atic thoughts .

A be tte r m easurem ent m ode l for the A TQ -N than total s core consists of

the four fac tors orig inal ly found by Hollon and Kendal l (1980 ): Pe rsonal

Malad jus tm ent and Des ire for Change ; Negative Se lf-concept and Negative

Expec tations; Low S e lf-e ste em ; and Giv ing Up/Hope le ssne s s. Ev idence

m ost strong ly supports the dis tinc tion be tw een negative autom atic cog ni-

tions conce rning Pe rsonal Maladjustm ent and those conce rning Low S e lf-

e ste em . Contrary to orig inal inte rpre tation, how eve r, the four A TQ -N

fac tors are not independent, but re lativ e ly correlate d. O ur ® nding s indicate

that the com mon prac tic e of analy sing `̀ total score ’ ’ m ake s sense w hen this

g lobal sum m ary is based on a 16 -ite m com bination of Hollon and Ken-

dal l’ s four A TQ-N factors .

Our results al so cas t doubt on tw o othe r m ode ls for the ATQ-N.

Joseph’ s (1994 ) tw o oblique fac tors shared nearly 90 % com m on var-

iance ; and Deardorf e t al .’ s (198 4 ) three orthog onal fac tors w e re m ore

ac curate ly represente d as tw o corre late d fac tors that show ed little dis-

c rim inant val idity .

Conce rning the A TQ -P, a be tte r m easurem ent m ode l than total score is

the four fac tors orig inal ly found by Ingram and W isnicki (1 988 ): Positiv e

Daily Functioning ; Pos itiv e Se lf-evaluation; Othe r’ s Evaluation of Se lf ;

and Positiv e Future Expec tati ons. Ev idence m ost strong ly supports the

distinction be tw een positiv e autom atic cognitions about Dai ly Func tioning

and those about O ther’ s Evaluations of one se lf. Contrary to orig inal

inte rpre tation, how ev e r, the four A TQ-P fac tors are not orthogonal , but

re lati v e ly corre late d. Our results indicate that analy sing ``total score’ ’

m ake s s ense w hen this g lobal sum m ary is a 22 -ite m com bination of

Ingram and W isnicki ’ s four ATQ -P fac tors.

A cav eat is in orde r, how eve r, w hen using the ATQ-N as a diag nostic

tool . A lthough both A TQ -P m ode ls are invariant w ith respec t to g ende r,

none of the ATQ -N m ode ls prov ide s equivalent fac tor loadings for m ale s

and fem ale s. Ev idently , diffe rent cognitions are charac te ristic of negative

autom ati c thinking for m en and w om en. Inspec tion of the CFA solution for

the four-fac tor A TQ -N m ode l revealed gende r diffe rence s only on the

dim ens ions of Maladjustm ent (stronge r loadings for m ale s) and Negative

S TR UC TU RE O F PO SIT IVE AN D N EG ATIVE C OG N ITIO N 253

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

oras

] at

05:

01 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

Ex pec tati ons (stronge r loadings for fem ale s). Furthe rm ore , al l A TQ -N

m ode ls had hig he r indic e s of re lati v e - ® t w hen applied to w om en’ s data

than w hen applied to m en’ s data. This is be cause w om en’ s A TQ -N

response s had m ore com m on v ariance to explain than did m en’ s ( i .e .

null m ode ls that assum e random error alone e xplains A TQ -N response s

gene rally ® t the m ale data be tte r). This sugge sts that w om en’ s negativ e

cognitiv e ex pe rience is m ore com plex than m en’ s .

