THE STATE OF EDUCATION

IN NIGERIA

UNESCO ABU J A OFFICE NIGERIA

OCTOBER 2000

© U N E S C O Abuja.

© Cover Design: Excellence Systems Consult. (Excellence Systems Ltd.)

Correspondence regarding this publication should be addressed to: the UNESCO Abuja Office.

U N E S C O Abuja Office Plot 777 Bouake Street, Off Herbert Macaulay W a y , Abuja, Nigeria.

First Print U N E S C O Lagos Office December 1998

Second Print U N E S C O Abuja Office October 2000

Published by:

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The choice of the material contained in this book and the opinions expressed therein do not necessarily represent the views of UNESCO and do not commit the Organization.

Project Development Officer: Dr. Noel Ihebuzor

Project Editor: Dr. Rex E. 0 . Akpofure Consultant

Proof Readers: Dr. Rex E. O . Akpofure Consultant

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ISBN 978-33760-2-0

1 > 2 - D - 00 99 98

Printed in Nigeria.

PREFACE

W h e n this "Project" was first conceived, w e were motivated by an instinct that the educational scene w a s "all activity but little action". There seemed so much to do yet, so few resources to do it! W h a t has emerged in these twelve chapters has partly confirmed our fears but also demonstrated h o w much is being done. The unique value of this publication is that it has brought together underthe s a m e cover, almost all aspects of the Nigerian education system.

The methodology of this work has relied on a wide spectrum of consultation between proven and practising professionals and academics in their different fields. Beginning in 1997 with a series of seminar/workshops and collective discussion, it went through a group editorial evaluation of all the material provided, to a final editing which, while striving for structural coherence, has sought sensitively to respect the individual author's perceptions. The outcome has been an authoritative publication of varied experiences and ideas which have been hammered out of many forums - both national and international. It covers also s o m e new professional/technical terrain such as recent language research in the Nigerian context, with the minimum of "jargon"! it inevitably also reveals evidence of the perennial struggle to deliver educational objectives that are constantly changing to embrace new ideas and new horizons. For example, whereas pre-primary education was once not considered a legitimate pre­occupation of Governments, to-day in the context of Education for All, there is growing acceptance of its inclusion in the same continuum as Non-formal education for migrant adults.

In essence, this publication throws a number of challenges to people and governments. First, it raises the issue of effective and consistent policy formulation and policy implementation. Secondly, it points out the need for sound management of limited funds and resources. Third, it challenges our capacity and commitment to improving the total learning environment of Nigeria and its peoples both the formal and non-formal systems. Fourth, it challenges specifically, the country's capacity to implement plans that have been developed for the Local, Sate and Federal Governments. Finally, it presents on these pages, a reasonably full "Compendium" of proposals and possible solutions for the way forward in Nigeria's educational journey into the Millennium. It is evident that Nigeria, hand in hand with the International Community, lacks not ideas but the means and, perhaps, the will to execute the many plans and ideas.

It is our hope and the various authors' of these chapters - that all those involved and/or interested in Education in Nigeria i.e. Ministers and Officials of Governments, parents, children and sponsors of children and adults, as well as the various international funding agencies, Non-Government Organisations (both national and international), will find on the pages that follow, much that they can support or continue to support, professionally and in resource terms.

I wish to thank all our eminent contributors for their co-operation and ready response to our approach, as well as our editors for their hard work and in particular, our Consultant, Dr. Rex E. O . Akpofure, O F R , whose untiring efforts have minimised individual stylistic and structural peculiarities. I a m also grateful to all our staff-professional, secretarial and support without w h o m this book could not have gone into print.

E. Apea , Director/Representative, U N E S C O , Lagos. 10 August 1998

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE 1

C H A P T E R I

NATIONAL POLICY REVIEW ISSUES - J. O. Sofolahan. 3

C H A P T E R II

M A N A G E M E N T , STRUCTURE A N D FINANCING OF EDUCATION-W. A A/w/agi/i/iV. 10

C H A P T E R III

CURRICULUM A N D C O N T E N T OF EDUCATION - U. M. O. Ivowi. 22

C H A P T E R IV

BASIC EDUCATION - EMERGING ISSUES, CHALLENGES A N D CONSTRAINTS 34

- D. C. U. Okoro.

CHAPTER V G E N D E R ISSUES IN EDUCATION - C. Ohiri-Aniche. 52

C H A P T E R VI

TEACHER PRODUCTION: A F O C U S O N NIGERIA - P. Lassa. 70

C H A P T E R VII

TRENDS IN TERTIARY EDUCATION IN NIGERIA - P. Okebukola. 84

CHAPTERVII I

NIGERIAN A N D FOREIGN LANGUAGES IN EDUCATION - E N. Emenanjo. 103

C H A P T E R IX

NATIONAL STANDARDS & QUALITY C O N T R O L IN NIGERIAN EDUCATION 119

- R. E. O. Akpofure and B. L. N'dupu.

CHAPTER X EDUCATIONAL DATA A N D INFORMATION M A N A G E M E N T - / \ . M. Fagbulu. 132

C H A P T E R XI

THE CONTRIBUTION OF INTERNATIONAL AGENCIES T O EDUCATION IN NIGERIA 142

- E. A. Yoloye.

CHAPTERXI I

ABERRATIONS IN THE NIGERIAN EDUCATION SYSTEM - O . C. Nwana. 152

CHAPTER I

NATIONAL POLICY REVIEW ISSUES

Introduction: A s a British Colony up till 1960, the system of Education in Nigeria could not but derive

from the British system. Even the curriculum w a s British, and it w a s only on the eve of independence that people began to question the relevance of the existing curriculum to a Nigerian environment. There were several attempts at making the curriculum relevant -attempts which culminated in the National Curriculum Conference of 1969. T h e Federal Gove rnmen t set up a Commit tee in 1973 to study the recommendations ofthat conference. Government 's views on the report of the committee were published in 1977 in a White Paper entitled "National Policy on Education". This Policy w a s revised in 1981 to reflect the provisions of the Nigerian Constitution of 1979.

T h e formal Education structure of Nigeria's National Policy on Education is usually referred to as "the 6-3-3-4 system of Education" because it provides for six years of Primary Education, followed by three years of Junior Secondary Education, three years of Senior Secondary Education and Tertiary Education of varying periods, provided a first degree in a University shall be of not less than four years durgtion.

T h e National Policy on Education deals with all aspects of education, from its philosophy, different levels and structure, financing, types of education to educational services, administration and planning of education. S o m e ofthese aspects are dealt with in detail in the other chapters of this book; this chapter therefore dwells mainly on the formal sector, known for short, as the 6-3-3-4 system, though it omits detailed discussion of tertiary education, which because it is so varied, is substantively treated in Chapter 7 .

A i m s of the Policy T h e National Policy on Education has been described as "Government 's w a y of

achieving that part of its national objectives that can be met by using education as a tool" . T h e policy is based on broad national objectives, which were well spelt out in the preamble to the Second National Development Plan (1970-74). These were the building of:

"(i) a free and democratic society; (ii) a just and egalitarian society; (iii) a united, strong and self-reliant nation; (iv) a great and dynamic e c o n o m y ; (v) a land of bright and full opportunities for all citizens". T h e s e objectives are still as valid today as w h e n they were formulated. Consequently,

the nature of instruction at all levels is oriented towards inculcating the values which are also well set out in paragraph 3 of the said policy, namely;

"(a) respect for the worth and dignity of individuals; (b) faith in m a n ' s ability to m a k e rational decisions; (c) moral and spiritual values in interpersonal and h u m a n relations; (d) shared responsibility for the c o m m o n good of society; (e) respectforthedignityof labour; and (f) promotion of the emotional and psychological health of all children" 2. T h e National Policy seeks to achieve the above values by m e a n s of enriched

institutional curricula at the various levels. By 1960, the structure and strategies for educational delivery had b e c o m e so inadequate that a revised structure w a s inevitable if the content of education w a s to be relevant to the needs of a n e w and vibrant nation. For a start, this mean t

a widened curriculum wliich would give the pupil an opportunity to learn h o w to use his head as well as his hands , and thus to appreciate the dignity of labour. This w a s a complete departure from the traditional system which had over-emphasised literary, and under-played vocational education. T h e n e w structure provided m a n y m o r e options, both academic and technical, atthe various levelsthroughoutthe system.

Primary Education Atthe primary school level, curriculum objectives include: (a) the inculcation of permanent literacy and numeracy , and the ability to

communicate effectively; (b) the laying ofa sound basis forscientific and reflective thinking; (c) citizenship education as a basis for effective participation in, and contribution

to the life of the society; (d) character and moral training and the development of sound attitudes; (e) developing in the child the ability to adapt to his or her changing environment; (f) giving the child opportunities for developing manipulative skills to function

effectively in the society within the limits of his or her capacity; (g) providing basic tools for further educational advancemen t , including

preparation fortrades and crafts of the locality. Appropriate curricular activities at this level include the development of literacy and numeracy, the study of science, social no rms and values, first of the local communi ty and of the country as a whole through civics and social studies; others are the giving of health and physical education, moral and religious education, the teaching of local crafts, domestic science and agriculture.

S e c o n d a r y Education At the secondary level, the curriculum seeks, to prepare youths for useful life in the

society and for higher education. Specifically it should: "(a) provide an increasing n u m b e r of primary school pupils with the opportunity for

quality education, irrespective of sex, or social, religious and ethnic background;

(b) diversify its curriculum to cater for the differences in talents, opportunities and roles possessed by or open to students after their secondary school course;

(c) equip students to live effectively in our mode rn age of science and technology; (d) raise a generation of people w h o can think for themselves, respect the views

andfeelingsofothers, respect the dignity of labour, and appreciate those values specified under our broad national a ims and live as good citizens;

(e) foster Nigerian unity with an emphas is on the c o m m o n ties that unite us in our diversity;

(f) inspire its students with a desire for achievement and self-improvement both at school and in later life" .

T o achieve these objectives, secondary education n o w lasts for six years, and is given in two stages i.e. a junior secondary school and a senior secondary school, each of three years duration.

T h e junior secondary school is both academic and prevocational and teaches basic subjects which will enable pupils to acquire further knowledge and develop personal skills. T h e subjects include:

(i) Mathematics (v) Language (Mothertongue) (ii) English (vi) A Major Nigerian Language (iii) Science (vii) Practical Agriculture

(iv) Social studies (viii) ReligiousandlVloralEducation (ix) Creative Arts and any two pre-vocational subjects selected from

(a) Introductory Technology, (b) H o m e Economics , (c) Business Studies (d) Local Crafts.

T h e next three years, called the Senior Secondary School, constitute the beginning of what m a y be described as the finished product at a lower level of skill and aptitude. T h e Senior Secondary School, in pursuit of its obligation to "raise a generation of students w h o can think forthemselves, respect the views and feelings of others, respect thedignity of labour, and live as good citizens", also offers the following core subjects at this level:

(i) English Language; (ii) O n e Nigerian Language ; (iii) Mathematics; (iv) Physics or Chemistry or Biology; (v) Literature in English or History or Geography; (vi) Agricultural Science or a Vocational subject.

T h e last segmen t of the 6-3-3-4 structure covers higher education, academic or professional. T h e National Policy sets out the a ims of higher education as -

"(a) the acquisition, development and inculcation of the proper value-orientation for the survival of the individual society;

(b) the development of the intellectual capacities of individuals to understand and appreciate their environments;

(c) the acquisition of both physical and intellectual skills which will enable individuals to develop into useful m e m b e r s of the community;

(d) the acquisition of an objective view of the local and external environments"".

Tertiary Education Tertiary education is provided at Universities, Polytechnics and Colleges of Education.

With specific regard to university education and the need for all-round development at this level, the Policy provides that students "be m a d e to take a course in history of ideas and the philosophy of knowledge or s o m e such suitable course as m a y be determined".

T h e foregoing constitute the philosophical basis of the National Policy. S o m e measu res which have been r e c o m m e n d e d to ensure effective actualisation of these objectives include:

i) devoting a greater proportion of educational expenditure to science and

technology; ii) fixing the university student enrolment ratio of science to liberal arts at 60 :40 , and of

technology to other courses at the polytechnics at 70 :30 .

L a n g u a g e Provision: T h e Policy recognises the importance of language to education in a multilingual setting such as obtains in Nigeria. Consequently, the Government considers it to be in the interest of national unity and the preservation of national culture that each child should be encouraged to learn oqe of the three major Nigerian languages viz Hausa , Igbo and Yoruba, in addition to his o w n mother-tongue. Because of this importance attached to language, every child is expected to start primary education in the mother-tongue, acquire o n e of the three major languages (otherthan the mother-tongue) as a second Nigerian language in the Junior Secondary and compulsohly enter for a Nigerian language in the Secondary School Certificate examination - as a m e a s u r e aimed at fostering political unity in Nigeria.

Implementation in Primary a n d S e c o n d a r y Education: Following the adoption of the National Policy on Education, the Federal Gove rnmen t

set up a national Implementation Committee w h o s e terms of reference were to: (i) translate the Policy into a workable blueprint and to develop programmes for the

implementation of the policy; (ii) co-ordinate and monitor the implementation of the programmes developed

underthe policy; (iii) advise Government on, and to assist in, providing the infrastructural and other

requirements for policy implementation; and (iv) provide a continuous review and assessment of the aims, objectives and

targets of the Policy with a view to ensuring the adequacy and continued relevance of the Policy (and of those programmés developed under it) to our national needs and aspirations, and to propose modifications on any aspects as m a y be found necessary.^

Each state of the Federation w a s also enjoined to set up an Implementation Task Force.

There were several steps taken by the Implementation Committee to ensure an effective implementation of the policy. The first w a s to give publicity to the content of the National Policy on Education. This w a s done through hand bills, radio jingles, television programmes, and lectures throughout the country, at educational institutions and public places, to teachers and parents alike.

The next step w a s to organise workshops on the philosophy of the Policy, and on the preparations that were necessary for transition from primary to junior seieondary, from junior secondary to senior secondary and from senior secondary to tertiary institutions. Simultaneously with these workshops, monitoring exercises were undertaken by the Implementation Committee to ensure compliance with the spirit and content of the policy.

At the secondary school level, even though six years (1976 -1982 ) were allowed to prepare for the new-type Junior Secondary Schools, adequate arrangements were not m a d e bythe States forthe training ofthespecialistteachers needed forthe integrated subjects such as Science, Social Studies, Introductory Technology, H o m e Economics, Business Studies etc.

Most importantly, school administrators did not receive adequate orientation so as to appreciate the requirements of the policy in terms of Philosophy, Curriculum, Counselling, Continuous Assessment and those other parameters that were n e w and designed to ensure effective and efficient implementation.

A s shown in the foregoing, the Policy laid d o w n certain expectations as to the quality of educational outcome. However, a number of difficulties in the operating environment inhibited the full attainment of these outcomes, particularly in quality. A selection of such difficulties will suffice.

(i) Congestion in Schools: The policy clearly specified a m a x i m u m of 40 pupils per class in primary and secondary schools. However, experience today shows that in urban centres, classes have grown so large that there are primary schools with over 80 pupils in classrooms built for40, and secondary schools with over 60 pupils in classes built for 40 . Evidently, little meaningful learning and teaching can take place in such congested classes. D u e to inadequate funding, classrooms are insufficient and teachers are in short supply. It is clear what must be done in the interest of quality.

(ii) Shortage of B o o k s and Materials: M a n y children attend school without books because the prices of books are not within the reach of the average parent; orthe books simply not available. Similarly, educational materials and supplies, w h e n available locally, are equally expensive.

(ni) Unqualified Teachers: In paragraph 61 of the Policy, the Nigerian Certificate in Education (NCE), is prescribed as the minimum teaching qualification. Based on this, the National Council on Education had laid down in 1992 that no teacher with qualifications below the Grade II Teachers Certificate should remain in our primary schools by 1995, and none below the N C E in any of our schools by 1998. In 1994, out of a total teachers strength of 435210, there were 91,868 teachers in various primary schools in the country w h o did not possess the Grade II Teachers Certificate and 361,118 w h o did not hold the N . C . E . ^ In addition, there remains an acute shortage of specialist teachers for new subjects like Introductory Technology, Creative and Cultural Arts, Local Crafts etc and even fortraditional subjects.

(iv) Lack of Guidance Counsellors: In orderto implementthe broadened curriculum of secondary schools and provide full time Guidance Counsellors at the rate of 1 to every 300 pupils or part thereof, as stipulated by the National Council on Education, the Council raised the allocation of teachers in a secondary school from 1 >2 teachers to 2. This target has never been met.

(v) Continuous Assessment : With Guidance and Counselling, Continuous Assessment is a major quality control component of the Policy. O n e important merit of continuous assessment as a teaching strategy is its corrective role. A pupil's weaknesses are identified and corrected early. In addition, he learns from first principles and does not indulge in memorisation of facts. With reliable records of assessment, the guidance counsellor is able to advise on options open to the pupils, having regard to his interests, ability and capability. Since m a n y secondary schools do not have full-time, or any guidance counsellors on their staff, no really serious continuous assessment is possible in m a n y schools.

(vi) Administration: Lapses in various aspects of administration also accounted for difficulties in policy implementation. For example, the establishment of the State Implementation Task Force recommended by the Federal Government has often turned out to be a theoretical exercise in most States since the turn-over of staff was so rapid that few officers stayed long enough on the job to m a k e an impact. Inadequate, or absence of training for Principals of Schools has led to their running of schools without fully understanding the national philosophy of education.

(vii) Preparation of Teachers: Most ofthe technical teachers w h o were trained underthe special Technical Training programme arranged by the Nigerian Federal Government with the American Government, resigned and took up employment in the private sector on their return and, thus denied the school system ofthe benefit of their services. Generally, the country has been unable to produce enough trained teachers in essential subject areas, particularly in the technical and science subjects.

Perhaps, the greatest administrative obstacles to achieving the set goals of the National Policy on Education have arisen from the use of inadequate or unreliable data in the making of major policy decisions by various Governments. Such decisions have usually been based on purely political considerations without sound professional justification, or even without counting the financial costs and without sound planning. Examples include the adoption of free education at ail levels by 1979 in s o m e States or even more recently, the explosion in setting up new State universities and polytechnics, while funds forthe payment of primary and secondary schools teachers were unavailable; or even while enrolments in

existing universities, were still far below projected levels. Often therefore, the planned out-put of teachers for the first two cycles of the systenn has never been achieved.

Similarly, curricular developments such as the abolition of the Primary School Leaving Certificate and its replacement by a certificate marking the end of primary education has become delegated to each Primary School on behalf of the State Commissionerfor Education and based on Continuous Assessment scores Which have been flawed as indicated earlier. These and other facets of curriculum structure and implementation - such as the re-grouping of subjects from the present 8 subjects areas to 5 or 6 - are being re-examined in order to ;idopt more practical and realistic teaching goals, especially in the primary school.

Secondary Education The two-tier system of secondary education is already well established. The Junior

Secondary School cycle w a s completed by all States between 1985 and 1998, and that of the Senior Secondary between 1988 and 1991. The Sixth Form system has consequently been abolished and the four-year degree course in the universities embarked upon.

The transition rate from primary to secondary school w a s estimated as 7 0 % at the initial stages of implementation, rising subsequently to 100%. The curriculum of secondary schools discussed above w a s followed strictly during the first few years of implementation of the policy. Overthe years, however, control has been relaxed and manyvariationsofcurriculum offerings have emerged. Atthe Junior Secondary School level, due to the shortage of teachers, the requirement of two Nigerian languages is no longer strictly observed. Indeed in a number of States, the mothertongue is now in practice not compulsory in the Junior School Certificate examination either because of its cosmopolitan nature, or because the catchment area for the particular mothertongue is very small. Similarly, two pre-vocational subjects are not offered in all secondary schools, as envisaged. W h e r e they are offered, these tend to be two subjects chosen from Introductory Technology, H o m e Economics and Business Education; Local Crafts are completely ignored. D u e to inadequate provision of raw materials for teaching, and powerfailure in areas where there is electricity, Introductory Technology is fast becoming a theoretical subject. Creative Arts, which attempts to combine Arts and Music, is proving to be an unattractive combination because of a lack of teachers for this combination. It is easier to find a teacher of Art or of Music w h o invariably teaches his own speciality, ratherthan both.

Bibliography

1. Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos: National Policy on Education 1981

2. Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos: National Policy on Education 1981

3. FederalMinistryof Education, Lagos: National Policy on Education (p.16, para 18)

4. Federal Ministry of Education: National Policy on Education 1981

5. Federal Government Printer (1978) "Blue Printforthe Implementation of the National Policy on Education (p.22, para 32)

6. Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos: Education Statistics December, 1995

7 Sofolahan, J .A .O. : Implementing the 6-3-3-4 System: - First Annual Conference of the Nigerian Academy of Education: University of Lagos, 18th-21st September, 1996.

8 Sofolahan, J .A.O. : Management of Formal Education:-National Institute forPolicy and

Strategic Studies, Kuni, Plateau State 10th February, 1989.

9 Sofolahan, J .A .O. : The 6-3-3-4 System of Education: Expectations and Realities:-All Nigeria Conference of Principals of Secondary Schools ( A N C O P S S ) Ogun State Branch: Cultural Centre Abeokuta 9th April, 1996.

CHAPTER li

MANAGEMENT, STRUCTURE AND FINANCING OF EDUCATION

Introduction: While preparing Nigeria's Second National Development Plan 1970-1974, the

planners took a critical look at the then raging controversy over what the objectives of educational development should be in a developing country. They rejected the view that education should be provided for its own sake as a m e a n s of enriching an individual's knowledge and developing his personality to the fullest potential. They argued that this concept of education w a s a luxury which s o m e advanced nations could afford but which w a s inappropriate for the massive developmental tasks of poor, under-developed countries. The educational planners then considered the perception of education as an instrument to equip people with knowledge and skills to undertake specific tasks and employment functions which are necessary for the transformation of their economies and societies. In summary, the planners saw the two viewpoints as reflective of the conflict in conceptualizing national educational objectives whereby s o m e economists regard education as primarily a consumer good while others regard it as essentially a capital good. The economic and educational planners agreed that "Nigeria should, in her stage of development, regard education as both" (Federal Nigeria, 1970: p.235)\

The way in which the leaders of Nigeria, perceive education, its objectives and functions in socio-economic development has significantly influenced the management , planning and organisation of the education system. Moreover, present-day structures and strategies for educational management have continued to reflect the colonial history and educational heritage of the country. Though there have been changes overtime, as a result of an occasional romance with American and other systems of education, the British influence has remained dominant in many aspects of educational organization and administration.

In their attempt to use education as an instrument for socio-economic development, Nigerian leaders focused educational policy on the provision of free, universal primary education to every child of school age in the belief that an educated and enlightened citizenry was more receptive to new ideas, innovations and changes. The second area of educational policy thrust w a s the creation of a rich stock of talented and skilled manpower . But it w a s realized that h u m a n and material resources to achieve the stated policy objectives in education were highly limited. Successive governments in Nigeria since independence therefore felt that "Nigeria cannot afford to leave education to the whims and caprices of individual choice" Here lies the genesis of recent structural adjustments in the education system, the tendency of Government to exercise over-centralized control over it, and why the organisation and management of education in the country has often been a subject of controversy between the Federal, State and Local Governments.

Legal Framework for Educational M a n a g e m e n t The 1979 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria provided the basic legal

framework for educational management in the country. Section 18, of Chapter 2 of the Constitution spelt out the national educational objectives thus:

"18-(1 ). Government shall direct its policy towards ensuring that there are equal and adequateeducational opportunities at all levels.

(2). Government shall promote science and technology;

(3). Government shall strive to eradicate illiteracy; " Schedule II of the Constitution defined the legislative powers of the three tiers of Government.

10

Education w a s put on the Concurrent Legislative List, giving powers to both Federal and State Governments to m a k e laws forthe planning, organisation and management of education. Item K on that List deals with "University, Technological and Post-primary education", including professional education, and provides that Federal and State governments can legislate on, establish and m a n a g e institutions forthe purposes of providing university, technological, professional or post-primary education.

States were also granted powers to m a k e laws with respect to technical, vocational, post-primary or other forms of education. In the Fourth Schedule of the Constitution, Local Government Councils were m a d e responsible for setting up "the provision and maintenance of primary education". Decree N o . 31 of 1988 setting up the National Primary Education Commission, sought to streamline the financial and administrative responsibilities to be shared by Federal, State and Local governments with respect to the organisation and managemen t of primary education. Past experience had shown that Local Government Councils were incapable of operating the primary schools effectively and efficiently to guarantee free, universal and quality education to all primary school-age children; hence the intervention of the Federal Government with funds, supervision and control. Nevertheless, there have been periodic crises arising from the conflict of interests and the overlapping of responsibilities for management of primary education in Nigeria, between Federal, State and Local government authorities.

In the determination of planning principles, organizational structure and management strategies for education in Nigeria, the doctrine of hierarchy of authority holds sway. Consequently, both legally and administratively, laws, decrees and directives, executive circulars of the Federal Government, its agencies and parastatals take precedence overthose of State Governments. In practice, therefore, the organisation, planning and management of the Nigerian education system are centrally determined. These policies and decisions are then handed down to the various State and Local Governments for adoption and implementation. However, although there are often provisions for local variations or adjustments to reflect the peculiar circumstances and needs of individual States, the propensity towards uniformity and centralization is at variance with the spirit of federalism which thrives on unity in diversity. Perhaps s o m e explanation m a y be found forthis apparent domination of the States by the Federal Government, even on matters of educational organisation, planning and management in the highly centralised, unitary and dictatorial m o d e of government which is characteristic of military regimes the world over. However, it has been asserted that the Macpherson Constitution of 1951 advanced the cause and merits of regionalism, and helped in the speedy development of education. Taiwo (1980:100)^

Structure and Organisation of the System U p to the mid-1950's, Nigeria operated an education system with 8 years of primary

schooling, 5 years of secondary school, a two-year higher school or sixth form, and a standard three-year university education i.e. an 8-5-2-3 system of education. By independence in 1960, primary education had been reduced to six years. The Ashby Commission on the future of post-secondary education in Nigeria recommended certain innovations in its report titled "Investment in Education" It recommended the abolition of the sixth form or higher school classes and the extension of university education from 3 to 4 years. Government accepted the recommendations and gradually phased out sixth form classes. However, the three-year university course for holders of higher school certificate or General Certificate of Education (Advanced Level) w a s to run for a few m o ^ e years, side by side with the four-year course for those entering the universities straight frpm secondary school with only the Wes t African School Certificate ( W A S C ) or London University G . C . E . (Ordinary Level).

The teachertraining system was also restructured and re-organised to mirror changes

11

at the primary, secondary and tertiary education levels. For example, teacher training institutions below the status of Grade II Training Colleges were abolished. A middle-level teaching programme w a s introduced by the establishment of Advanced Teacher Training Colleges (ATTC) , later renamed Colleges of Education. They produced holders of the Nigerian Certificate in Education (NCE) , while graduate teachers were produced by the universities through an innovative programme first started by the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, in 1961. This w a s the concurrent study of teaching subjects and professional courses in education. It gradually replaced the consecutive system whereby a prospective graduate teacher first obtained a degree in a subject, and then spent another full year in an Institute of Education forthe Post-graduate Diploma in Education ( P G D E ) . The two approaches to the production of professional graduate teachers are still operated, but the concurrent programme is the more popular.

In 1977, the Federal Government published a n e w National Policy on Education (see Chapter 1). The policy w a s revised in 1981. It marked a significant departure, in the organisation of the education system, from the British model which the country inherited, to the American structure. The 6-3-3-4, as it is popularly called, consists of six years primary education; three years junior secondary school; three years Senior Secondary School, and fouryears of university education. A n important element of the JuniorSecondary School is the inclusion of prevocational subjects as well as Nigerian languages in the curriculum. Primary education w a s planned to be free and compulsory while the junior secondary school w a s also to admit all primary school leavers and be also free.

Hailed as one of the best educational policies ever produced by Nigeria, the present general verdict is that its implementation has been haphazard, lacking in innovative planning, devoid of political will, and dephvedof sustainable financial support and accountability in resource management .

Pre-primary education in Nigeria is relatively n e w and remains only at semi-official level in the education system. It is not yet a part of the public education system and has been left to private enterprise and initiative. It is quite expensive and the better organised pre-primary schools are the exclusive preserve of the rich and the elite in society. Structurally, the educational pyramid in Nigeria is an awkward structure with a very broad primary education level, a narrow middle, and a very conical apex, all these standing on a small peg of pre-primary education.

Within each organisational level of the education system are to be found a variety of education programmes. For example, in the past, secondary schools were organised as grammar schools, technical schools, commercial schools, vocational schools and comprehensive schools. The structuring of secondary education into specialised education institutions w a s criticised as being too restrictive and myopic in both educational objectives and curriculum content planning. The National Policy on Education changed the structure by organising all secondary schools as comprehensive schools in which every student w a s to be exposed to opportunities in arts, science, social science, vocational, technical and commercial subjects. The child therefore w a s given the right to choose his specialties later in his or her studies, based on his needs, ability, interests and aspirations. Higher education w a s restructured to ensure the relevance ofjwhat a university teaches to national development. Courses in agriculture, teachereducation, business m a n a g e m e n t and Nigerian languages assumed greater,prominence relative t© the traditional courses in the arts, sciences, engineering, law and medicine. -IVIoreover, the importance of polytechnics and colleges of education w a s emphasized as institrations with special roles to perform and not as mere alternative places of study for those^ho could not secure admission into the universities.

12

The Planning of Education

Before independence in 1960, the management of education w a s mostly a regional

affair and each of the three regions, East, West, and North, planned and organised its

education system as it deemed fit. The first attempt at a co-ordinated centrally planned

education system was initiated in the First National Development Plan (1962 -1968). The Plan

aimed at considerable increase in primary school enrolment and this w a s achieved. The

planned increase at the secondary level was not attained but much expansion occurred in the

teacher training colleges, the technical colleges and the universities. The Nigeria-Biafra Civil

war seriously affected the implementation of the plan. The Second National Development Plan

(1970 -1974) c a m e immediately the civil war ended, and during the oil boom years. It was also

a period of reconstruction and rehabilitation and there w a s much expansion of educational

facilities and increase in enrolments at all levels. But the expected national minimum enrolment

ratio of 50 per cent at the secondary level could not be attained.

The Third National Development Plan (1975 -1980) witnessed a massive expansion

of the education system far beyond the expectations of the planners. Free universal primary

education was introduced throughoutthe country bythe Federal Government in 1976, and in

1979, the n e w National Policy on Education was published. The number of universities

increased from 6 to 13 and the planned target enrolment of 53,000 forthe end of the plan period

w a s exceeded, the enrolment in 1980/81 academic session being 90,751.

The Fourth National Development Plan (1981 -1985) also saw its educational targets

exceeded in spite of m a n y problems during implementation. For example, military coups

created uncertainty and instability, while the fall of the price of crude oil in the world market

meant serious financial crisis for both Federal and State Governments. Table 1 shows the

growth pattern of primary and secondary educational levels while Table 2 reveals the

uncontrolled and poorly planned growth pattern of higher education.

Table 1: Primary and Secondary Education Expansion 1960 -1993

Year

1960 1965 1970 1975 1976 1980 1985 1990 1993

Primary Schools Schools

N.A.

21-21,223 30,726 36,534 35,281 35,432 38,254

Enrolment

2,912,619 2,911,742 3,515,825 6,165,547 8,260,189 13,760,030 13,025,287 13,607,249 15,870,280

Secondary Schools Schools

N.A.

1,513 1,660 2,769 5,181 5,964 5,959

Enrolment

135,434 209,015 310,054 610,652 826,926 2,342,701 2,794,498 2,893,918 4,032,083

Source: Federal Ministry of Education: Statistics of Education.

13

Table 2: Expansion of Higher Education 1960 -1995

Year

1960/61 1965/66 1970/71 1975/76 1981/82 1985/86 1990/91 1995/96

i

Universities

No.

2 5 5 13 13 27 31 38

Enrolment

1,395 7,709 14,468 32,286 90,751 135,783 180,871 200,000

Polytechnics

No.

4 4 N.A. N.A. 29 27 31 33

Enrolment

3,000 1,158 N.A. N.A. 60,583 61,136 72,681 80,000

Colleges of Education

No.

0 4 5 12 31 40 49 56

Enrolment

0 N.A. N.A. N.A. 32,716 55,983 85,121 91,000

Note; 1995/96 enrolment figures are estimates.

Sources: (a) Longe Report (1991) and (b) N . U . C . Annual Reports.

The Federal and State Ministries of Education have each a Department of Educational

Planning. It is the function of the Department to collect and analyse relevant demographic

information and data necessary forthe effective and efficient organisation and management

of the education system, including its funding and development of facilities for teaching and

learning. N e w projects and programmes are evaluated by the Department of Educational

Planning in terms of cost-benefit analysis for their cost-effectiveness. The Joint Consultative

Committee on Education, popularly referred to as the J C C , brings together experts from the

Federal and State Ministries of Education, the Universities, Polytechnics, Colleges of

Education, various parastatals of education and the Nigeria Union of Teachers (N.U.T.) . It

meets regularly to deliberate on all important plans, proposals, changes, projects and

programmes in education. If the J . C . C . considers that an education plan, proposal or

innovation is good for the country, or any part thereof, it accepts and recommends it to the

National Council on Education (N.C.E.) forapproval, and implementation.

The National Council on Education comprises all the State Commissioners of

Education with the Federal Minister of Education as Chairman. Whatever plan or programme

the Council approves is automatically adopted by Federal and State Governments for

implementation. However, unless there is also a law or decree to back up the approval, s o m e

states that have difficulty in implementing a particular policy, plan or programme have

sometimes ignored or modified it in ways suited to their local situations or budgets. In addition

to the J C C and the N C E , there are parastatals set up to enhance the planning, organisation

and management of different types of education in the country. (See Chapter 9).

Each of these parastatals has wide-powers and responsibilities to plan and supervise

the type of education within its jurisdiction. This includes regulating the establishment of

institutions and their rate of expansion and ensuring the maintenance of minimum national

standards. In fact. Decree N o . 9 of 1993 titled "Education (National Minimum Standards and

Establishment of Institutions) (Amendment) Decree" w a s promulgated to prevent the

unplanned and unco-ordinated establishment of n e w higher educational Institutions In the

country. It was a planning strategy which has struggled valiantly to regulate the number of n e w

institutions and guarantee acceptable national and International standards, throughout

Nigeria.

It would be fair to say that Nigeria has not, at least In the last two decades, lacked either

good educational plans or trained educational planners. W e have moved from long plan

14

periods of six orfive years in the 1960s and 1970s, to shorter rolling plans of two or three years. Educational planners have been trained for the country by the Universities and such international agencies as U N E S C O . Unfortunately, m a n y plan objectives have never been realised mainly because of poor implementation of action p rog rammes . Very often, over-ambitious plans, political instability or badly m a n a g e d economies and w e a k accountability have combined to m a k e purposeful pursuit and attainment of stated plan objectives an impossible mission. Anotherfactor inhibiting successful implementation of education plans has been poor, and somet imes a lack of, co-ordination between plans at Federal and State Government levels, and between one level of the education system and others.

Financing the Education S y s t e m T h e financing of education is at the heart of the educational crisis in m a n y countries of

the world. In Nigeria, there appears to be a perennial shortage of funds for the education system at all levels. Politicians, economists and educationists are in constant search for answers to such questions as w h o should pay for education and what is the reasonable ratio of contribution of funds towards educational support from different tiers of Government , parents, communities and corporations, whether public or private. T h e application of cost-benefit analysis theories in education has not yielded satisfactory or complete answers mainly because the benefits derived from education are enjoyed by individuals, the society, employers, and the international community in proportions that are not exactly quantified and which vary from o n e environmentto another. While there is continuing research and debate on the matter, the difficulty of collecting quantitative and qualitative data on both the costs and benefits of education to the individual and to the public m a k e s the drawing of conclusions, at best, very tentative, and thus facilitates inaction.

Nevertheless, the planning and m a n a g e m e n t of education in Nigeria depend very m u c h for their success on the availability of funds to implement policies and execute projects and programmes. T h e financing of education has always been a very controversial subject; whole books, special issues of journals, and chapters in books have been devoted to discussion of this important subject. Therefore, in this contribution, attention is focused on the following areas:

(a) Federal, State and Local Government Financing of Education; (b) Financial support from corporations and communities; (c) Private inputs to educational financing; and (d) International aid foreducation in Nigeria.

Within each of the above areas, the nature and adequacy of the funds provided will be explored, and their utilization by the planners, organisers and managers of the system examined.

G o v e r n m e n t Financing of Education: This follows closely the legal structure for the administration of education in the country. T h u s , the Federal Governmen t funds all federal educational institutions including universities, polytechnics, colleges of education, and federal government secondary schools. A s already discussed, this'is d o n e through the Federal Ministry of Education and its parastatals such as the National Universities Commiss ion , the National Commiss ion for Colleges of Education, and the National Board for Technical Education. Others are the National Commiss ion for N o m a d i c Education, the National Commiss ion for Adult, M a s s Literacy and Non-Formal Education, the Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board, and the W e s t African Examinations Council. T o help Local Government Councils in the discharge of their constitutional responsibility to m a n a g e primary education, financial assistance is provided through the National Primary Education Commiss ion .

T h e Federal Gove rnmen t is able to provide most of the funds required to m a n a g e federal educational institutions because it collects and keeps the lion's share of centrally

15

generated revenue in the country. Indeed, it controls exclusively the main sourœs of revenue such as crude oil, other mineral resources, customs and excise duties, a m o n g others. The revenue sharing formula of January 1991 shows the picture as follows:

Federal Government 55% State Governments (36 States) 25% Local Governments (over 770 L.G.A.) 15% There remains a strong feeling that the Federal Government's share of central revenue

is excessive in relation to the share of the 36 States which, a m o n g other responsitilities, m a n a g e their Secondary Schools, help Local Government Councils to maintain primary education, and if there is need, establish and finance their o w n universities, polytechnics, colleges of education, and othertertiary and professional educational institutions, particularly, as the tax base of State Governments is limited and m a n y depend on the quarterly subventions fromthe Federal Government for survival. Only three States, Kano, Lagos and Rivers have recently been assessed as viable; others are today so poor that they cannot financially sustain their existing educational institutions. The result is that teachers are often owed m a n y months' salaries, while the school infrastructures, facilities and equipment are either non-existent, dilapidated, or grossly inadequate. This makes the effective management of the education system a herculean task, and when the situation becomes intolerable, eitherthe teachers or the students or both revolt, leading to demonstrations, strike actions, frequent and often prolonged closures of the institutions and d a m a g e to educational quality.