A n im portant que s tion conce rns w he the r the se apparent gende r diffe r-

ence s in negative cognitiv e com plex ity m ight hav e been m ediated by

depres s iv e sy m ptom atolog y , as w om en are m ore l ike ly than m en to report

depres s ion. A lthough w e did not include a direc t m easure of depress ion in

the prese nt study , w e did adm iniste r the B eck A nx ie ty Inventory (B A I) Ð a

m easure of distre ss that corre late s s trong ly w ith the B e ck Depress ion

Inv entory (B eck e t al ., 198 8 ). To exam ine the possible m ediating e ffe c ts

of sy m ptom atology on the com plex ity of A TQ -N response s, w e res idua-

l is ed eac h of the 30 ATQ -N ite m s partiall ing out the e ffe cts of B AI total

score, sav ed the residuals , and re -ran the con® rmatory analy se s te sting

gende r invariance using the covariance m atrix of the se residualised

A TQ -N ite m s. A s found using unresidual ised data, w om en’ s A TQ -N

response s show ed g reate r covariance than m en’ s (i .e . the nul l m ode l w as

m ore strong ly reje c te d for fem ale data than for m ale data) , and Hollon and

Kendal l ’ s (19 80 ) four-fac tor m ode l produced nonequivalent fac tor loadings

for m en and w om en [ D c 2(12 ) = 25 .1 , P < .02 ] , al thoug h this gende r

diffe rence w as les s pronounced. The se ® nding s sugge st that the greate r

com plex ity in w om en’ s negative autom ati c cog nitions is not m ediate d by

diffe rential psycholog ical distre s s . C learly , future research is needed to

identi fy the causal m echanism s through w hich gende r in¯ uence s the

struc ture of negative autom atic cognition.

The pres ent study also contribute s to our unde rs tanding of the re lation-

ship be tw een positiv e and neg ative autom ati c cognition. Our results indi-

cate that the se tw o broad dom ains of autom ati c thought are eac h struc ture d

separate ly along at leas t four, s trong ly inte rre late d subdim ens ions. W hen

analy sing A TQ -N and A TQ -P response s toge the r, the m ost appropriate

m easurem ent m ode l is a com bination of Hollon and Kendal l’ s four

A TQ -N fac tors and Ingram and W isnicki’ s four A TQ -P fac tors . The be st

balance be tw een g oodnes s-of- ® t and pars im ony is a m odel that assum es

separate , neg ative ly corre late d se cond-orde r fac tors of Positiv e and Ne ga-

tiv e Autom atic Cognition unde rly ing the covariance am ong the m ultiple

A TQ -P and ATQ-N ® rst-orde r factors, re spec tiv e ly .

O ur ® nding s are consiste nt w ith a gene ral m ode l of cognitiv e struc ture

ac tiv ation (Sedikide s & S kow ronski, 1 991 ) in w hich c luste rs of inte rre-

lated, se lf-rele vant cognitions becom e eas i ly and autom ati cally ac tiv ate d,

eventual ly dom inating thought proce sse s ove r tim e (c f. B argh & Tota,

254 BRY AN T AN D B AXTER

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

oras

] at

05:

01 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

1988 ). The substantial inte r-fac tor correlations found w ith in both A TQ -N

and A TQ -P m ode ls support the notion of ``spreading ac tivation’ ’ , w he reby

one type of thought trigg e rs a host of re late d type s of thoug hts . Modify ing

this inte rpre tati on is the patte rn of strong e r fac tor inte rre lationships w ithin

ATQ -P and A TQ -N m ode ls (about 70% shared variance ) than be tw een

se cond-orde r positiv e and negative autom ati c cognition (roughly 30 %

shared variance ). In other w ords, autom ati c thoughts along one dim ension

tend to gene ral ise to autom ati c thoughts along re late d dim ensions, al though

this phenom enon rem ains large ly contained w ithin eithe r the positiv e or

negativ e dom ain.

Our ® nding of separate se cond-orde r ``super’ ’ fac tors of pos itiv e and

negativ e cognition paralle ls re sults from re late d research on the struc ture of

im ag inal proce sse s . Spec i ® c al ly , fac tor analy se s of ® rst-orde r scale s of

inne r expe rience , day dream ing , and fantas y hav e revealed separate pos i-

tiv e (C ons truc tiv e Day dre am ing ) and negative (Guilt-Fear of Failure Day -

dream ing ) se cond-orde r fac tors unde rly ing reports of inne r expe rience

(Huba, A ne shense l, & S inge r, 1 981 ). The re is , thus , som e conve rgence

from dive rse theore tic al pe rspec tiv e s conce rning the sty l istic charac teris-

tic s of nondirec te d thought.

An im portant l im itati on of our results is the ir ex clus ive re liance on a

sing le sam ple of col le ge students . B ecause our sam ple is not c l inical , w e

m ust be cautious in gene ralis ing our results to c linical populations.

Although the tw o instrum ents w e re orig inally dev e loped using colle ge

students , e v idence sugge sts that the A TQ -N (Harre l l & Ryon, 1983 ;

Hollon e t al ., 1986 ) and ATQ-P (Ingram et al ., 1995 ) are val id and re l iab le

for both c l inical and nonc l inical populations. Neve rthe le ss , the spec i ® c

i te m s diag nostic of autom ati c cognition m ay diffe r for the tw o groups,

the late nt fac tors m ay inte rre late diffe rently , and the s treng th of the

assoc iation be tw een autom ati c cognition and em otional expe rience m ay

vary for c l inical and nonc l inical g roups (c f. Ingram e t al., 1995 ).

W ith this lim itation in m ind, w e can cautiously highl ight som e im plica-

tions of our re sults for c l inical populations. First, al though the sam e

cognitions de ® ne positiv e autom ati c th inking for m en and w om en, diffe r-

ent cognitions are diag nostic of negativ e autom atic thinking for m ale s and

fem ale s. A TQ-N total score , how ev e r, is re lati v e ly insensitiv e to change s in

the spec i ® c cognitions that de ® ne negative autom atic thought for m en and

w om en. Clinic ians m ay gain a be tte r unde rs tanding of the role of negative

autom ati c cognition in psy chopathology by focusing the ir inte rventions

and as se ssm ents on the indiv idual cognitions m ost charac teristic of nega-

tiv e autom ati c thinking in m en and w om en, rathe r than on g lobal negative

cognition. Future research should address the conceptual and predic tiv e

util i ty of using ® ne r-g rained indiv idual m easures of negativ e autom atic

cognition v ersus g lobal A TQ -N total score w ith in c l inical sam ple s.

S TR UC TU RE O F PO SIT IVE AN D N EG ATIVE C OG N ITIO N 255

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

oras

] at

05:

01 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

O ur ® ndings al so con ® rm the potential bene ® ts of `̀ non-negative ’ ’

thinking (Hollon & Kendall , 1980 ). Low scores on the A TQ -N fac tors

w e re m ore predic tiv e of subje c tiv e w e ll -be ing than w ere high scores on

the A TQ-P fac tors. This re sult unde rscores the critic al role of negativ e

cognition in depres s iv e sym ptom atology . V iew ed from a broade r c l inical

pe rspec tiv e , our data sugge sts that c lients w ill bene ® t m ost from reduc ing

the spec i ® c cognitions that m ost s trong ly charac te rise the ir negativ e auto-

m ati c thinking w ith respec t to ad jus tm ent, e xpec tati ons, s e lf-e ste em , and

m orale . S ing le-case (P-te chnique ) fac tor analy se s m ay be particularly

use ful in de te rm ining the negative cognitions m ost diag nostic for indiv i-

duals and in exam ining patte rns of te m poral change in negative thinking

w ith in subje c ts ( cf . C atte l l, 195 1 ; R usse l l , B ryant, & Estrada, in press ).

M anusc ript re c e iv ed 2 7 Nov em ber 1 9 9 5

Re v i sed m anusc ript re c e iv ed 2 3 M arc h 1 9 9 6

REFEREN CES

A lw in, D.F., & Jackson, D.J. (1 9 8 0 ). Measure m ent m ode ls for re sponse e rrors in surv ey s :

Is sue s and appli c ations . In K .F. S chue ss le r (Ed.), So c io lo g i ca l m e tho d o lo g y 1 9 8 0 (pp.

6 8 ± 1 1 9 ). S an Franc is c o: Josse y -B ass .