It w a s perhaps in recognition of the impoverished status of the State Governments and the enormous statutory responsibilities they have to shoulder, especially at this level, that the Federal Government established the National Primary Education Commission by Decree in 1991. Though the decree w a s subsequently abolished, it w a s re-established in an amplified form by a n e w decree in 1993, in which the formula for distribution of the National Primary Education Fund w a s cleariy spelt out to take account of such factors as school enrolment, equality of States and special fundsfor educationally disadvantaged States. Itwill be recalled that when in 1976, the Federal Government introduced free, universal primary education and funded both the capital and recurrent expenditure almosttotally, it kept and controlled 80 per cent of the national revenue. W h e n its retained share of the distributable Federal revenue w a s reduced, as shown above (p.27), it also abandoned the total U P E scheme to State Governments w h o s e share had been increased; however, this did not result in an equitable adjustment.

Various efforts have continuously been m a d e by the Federal and State Governments to raise funds for education. Apartfrom the normal provision ofa percentage of annual budgets to the Sector, other sources have been explored. A n Education Fund w a s established by a Federal Government Decree in 1993 and all corporations and companies, of an identified minimum operating capacity, were required to contribute2%oftheirannual profits to the Fund. Reports indicate that m a n y companies have not been complying with this requirement and enforcement has been haphazard. In otherefforts, many State Governments have tried to raise funds for education by imposing an education tax on all taxable adults but again this has never worked satisfactorily anywhere in Nigeria. S o m e Governments have imposed a property tax from which they hoped to increase their revenue for education, but landlords and even government officials, w h o assess the number and value of the property to be taxed, have hamstrung this effort.

O n e of the problems of effective revenue generation in Nigeria lies in the over-dependence of Government on one primary source of national revenue. Since the 1980s, petroleum has accounted for nearly 9 0 % of the national revenue. With recent experiences of worid oil glut and the fall in crude oil price on the world market, attempts have been m a d e to diversify the national economy. It is estimated that in the last decade, agriculture, solid minerals

16

and other resources have yielded up to 2 0 % of the revenue, but petroleum resources still account for an excessive 80% of national revenue. Declining government finances for education have resulted in the re-introduction of tuition and otherfees where there were none, and in phenomenal increases in m a n y cases.

Governments are fully aware of the serious impact of poor funding on the organisation and m a n a g e m e n t of the school system, and from time to time, politically-motivated and unplanned announcements of huge "Special Grants" to education have been m a d e by Federal and State Governments. For example, the Federal Government in 1991 announced an increase of the Local Government share of distributable federal revenue from 10% to 15% in orderte help the latter cope with the cost of managing primary education. In the s a m e year, the Government also announced a special grant of N225 million for the rehabilitation and restoration of 225 old secondary schools in the country. In 1992, following the Report of the Higher Education Commission (Longe Commission), it gave N 2 5 million to each federal university to renovate its facilities. Yet the irregularity of such grants m a k e s serious planning impossible, and education cannot be financed through unplanned and unco-ordinated grants and donations, no matter h o w generous.

Communities in Nigeria have contributed immensely to the financing of education through their self-help projects. In m a n y places, they have built and equipped schools, and then invited government to take over their organisation and management . Instances abound of communities w h o have contributed funds to assist the recurrent expenses of schools e.g. renovation, supply of equipment, or the expansion of ihfrastructural facilities. Igwe ( 1988:110) has attributed the tremendous growth of secondary education in the Eastern States of Nigeria to such community effort. Citing the former Imo State as an example, he noted that the number of secondary schools increased from 147 in 1976 to 476 in 1984, "and all the n e w ones had been initiated and financed bythe communities themselves'"'.

The contributions of communities towards the financing of education in Nigeria have not yet been properly evaluated in quantitative terms. Apart from the school fees which parents pay for their children, there are often community education levies on all adults to support a community school. Local Government officials, churches and school authorities occasionally b e c o m e involved in the launching of appeals for people to pay and denying defaulters access to certain local privileges. S o m e large corporations such as oil companies, have also contributed to education in their operational communities either in cash or by building schools and supplying equipment. Wealthy philanthropic individuals in m a n y communities have also provided financial and matehal assistance for educational development.

M u c h financial support for Nigerian education has c o m e from international bodies such as the World Bank, U N E S C O , UNICEF , U N D P and U N F P A . Financial assistance also comes through bilateral agreements between Nigeria and other countries e.g. the United Kingdom, United States of America and Canada, a m o n g others. The World Bank recently provided a grant of 200 million U . S . dollars for purchase of equipment and books forthe universities, and another 20 million dollars for the primary schools. But the role of external aid in boosting finances for education has c o m e under closer scrutiny and criticism in recent times. According to Ebhohimen (1992:1290)^° one of the criticisms is that foreign aid to an institution can create high standards that cannot be duplicated in other institutions, nor even maintained at the recipient institution with national funds when external funding ends. There are also allegations that a good percentage of foreign funds meant for educational projects and programmes are not always spent as intended. Nevertheless, Federal, State and Local Governments benefit considerablyfrom international sources of funding for education. It is equally true that these have not always been adequately acknowledged.

A n examination of the overall allocation of financial resources to education in recent times, as well as the distribution of funds for education to the various levels according to

17

emerging priorities, shows little discernible pattern beyond an ad hoc response to need. For example, Ndagi (1982:134)" comparing the federal allocations to education, health, agriculture and defence during the military era 1968 to 1978 found that education c a m e second to defence in the amount of money allocated to each sector each year. But thereafter, the picture changed and federal allocation to education continued to decline from 24.5% of the recurrent budget in 1978 to less than 8% in 1996. The percentages allocated to education by the States also declined from as high as 4 5 % in s o m e States in the 1970s to as low as 15% in the 1990s with most of the funds going to primary and secondary education whereas most of the federal funds went to higher education.

Since Education is a capital-intensive enterprise, guaranteed sources of financing need to be identified and explored, and appropriate policies and legislation put in place to ensure their effective exploitation and utilization. Occasional donations or grants from sources like the Petroleum Trust Fund and the World Bank, or even Presidency, are clearly unreliable, and Managers of the education system cannot afford to plan its development on the basis of such occasional grants and donations. Without adequate planning predicated on short and long-term budget estimates, the education environment will continue to be littered with uncompleted and abandoned projects and programmes, and the various crises currently plaguing the education system will be aggravated. The greatest challenge confronting the planners and managers of education in Nigeria is h o w to convince Federal, State and Local Governments that educational financing deserves better attention and treatment at budget sessions than it n o w receives because all our developmental planning is intricately interwoven with what happens to the national education system n o w and in the future.

M a n a g e m e n t Issues and Problems The Nigerian education system has witnessed tremendous growth and expansion

since independence in 1960. But m a n y critics, for example M u s a (1987:31)^ point outthat the system has undergone only quantitative improvements in terms of number of institutions and students enrolment while there has been little development in respect of capacity to maintain standards and efficiency in the process and products of education. This situation has been attributed to the manner in which the education system is organised, planned and administered, which is generally perceived as crisis-ridden. Writing about what she called "The Environment of Crises in the Nigerian Education System", N w a g w u (1997:87)^ drew attention to a series of debilitating crises within the system, especially in the last two decades, and attributed these to poor and ineffective planning and management of the system.

M a n y problems in education have occurred because of the politics of education. For example, the crises of educational financing, frequent strikes by staff and riots by students have b e c o m e almost a permanent feature mainly because of excessive centralisation of educational planning and Federal Government intervention in matters which should be handled by the States. Adesina (1982:27)^ holds the view that "If the Federal Government attempts to solve problems which should be handled locally, it will be less effective in advancing the objectives and interests of national development"^ The power struggle at the Federal level by politicians and government leaders, whether civilian or military, is invariably complicated by the interjection of religious and ethnic sentiments and interest. These m a k e policy formulation and decision-making in education very difficult and worse still, often determine h o w well a policyorprogramme is implemented; and at times, whether implementation takes place at all.

The absence of a record-keeping culture and the inability to collect and utilize demographic and educational data properly have resulted in poor or ineffective planning, organization and management of education in Nigeria. O n w u e m e (1995:18)^" opines that Nigeria plans and m a n a g e s her education system without relevant facts. Thus, the failure to relate enrolment projections to the provision of classrooms and other educational facilities is

18

responsible for an unconducive teaching-learning environment in the schools and subsequentlyforthe declining standards.

A major problem in the planning and management of education in Nigeria is the debate about what is an equitable sharing of the cost of providing education. A s already observed from the Nigerian Constitution, the provision of education and hence its funding is the concurrent responsibility of Federal, State and Local governments. It is also accepted as the duty of parents to educate their children and they cannot therefore escape the responsibility of participation in the financing of education. H o w the financial burden should be shared has remained an unresolved problem. However, the current trend is for Government to demand greaterfinancial contribution from parents, and the phenomenal increases of tuition fees by s o m e State governments in recent years testifies to this. But N w a g w u (1992:90)^ argues that since the Federal Government collects about 8 0 % of the nation's total revenue, it must contribute more funds to support the efforts of state and local governments and parents; just h o w much remains the question.

To what extent Government should allow private individuals, church organisations and other groups to participate in the management of education in Nigeria is an issue that has also continued to generate heated debates. The dual control system between government and churches w a s in existence until afterthe civil war of 1967-70. The East Central State in 1970 took over all private and voluntary agency schools, and many other states followed its example. N w a g w u (1976)^ considered the merits of, and arguments against the States take-over of schools and concluded that although the mood atthe time might have justified the decision, the effect on management , financing and standards m a d e the policy a questionable one. Today, private individuals and religious groups are once again allowed to open and run their own institutions, including universities - subject to certain prescribed conditions in the interest of minimum standards. The problem again lies in the non- enforcement of the laws.

Suggestions for Improvement and Development

In the preceding sections of this Chapter, the structure and organization of Nigerian education has been examined, including its planning and financing and the strategies for managing the system. S o m e issues and controversies in educational management arising from its legal framework and power devolution have also been highlighted. In this concluding section, s o m e suggestions are offered for a more effective planning, organisation, financing and management of the education system. These are summarized as follows:

1. There should be greater decentralization of educational management . The Federal

Government should play the primary role of co-ordination of planning and provision of

organisational guidelines. 2. The best plans for education cannot be implemented nor the best organisational

structures properly and efficiently managed unless adequate funds are provided to support the education system. The best way to ensure provision of such funds is a well-managed economy.

3. There must be socio-political stability in the country which in turn will foster the full implementation of educational plans, policies and programmes, and so reduce cases of abandoned projects and minimise wastage in the education system.

4. Government should exercise the political will.to determine how education in Nigeria should be funded. While certain current government attempts are laudable, a good m a n y of its present policies are haphazard and uncertain, often adopting one policy declaration to-day and reversing itself the next day.

5. The systems approach should be applied to the organisation, planning and management of education. The nation must clearly implement a unified vision of

educational objectives, inputs, processes, outputs, evaluation as well as feedback mechanisms.

6. Finally, the planning, organisation and management of education should remain in competent hands, adequately trained and motivated to perform their functions as professionals with vision and commitmentto success and excellence.

In the final analysis, however, it must be remembered that the planning and management of an educational system requires the co-operation and co-ordinated efforts of all concerned with education as an instrumentfor personal and national development. This includes various individuals, parents, politicians, government and non-governmental organisations, religious bodies, private corporations and international agencies and all Governments should encourage such participation and co-operation.

20

Bibliography

1. Federal Republic of Nigeria: Development Plan 1970-74, Lagos, Fed. Govt. Printer.

2. Federal Republic of Nigeria: Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1979. Lagos, Federal Government Printer.

3. Taiwo, C O . (1980): The Nigerian Education System: Past, Present and Future. Lagos, T h o m a s Nelson.

4. Igwe, S . O . (1988): "Community Financing of Schools in Eastern Nigerian", in Community Financing of Education: Issues and Policy Implications in Less Developed Countries, edited by M . Brag and K. Lillis. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

5. Musa , M . B . (1987): "The Quantity Versus Quality Debate", in Emergent Issues in Nigerian Education edited by A . Ejiogu and D . Ajeyalemi. Lagos, Joja Press, pp. 31-44.

6. N w a g w u . C . C . (1997): "The Environment of Crises in the Nigerian Education System", Comparative Education Journal (U.K.) Vol. 33, N o . 1, pp. 87-95.

7. Adesina, S . (1982): "Education for Development: The Challenges of the 1980's" in Nigerian Education: Trends and Issues edited by Adesina, S . ; Akinyemi K. & Ajayi, K. Ilorin, University of llorin. pp. 23-31.

8. N w a g w u , N . A . (1992): "Financing Education in Nigeria: Issues and Innovations" in Towards Education in Nigeria forthe21st Century edited by S . Oriafoand U. Gbenedio, Benin City, University of Benin Press, pp. 90-101.

9. N w a g w u , N . A . (1976): J P E in Nigeria: Issues, Problems and Prospects. Benin,

Ethiope Publishing Corporation.

10. Ebhohimen, P.(1992): "Sources of Educational Financing in Nigeria: a Strategic Menu for the 21st Centun/". in Oriafo, S . and Gbenedio, U . (eds); Towards Education in Nigeria for the 21st Century. Benin City, University of Behin Press, pp. 129-145.

11. Ndagi, J .O . (1982): "Financing of Education in Nigeria Under Military Rule 1968 -

1978", in Adesina et al., op. cit. pp. 134-154.

12. C o o m b s , P.H.(1968): "The World Educational Crisis: A System Analysis. London.

Oxford University Press.

13. Federal Ministry of Education (1985): Statistics of Education. Lagos, Federal

Government Printer.

14. O n w u e m e . M . S . (1995): "Planning Education Without Facts: The Nigerian Case", in Data Management in Schools and other issues edited by E.T. Ehiametalor. Benin City: N E R A , pp. 18-24.

21

CHAPTER III

CURRICULUM AND CONTENT OF EDUCATION

Introduction The content of education in Nigeria lias only undergone few changes in the past five

years. Prior to this period and over s o m e decades, the school curriculum witnessed m a n y

changes both in variety and intensity. The advent of the National Policy on Education in 1977

brought with it the need to radically change the school curriculum. A s a n e w philosophy on

education w a s fashioned out and functional education b e c a m e evident and relevant, n e w

content that touched on the socio-cultural as well as the political economy of the country

emerged.

National curriculum development efforts were embarked upon in the late 1960s,

culminating in a series of school curriculum projects that were fore-runners of the activities that

revolutionaiised the content of education in Nigeria. By 1977 w h e n the current policy on

education began, sufficient training and expertise had accumulated to enable proper actions

to be taken in the different areas of curriculum development. Appropriate curriculum contents

were developed for the school system in the 1980s and were reviewed in 1991 and 1997.

Based on the experiences acquired over the years, the feedback of 1991 and

subsequent appraisal of the education system, s o m e curricular changes have been proposed

that are aimed at further improving the education system to fit into the dynamics of current

events and of the immediate future.

Issues of relevance, costs, supply of instructional materials, science and technology

education, life skills and values education are discussed here in relation to curriculum

development in Nigeria. Suggestions arising mainly from values education are also proffered.

The objectives of education in Nigeria have been well spelt out in the National Policy

on Education in both broad and specific terms. A s these derive from the philosophy of

education, they address the inculcation of right values and attitudes for the attainment of

national unity and the survival of the individual and the Nigerian society; the acquisition of

appropriate knowledge, competences and skills for the development of individuals and the

Nigerian society; and the training of the mind forthe understanding and appreciation of the

world around. At the different levels of education, the specific objectives have again been well

spelt out to ensure appropriate instruction and relevant evaluation.

The curricular implication of these is the extent of distortion in the implementation of

curriculum plans as, for example, enriching activities are either not carried out, or are only

partially executed, leading to non-fulfillment of instructional provisions forthe attainment of set

objectives of education.

In recent years, government priorities have been handed d o w n to curriculum

developers for inclusion in the school curriculum. Despite the existence of social studies in the

school curriculum, government insistence on citizenship education led to its provision in the

school curriculum at all levels of education. The issues emphasized in this content include the

Nigerian Constitution, tenets of the war against indiscipline (WAI); M a s s Mobilisation for

Social Justice and Economic Recovery ( M A M S E R ) principles and the highway C o d e . The

W A I tenets and M A M S E R principles were at various times directed to be taught in schools,

but their evolution into citizenship education marked a major step in their professional

acceptance and political assertion for educational progress. Other areas of emphasis have

included the Nigerian languages in an effort to foster national unity through indigenous

communication modes , and skill-forming subjects such as h o m e econcmics, business studies

and technology.

22

Just as national pressures on curriculum developers led to a number of n e w subjects being included in the school curriculum, international trends also led to the inclusion of n e w subjects. Population and family life education, drug abuse education, environmental education and science, technology and society c o m e readily to mind. In order to avoid overloading of the school curricula, an integrated approach through the process of infusion of relevant components of these n e w subjects into existing school subjects, has been adopted.

By this development, a complex mix of the issues of overloading, poor achievement, inadequate h u m a n and material resources as well as time-tabling has emerged. Part of the current efforts to address this phenomenon is the proposal to re-design school curricula in Nigeria using the thematic approach a m o n g others to content selection, and the provision of options in school subject content (Ivowi, 1997 (a) & b)^ This is in order to conform to democratic principles and practices in education as they affect the selection of learning experiences at the secondary and tertiary levels of education in Nigeria.

Costs The issue of costs in education and particularly in curriculum development anc

implementation has m a n y component factors. These include population, infrastructures, resources and standards. Given the requirements of the National Policy on Education, universal basic education is to be provided for all citizens. Using the 1991 population of 88.5 million forthe country, and assuming that half of the 4 7 % of the population below age 16 years is in primary school, there should be about 20.68 million atthat level of education. But the 1994 figures show an enrolment of 16.19 million, giving a shortfall of 4.49 million which can be regarded as children not in school. This figure is so large as to cause serious concern in any consideration.

Clearly, the suggested solutions to the problems of curriculum relevance in Nigeria have cost implications which must be satisfactorily addressed to ensure any success. Yet underfunding of the education sector is glaringly evident and its effect on curriculum development and implementation equally obvious.

Funding problems also affect school inspection. Inspection to monitor curriculum implementation is hardly carried out; and even when done, suggestions for improvement are hardly effected, since follow-up visits are rare to c o m e by. In other words, both "transition and transaction" inspections are ineffectively executed. Formative evaluation of the curriculum development process has been ignored in s o m e cases. Most of the school curricula approved in 1985 forthe senior secondary school programme did not undergo adequate formative evaluation before implementation in the school system. The reason forthis w a s two-fold: first, lack of early release of funds led to delay in the development of the curriculum contents; second, at the time the curricula were approved, they had to be installed immediately because of lack oftime.

The issue of end-of-programme assessment at the secondary level has recently assumed a national character. Parents have complained of the exorbitant examination fees charged by the West African Examinations Council ( W A E C ) . This arose from the high cost of conducting the examination and the static low grant received from the Federal Government. In orderto resolve the problem, a committee was set up and, in its report to the Federal Ministry of Education, it upheld the parents' complaints that the examination fee« were eycessive Various suggestions have been m a d e for reducing the cosi oí erî -Ôi-pioyiaiiuiie absebbuitini atthis level of education. They include reducing the number of papers in the examination, and also replacing or cancelling the practical tests involved in skill-forming subjects and the natural sciences. This would introduce the risk of defeating the functional aspect of our educational objectives, if practicáis were not tested in the examinations. For now, it is mainly because of the "practicáis" in the examinations that s o m e effoks aje being rnade to conduct "practicáis"

23

in schools and w h y teachers attempt to teach properly through experiments and controlled activities. M a n y are not satisfied with the suggested alternative to examination "practicáis"

.since it negates that aspect of our educational philosophy which emphasises the development and acquisition of manipulative skills. It is clearthat there is need to continue to test "practicáis" in school examinations,even though it is recognised that to conduct the "practicáis" examination is expensive while seeking to reduce the general cost of conducting examinations. Unless Government subsidises W A E C adequately, standards will be sacrificed while reducing parents' burdens.