A shton, M.C., Jackson, D.N., Paunone n, S .V ., He lm es , E., & Rothstein, M .G. (1 9 9 5 ) . The

c rite rion v ali dity of broad fac tor sc ale s v e rsus spec i ® c fac e t sc ale s . Jo u rn a l o f R esea rc h

in Pe rso n a li ty, 2 9 , 4 3 2 ± 4 4 2 .

B arg h, J.A ., & T ota, M .E . (1 9 8 8 ). Contex t-dependent autom atic proce ss in g in depre ss ion:

A cce ss ibil ity of ne gativ e construc ts w i th re g ard to the se lf but not o thers . Jo u rn a l o f

Pe rso n a lity a n d So c ia l Psych o lo g y, 5 4 , 9 2 5 ± 9 3 9 .

B eck, A.A . (1 9 6 7 ). D ep re ss io n : C l in ic a l, expe r im en ta l, a n d theo re tic a l a sp e c ts. New Y ork:

Habe re .

B eck, A.A . (1 9 7 6 ). Co g n itiv e th e ra p y a n d the e mo tio n a l d iso r de rs . New Y ork: Inte rna-

tional Univ e rs it ie s Pre ss .

B eck, A.A ., Epste in, N., B row n, G., & Stee r, R.R. (1 9 8 8 ). A n inv entory for m easuring

c l in ic al anx ie ty. Jo u rn a l o f Co n su ltin g a n d Cli n ic a l Psyc h o lo g y, 5 6 , 8 9 3 ± 8 9 7 .

B entle r, P.M . (1 9 9 0 ). Com parat iv e ® t in dex e s in s truc tural m ode ls . Psych o lo g ic al Bu ll e tin ,

1 0 7 , 2 3 8 ± 2 4 6 .

B entle r, P.M ., & B one tt, D.A . (1 9 8 0 ). S ig ni ® c ance te s ts and g oodne ss of ® t in the analy s is

of cov ariance s truc ture s . Psych o lo g i ca l Bu lle tin , 8 8 , 5 8 8 ± 6 0 6 .

B radburn, N. (1 9 6 9 ). Th e stru c tu re o f p syc h olo g ic a l w e ll -b e in g . Chic ag o, IL : A ld ine .

B ry ant, F.B ., & V eroff, J. ( 1 98 2 ) . T he struc ture of psy cholo g ic al w e ll -be ing : A soc iohi s-

toric al analy s is . Jo u rn a l o f Pe rso n a li ty a n d Soc ia l Psych o lo g y, 4 3 , 6 5 3 ± 6 7 3.

B urg e ss , E ., & Haaga, D .A . (1 9 9 4 ). The Positiv e A utom atic Thoug hts Q uestionnaire (A TQ-

P) and the Autom atic Thoug hts Q uestionnaire -Re v is ed (A TQ -RP): Equiv ale n t m easure s

of pos itiv e thinking? Co g n itiv e Th e ra p y a n d Rese arc h , 1 8 , 1 5 ± 2 3 .

B y rne , B .M ., B aron, P., & Cam pbe l l, T .L . (1 9 9 3 ). M easurin g adole sc ent depre ss io n: Fac -

toria l vali di ty and inv ariance of the B eck Depre ss ion Inv entory ac ross g e nde r. Jo u rn a l o f

R esea rch o n Ad o le sc en c e , 3 , 1 2 7 ± 1 4 3 .

Carv e r, C .S ., & S che ie r, M.F. (1 9 8 5 ). S e lf -consc iousne ss , e xpec tanc ie s , and the copin g

256 BRY AN T AN D B AXTER

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

oras

] at

05:

01 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

proce ss . In T . Fie ld, P.M. M cCabe , & N. S c hne ide rm an (E ds.) , Stre ss a n d c op in g (pp.

3 0 5 ± 3 3 0 ). Hil lsdal e , NJ: Law re nce Erlbaum A ssoc iate s Inc .

Cattell , R.B . (1 9 5 1 ). P-tech n iq u e : A n ew m e tho d fo r a n a lys in g the s tru c ture o f p e rso n a l

mo tiv a tio n . N ew Y ork: Ac adem y of Sc i ence s .

Deardorf , P.A ., Hopkin s , L .R., & Fin ch, A .J. (1 9 8 4 ). A utom atic Thoug hts Q uestionnai re : A

re li abili ty and v al id ity study . Psych o lo g ic a l Rep o rts, 5 5 , 7 0 8 ± 7 1 0 .

Dobson, K.S ., & S haw , B .F. ( 98 6 ). Cog nitiv e asse ssm ent of m ajor depre ss iv e di sorde rs .

Cog n itiv e Th e ra p y a n d Resea rch , 1 0 , 1 3 ± 2 9 .

E lli s , A ., & Gre ig e r, R. (1 9 7 7 ). H an d b o o k o f ra tio n a l ± em otiv e th e ra p y. New Y ork: S prin g e r.

Ey senck, H.J., & Ey senck, S .B .G. (1 9 7 5 ). Ma n u a l o f th e Eysen ck P erso n a li ty Qu e stio n -

n a ir e . London: Hodde r & S toughton.

Fordy ce , M.W . (1 9 8 7 ). Resea rch a n d tab u la r sup p le m en t fo r the Ha p p in e ss Me a su re s. Fort

My ers , FL : Cy pre ss Lake M edia.

Fy dric h, T ., D ow dal l, D., & Cham ble ss , D.L . ( 1 9 9 2) . Re li abi li ty and v ali di ty of the B eck

Anx ie ty Inv entory . Jo urn a l of Anxie ty D iso rd e rs , 6 , 5 5 ± 6 1 .

Harre ll, T .H., & Ry on, N.B . (1 9 8 3 ). Cog nit iv e -behav io ral asse ssm ent of depre ss ion: C li n-

ic al v al idation of the A utom atic Thoug hts Q uestionnaire . Jo u rn a l o f Co n su l tin g a n d

C li n ic al Psych o lo g y, 5 1 , 7 2 1 ± 7 2 5 .

Hil l, C .V ., O e i, T .P.S ., & Hill , M .A . (1 9 8 9 ). A n em piric al in v e s tig ation of the spec i ® c ity

and sens itiv ity of the A utom atic Thoug hts Q uestionnaire and Dy sfunc tional A ttitude s

S cale . Jo u rn a l o f Psych o p a tho lo g y a n d Beh a v io ral As se ssm en t. 1 1 , 2 91 ± 3 1 1.

Hoe lter, J.W . (1 9 8 3 ). The analy s is of cov arianc e s truc ture s : Goodne ss of ® t in dic e s . So c io -

lo g ic a l Me thod s a n d R esea rch , 1 1 , 3 2 5 ± 3 4 4 .

Hollo n, S .D., & Kendall, P .C . (1 9 8 0 ). Cog nitiv e se lf -s tatem e nts in depre ssio n: Dev e lo pm ent

of an autom atic thoug hts que s tionnaire . Co g n itiv e Th e ra p y a n d R esea rch , 4 , 3 8 3 ± 3 9 5 .

Hollo n, S .D., Kendal l, P .C., & Lum ry , A. (1 9 8 6 ). S pec i® c ity of depre ssotypic cog nitio ns in

c lin i cal depre ss io n. Jo u rn a l o f Abn o rma l Psych o lo g y, 9 5 , 5 2 ± 5 9 .

Huba, G.J., Ane shense l, C .S ., & S in g e r, J.L . (1 9 81 ). Dev e lopm ent of scale s for thre e se cond-

orde r fac tors of inne r ex pe ri ence . Mu ltiv ar ia te Beh a v io ra l Re sea rch , 1 6 , 18 1 ± 2 06 .

Ing ram , R.E . (1 9 8 9 ). Unique and share d cog n itiv e fac tors in soc ial anx ie ty : A utom atic

thinking and se l f-apprais a l. Jo u rn a l o f So c ia l an d C lin ic a l Psych o lo g y, 8 , 1 9 8 ± 2 0 8 .