Supply of Instructional Materials Instructional materials are very crucial to the proper implementation of any curriculum

because they form part of curriculum materials used in the education process. O n e of the components addressed w h e n assessing the relevance of school curricula is the availability of instructional materials: First, these materials need to reflect a one-to-one correspondence with curriculum contents in order to qualify for "face validity". Second, illustrations are best taken from the locality in orderte operate within the experience of the learners; and third, the developers of such materials need to be very familiar with the philosophy, objectives and the contentofthecurriculum being addressed. Inthisconnection.itisadvantageoustoensurethat indigenous authors are sensitised and encouraged to produce instructional materials. Government is aware of this and has in fact encouraged it through the establishment of a book development centre at the Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council ( N E R D C ) , as well as two Science Equipment Manufacturing Companies at Enugu and Minna and the National Educational Technology Centre ( N E T C ) at Kaduna. It has also encouraged indigenous companies to manufacture instructional materials.

In order to assess properly, the supply of instructional materials in the school system, five areas will be examined, viz development, production, distribution, procurement and associated problems.

(i) Development: Over the years, distinctive activities have been associated with the development of

instructional materials. T h e actors in this area have been curriculum developers which are mainly government agencies and professional bodies as well as committed individuals all working with publishers group co-operation in the development of such materials has been encouraged and printers and thus the final product has generally been comprehensive and of high quality. T h e N E R D C , the Science Teachers Association of Nigeria ( S T A N ) , the Mathematical Association of Nigeria ( M A N ) are examples of government agencies and professional bodies that have contributed immensely to the development of such instructional materials as students' textbooks and teachers' guides, at both primary and secondary levels. These bodies and publishers as well as Ministries of Education in s o m e States have organised groups of writers to develop specific textbooks and tended to follow the strategies indicated above. Notable innovations in textbook production have been the following:

(a) integration oftheoryandpracticals/activities in textbooks;

(b) development of the content with admixture of theoretical information, questioning and learner a,ctivities.

ii) Production and Publication In order to overcome the problem of textbook scarcity created by the reluctance of

established commercial publishers to publish books, as well as the p h e n o m e n o n of limited circulation and low returns, Government has had to mobilize s o m e of its parastatals to publish essential books for use in schools. W h e r e feasible. Government parastatals such as the

24

N E R D C have gone into partnership with commercial publishers in joint venture. In such joint-publishing ventures, the publisher and co-publisher contribute equally to the cost of production and share both the accrued profit and risk on a 50:50 basis.

iii) Distribution The distribution of books to schools in Nigeria is problematic. It suffices here to note

the channels for distributing instructional materials which include commercial outlets government, and library channels and the academic book-sellers. The commercial channels include general book retailers, one-man retailers and the large business retailers. They collect books from the warehouses of publishers and are supervised by the publishers representatives w h o essentially are marketers and can offer advice to promote the sale of books. The government channels include bulk purchases by State Governments, book depots normally run by Governments or their agencies, and the Federal Government Book Aid Programme as a special channel used in the past for a specific project.

Academic booksellers constitute another channel which essentially comprises university, polytechnic and college of education bookshops. They are normally located in the relevant institutions and cater primarily for the needs of these institutions. A s far as possible, they seek to meet the needs of students, lecturers and libraries in the promotion of academic excellence in the tertiary institutions and contribute to getting essential text books to all corners of the country.

iv) Procurement The issue of procurement of instructional materials rests squarely on end-users and

depends largely on the availability of funds. The principalactors in procurement are parents, schools. Government (through intervention), publishers and marketers. Parents ultimately bearthebruntastheirchildren in schools need resourcesfortheirlearning activities. Schools purchase books for their libraries and also sell to parents through their children. By bulk purchase, the unit cost of each book is reduced and thus students are more able to afford copies. In addition, such school participation in procurement of books ensures that in an organised setting, books are more readily available and supplied to students for their parents to pay later.

(v) Problems T h e problems of supply of instructional materials in the school system can be

summarized as follows: a) inadequate quantities of available materials either in the finished or raw form;

b) high cost of production leading to unaffordable cost of books to parents; c) poor distribution due to low performance by booksellers;

d) low capital base for marketers; and e) low income of parents w h o pay for these instructional materials.

T w o major solutions have been proposed to these problems. The first is the bulk purchase of printing materials or books by publishers to reduce the unit cost of books to students. This requires huge capital costs and other logistics in orderte succeed. The second is the use of cheap local materials for book production. Studies by the N E R D C reveal that the potential for cheap local materials for the pulp and ink industries exists and that relevant researches have provided impressive data which could stimulate more efforts in this area. If successfully carried out, printing materials could be cheaply produced locally to reduce the current cost of instructional materials to a more manageable level.

25

Science and Technology Education Science and Technology is one of the priority areas of Government. A National Policy

on Science and Technology w a s enunciated in 1986 with well defined philosophy and objectives which include the need for acculturation and use of science and technology; and the need for technology transfer and acquisition through m a s s science education. It has been noted in earlier chapters that the National Policy on Education underscores the importance of science and technology and envisages adequate provision for it. At all levels of education, science and technology education is emphasized in of-der to equip students to live effectively in the modern age of science and technology. Over the years, activities in science and technologyeducation have been intense. To explore this, the provision, in terms of curriculum content, teaching and learning strategies; and activities with reference to implementation and level of output and attendant problems are furtherdiscussed.

Policy Underthe Policy, science is to be taught to all school children at all levels of education;

it is compulsory at primary and secondary schools, while at the tertiary level, it is part of General Studies for all students. A s for technology, handicraft is available at the primary level; pre-vocational subjects in the form of introductory technology, agriculture, h o m e economics, and business studies are compulsory at the Junior Secondary School (JSS); while, a vocational subject (which can be one of seven technical subjects or agriculture) or any of the three h o m e economics subjects or four business studies, is compulsory at the Senior Secondary School (SSS).

The curriculum in science and technology has been well articulated with functionality and the integration of theory and practicals/workshops as paramount aims. Creativity and improvisation are also highly rated. Science and technology are student-activity oriented with emphasis on a guided - discovery method of instruction. In terms of structure, school science and technology began with the conceptual approach to content selection and with integrated science using the thematic approach. "Spiral approach" w a s used for content organisation, while over the years, the trend has been towards the use of tjiematic approach to content selection, particularly for science. At the technical colleges, where skill acquisition for productive work and immediate employment in the labour market is emphasized, the modular approach to content selection has been preferred.

Until recently, the acquisition of employable sKills w a s emphasized at the technology colleges. In order to produce well-rounded students w h o can fit into a complex society and relate technology to the culture and socio-economic imperatives of the society, core-courses in general education were introduced. This has become a welcome innovation as products from these colleges n o w have the opportunity to further their studies in their chosen trades in the polytechnics, as do their counterparts w h o attended senior secondary schools.

Table 1 shows the range or number of science and technology subjects available in the various pre-tertiary institutions. Mathematics has been included in the science subjects while agriculture is included in the technology subjects. At the technology colleges, the trades have been counted.

26

Table 1 Science and Technology Subjects Available in Primary and Secondary Levels of Education.

Institutions

Primary Schools Junior Sec. Schools Senior Sec. Schools Technical Colleges

N o . of Science Subjects Available

3 3 6 3

No. of Technology Subjects Available 1 5 15 53

Source: National Policy on Education.

Attheprimaryschools, handicraft is the technology subjectwhile it, or local crafts make the fifth technology subject at the JSS .

The teaching and learning strategies adopted at the technical colleges have been to integrate general education with trade theory and trade practice as well as supervised industrial training/work experience.

Problems of Implementation The well articulated curriculum contents in science and technology have not enjoyed the

s a m e level of confidence in implementation as in the curriculum design. Implementation has been beset by many problems which will be highlighted below. In conformity with the provision of the National Policy on Education, interest and ability play a major role in the teaching and learning of science and technology. Yet the low level of achievement in science and technology remains a more perturbing aspect of the matter.

Despite the gains in curriculum development and efforts at implementation, reports clearly indicate poor student achievements (STAN, 1992)^" mainly in science at the secondary school level (Tables 2 and 3). The main problem with technology stems from low enrolment and the need to increase this very quickly. O n e contributing factor is the reluctance of parents to send their children to technical colleges as every child wants to go to the senior secondary school. Even in the secondary school, enrolments in the technology subjects are not impressive (see Table 4). A sample of 1,558 schools was used ( N E R D C , 1994) in this survey, and the low entry in technical subjects has been found to be a normal trend.

Table 2: Students Performance in J S C E (1985-1994)

Subject Mathematics

Int. Science

Agriculture

Int. Technology

H o m e Economics

Bus. Studies P h y & Health Education

Entry 21,871

23,550 22,011

17,327

17,066 13,872

-

15,481

Grade A - C (%) 9,518(43.52)

10,463(44.43)

8,606(39.10) 6,804 (39.27)

7,751 (45.42) 5,320(38.35)

- -

6,600 (42.63)

Grade P (%)

10,018(45.80) 11,180(47.47)

11,539(52.42)

9,119(52.63) 8,118<47.57)

7,228(52.10) -

7,836 (6.75)

Grade F (%)

2,335(10.68) 1,905(8.09)

1,866(8.48)

1,404(8.10) 1,197(7.01)

1,324(9.54) -

Source: N E R D C , Abuja, 1995. The figures in parenthesis are percentages. The sample of the N E R D C study cuts across the

country.

27

Table 3: Students Performance in J S C E (1994-96)

Subject

Eng. Language Mathematics Agriculture Biology Chemistry Physics Applied Elect.

Automechanics Clothing & Textile Electronics Food & Nutrition

Typewriting Economics Geography

Literature English

1994 Entry % in Grades

1-( 524,294 518,118 395,278 508,384 161,232 146,000

704 651

1,571 385

23,563 7,641

480,513 294,009

165,081

•

14.20 16.10 33.10 11.40 23.70 14.70 27.60 39.70

55.20 71.40

53.60 9.30

27.90 34.30

30.10

1995 Entry % in Grades

1-6 464,270 462,273 361,973 453,353 133,188 120,768

600 517

1,073

334 17,683 5,572

434,315

268,740 147,987

12.40 16.50 41.30 18.90 36.70 18.90 8.30

36.50

47.30 23.10 56.30 13.00

15.00 33.00 22.80

Entry

516,196 514,342 401,676 506,628 144,990 132,768

383 352

1,117

316 19,702 5,419

484,508

3,03,175 161,765

1996 % in Grade

1-6 11.33 10.01 22.91 15.95 33.46 12.75 4.43 1.98

44.76

33.86 50.64

13.34 19.55 26.72

27.76

Source: W A E C , Lagos 1997.

Table 4: Students' Enrolment In Science and Technology Subjects In 1994

Subjects

Agriculture Mathematics

Integrated Science Introductory Technology

Business Studies Local Craft Biology Chemistry

Physics Technical Drawing Woodwork

Clothing & Textile Building Technology

JSS 719,805 774,317 773,175

475,936 196,012 48,317 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA

S S S

362,668 500,121

NA NA NA NA 459,778

. 205,572 175,590 24,536 20,832 5,123 4,373 NA

Source: N E R D C , Abuja, 1995.

The problems of low enrolment and achievement in the science and technology subjects revealed in Tables 2 , 3, 4 above are indicative of difficulties in curriculum implementation. These difficulties are equally present in the other school subjects and are attributable to the following factors:

i) overloading of content, which could be adequately redressed by the use of thematic approach to content selection;

28

ii) inadequacy in pedagogically associated issues such as teacher competence and effectiveness;

iii) curriculum invalidity in terms of teachability and learnability, particularly with respect to the cognitive level of students;

iv) inadequacy in the supply of learning materials such as equipment, tools and workshops, the absence of which could create a learner-hostile environment;

v) faulty assessment procedures which tend to create an unfair reward system and overload questions to the disadvantage of students.

Life Skills and Values Education A n emerging area of concern in national curriculum development efforts concerns the

inculcation of life skills and values education. The focus on life skills derives from the realisation that the child needs certain experiences and competences to survive in society. These include analysis and evaluation of information, their application towards solving identified problems and demonstration of a correct attitude towards individuals, ideas and materials.

' Life skills cover the cognitive, psychomotor and affective domains of education. For affective skills, the provisions in the National Policy on Education are quite comprehensive. They cover in detail the values which m a y be seen as national values or simply, educational values. In either case, they relate very well to education and set a clear direction in which the aims of education can be assessed. But as an aspect of the affective domain, "valuing" is a third characterisation with its sub-categories of "acceptance", "preference" and "commitment" well reflected in the policy. The other categories of "receiving" or "attending", "responding", "organisation" and "value complex" are provided for in the various areas of the policy document as reflected in the objectives of education.

A s spelt out in the teachers' guide developed by the N E R D C (ivowi, 1990f, a major contribution to instructional materials development is the provision of technical skills and affective outcomes which are derivable from the various activities arranged for the students. For example, through reports of investigations carried out, students are trained to be attentive, honest, patient and observant; while attitudes and valuing are not easy to assess, efforts are m a d e to ensure that students are equipped with these virtues in orderte be able to cope with life after school. That is why the continuous assessment of students in schools in end of term report sheets contains a section for the display of teachers' observation of students' affective outcomes. The formal tests usually assess the students in cognitive and psychomotor domains. It is forthe reason of ensuring the development of the right attituç(es that subjects such as social studies, moral education and citizenship education have been introduced into the school curriculum.

With regard to psychomotor skills, the policy document also provides for these through various expressions of the aims and objectives of education. By ensuring that functional programmes are developed, activities which elicit the active participation of students through the display of various movements and abilities in the psychomotor domain are provided. The integration of theory with practicáis and workshop practice and the general integration of productive work with academics are aimed at ensuring that students acquire these skills while developing the right attitudes. In orderte provideadequatelyforstudents, motor-skills subjects such as science, technical subjects, agriculture and typewriting have been emphasized on the condition that each student must be introduced to them at the J S S , and be required to study a science and a vocational subject at the S S S level.

A major problem that has arisen in this area is thelack of equipmentto enable sufficient science practicáis and workshop practice to be undertaken at the S S S level. The suggestion that an alternative to practicáis be preferred to the actual practicáis examination has been rejected by curriculum developers since it prevents an assessment of the prescribed

29

transaction in science.

M a n y useful cognitive skills are also available rn the policy document to prepare students for life. Theskiiisofcomprehension.applicationofknowledge, analysis, synthesis and evaluation are well covered in the curriculum contents of schools. Comprehension, analysis and evaluation are very often used to cope with various life situations commonly encountered. Schools have concentrated theirteaching on the lower levels of the cognitive domain, while the higher levels are often ignored or least patronised. This is a major problem with the domain. For effectiveness in the society, a combination of the various skills is very desirable for coping in life. Forfunctlonality, selffulfillment and active economic development, technical skills and affective outcomes are crucial, and should continue to be emphasized in the school system.

It is generally acknowledged that the values claimed in all contents of education are attainable only if there is a proper match between policy provisions and implementation strategies and actions. The educational values claimed in the National Policy on Education are very comprehensive and have been analysed by Abimbola (1993)^ as tackling very adequately, individual personal development, socialisation and economic productivity. With these, it is clear that a good intention to produce, through education, an individual w h o will develop himself and the society in which he lives, has been envisaged. A s clearly stated in the policy document, education is an instrument par excellence for national development.

Conclusion and R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s The issues of relevance, curriculum development and of instructional materials

development have been examined with the related problems discussed and possible, solutions suggested. Particular attention has been given to science and technology education by examining the provisions for, and implementation problems at the primary and secondary school levels. The associated problems of science and technology education with regard to content overloading, poor resources and unsatisfactory performance of students have also been exposed.

Provision for the acquisition of life skills exists not only in science and technology but in other school subjects as efforts are m a d e to identify such skills in the three domains of educational objectives.

Having regard to the issues in curriculum discussed so far, s o m e corrective measures are clearly necessary in order to improve the curriculum content and transactions. These include:

i. a re-designing of school curricula using the thematic approach to content selection and retaining a spiral approach to content organisation, so that any n e w directives can easily be contained in an existing or a n e w theme without necessarily increasing the workload of the students;

ii. a provision of options in school subjectcontent for students so that there exists a core as well as optional section, with the core section comprising fundamental issues like basic concepts and principles, while the optional section consists of application^ and higher order forms of the issues treated in the core;

iii. a clear policy on the reduced minimum number of subjects to be taken by a student in tifie final year of secondary education and the number of components from the ocitional section to be combined with the core, in order to define the permitted subject content for students, so that the average student has an improved !chance of performing better at the senior school certificate examination;

iv. teacher effectiveness in the classroom should be enhanced through improvements in the teaching-learning environment;

30

V. a strengthening of the financial capacity of Government agencies and institutions involved with curriculum development, teacher production and instructional-materials development and production, so that innovative ideas generated and tested can be carried through forthe overall improvement of the input component of the education enterprise;

vi. the need forgreater community involvement in deciding on curriculum offerings in their schools with a viewto making the products ofsuch schools more relevant to their communities as well as society at large.

There is no doubt that Nigeria is a very big country and education must be given its pride of place if development is to occur. The annual budget allocation to education needs to increase drastically. The d e m a n d for free tertiary education cannot be supported at present and fees need to be paid by all concerned viz the three tiers of Government through scholarships or bursaries; by private organisations like religious bodies, communities and companies and by parents. These recommendations, no doubt, deserve the attention of both Government and the people, if Nigeria's national development is to be pursued effectively through its curriculum of education.

31

References

1. Abimbola, 1.0. (1993) Guiding Philosophical Perspectives, in Ivowi ied) Curriculum Development in Nigeria, Ibadan, S a m Bookman Educational.and Communication Services, 4-16.

2. Agbebu, E.A. and Fadina, B . O . (1995) The Nigerian Book Industry: A Critical Appraisal, Journal of Book Research and Development, Vol. 1, Nos. 1 & 2,18-30.

3. Aluko, S a m (1992) Nigeria: The W a y Fonward, First Obafemi Awolowo Foundation Dialogue, Pp. 73-74.

4. Chuta, E.J. (1994) Funding Education in a Recession: the Mogeroam case on a Global context, N E R D C Occasional Paper, No. 2, Lagos, N E R D C .

5. Federal Republic of Nigeria (1977) National Policy on Education, Lagos.

6. Ivowi, U . M . O . (1990) Developing Innovative Teachers' Guides to some Curriculum Projects in Nigeria, JOSIC. 1.1, 98-350.

7. Ivowi, U . M . O . (1992) Philosophy Consideration of School Curricula in Nigeria, National School Curriculum Review Conference Proceedings, ibadan, Macmillan Nigeria Publishers Ltd., 345-350

8. Ivowi, U . M . O . (1997a) "Redesigning School Curricula in Nigeria", JOSIC, Vols 7&8, Nos. 1&2, (in press).

9. Ivowi, U . M . O . and Oludotun, J.S.O. (1994) "Reducing Misconceptions in Physics

Amongst Students". N E R D C Occasional Paper, No. 4, Lagos, N E R D C Press.

10. N E R D C (1991 ) A Survey of Unemployed Qualified Primary and Secondary School

Teachers in Nigeria, Nwana, O . C . and Onugha, D.C.(ed), N E R D C Research

Report, No. 1.

11. N E R D C (1997) A Survey of Teacher Supply and Demand in Nigerian Schools. Onugha, D . C . (ed), N E R D C Research Report No. 5.

12. Oyebola, O . A . (1995) Problems and Prospects of Book Distribution in Nigeria.

Journal of Book Research and Development, Vol. 1, Nos. 1&2, 31-39.

13. S T A N (1984) What is Science ? S T A N Position Paper, No. 1, Ibadan, S T A N

Publications.

14. S T A N (1992) Raising the Standard of Performance in Public Examinations in Science, Technology and Mathematics. S T A N Position Paper, No. 4, Ibadan, S T A N Publications.

15. U N E S C O (1995) World Educatioin Report. 1995; Paris U N E S C O .

32

16. W A E C (1997) Report on Mav/June 1994,1995 and 1996 Senior School Certificate Examination (School Candidates). Presented to the 60th Plenary Session of the Joint Consultative Committee on Education (JCCE), Festac 77 Hotel, Lagos, 22-24 July.

33

CHAPTER IV

BASIC EDUCATION - EMERGING ISSUES, CHALLENGES AND CONSTRAINTS

Background Since 1960 Nigerian governments have always put education on their priority acenda.

T h e introduction of the Universal Primary Education in September 1976 w a s the first major national initiativethatwas aimed at universalising access to education. T h e publication of a National Policy on Education in 1997 (revised 1981 ) provided a greater sense of direction and purpose to educational activities at all levels of the education system. This policy is unequivocal in its insistence on functional, universal and qualitative education, as the objectives of the country's educational endeavours. A m o n g others, the policy declares Government 's intention to use a variety of strategies for the provision of universal basic education for all citizens.

T o date, Nigeria has participated in all deliberations concerning Education for All (BFA) since the Jomtien conference of 1990. S h e is convinced that to achieve the goals of education for all, total mobilisation of local efforts, international collaboration and participation are essential ingredients. In line with the Plan of Action adopted at Jomtien and reaffirmed at a subsequent S u m m i t of H e a d s of Nine High Population Countries ( N e w Delhi, 1993), the "Side Summi t " at C o p e n h a g e n (1995) and the Ministerial Review Meeting at Bali, Indonesia, (1995), Nigeria has indeed taken several major initiatives which have greatly influenced and guided activities geared towards Education for All (BFA) goals.

Basic Education T h e scope of basic education w a s expanded in 1992 to include pre-primary, primary,

the first three years of secondary education (i.e. Junior Secondary School), M a s s Literacy for both Adolescents, Adults and W o m e n ' s Education. With this expanded vision of basic education, Nigeria set itself the following mid-decade goals to be achieved by 1995:

(a) reduction by one third, of the gap between the 1990 primary school enrolment/ retention rates and the year 2000 goal for reaching universal access to basic education (84,6% enrolment);

(b) achievement of primary education by at least 8 0 % ofthe school age children (i.e. 6 to 11 years);

(c) reduction of the gender gap in primary education in 1990 by one third (Boys 43%; Girls 33%. Gender gap = 10%);

(d) reduction of adult female illiteracy rate by one third of its 1990 level (i.e. 61 % to 40.7%) by the year 1995;

(e) increase in the proportion of primary school children achieving m i n i m u m level of learning;

(f) expansion of access to pre-primary education for25% of children belowthe age of 6 years, especially those in rural areas as well as urban groups.

T h e National Policy on Education provides the framework within which planned p rog rammes and activities for basic education are implemented. T h e widening ofthe scope of basic education to include both formal and non-formal groups and the pursuit of equity, relevance and quality are essential features ofthe policy.

34

Formal Education (i) Primary Education

Over the past two decades, appreciable progress has been m a d e in expanding access to formal primary education, but this was rapid and uncontrolled and, coupled with budgetary shortfalls, gave rise to poor quality and inefficiency. Although education policy and strategy have attempted to address sectoral issues of access, equity, retention and quality enhancement, intra and inter-sectoral problems have tended to inhibit whatever has been achieved in these domains. Pupil absenteeism and drop-out are serious problems especially in primary schools and there is ample evidence of poor performance of pupils as they c o m e up the system.

Continued nation-wide strikes by teachers in 1993 led to school closures, with adverse effects on pupils' attendance, learning and performance. Data on attendance and net contact hours are difficult to obtain. Although nearly all schools have daily attendance registers, reliable aggregate figures are hard to c o m e by. Depending on the part of the country, school attendance is affected by seasonal farming and other agricultural activities which are child labour-intensive. In many parts of the country, primary school classrooms are virtually empty on market days. This means that in a given five-day week, children only attend school forthree or four days, resulting in inadequate learning and under-achievement. N o remedial or supplementary teaching is done to m a k e up for lost time, nor do these absences receive official attention. Heavy rains and floods also constrain attendance. Where early repair work to roofs and classrooms is not undertaken, children are forced tostay out of school for greater part of the rainy season.

(ii) Access and Equity Enrolment trends indicate that between 1990 and 1995, there has been increased

access to schooling for both sexes, although the gap in enrolment and completion continues

to be in favour of boys in most of the states. Data available show national gross enrolments

between 1990 and 1995 as follows-Table 2.3.1 below:

Table 2.3.1 - Gross Primary Enrolment in Percentages

Year

1990 1991 1992

1993 1994

1995

Boys %

76.4

86.6 90.3

93.6 89.4

85.5

Girls %

59.1 69.1 71.9 74.7

83.2

74.9

Total %

67.7

77.1

81.1 84.1

86.5 80.6

Indications here are that while these show steady increases for both boys and girls over the pehod, there was a decline in 1995 as well as inequality in the enrolment of boys and girls. Promising as the 86.5% (1994) and 80.6% (1995) gross enrolment percentage m a y appear, there are distortions in the picture because of gender and regional disparities.

In fact, the gross enrolment ratio gives only the estimate of the enrolment of children of all ages as percentage of the population of the official age 6-11 years. This can even exceed 100% since enrolment ratio often includes children younger or olderthan the official age owing to early or delayed entry or repetition. It masks regional disparities and tends to giv^ a false sense of well being of the education system. Tables 2.3.2 and 2.3.3. below give the

35

percentages of children w h o complete 4 years and 6 years of primary schooling respectively.

Table 2.3.2 - Percentage of Children Completing 4 Years of Primary School

Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995

Boys

82.0 73.8 82.7 82.2 86.4

80.3

Girls

77.3 75.8 78.8 83.9 84.6 83.3

Total

79.9 74.7 81.0 82.0 85.6

81.9

Table 2.3.3 - Percentage of Children Completing 6 Years of Primary School

Year

1990

1991 1992

1993

1994

1995

Boys

82.0

73.8

82.7 82.2

86.4

80.3

Girls

60.3 60.6

70.9 71.5

76.8 68.2

Total

58.8 59.8

70.3 72.7

74.5

69.3

S O U R C E S : Adapted from the statistics of Primary and Post Primary Education in Nigeria,

Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos, 1994/95.

A s national, state and community advocacy efforts succeed in getting more girls to complete

primary school, economic pressures appearto influence early withdrawals of boys, especially

in the Eastern States of Abia, Enugu, ImoandAnambra. The emerging trend is that where once

boys tended to drop out at the secondary school level, they now do so at the primary level. This

is an indicatorof the country's economic decline as well as perception of the utility value of the

education system (UNICEF-1997, Country Programme -1997-2001 ).

The gender factor remains operative in gross enrolments and in teacher recruitment. The imbalance coincides with marked regional imbalances in access to education for girls and corresponding low female teacher availability in the Northern States. Anambra and Imo States in the South-East have the lowest female teacher female student ratio, at 1:19 and 1:23, respectively, while Kano and Jigawa States in the North East have the highest ratios 1:17 and 1:16 respectively. If female teacher recruitment is to improve so that w o m e n can serve as good role models and encourage girls' participation, then there is a basic need to ensure higher initial enrolment of girls, especially in the Northern States. World Bank estimates of girls enrolment as a proportion of boys, by State, show a range between 3 0 % in Sokoto State in the North West to over 100% in Lagos State. Correspondingly, Sokoto State has the lowest percentage of female teachers (6.5%), while Lagos State has the highest percentage (75%).

In five states among the educationally disadvantaged, with the exception of Kano, four others in the sample have more than 5 0 % of the projected primary school age children out of school. The girls are trailing behind the boys in actual enrolment (see table 2.3.4 below). Female enrolment is very close to 50% in most of the southern states but only 3 0 % in Sokoto and Katsina, with averages below 4 0 % in the Northern States (World Bank Sector Study 1994)9.

Table 2.3.4 - Pupil Enrolment by States In Selected Northern States

State

Bauchi

Borno

Gongola

Kano

Sokoto

Projected Primary School Age

848,278

1,045,835

908,985

2,014,845

1,583,593

Actual Number of

Pupils

323,594

464,478

345,495

1,163,815

723,124

Male Pupils

Female Pupils

148,613 123,981

283,237 181,241

221,885

757,362

495,523

132,610

406,453

227,601

%0f M/F

Enrolled

38.1

44.4

38.9

57.7

45.6

% Male

Enrolled

61.1

60.9

62.5

65.1

68.5

% Female Enrolled

38.9

39.1

37.5

34.9

31.5

Source: Adapted from N P E C Report at 37th N C E Meeting April 1990.

This low female enrolment could be due to the lack of mutual trust between the school and the community. Where there is no mutual trust between the school and the community, or where there is suspicion, there can be no healthy relationship or l-eal partnership. According to Kyazze (1993) if a parent suspects the school of diverting the child from true path of Islam or Catholicism or of persuading the child from acting according to a revered cultural tradition or moral conduct, that parent cannot be persuaded to enrol his or her child at school. In a predominantly Muslim population, access to western-style education has been inhibited by parents' perception of the education given in such institutions. Many parents, especially in rural communities, would rather enrol their sons and daughters in Koranic Schools. Indeed, many of the children w h o have been left out of the school enrolment statistics are enrolled in Koranic and Islamiyya schools, and 6 0 % of the pupils in the latter are girls. (NPEC) . To achieve Education for All, particularly in the Northern States, these channels of education (Koranic and Islamiyya schools) must c o m e into play.

(iii) Quality Levels Seeking a high quality of education has been identified as one of the reasons for the

decline of enrolments in m a n y schools. Several factors are known to contribute to the quality of education. A m o n g the principal factors is a qualified and motivated teaching force. Another equally important factor is the availability of text books and other instructional materials and teaching aids to support learning and concept development; while the physical environment is another crucial factorto the learning process.

School and classroom observations during the Situation and Policy Analysis (SAPA) survey observations conducted between 1991/1992 showed that the prevailing general school environment in Nigerian schools did not promote quality teaching and learning. 7 7 % of the children observed had no textbooks; 3 3 % lacked writing materials, 3 8 % of the classrooms observed had no ceilings. In 4 7 % of the schools sampled, furniture w a s grossly inadequate for pupils' use. Pupils sat on building blocks or were cramped on long benches, without desks. Overcrowded classrooms, especially in southern schools, left no room for the teacherto circulate among pupils and discouraged both class work and homework. Untrained and unqualified teachers faced the worst challenges. It w a s not u n c o m m o n for a single teacher to be found managing two or more grade levels, due either to shortage of teaching staff orto absence of teachers from school. In such circumstances, and where multigrade teaching techniques have not been learnt, the teacher is left to his or her o w n devices and rarely coped with the situation.

37

The S A P A survey also revealed very poor sarvitary environment in the School system. 7 0 % of the schools had no potable water. In 59.8% oteases, water w a s obtained from wells. 6 8 % of the schools had toilet facilities, half of which were ordinary pit latrines that left much to be desired.

The average teacher/pupil ratio in primary schools is about 1:36 (1995) for the country as a whole. The education policy makes provision for teacher/pupil ratio of 1:40. This ratio would have been the ideal for quality instruction in the classroom but the rural/urban disparity is also at play here. Whereas the ratio is as low as 1:20 in s o m e rural areas, it is as hgh as 1:90 in s o m e urban centres.

Out of the total number of teachers in the system, only 30% have acquired the minimum qualification required for teaching in the primary school i.e. the Nigerian Certificate in Education (NCE) . All teachers in the system are expected to possess this qualification by 1998. Only 68.3% of the current teachers in schools hold the Teachers' Grade II certificate and above. The remaining 31.7% are unqualified. Similarly, in the North-Western Zone, (Sokoto, Katsina, Kaduna, Niger, Kwara) only 42 .9% of a total teacher population of 73,160 are qualified. In both the South-East (Benue, Anambra, Cross River, Imo, Rivers, Akwa-lbom) and South-West Zones (Oyo, O n d o , Edo, Delta, O g u n , Lagos) there are more qualified teachers in the primary schools, i.e. 91.5% and 86.6% respectively. While m a n y qualified teachers in the South reportedly cannot find suitable teaching jobs, they are unwilling to m o v e to the north partly because s o m e states do not offer permanent positions to non-indigenes and partly because of uncertain employment conditions and lack of suitable career prospects. Generally, across the country, the morale of teachers is low owing mainly to poor conditions of service, social status and often irregular salary payments.

(iv) Extending Primary Education to N o m a d s and IVIigrant Fishermen The delivery of educational services to the children of nomadic, pastoralist and

artisanal migrant fishermen has tended to follow the lines of the formal school system. Special attention was paid to these groups by Government when it set up the National Commission for Nomadic Education by Decree 41 of 12 December 1989.

Outof theestimated population of 9.3 million nomadic peoples in Nigeria, 3.1 million are children of school going age as reported by the National Commission for Nomadic Education^ Literacy rate amongst the pastoral nomads is 0.02%, whereas 2 .0% is recorded forthe migrant fishermen. The major constraint to their participation informal and non-formal education is the fact that they are constantly moving from one area of the country to the another in search of water and pasture for their animals in the case of the pastoralist, and forfish in the case of migrant fishermen, in addition, otherfactors, namely physical barriers, employment of child labour, the land tenure system and an inappropriate curriculum also hinderthem from effective participation.

The basic responsibility of the Commission for Nomadic Education a m o n g others is to provide primary education to the children of pastoralist nomads - a responsibility shared with the States and Local Governments. In providing this form of education, a multifacet strategy is adopted by the Commission. This includes on-site schools, the shift system, schools with alternative intake and Islamiyya schools. The mobile school system in the strict sense, is sparingly used due to the enormity of the problems associated with this model. However, s o m e mobile schools are in operation in the River Benue area of Taraba, Benue, A d a m a w a , Nassarawa, Borno and Yobe States.

A s at the beginning of the 1995/96 school session, there were 890 nomadic schools in 296 Local Government areas of 25 states of the Federation catering forthe education needs of the children of pastoral nomads alone. 608 schools are owned and controlled by States, 130 by Local Governments and 152 by Local Communities, enrolling a total of 88,871 pupils. Out

38

of this number, 55,177 (62%) were boys and 33,694 (38%) were girls. There were 2,561 teachers, a majority of w h o m (1,326 or 51%) were teacher-aides, w h o are unqualified and ungraded.

In view of the various approaches to the provision of primary education to this group of pastoralists, the types of classroom structure also vary. For instance, there are 194 schools (21.8%) with permanent classroom structure; 174 (19.6%) with semi-permanent structures; 119 (13.4%) with a mobile collapsible structure; while 402 schools (45.2%) carry out the business of teaching and learning undertree shades.

The role of the Commission (which does not have a school of its own) , is to provide instructional and infrastructural support to these schools as well as conduct training courses for teachers in nomadic schools. States and Local Governments hardly coordinate their activities in this programme or exert efforts to discover what is happening in the schools. Infrastructural facilities and instructional materials provided are grossly inadequate. Indeed, most of the facilities that were provided during the mobilization period -1988 to 1990 - have been destroyed or dismantled and replacements and renovation have not been effected. The demise in 1991 of the National Primary Education Commission, which by law provided 2.5% of the National Fund to Nomadic Education, affected the funding of the Nomadic Education Commission, until a n e w Primary Education Commission (NPEC) w a s re-established in 1993; this has improved the situation.

A recent evaluation in the Commission's monitoring report, considered only a few of these schools viable. These were mainly located in a few centres in twelve States - Plateau, Kaduna, Niger, Kwara, Sokoto, Jigawa, Taraba, Ogun, Osun, O n d o , O y o and Benue States. Very few of these schools have been able to produce pupils w h o gained admission into junior secondary schools.

However, there is now a discernible trend of school viability, which is very fundamental to the development of this national programme. The viable schools today are those owned and managed by the nomadic communities. This emerging trend albeit, positive, is undoubtedly symptomatic of the collapse of public sector education. There seems a determined effort, zeal and commitment by the communities even to "go it alone", and it has been suggested that this tendency should be noted and nurtured if the programme is to be sustained (Gidado Tahir 1996) 3

The education of the children of migrant fishermen c a m e on stream after it w a s approved by the National Council on Education (NCE) at its 37th meeting in Kano in March 1990. Just as in the case of nomadic pastoralists, the Commission's approach has been to encourage States, Local Governments and Communities, N G O s and C B O s to set up schools while on its part it provides them with technical and financial support. 8 States - Rivers, Cross River, Akwa- lbom, Anambra, Delta, Edo, O n d o and Ogun - are participating in this programme. The Rivers State w a s a pioneer. Its programme took off immediately on a pilot basis in 1990. Today it has more than 40 primary schools catering for the education of the artisanal migrant fishermen's children in the State.

A s at the beginning of 1996/97 academic session, there were 135 primary schools for migrant fishermen children in 26 L G A ' s in the 8 participating States of the riverine and coastal areas of Nigeria. (Tahir, Op.cit). There were 9,246 pupils in these schools. Out of these, 4,555 are boys and 4,691 girls with 252 teachers. N o definite policy has yet evolved as a national strategy for the education of the migrant fishermen's children. The Commission is awaiting the report of a national conference held in June 1996 on this issue. Meanwhile, it has continued to provide s o m e assistance to the schools through State co-ordinators of the programme.

In spite of the modest gains recorded by the Commission, as well as the tremendous enthusiasm shown by stake-holders, nomadic education is facing m a n y problems, s o m e of which are due to limited institutional capacity and under-funding. The teachers w h o are

39

expected to be paid by the National Primary Education Commission (NPEC) through the Local Government Education Authorities (LGEAs) are very often not paid. Consequently, m a n y teachers have abandoned their jobs, schoois.are deserted and the programme adversely affected.

Furthermore, s o m e L G E A s are in the habit of transferring nomadic school teachers to conventional primary schools with no replacements. Where replacements are provided, reports indicate that they have difficulties in adjusting to the new environment since they have no training or orientation on how to teach in nomadic primary schools. These n e w tea "¡hers often abandon teaching due to the hardship they encounter in their pastoral ncmadic environment, thus placing a greater burden on the few nomadic education teachers available, with far reaching consequences for the smooth operation of the programme.

Another area of difficulty stems from the presence of other categories of teachers in nomadic schools than N C E and TCII holders. These are holders of the Higher Islamic Studies Certificate (HIS), Locally Trained Arabists (LTA), First School Leaving Certificate holders and secondary school leavers. They serve as teacher aides w h o constitute a very vital segment of instructional personnel in nomadic education. However, since these teachers are not recognised as possessing a "standard" qualification by N P E C they are not paid by L G E A s . The situation has led to the withdrawal of services by m a n y of them.