I n g r a m , R . E . , K e n d a l l , P . C . , S i e g l e , G . , G u a r i n o , J . , & M c L a u g h l i n , S . C .

(1 9 9 5 ) . Psy c hom e tri c prope rtie s o f the Pos itiv e A utom atic Thoug hts Q ue stionnai re .

Psych o lo g i ca l Asse ssm en t, 7 , 4 9 5 ± 5 0 7 .

Ing ram , R.E ., & W isnicki, K.S . (1 9 8 8 ). A sse ssm ent of pos i tiv e autom atic cog n ition. Jo u r-

n a l o f Co ns u ltin g a n d C li n i ca l Psych o lo g y, 5 6 , 8 9 8 ± 9 0 2 .

Jore skog , K.G., & S orbom , D. (1 9 8 9 ) . LISR EL 7 u se r ’ s r e fe ren c e g u id e . Ch ic ag o, IL :

S c ie nti ® c Software .

Joseph, S . ( 19 9 4 ). Subsc ale s of the A utom atic Thoug hts Q uestionnaire . Jo u rn a l o f G en e tic

Psych o lo g y, 1 5 5 , 3 6 7 ± 3 6 8 .

Kendall, P .C ., How ard, B .L ., & Hay e s , R.C . (1 9 8 9 ). Se lf -re fe re nt spee ch and psy chopathol-

og y : The balance of pos i tiv e and ne g ativ e thin king . Co gn i t iv e The ra p y a n d R es ea rch , 1 3 ,

5 8 3 ± 5 9 8 .

Mc Donald , R.P ., & M arsh, H.W . (1 9 9 0 ). Choosing a m ult iv aria te m ode l: Nonc entrali ty and

g oodne ss of ® t. Psyc h o lo g ic a l B u ll e tin , 1 0 7 , 24 7 ± 2 55 .

M e ichenbaum , D . (1 9 7 7 ) . Co g n i tiv e ± b eh a v io r a l m o d i ® c a tio n : An in te g r a te d a p p ro a ch .

New Y ork: Ple num .

M e ng , X .-L ., Ros en thal, R., & Ru bin , D.B . (1 9 9 2 ) . Com paring corre la ted corre la tion

coe f ® c ie n ts. Psych o lo g i ca l Bu lle tin , 1 1 1 , 1 7 2 ± 1 7 5 .

Norus is , M.J. (1 9 90 ). SPSS/PC + Sta tis tic sTM

4 .0 . Chic ag o, IL : SPS S Inc .

Novy , D.M., Frankie w ic z , R.G., Franc is , D.J., L ibe rm an, D., O v e ral l, J.E ., & V incent, K .R.

S TR UC TU RE O F PO SIT IVE AN D N EG ATIVE C OG N ITIO N 257

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

oras

] at

05:

01 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

(1 9 9 4 ). A n in v e s tig ation of the struc tural v ali dity of Loev in g e r’ s m ode l and m easure of

eg o dev e lopm ent. Jo u rn a l o f Pe rso n a li ty, 6 2 , 8 7 ± 1 1 8 .

Russe ll , R.L ., B ry ant, F.B ., & Estrada, A .U. ( in pre ss ) . Con ® rm atory P- technique analy se s

of the rapi s t d i sc ours e : Hig h v e rs us low quali ty c h il d the rapy s e ss ions . Jo u r n a l o f

Co n su ltin g a n d C li n ic a l Psych o lo g y.

Ry ff, C .D. (1 9 9 5 ). The struc ture o f psy cholog ical w e ll -be ing re v i s ited. Jo u rn a l o f Pe rso n -

a lity a n d So c ia l Psych o lo gy , 6 9 , 7 1 9 ± 7 2 7 .

S c he ie r, M .F., & Carv e r, C .S . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . O ptim is m , c oping , and he al th: A s se ssm e nt and

im pli cations of g ene rali z e d outcom e ex pec tanc ie s . Hea lth Psych o lo g y, 4 , 2 1 9 ± 2 4 7 .