In spite of the elaborate provision for Federal intervention in the programme as contained in decree establishing the Commission, its implementation has faced intractable problems which have led to declining government subvention, with its attendant decaying infrastructural facilities, dearth of instructional materials, low teacher morale and weak institutional capacity. These circumstances have frustrated the realisation of the objectives of nomadic education as provided in the National Policy on Education.

(v) Junior Secondary Education The scope of universal basic education has been extended to nine years i.e. six years

of primary education and three years of junior secondary. This implies raising not only the enrolment ratio of primary education from the current 80% to 100% but also the transition rate for primary to secondary education from 4 4 % to 100%. This policy c a m e into effect in September 1992.

Currently there are 2,728,731 pupils in Junior Secondary classes throughout the country. 52.8% of this number are boys, 47 .2% are girls. Table 2.6.1. shows enrolment by classes at Junior Secondary Level.

Table 2.6.1 Enrolment by Sex at the J S S Level

Classes

JSI

JSII

JSIII

Boys

512,445

498,802

430,023

%

53.5

52.6

52.3

Girls

445,175

449,976

392,309

%

46.5

47.4

47.7

Total

957.621

948,778

822,332

Source: Federal Ministry of Education, P R S Dept. (Statistics Branch) 1995.

The gross enrolment ratio at the Junior Secondary level stands at 33.8% nationally. Of this, boys are 37.1 % and girls 31.4%. The Gender ratio is 0.85. The completion rate in J S S III for boys is 79.2% while for girls it is higher at 84.1 %. Nationally, the completion rate for J S S III stood at81.4% in 1995.

40

Since 1992 when the policy was enunciated, there have been few attempts either at the Federal or State level to focus on the implications of 100% transition from primary to junior secondary. With the present inadequacies in infrastructural facilities and the lack of replacement or refurbishing of deteriorating school buildings, it is difficult to even suggest a time frame for achieving Universal Basic Education. The available allocation forthe education sector has for years been grossly inadequate to maintain let alone, expand services at acceptable standards, while public funding per student continues to decline in real terms. This issue is re-echoed in the various chapters of this publication. Here, the issue of pre-primary education which is the base of E F A n o w merits a brief examination.

(vi) Pre-Primary Education Nursery schools and day-care centres have existed side by side with primary schools

for m a n y decades in Nigeria. Their existence has been acknowledged by successive governments but they have never been included in the budget of any Government in the Federation. Governments see their role atthis level of education as mainly regulatory rather than financially supportive in terms of inputs. Education of children from the ages of 3 to 5 years is left in the hands of private organisations, N G O s and sometimes, the communities. The National Educational Policy is therefore contentto lay down basic rules to guide the proprietors of pre-primary schools, prescribe the methods of teaching in such schools as well as the orientation that should be given to teachers in them.

A broad definition of pre-primary education includes education provided to all children aged 3 to 5 years in the nursery schools, kindergartens and day-care centres. In the spirit of the Jomtien Declaration, the concept of pre-primary education has been extended to early child care, and development, and education forchildren from the age of three years. The latter constitutes the first stage of life-long education. Progress in the h u m a n sciences is revealing the decisive importance for his subsequent growth, of the first few years in the child's development. Research studies also underline the decisive efforts offamily environment from birth on the formation of the personality and on the beginnings of intelligence. It is therefore the foundation on which to build for later life.

Available statistics showthat children aged 1-5 years in Nigeria number22.7 million i.e. about 2 5 % of the total population of over 100 million (88.5 by 1991 census). Of this number, 4 . 7 % are actuallyenrolled in pre-primary educational institutions. More than 21 million children are omitted from the system (SAPA, 1991)". The institutions all are fee-paying. This restricts the participation of children of the lower income groups. Studies have also indicated that for every three pre-primary schools in the urban area, there is only one such school in the rural area. The issue here is inequality of access. Even though these schools are fee-paying, because ofthe lack oftrained personnel, quality provisions in terms of health, nutrition, stimulation and academic content of programmes, leave m u c h to be desired.

The arguments in favour of education atthis early stage in the child's development, as seen above, are largely accepted, but there is still controversy over what the State's contribution and priorities in budgetary allocation should be. Accepting Government's declared commitment to direct programmes for low income families as well as rural populations and their children "at risk", the need to subsidise the cost of these programmes will readily be obvious.

In general, in the light of experience elsewhere, Early Childhood Care, Development and Education ( E C C D E ) is very m u c h underfunded. For example, the percentage of annual education budget of Jamaica allocated to early childhood programmes is about 2 % whereas pre-school aged children represent almost 2 0 % of the total number of children enrolled in various education sector programmes. In Mexico, one ofthe E-9 countries of which Nigeria is a m e m b e r , the percentage budgetary provision for E C C D E reaches 5 % ofthe total education

41

budget but the number of children in pre-school is about 10% of all children in the education system.

Early childhood care, development and education, with its enormous potential and distinctive role in promoting learning capacities and the overall well-being and development of children, while receiving an increased attention here, nonetheless remains seriously under­developed and under-supported by the Government.

E C C D E and other examples of pre-primary education exist in both formal and non-formal systems. The non-formal types are usually run by communities, and are low-cost and affordable. A n example of the latter is a pilot project located in 10 out of 36 states of the Federation, and established under a cooperative agreement between the Federal Government of Nigeria and UNICEF. The ten States are Bauchi, Benue, Cross River, Taraba, A d a m a w a , Osun, Oyo, Ondo, Kadunaand Niger. The project took off in 1991, and since then, has recorded impressive achievements. For example, 292 new E C C D E Centres have been established and about 22,000 pre-school children in 10 focus States have benefitted from the expanded access. 295 care givers, 50 master trainers and 20 Education Inspectors have been trained to m a n E C C D E centres, resulting in improved child stimulation and learning.

The plan is to extend this project beyond the ten focus states so that the impact maybe felt nation-wide. A s a future thrust in pre-primary education, efforts are being m a d e to encourage greater participation of communities and the Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) in the provision of quality pre-primary education for at least 25% of the total population under 5 years old by the year 2000. So far, there exists no formal policy that requires the Government to contribute to pre-primary and early childhood care, development and education inspite of its good intentions.

Adult and Non-Formal Education The main anchor for the Education for All programme in Nigeria is the National

Commission for Mass Literacy, Adult and Non-Formal Education ( N M E C ) established in 1991. Its basic responsibility is to develop the necessary strategies and coordinate literacy and post-literacy programmes nationwide.

Current figures for adult functional literacy show a rate of 39% for w o m e n and 6 2 % for m e n , the national average being 51%. There is growing evidence to suggest s o m e deterioration in the female literacy rate. In the Local Government Areas (LGA) Baseline Survey (UNICEF 1992)^ only 28% ofthe w o m e n in the samplewerefound to be literate. A more recent survey on w o m e n ' s education (FGN/UNICEF, 1993) indicated an average of 27%. The survey revealed a high drop-out rate of 86% in w o m e n ' s education centres. The highest rate of attendance (20%) was in Cross River State. The crucial link between w o m e n ' s education and child survival and development makes early intervention (formal or non-formal) imperative for young girls of primary school age and for adolescent girls.

Particularly distressing is that m a n y children are leaving school unable to read and write, and unprepared for further education or productive participation in society. Added to these are many other children w h o for one reason or the other never attended school and have therefore remained illiterate. Their plight was at theforefront of the discussions the World Bank held with the National Commission for Mass Literacy, Adult and Non-Formal Education ( N M E C ) and the Federal Ministry of Education. A n outcome of this meeting w a s the commissioning of a national survey on the situation of out-of-school children and youth in 1994.

The objective of the survey w a s to obtain a profile of out-of-school children and their family background and assess available resources for the provision of non-formal/literacy vocation education forthis group of children. The study was conducted in six representative states of the Federation (Abia, Kano, Kogi, Lagos, Kwara and Sokoto). The following tabular information resulted from the study: (Tables 4.1.1 and 4.1.2)

42

Tabular Information on Out-of-School Children

Table 4.1.1 : Drop-out rate by sex and sector in Nigeria %

Age Groups

6-11 years

12-15 years

16-19 years

All

Urban

8.31

38.27

53.42

100.00

Rural

13.2

40.29

46.44

100.00

Male

8.80

40.96

50.24

100.00

Female

12.63

36.11

51.26

100.00

Total

10.28

39.08

50.64

100.00

Table 4.1.2: Drop-out rates by age group in six States of Nigeria (%)

Age Groups

6-11 years

12-15 years

16-19 years

All

Abia

15.79

46.32

37.89

100.00

Kane

0.00

0.00

100.00

100.00

Kogi

14.60

45.26

40.015

100.00

Lagos

3.53

35.29

61.18

100.00

Rivers

14.39

42.44

43.17

100.00

Sokoto

17.39

30.43

52.17

100.00

Nigeria

10.28

39.08

50.64

100.00

Table 4.1.3: Drop-out rate in Primary and Secondary Grades by Sex and Sector (%)

Grade Level

Primary

Secondary

All

Urban

65.47

34.53

100.00

Rural

69.53

30.47

100.00

Male

69.12

30.88

100.00

Female

63.89

36.11

100.00

Total

67.09

32.91

100.00

Table 4.1.4 Cohort Study:

Grade Level

Primary

1

2

3

4

5

6

Secondary

1

2

3

4

5

6

Urban

2.93

3.42

6.35

5.86

11.56

35.34

8.47

15.80

9.28

0.49

0.33

0.00

Drop-out rates by grade (**>

Rural

2.46

5.16

7.62

6.39

11.30

36.61

8.35

12.29

8.85

0.25

0.00

0.25

Male

2.24

4.00

8.16

6.«8

11.84

36.00

8.96

12.32

8.80

0.32

0.16

0.00

<.)

Female

3.54

4.29

4.00

4.80

10.86

35.61

7.58

17.68

9.60

0.51

0.25

0.25

Total

2.74

4.11

6.88

6.07

11.46

35.85

8.42

14.40

9.11

0.39

0.20

0.29

43

TaiDle 4.1.5 Average Years of Schooling by Sex and Sectors

Grade

Primary

Total

Urban

Rural

Males

Females

Average Years of Schooling

4.94

4.92

4.97

4.96

4.89

Sources Tables 4.1.1-4.1.5 Federal Ministry of Education "Education Today" Vol. 7 N o . 4 , 1997.

Looking at the average years of schooling of respondents in the study, it is obvious that

many out of school children have had little more than fouryears schooling and this is insufficient

to acquire permanentfunctional literacy and numeracy. Federal and State governments launched the Mass Literacy appeal fund in 1992.

Since then Continuing Education Centres, Vocational Centres, W o m e n ' s Education and adult literacy classes have been established in all parts of the Federation. Government efforts have also been complemented by a Non-Governmental Association for Literacy Support Services ( N O G A L S S ) which is an umbrella organisation for all N G O s participating in Mass Literacy programme. These combined efforts have m a d e it possible forthe literacy and adult education programme to reach about 6.8 million, m e n , w o m e n and out-of-school youth between 1990 and 1995 ( N M E C 1995).

All these States released the sum of NI 88.9 million to the mass literacy fund in 1995 and the sum of N200.9 million in 1996. The enrolment in W o m e n ' s Education Centres w a s 248,383 in 1995 but by the end of that year, about 30,592 of those enrolled had dropped out. A total of 778,068 persons were enrolled in adult literacy classes throughout the Federation (1995). Of this number, 315,789 were females and 462,279 were males. The total enrolment for 1996 was 817,617 with females 368,224 and males 449,393, showing a drop for males but an encouraging rise forfemales.

Individuals have been encouraged in the "Each One-Teach-One" or"Fund the Teaching of O n e " strategy. The strategy is picking up but at a very slow pace. So far in Niger, Plateau, Borno, Bauchi and Benue States, individuals have sponsored s o m e literacy classes.

In the survey of the out-of-school children mentioned earlier, 152 non-formal education institutions were included. 50% of the institutions were owned by individuals, while 3 3 % were owned by Government (Local, State and Federal); the rest are distributed a m o n g communities, religious organisations, N G O s and corporate bodies. The institutions provided mainly vocational skills training and literacy classes. Their facilities were well-equipped and their clients were mostly within the 16-19 age group while s o m e were obviously older. The curriculum seemed to focus more on h o m e economics, secretarial studies, weaving etc, than the more "male-oriented" skills like welding, motor mechanics, carpentry etc.

S o m e of these out-of-school programmes have not succeeded in forging links and creating mechanisms/safety nets for establishing equivalence and linkages with the dominant formal system. In Malawi, an attempt was m a d e to integrate formal and non-formal education, but it did not lead to tangible results (Adama Ouane, U N E S C 0 1 9 9 6 ) . Serious doubts are cast and many actual examples do little to dispel such fears. A non-formal education system should be self-contained and should not depend on the formal system for its credibility. If E F A efforts

44

are to yield fruits, tiiere is a compelling need to improve the delivery of the non-formal system.

O n e can point to an Indonesian initiative full of possibilities, which can m a k e good

quality basic education widely available especially to children in difficult and remote rural

areas. S u c h an initiative is illustrated in the box below:

Basic Education for 7-12 Years Old Children Through Visiting Teacher School System in Central Kalimantan Province, Indonesia

Education offered through ordinary or conventional primary school as it exists at present cannot reach all the 7-12 years old children in all regions, especially those w h o live in very isolated or remote areas with a population of less than 25 households and which consists of less than 25 children of 7-12 years old. The establishment of conventional primary school, or even "small primary school" is regarded as not efficient.

To overcome the geographical problems mentioned above special type of primary school known as Visiting Teacher School System (VTSS) has been developed. The Visiting Teacher School System is a special type of primary education service designed for children in very isolated or remote areas w h o are gathered in a learning group which is a satellite class of nearby base primary school. A teacher from the base school visits the learning group on a regular basis 2-3 times a week to teach the school children.

In concluding the teaching learning process, the visiting teacher is assisted by a tutor(s) w h o is a

m e m b e r of the local community and lives in the local area. The teaching-learning process is

conducted as follows:

1. T h e visiting teacher conducts teaching-learning process in the learning

group in the remote area 2-3 times a week .

2 . W h i l e the visiting teacher is not o n duty, a tutor w h o h a s b e e n trained for the teaching task, c o n d u c t s the teaching-learning activities o n his or her behalf accord ing to the tasks ass igned for h im /he r .

3 . T h e visiting teacher 's activities in relation to his teaching-learning

duty in the learning g r o u p include the following:

(a) Making a schedule of visits (b) Making all the necessary preparation before the visit (c) Making teaching preparation in the learning group

(d) Conducting teaching-learning activities in the learning group

(e) Making all the preparations related to the teaching-learning activities conducted during his/her

absence from the learning group (while he is not on duty). For example, giving the tasks to the

tutor to be conducted while he is not on duty.

(f) C o n d u c t i n g the teaching-learning activities in the b a s e school

w h e n he is not working in the learning group.

The time on which the teaching-learning process in the learning group is conducted is jointly

determined by the visiting teacher/tutor, and the m e m b e r s of the local community. The curriculum

used in the Visiting Teacher School System is the s a m e curriculum as used in the ordinary primary

school.

The learning place for the Visiting Teacher School System can be an ordinary house which belongs to the people in the community, the learning kiosk designed and established especially for the purpose, and any other place as determined by the people in the community.

The students w h o study in the Visiting Teacher School System are registered as students in the base

primary school and evaluated in the s a m e w a y as the students in the base primary school.

Source: E F A Document from Ministry of Education and Culture, Office of Educational and Cultural

Research and Development, Jakarta, Indonesia, 1995.

45

Funding and M a n a g e m e n t of Basic Education

Nothing could be as unstable as the policy on the funding and management of primary

education in the last decade. This has brought about intractable problems in this sub-sector.

Teachers' salaries and allowances have been frequently in arrears for months; physical

facilities have been in parlous state and instructional materials were totally absent in most

schools. Strike action has been used as a weapon for seeking redress. School enrolmentfell

and parents w h o could afford the costs, sent their children to private, profit-oriented schools.

The initiative bythe Federal Government via Decree 31 of August 1988 brought s o m e

improvements to the sector. The decree established the National Primary Education

Commission (NPEC) . It was charged with the general responsibility of revitalising primary

education in Nigeria. Other structures designed and established for the management of

primary education at the state and grassroots levels underthe decree included:

(i) Primary Schools Management Board (PSMB)

(ii) Local Government Education Authority (LGEA)

(iii) District Education Committees (DEC)

(iv) Village Education Committee (VEC).

W h e n the Commission was dissolved in 1991, responsibilityforthe administration of primary

education was transferred to the Local Governments. During this period (1991 -1993) when

the affairs of primary education were in the hands of Local Governments, the country's primary

education almost fell to the brink of total collapse. All overthe country, primary school teachers

embarked on incessant and prolonged strike actions to press h o m e demand for their unpaid

salaries, usually running into many months, and teaching and learning suffered disastrously.

In the dis-enhanctment and loss of confidence occasioned by indefinite closure of

primary schools, there was a mass exodus of pupils from public to private schools. It was in

this situation that the Federal Government by Decree 96 of 1993 re-established the National

Primary Education Commission to rescue primary education from the abyss into which it had

fallen.

The Commission took off in March 1994 with modified functions for each tier of

Government and improved provisions forfunding and management.

Table 5.: States, Local and Federal Government Contributions Towards Funding

Primary Education (=N=)

Year

1994

1995

1996

Total

States

844,545,115

1,463,653,962

1,352,707,012

3,600,906,089

L.G.Councils

2,591,957,200

10,608,338,420

10,029,203,597

23,229,497,217

Federal Government

424,172,800

911,504,250

683,628,188

2,019,305,238

Total

3,860,675,115

12,983,494,632

12,065,538,797

28,909,708,544

Source N P E C Nov/Dec 1996

Table 5.1 above shows that between April 1994 and 30th September, 1996, the sum

of N28.9 billion was released to the National Primary Education Commission bythe three tiers

of Government.

Under Nigeria's Federal system of government, the national revenues are shared

between Federal, State and Local Governments according to an allocation formula. This

formula currently stands at Federal 48.5%, State Governments 24.0%, Local Governments

20%; Special funds 6.5% and Federal Capital Territory, Abuja 1.0% (National Revenue

Mobilisation, Allocation and Fiscal Commission 1992). Outside of their shares in the

46

Federation Account, very little revenue is raised independently by State and Local governments. There is thus an over dependency on the Federal Government.

In real terms, Federal expenditures on education in 1989 amounted to only 6.8%. In the lastten years education expenditures have represented an average of 5.1% of total Federal Government expenditures (ranging from 2 percent in 1987 to 8.3 percent in 1989), with a higher share in total recurrent expenditures (averaging 7.2 percent) than in capital expenditures (averaging 2.3 percent) (World Bank 1997). A s a percentage of G D P , Federal Government education expenditures averaged about 1.1 percent over the past decade. Compared with many countries of Sub-Saharan Africa, Nigeria spent less of its total government budget on education, as a percentage of G N P , than say Ghana with 25.7% Education share of total annual Government expenditure and 3.6% of G D P / G N P ; Kenya 19.8% of total Government expenditure; and 6.2% of G D P / G N P and Zimbabwe 23.4% of total Government expenditure; and 9.5% of G D P / G N P ) (World Bank - ibid).

Conclusions The Jomtien Conference obviously has not radically influenced the education policy in

Nigeria. It however became a reference point to the discussion of education policy and to certain initiatives and gave a renewed sense of priority for developing basic education.

Within the framework of Education for All, the scope of basic education has been broadened to include pre-primary education for children aged under 5. This important sub-sector had hitherto not received adequate attention. Initiatives have been taken to encourage pre-school education and participation of communities, private individuals and non­governmental organisations in the provision of access to pre-school education. A s already indicated, a major initiative was the Early Child Care and Development and Education ( E C C D E ) project.

Gross enrolment in primary schools has exceeded the 84.6% target for 1995, mainly as a result of intensive government efforts which have ensured a steady increase in enrolment since 1990. There has been also a corresponding increase in the number of existing primary schools from 35,433 in 1990 to 41,531 in 1995. Theenrolmentofgirls in primary education has remarkably improved since 1990 as national, state and community efforts succeed in getting more girls into schools. Access has also been extended to the nomads. Consequently 46,573 of the children of nomads n o w have access to basic education. Equally, attention is being paid to the educational needs of children of migrant fishermen and children in especially difficult circumstances like street children. Efforts have been intensified to infuse elements of basic education into the curriculum of Koranic schools to ensure that the large number of children currently attending only Koranic schools also receive basic education.

Despite the high gross enrolments, completion rates at 70.6% for girls and 68.2% for boys fall short of the 8 0 % target set for 1995. Paradoxically, more boys are dropping out, especially in the Southern States, mainly for economic reasons. The Table below shows a comparative perspective of boys Drop-out Rates/Patterns in four Eastern States.

47

All Four Overall States Average

State

Abia

Anambra

Enugu

Imo

Average (%)

1994

45

61

66

47

51

1995

60

65

63

47

56

1996

42

71

69

50

58

(Source: U N I C E F Study 1995)

Gender disparity has been reduced In some states, especially the northern states. With regard to transition, before 1990, the national transition average rate from primary to junior secondary w a s 44%. The objective was to increase this figure to 58.4% by 1995 and 72.4% by the year 2000. The transition rate actually declined in 1995 to 43.7% lowerthan the transition rate before 1990. In spite of the policy introducing 9-year schooling, Nigeria is to-day still short of the targetfor 1995. A National Mass Literacy campaign w a s launched by the Government in 1992 with the support of U N E S C O and the U N D P , employing the "Each O n e Teach O n e or Fund the Teaching of O n e " strategy.

In 1993, the Federal Ministry of Education launched "Operation Save Our Schools" to mobilise private sectorfunds for education. This initiative w a s followed by the Education Tax Decree N o . 7 of 1993, whereby all registered private companies are required to contribute 2 % of thelrannual profits Into an Education Fund to be managed by a Board of Trustees. The latter Is to administer allocations among the primary, secondary and tertiary education levels, at distribution rates of 40,10 and 50 per cent respectively. The funds for primary education are earmarked forthe implementation of the 9-year Education Programme, with special emphasis on rehabilitating schools and providing quality education.

As already noted, diverse factors have militated against the effective delivery of education in Nigeria. Perhaps the most significant and overriding factors are:

(i) Inadequate Funding: Severe budgetary constraints have led to a slow pace of

programme implementation and heavy dependence on donor assistance. Mobilising

resources for education needs to be based on accurate knowledge and analysis of the given

situation, while a major obstacle to resource mobilisation is a weak capacity for proper

planning and implementation.

(ii) Demographic Pressure: The high population growth rate of Nigeria and her large size put a great strain on available resources because the provision of educational facilities to remote locations, especially the rural populations of the country, most of which lack access roads, has great financial implications. The issue of population control has so far not been seriously addressed.

(iii) Management Problems: The size and diversity of the country's population create the need fora decentralised approach to education administration and management . In spite of the existence of three tiers of government, the structure of the Federation and the creation of the National Primary Education Commission at "the centre"; Schools Management Boards at the State level. Local Government Education Authorities (LGEAs) at the local government level, decentralisation in Its true nature has never really occurred. Federal and State Governments continue to have control over local governments in terms of policy and programme initiation; yet Local Governments lack adequate planning and management

48

capacity. S o m e of the key political decisions involved in genuine decentralisation viz capacity-building, autonomy, responsibility-sharing, as well as social participation, and accountability haveyettobeactualised.

(iv) Over-Emphasis on Tertiary Education: Continued emphasis on tertiary education and adult literacy, and corresponding increase in resource allocations to colleges and universities at the expense of primary education, have tended to aggravate the problems of access, and retention at the latter levels as well as the problems of adult illiteracy.

(v) Not Matching The Values of Schooling with Local Values: It has been suggested that because of suspicion by m a n y parents of the values of Nigerian education to-day, m a n y parents in the rural communities would rather send their children to Koranic Schools than to formal Western- style primary schools. The former have not b e c o m e part of the country's integrated education statistics, though in the Northern States, m a n y children are enrolled in Koranic and Islamiyya schools. Yet, in orderte achieve the nations' goal of E F A , all available channels ought to c o m e into play.

(vi) Not Adjusting to the Child's Familial Obligations: The hours of opening and closing schools are centrally determined and fixed. This has b e c o m e a major constraint espfecially in rural areas of the country. Even if the values gap can be bridged by dialogue, there is still the problem of developing an education experience that will take account of, or that will be sensitive to the roles children are expected to play in the household and/or the family business. If school hours conflict with these familial d e m a n d s , schools will find it difficult to attract and retain pupils in school.

T h e basic reality confronting successive Governments in Nigeria has been the educational expansion which has been more quantitative than qualitative. H u g e investments have been m a d e in providing facilities and improving educational access throughout the country. However, experience in the field has shown that these alone cannot compel parents to send their children to school. In spite of the efforts of Governments and international agencies towards eradication of illiteracy, there are still very m a n y people w h o cannot read and are unenthusiastic about sending their children to school. There is need for a pragmatic approach to policies that favour standard norms. There is no " O n e best way" of dealing with issues. Government should forge partnerships with local community leaders w h o can assist in identifying priorities, mobilising local resources, proposing approaches that correlate with local circumstances and provide continuity (Cummings et al 1992). The Benue State has created such a partnership with the local community under its primary education project known as "Partnership Improvement of Primary Education" (PIPE)^^ It has achieved results that are commendable.

Finally, if the goal is to provide education for all that reaches the unreached, and including the excluded, it m a y be necessary for Government to review its policies and programmes to encourage unique approaches for a.variety of local settings. These unique approaches m a y include multigrade classrooms, locally tailored materials, voluntary instructional staff(including students and tutors) and instruction in the mothertongue or local language. Furthermore, Government m a y need to improve on the use of the "second-chance strategy," i.e. to capture the older children w h o missed enrolment at the statutory age of six and yet are young enough to benefit from basic education. This will call for flexibility in the formal system in such a w a y that it provides entry and exit avenues for such older children to join their peers at the senior primary stages and continue to develop their potentials through the formal or non-formal systems of education.

49

References

1. Federal Ministry of Education, Nigeria. Education Today. A quarterly journal

published by the Educational Information and Documentation Centre, Federal

Ministry of Education, Vol. 7 No . 4 March 1997.

2. Statistics of Primary and Post-Primary Education in Nigeria 1994, 1995: Federal

Ministry of Education, Statistics Branch.

3. Federal Republic of Nigeria. National Policy on Education (Revised), Lagos,

Nigeria N E R C Press, Yaba 1981.

4. Federal Ministry of Education and Youth Development: Press Briefing of the Hon.

Minister of Education and Youth Development on the activities of the Ministry.

December 1994.

5. National Commission for Mass Literacy, Adult and Non-Formal Education. Report

of 1996 Annual Review on the F G N / U N D P . NIR/A3 Assisted National Mass Literacy

Programme.

6. Nigerian National Commission for U N E S C O : Nigeria Country Paper : Education

for All Ministerial Meeting on Nine High-Population Countries (E-9) 12-16 Sept.

1995.

7. Ministry of Education and Culture, Jakarta, Indonesia: Basic Education for 7-12

years Old Children through Visiting Teacher School System in Central Kalimantan

Province, 1995.

8. UNICEF-NIGERIA Programme Plan of Operation, 1997-2001 (Mimeo).

9. World Bank: Nigeria Social Sector Strategy Review 1994.

10. World Bank: Out of School Children and Youth Workshop - Remarks by the World

Bank Representative in Nigeria 23-26 Nov. 1994.

11. O K O R O , D . C . U . Government. Policies and Guidelines on Enrolment: The Basic

Realities. A commissioned paper presented at a National Seminar on Strategies

for improving enrolment and retention in Nigerian Primary Schools, 16-19 July

1996.

12. S a m b o . A . A . Keynote Address presented at a National Seminar on Enrolment

Drive 17-18 July 1996.

13. G I D A D O T A H I R . The Structure and Operations of Nomadic Education in Nigeria - A

submission to the Administrative Audit Panel on N P E C 1997.

14. Paris. Issue Paper for Discussion presented at a Policy Review Seminar, West

andCentralAfrica, Yaounde, Cameroon, 11-14 Feb., 1996.

50

15. The Consultative Group on E C C D Secretariat: Discussion notes Nos. 1 -12 for the Education for All IVIid-decade Review. A m m a n . Jordan June 16-191996.

16. Benue State Primary Education Board. Project on Partnership Improvement of Primarv Education (PIPE) (Benue S P E B initiative).

51

CHAPTER V

GENDER ISSUES IN EDUCATION

Introduction "Education is the basis forthe full promotion and improvement of the status of w o m e n . It is the basic tool that should be given to w o m e n in order to fulfil their role as full members of society" (Nairobi, Forward Looking Strategies, 1985).

In all countries of the world, education is now recognised as the main vehicle for promoting and improving the status of w o m e n . The new interest in the education of w o m e n is part of a general awakening that has taken place during the last two decades. People now realise that sustainable human development cannot be effective if half of the human race (the women-folk) remain ignorant, marginalised and discriminated against. This chapter focuses on Nigeria's efforts to wipe out ignorance among her women-folk and advance their development through education. The first part gives a general background to "women 's woes" and the role "gender" has played in w o m e n ' s plight. The second and third parts discuss efforts of Nigeria to educate her w o m e n folk through non-formal and formal education programmes. The final part gives some suggestions on how to improve the education of girls and w o m e n in the future.

1. W o m e n , Gender and Development:

In Nigeria, as elsewhere in the world, the last two decades have witnessed special attention being focused on w o m e n and their advancement in all spheres of life. The United Nations has been at the forefront of efforts to raise the status of w o m e n . It declared 1975 as International W o m e n ' s Year, and the years 1976 to 1985 as the United Nations Decade for W o m e n . The U. N . also organised a series of conferences on w o m e n in 1975 (Mexico City), 1980 (Copenhagen), 1985 (Nairobi) and 1995 (Beijing). AttheAfrican regional level, similar conferences were held, such as the 1989 conference in Abuja which produced the "Abuja Declaration on Participating in Development: The role of W o m e n in Africa in the 1990s"

The central theme of all the conferences has been the need to raise the status of w o m e n and bring them into the development process as equal partners with m e n . The conferences have also raised consciousness about age-old injustices and inequalities which w o m e n suffer in virtually all societies in the world. From all these efforts, the awareness has grown that w o m e n ' s woes have as their root cause, the question of gender.

The Concept of Gender: Since the 1970s, authors such as Oakley (1972) have called attention to the fact that

a lot of discrimination that w o m e n face on the grounds of their sex is baseless. They distinguish between sex and gender, defining sex as biologically determined characteristics of m e n and w o m e n . Gender on the other hand, refers to all the characteristics of m e n and w o m e n which a particular society has determined and assigned each sex. Thus, when a boy is chided "Be a m a n " , the speaker is not saying the boy risks changing his sex organs. Rather"Be a m a n " , is asking the boy to behave in ways expected of a member of the male sex in the society. This attitude is true of both the traditional and modern society. In the educational system, gender is also important as it influences the curriculum, instructional materials, career choice and general behaviour of pupils and teachers alike.

52

Examples of Sex and Gender Roles in Traditional Society

!

Sex Roles (Biologically determined)

Male: Impregnates w o m a n

1 i 1

Female: -becomes pregnant -bears children -breastfeeds child

I

r !

Gender Roles (Socially Determined)

-bread winner and head of family; -strong, vigilant and adventurous; -protect family and clan; -land owner; -takes part in village council and governance; -never cries or displays emotions; -engages in'male'games such as wrestling;

-rears children; -takes care of domestic chores; -fetches and carries water and firewood; -does not own land; -does not participate in village council or governance;

-is weepy and emotional; -engages in 'female' games such as dancing.

Gender Roles in Modern Society: Gender stereotypes are also very much in evidence in modern society. The m a n is still

the bread winnerand head of family. M e n govern and rule the country. They are captains of industry, commerce and banking. They work as generals in the army, engineers, pilots, brain surgeons, business entrepreneurs, etc. At the end of the working day, m e n relax in front of the television, listen îo radioorVead newspapers; they m a y also go out to the club "with the boys". . W o m e n , on thé other hand, rearchildren, look after the h o m e and do all the domestic chores. If and whenwomengoouttQwork, they usually work as teachers, nurses, secretaries, caterers, etc:- Atthe çnd.iQfthç dßy'siöb, they stiW have to dash into the kitchento see to the evening meal

' anddoaflotheiidpniesticdhores. " • ; .,"... ' • *

Gene ts S teœotypes in the Edibcatibnal System: 'Gender stereotyping permeates th&school system, manifesting in both direct and

subtieAA/ays. For instance, there^aH^e'masculine'subjects such«'as Science, Technology and Mathematics. There are also 'feminine' subjects such as H o m e Economics, Literature and Secretarial Studies. The language and illustrations used in textbooks and readers also betray a gender bias. Boys are generally portrayed as brave, intelligent, decisive and adventurous; they return to the h o m e , expecting a well cooked meal and loving care from mother. Girls, on the other hand, are shown as shy and timid; they look after siblings, do domestic chores and assist mother in getting the meals ready. Classroom interaction between teachers and pupils .also favours boys to the detriment of girls; thus in mixed schools, the undoubted class monitors and school captains appointed by teachers are boys.

Other manifestations of genderstereotyping in schools are what Alele-Williams (1986: 35) describes as "bictdencurriculunri", which^send outmessages to girls to conform with role expectatidbs-.'-Fçricistance, mostfeacfters in jnstitutiofls of learning arè males,Jmplying an absence of rQtemQOeîs jtoirrspfrefemale studenîs to achieve.-Again, gids ace^oDstanflyiaeing renTtrrdeçt by'nrrate teachers and-.evjen career guidarrce counsellors, that to achjeve is'

53

unfeminine" and by implication, that girls receive little reward for outstanding academic performance.

T h e Importance of G e n d e r Gender is important in that whatever concept of gender a society holds regulates all

spheres ofexistenceofthe individuals from the cradle to the grave. In most societies, gender roles have shackled w o m e n to the floor, preventing them from participating in, and benefiting from development efforts. The society as a whole thus suffers from the marginalisation of half of its population, functioning only on half steam, as it were. Indeed, it has been observed that countries that have raised the status of their w o m e n - educationally, socially, politically, economically - generally enjoy a high standard of living. O n the other hand, countries, where w o m e n remain largely illiterate and confined to the h o m e front, have a low standard of living. This is w h y the United Nations Development P r o g r a m m e ( U N D P ) in 1995, decided to include in its measurement of development in countries (usually expressed as H u m a n Development Index, HDI) the measurement of gender inequality. T h e two indices used for gender measurement were:

(a) the Gender-related Development Index (GDI), and (b) the Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) Nigeria ranks very low in all the indices. The Nigerian H u m a n Development Report

1996 (p.65) gives Nigeria's ranking by 1992 as the following: HDI - 141 out ofa total of 172 countries GDI - 100 out of a total of 130 countries G E M - 108 out of a total of 116 countries

The report then lamented: "Nigeria is among ttie poorest oftiie poor in ail tfie tliree measures and must take a frog-leap out of this low human development and gender inequality quagmire" (op.cit)

Nigeria has indeed embarked on m a n y educational programmes aimed at the development of her women-folk. T h e programmes are next discussed undertwo broad headings: (a) Adult and Non-formal Education and (b) Formal Education.

2. Adult and N o n - F o r m a l Education With an average literacy rate of 54 .1%, Nigeria is ranked as one of the low literacy

countries of the world. Adult literacy rate which is one of the key variables that go into the calculation of a country's h u m a n development index (HDI) is defined as the percentage of persons aged 15 and over w h o can, with understanding, both read and write a short simple statement on everyday life (Nigerian H u m a n Development Report, 1996 p.75). In numerical terms, this m e a n s that out of Nigeria's total population estimate of 104 million, over 50 million were illiterate. Further, there is a wide genderdisparity in the literacy rate in Nigeria with 6 2 . 5 % of the male population being literate while only 39 .5% of the female population are literate, (op.cit). If the female adult literacy rate as a percentage ofthat of male in Nigeria is 6 6 % , this m e a n s that there are over 30 million illiterate w o m e n in the country.

Efforts to address the issue of this huge n u m b e r of illiterate w o m e n can only be successful if their distribution according to states, age, groups, urban/rural groups, etc. is known. Unfortunately, details are not available. However, certain rough estimates are given below.

54

(a) Distribution of Illiterate W o m e n by A g e G r o u p s T h e N H D R (p. 14) gives the following population distribution in Nigeria:

A g e Groups ... ... % of Total Population 0 - 1 5 years . 15 -29 years . 30 - 59 years . 60 and above.

44% 20% 27% 3%

25%

Based on the above, the 30 million illiterate w o m e n fall underthe following age groups:

A g e Groups 1 5 - 2 9 years ... 3 0 - 59 years ... 6 0 years and above

N o . of Illiterate W o m e n 13.6 million 14.8 million 1.6 million

Total 30 million

(b) N u m b e r of Illiterate W o m e n in Urban/Rural Areas T h e N H D R states that s o m e 2 5 % of the population (1990) reside in the urban areas. This gives a rough estimate of at least 22 .5 million illiterate w o m e n living in rural areas.

(c) Distribution of Illiterate W o m e n by States Again, the disaggregated figures for male and female literacy rates per state are not available but the wide disparity in the overall literacy rates between the states cannot fail to be reflected also in the female rates. (See Table 1 below).

Tablel : Adult Literacy Rates in Selected States in 1993

State

Anambra Bauchi Bendel Benue Borno Cross River Gongola Imo Kaduna Kano Kwara Lagos Niger Ogun Ondo Oyo Plateau Rivers Sokoto

Adult Literacy Rate

(%) 43.1 39.8 65.6 27.0 10.0 69.4 26.0 75.6 30.8 12.1 40.0 65.0 16.0 41.8 50.6 40.4 36.7 51.9 2.7

^

Source: N H D R . 1996:83

55

Efforts to Address W o m e n ' s Adult and Non-Formal Education Problems T w o main programmes have been used by the Federal Government of Nigeria to

promote w o m e n ' s adult and non-formal education. These are the W o m e n ' s Education Programme and the Mass Literacy Programme. In addition, s o m e N G O s and Donor Agencies also have programmes aimed at the education of w o m e n .