S che ie r, M .F., & Carv e r, C .S . ( 1 9 9 2) . Ef fe c ts of optim ism on psy cholog ic al and phy s ic al

w e ll-be ing : Theore tic al ove rv ie w and em piric al update. Co g n i tiv e Th e ra p y a n d Resea rch ,

1 6 , 2 0 1 ± 2 2 8 .

S che ie r, M .F., Carv e r, C .S ., & B ridg e s , M.W . (1 9 9 4 ). Dis ting uishing optim ism from neu-

rotic is m (and trait anxie ty , se lf -m astery , and se lf -e ste em ): A re ev alu ation of the Life

O rie ntation Test. Jo u rna l o f Pe rso n a li ty a n d So c ia l Psych o lo g y, 6 7 , 1 0 6 3 ± 1 0 7 8 .

S chw artz , R.M . (1 9 92 ). S tates of m in d m ode l and pe rsonal construc t theory : Im pli cations for

psy chopatholo g y . In tern a tio n a l Jo u rn a l o f Pe rso n a l Co n stru c t Psych o lo g y, 5 , 1 2 3 ± 1 4 3 .

S chw artz , R.M ., & Garam oni, G.L . (1 9 8 9 ). Cogni tiv e balan ce and psy chopatholo g y : Ev a-

luation of an inform ation proce s sin g m ode l of pos iti v e and neg ativ e s tate s of m ind.

Cli n i ca l Psych o lo g y Rev ie w , 9 , 2 7 1 ± 2 9 4 .

S edikide s , C ., & S kow ronski, J.J. (1 9 9 1 ). The law of c og nit iv e s truc ture ac tiv ation. Psy-

ch o lo g ic a l In q u iry, 2 , 1 6 9 ± 1 8 4 .

S heehan, T.J., Fi ® e ld , J., Re is ine , S ., & Tennen, H. (1 9 9 5 ). The m easure m ent s truc ture of

the Center for Epidem iolog ic S tudie s D epre ssio n Scale . Jo u rn a l o f Pe rso na li ty Asse ss-

m en t, 6 4 , 5 0 7 ± 5 2 1 .

S m ith, T .W ., Pope , M .K., Rhode w alt, F., & Poulton, J.L . ( 1 9 8 9 ). O ptim is m , neurotic ism ,

coping , and s y m ptom re ports: A n al ternativ e inte rpre tation of the Lif e O rie n tation Test.

Jo u rn a l o f Pe rso n a l ity a n d So c ia l Psyc h o lo g y, 5 6 , 6 4 0 ± 6 4 8 .

S oltysik, R.C ., & Y arnold, P.R. (19 9 3 ) . O D A 1 .0 : Op tim a l d a ta a n a lys is fo r D OS. Chic ag o,

IL : O ptim al Data A naly s is .

Tanaka, J.S . ( 1 9 9 3 ). M ult ifac e ted conception of ® t in s truc tural equation m ode ls . In K.A .

B olle n & J.S . Long (Eds .) , Te stin g s tru c tura l e q u atio n m o d e ls (pp. 1 0 ± 3 9 ). London:

S ag e .

Tanaka, J.S ., & Huba, G.J. (1 9 8 4 ). Con ® rm atory hie rarc hic al fac tor analy s i s of psy cholo-

g ic al dis tre ss m easure s . Jo u rn al o f Pe rso n a li ty a n d So c ia l Psych o lo g y, 4 6 , 6 2 1 ± 6 3 5 .

Tucke r, L .R., & Lew is , C. (1 9 7 3 ). A re liabil ity coe f ® c ie nt for m ax im um like li hood fac tor

analy s is . Psych o m e trika , 38 , 1 ± 1 0 .

V e roff, J., Douv an, E., & Kulka, R. (1 98 1 ). Th e in n e r Am er ic a n . New Y ork: B as ic B ooks .

258 BRY AN T AN D B AXTER

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

oras

] at

05:

01 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014