W o m e n ' s Education P r o g r a m m e In 1986, the Blueprint on W o m e n Education in Nigeria was launched, followed by the

setting up of " W o m e n Education Units" in Federal and State Ministries of Education. These units cater for both rural and urban w o m e n , drop-outs at secondary schools, as well as literate w o m e n w h o desire to furthertheir education. Attention is also focused on w o m e n with special needs such as nomadic and riverine w o m e n , w o m e n in purdah, drop-outs of all categories, especially teenage single parents. The overall aim is to avail all w o m e n of equal educational opportunities, irrespective of their age, locality, creed or social status. Apartfrom conducting adult literacy classes, the " W o m e n Education Units" also run w o m e n ' s vocation centres in all Local Government Areas. Many crafts and skills are imparted, reflecting both traditional occupations of a particular locality as well as modern-day pursuits. Thus, apart from skills and crafts such as cloth weaving, "tie and die", farming, food processing and preservation, the centres also run courses on dress-making, hair dressing, soap-making, cookery, cosmetology, secretarial and computer studies, etc. In some cases, extra-mural classes also afford beneficiaries, especially the younger ones, the opportunity to gain qualifications that will enable them to enter mainstream formal educational institutions. To this end, certification is usually awarded on the successful completion of such courses, while the " W o m e n Education Units" collaborate with formal sector institutions such as Technical Colleges, Polytechnics and Colleges of Education to integrate suitable and desirous graduates of the Adult and Non-formal Education courses into the formal education system.

More recently, the Family Support Programme (FSP) and the Federal and State Ministries of W o m e n ' s Affairs have also embarked on many adult and non-formal educational programmes forgirls and w o m e n .

M a s s Literacy P r o g r a m m e Conscious of the enormous task before it to educate over 50 million adult illiterates, the

Federal Government of Nigeria launched, in September 1982, a 10-year Mass Literacy Programme. Dissatisfied with the impact that the programme was making and, in line with the Jomtien goals of Education For All (EFA) by the year 2000, Nigeria set up in 1991 (by Decree No. 17 of June 1990), the National Commission for Mass Literacy and Non-Formal Education ( N M E C ) charging it with the task of eradicating illiteracy in the country. The target population of the commission includes: all illiterate and semi-illiterate adults, all out-of-school youth and children of school age w h o have never been to school.

W o m e n are specially targeted in the programmes of the Commission with mass literacy classes being conducted in all nooks and corners of the country. The programme of the Commission as outlined in its 1996 brochure is in two phases:

i) a 9-month Basic Literacy Programme which teaches illiterates basic functional reading and writing in their local languages or in the predominant written language of the area where the learners reside; and

ii) a 3-year Follow-up Enrichment Programme in post and further functional literacy through adult literacy classes and radio/television distance learning programmes directed at the wards in all the Local Government Areas of Nigeria (pp. 19 - 20).

56

Programmes of N G O s and Donor Agencies Many Christian and Muslim women 's organisations are active in offering adult and non-

formal education opportunities to w o m e n ; so also are many other N G O s such as Officers Wives Associations of the Nigerian Armed Forces (Army, Navy and Air Force). Donor agencies such as UNICEF, U N E S C O , U N D P , British Council, Van Leer Educational Foundation, etc. all contribute enormously to various educational programmes for w o m e n . For example, in the U N I C E F / F G N Master Planof Operations forthe 1991-95 Progr,amme of C o ­operation, the education of w o m e n is identified as one of the areas of UNICEF's intervention. The Plan states:

The Education for Women project will accelerate functional literacy attainment by enhancing access to, and the quality of non-formal education for women of child-bearing age and girls above formal primary school age ... The project will provide training in basic literacy and numeracy for women and girls, training in basic income generating and self enhancing skills, and promote health awareness, including nutrition and safe motherhood among them" (p.215).

With regard to U N E S C O , the quarterly Newsletter of its Lagos Office (Vol. 1, No . 2 October-December, 1997) refers to U N E S C O ' s participation in the U N D P s , Nigeria Poverty alleviation scheme at Ehin-Etiri Village in Ogun State. Specifically, U N E S C O undertakes to provide the functional literacy component with a focus on basic numeracy and literacy related to health, sanitation, oil processing, farming and micro-business skills. Other related activities reported in the Newsletter include participation of U N E S C O in a Mass Literacy/Vision 2010 Seminar held in Kaduna in January, 1997 and organising, in conjunction with the Federal Ministry of Education, a gender sensitization guidance and counselling workshop in Lagos for school age girls.

Assessment of P rogramme Impact What successes and constraints have attended efforts to eradicate illiteracy among

w o m e n and advance the non-formal education of w o m e n in the country? The dearth of data again makes evaluation and assessment of programmes difficult. However, available data show that while the efforts of the different bodies engaged in adult literacy and w o m e n ' s education programmes should be commended, the overall progress being m a d e is slow, as evidenced by the figures in Table 2 below:

Table 2: Distribution of Enrolment in Basic Literacy (all States) 1991-1995

Year

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

Male Female

181,237

223,440

290,104

-

. 327,395

Total

505,034

609,680

742,190

-

797,265

% Male

64.1

63.4

60.9

-

58.9

Female

35.9

36.6

39.1

-

41.1

Source: N H D R 1 9 9 6 , p . 4 6 .

A s the N H D R rightly comments, in none of the years did enrolment reach one million, suggesting that much more work needs to be undertaken to reduce the number of illiterates in the country.

57

Enquiries regarding factors that constrain access to, and the successful utilisation of adult and non-formal education opportunities by w o m e n , suggest the following:

i) pooraccessibility of venues e.g. being sited at great distances from learners;

ii) lack of consideration for w o m e n ' s work schedules;

iii) h o m e and family demands which take precedence over educational pursuits; iv) economic factors which make w o m e n preferto m a k e a living ratherthan attend

adult education classes; v) notseeing the relevance of courses offered; vi) lack of basic facilities such as classrooms and toilets at study venues; vii) lack of instructional materials such as literacy manuals and readers in local

languages; viii) prevailing cultural attitudes and bias against female education.

3. Formal Education In general, girls and w o m e n have m a d e steady progress in all areas of formal education

in Nigeria since independence in 1960. Enrolment rates have risen at all levels of education, drop-out rates have fallen while the Government continues to m a k e constant effort to improve the quality of education that is received. Female education, however, still lags behind that of males in many respects. For instance, female enrolment rates at all levels of formal education remain below those of male; girls have a higher drop-out rate; girls are much fewer in the important subject ares of science, technology and mathematics, and their career choice is still largely confined to the 'feminine' areas of teaching, nursing, secretarial studies, catering, etc. There is also regional disparity with a lower percentage of females in the North being enrolled in institutions than their Southern counterparts. A brief examination of developments in each of the sub-levels of formal education will illustrate the situation.

Primary Education: Demographic Information Primary education in Nigeria is available to children between the ages of 6 and 11

years. The Blueprint on Family Support Basic Education Programme (FSBEP), 1997 uses the 1991 provisional census figures to arrive at the following demographic information on primary school age children forthe year 1995.

Population A g e Structure: (M) (F) (MP) 6-11 years 21.5% 19.04% 19.74%

Population Distribution by Age (1995 Projected): (M) (F) (MF) 6-11 years 10,210,043 9,360,574 19,536,237

Enrolment of Girls in Primary Schools Enrolment of girls in primary schools has steadily increased since independence as

can be seen in Table 3 below.

58

Table 3: Primary School Enrolment In Nigeria by Sex (1960 -1995)

Year

1960

1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

Total

2,912,618

2,911,742

3,515,598

6,165,547

13,760,030

12,914,870

13,007,249

13,776,854

14,805,937

15,870,280

16,190,947

15,741,078

Male

1,829,471

1,791,563

2,216,000

3,540,486

7,789,786

7,182,552

7,729,677

7,741,897

8,273,824

8,930,600

9,056,947

8,729,421

%

62.81

61.5

63.0

57.4

56.6

55.6

56.8

56.2

55.9

56.3

55.9

55.5

Female

1,083,147

1,120,179

1,299,598

2,625,061

5,970,244

5,732,318

5,877,572

6,034,957

6,532,113

6,939,680

7,134,580

7,011,657

%

37.1

38.5

37.0

42.6

43.4

44.4

43.2

43.8

44.1

43.7

44.1

44.5

Source: Statistics Branch, Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos.

Contributory Factors to Improved Female Education at the Primary Level Many factors have contributed to the positive development in the enrolment of females

at the primary school. In September 1976, Nigeria launched the Universal Primary Education S c h e m e (UPE) for all children (boys and girls) between the ages of 6 and 11 years. The education of primary school age girls w a s further emphasized in the National Policy on Education (Revised 1981 ) which said that special efforts would be m a d e to encourage parents to sent their daughters to school. The theme was re-echoed in the "Blueprint on W o m e n Education", produced bythe Federal Ministry of Education in 1986. Other stated objectives of the Blueprint included the advancement of girls' education, especially in the areas of science, technology and mathematics, and the institutionalisation of measures to discourage the withdrawal of girls from primary schools for whatsoever reason. Education of girls at the primary level received a further boost when Nigeria endorsed the goals of the Jomtien conference of 1990 on Education For All (EFA) by the year 2000. Subsequently, in 1993, Nigeria re-established the National Primary Education Commission (NPEC) which had been dissolved in 1991, and gave it the responsibility for pursuing E F A goals at the primary level. More recently, the Family Support Programme (FSP) which was initiated in 1994 launched a programme intervention in Basic Education. Thus, in its "Blueprint on Family Support Basic Education Programme" which w a s launched early in 1998, it is stated that one of its key areas is primary education, and among its special target groups is also the girl-child. A s has been noted, donor agencies such as the British Council, U N E S C O , U N D P , Ford Foundation and UNICEF have also played active roles in the promotion of female education at the primary level, and thus contributed to the rise of the female enrolment figures already seen.

Shortfalls in Female Primary Education Although female education atthe primary level has undoubtedly improved, many areas

of difficulty still remain. They include the following:

59

a) Inability to m e e t E F A Mid -decade Goals on Enrolment i.e. achieving 7 2 . 4 % enrolment for children of primary school age from the 1990 level of 7 0 . 2 % ; and increasing female enrolment from the 1990 level of 4 5 . 2 % to 4 6 . 8 % .

From the figures in Table 3, it is obvious that none of these goals has been met . In concrete terms, a number of Nigerian children (boys and girls) still lack access to primary education either because they dropped out of the system orthey were never enrolled in schools.

b) Inability to Meet E F A Mid -decade Goals on G e n d e r Disparity: Another mid-decade E F A goal for Nigeria w a s the reduction of gender disparity by one third of its 1990 level (i.e. an increase in the gender ratio from 56:44 to 52:48) by end of 1995. Again, as can be seen in Table 3 above, the ratio of boys to girls in primary schools in 1995 w a s 5 5 . 5 % to 4 4 . 5 % .

c) North-South G e n d e r Disparity: A s has been shown , a lower percentage of girls in the north are enrolled in primary schools as compared to what obtains in the southern parts of the country. O n this issue the F M E Basic Education booklet (1993 p. 24) observes that while gender disparity in formal primary education is, on average, 12 percentage points, it rises to over 2 5 percentage points in several northern states. Table 4 below s h o w s that states particularly affected by low female enrolment and high genderdisparity in percentage terms are Sokoto, Kebbi, Katsina and Jigawa.

60

Table 4 : Primary School Enrolment by State and Sex -1995 1

state

Abia

Adamawa

Akwa-lbom

Anambra

Bauchi

Benue

Borno

Cross River

Delta

Edo

Enugu

Imo

Jigawa

Kaduna

Kano

Katsina

Kebbi

Kogi

Kwara

Lagos

Niger

Ogun

Ondo

Osun

Oyo

Plateau

Rivers

Sokoto

Taraba

Yobe

FCTAbuja

NIGERIA

Total

482,356

496,048

649,801

409,086

452,053

680,094

601,365

235,254

450,786

507,020

628,748

561,214

359,687

531,011

818,822

636,613

205,639

478,486

315,580

859,844

409,042

458,339

582,991

610,765

740,832

719,345

593,501

307,203

417,933

443,436

98,183

15,741,078

Male

241,135

280,732

322,943

207,229

275,423

390,202

351,824

119,956

214,460

240,000

331,867

286,816

236,982

307,805

510,606

431,197

137,723

255,939

166,354

430,315

256,751

237,820

297,518

313,794

370,845

405,049

294,886

233,498

241,949

283,168

52,630

8,729,421

%

49.99

56.59

49.69

50.65

60.92

57.37

58.50

50.98

47.57

47.33

52.78

51.10

65.89

57.96

62.36

67.73

66.97

53.49

52.71

50.05

62.77

51.89

51.03

51.38

50.06

56.31

49.69

76.01

57.89

63.86

53.60

55.5%

Female

241,221

215,316

326,858

201,857

176,630

289,892

249,541

115,298

236,326

267,020

296,881

274,398

122,705

223,206

308,216

205,416

67,916

222,547

149,226

429,529

152,291

220,515

285,473

296,971

369,987

314,296

298,615

73,705

175,984

160,268

45,553

7,011,657

%

50.01

43.41

50.31

49.35

39.08

42.63

41.50

49.02

52.43

52.67

47.22

48.90

34.11

42.04

37.64

32.27

33.03

46.51

47.29

49.95

37.23

48.11

48.97

48.94

49.94

43.69

50.31

23.99

42.11

36.14

46.40

44.5%

Source of Enrolment Figures: Statistics Branch, Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos.

61

High W a s t a g e Rate: A n important obstacle to the achievement of higher enrolment figures in primary

education is the high wastage which on average is country-wide. For instance, figures for 1995 s h o w that the average completion rates ct primary school level for boys and girls completing five years were 56 .3% and 4 3 . 7 % respectively. Okebukola (1993:53) notes that retention rate in the lower primary classes is high, diminishing in the upper classes. H e also notes that wastage rate is about 1 7 % ( for both boys and girls), while, on the average, 4 6 . 6 % of all pupils w h o withdraw from school are girls.

M a n y reasons have been given for the high attrition rate in primary schools. T h e y include:

i) engagement in income-generating activities by s o m e children during school hours;

ii) inability of parents to meet expenses for such things as school uniforms, textbooks, etc.;

iii) distant or inaccessible location of schools from pupils' h o m e s ; iv) ill-health arising from poor environmental sanitation, lack of potable water, lack

of toilet facilities, etc.; v) religious and cultural factors which cause s o m e parents to choose religious

schools, such as Quaranic schools, in preference to western-type primary schools;

vi) early marriage of girls; and vi) teenage pregnancy

Inadequate Curriculum A further difficulty lies in curriculum inadequacy. T h e adequacy of the primary school

curriculum to meet basic learning needs of children is increasingly questioned by both parents and pupils alike. N o w a d a y s , m a n y parents hesitate to send chiWren toprimary schools d u e to thejr'concern that they produce functional illiterates and fail to equip their children for the world of-work. There are, however, plansto remedy this situation. For instance, the recently Iaunched\/isioh2010 document, while recommendingageneratcurricularreviewforalllevels

.of education, advocates thé establishment ofyputh centres and vocational schools in every - Local.GovernmentArea.- Çuchcentreswouidtieequrppe^wit{ithenecesSaryinfrastructufe

whereprinaafyschooltJupilscartacquiFevarioustedinrcdi'SicHls. ^ - - ^ ,

Negtectt)fi.DttratLanguages . "•• [•".'"-. A n issue that calls forgrgertt attention îs the palpable neglect of Ideal languages in

primary sifchools. Although the National Policy on Education envisages the initial use of the mother-tongue in primary schools and its teaching generally in schools, the majority of schools in the country neither use local languages as m e d i u m of instruction nor teach them as subjects. At the s a m e time, an increasing n u m b e r of children, especially in urban areas are unable to speak local languages. In one of the few studies that have been conducted on the subject, Afiesimama (1991) found that about 3 4 % of primary school children in Rivers State are unable to speak their mother-tongue/languages. It is evidentthat this is serious, especially forthe girls, w h o , w h e n they grow up, will thus be unable to pass on theirlocal languages to their offspring. T h e ultimate outcome of this is that in a few decades, m a n y local languages are likely to die out. jt is therefore^articularly necessafy that the education of girls and w o m e n sbbufd include

• local languad«^,^©-that^they will b e a b a s tÖ^-tFjaPtsmk-thcse and ttiettxtiltüfies to future ;_' :_*-generat iops." ' ; - . , . "••>••*'• ; / ; ' f / • ; ' - • _ / • . ; ,,.";: " ^ ' • " T ' - . C *'•.""• - .-,•,".'-•• ";;\" ,.••'.' '->•' • ,-

62

Secondary Education

In 1992, Nigeria introduced a nine-year "Basic Education programme" consisting of six

years of primary education and three years ofjunior secondary school. Secondary education

also includes three years of Senior Secondary School as set out in the N P E (1981). The

objectives of the 9-year Basic Education include:

i) ensuring 100% transition from primarytoJSS; and

ii) imparting the rudiments of employment-creating skills at the J S S level where

Introductory Technology and vocational subjects are emphasised.

Girls are not specially targeted in the JSS component of the 9-year Basic Education

Programme, as is the case in its primary education component. Rather, secondary school

girls will benefit from the activities ofthe " W o m e n Education Unit" whose functions include the

provision of more educational opportunities for girls from primary to the tertiary level. The Unit

also has as one of its objectives, the promotion of science, technology and mathematics

among girls. These sentiments are echoed in the Vision 2010 document which calls for the

creation of more schools for girls in science and technology and the introduction of compulsory

computer education in all schools.

The Blueprint on Family Support Basic Education Programme (1997) gives the

following demographic information on secondary school age children:

Population A g e Structure

12-14 years (JSS) 15-17 years (SSS)

(M) 7.98% 5.64%

(F)

8.34% 4.44%

(MF) 8.16% 5.04%

Population Distribution (1995 Projected) (M) (F) (MF)

1 2 - 1 4 years... 3,884,797 4,100,167 8,075,770

1 5 - 1 7 years... 3,809,007 2,182,832 4,987,975

Enrolment of Girls in Secondary Schools: In the five years 1990-1995, total female

enrolment in secondary schools rose, as well as the percentage of girls in secondary

schools (see Table 5 below).

Table 5: Secondary School Enrolment in Nigeria by Sex 1990 -1995

1990

Total Enrolment 2,901,993

Total Male 1,661,468

Enrolment (57.25%)

Total Female 1,240,525

Enrolment (42.75%)

1991

3,123,227

1,821,307

(58.31%)

1,301,970

(41.69%)

1992

3,600,620

1,979,045

(54.96%)

1,621,575

(45.04%)

1993

4,032,083

2,182,034

(54.0%)

1,850,049

(46.0%)

1994

4,451,329

2,419,782

(54.0%)

,2,031,547

(46.0%)

1995

4,448,991

2,354,713

(52.9%)

2,094,279

(47.1%)

Source: Statistics Branch, Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos.

Despite the steady rise in enrolment, many secondary school-age children still lack

access to this level of education. For instance, the projected population of female

secondary school-age children by 1995 was 6,282,999, but only 2,094,279 of them were in

school. This means that a large number of girls (about 4,188,720 or 66.67% of girls of

secondary school age) failed to benefit from secondary education in that year.

63

Regional and Gender Disparity in Secondary School Enrolment

As in Primary Education regional disparity is also noticed in.the total enrolment in

secondary schools with such Northern States as Jigawa, Kebbi, Taraba and Yobe having

much fewer enrolled pupils than their Southern counterparts. Similarly, there is regional

gender disparity with girls constituting a low percentage of secondary pupils in such

Northern States as Sokoto, Katsina, Kano and Kebbi. (See Table 6 below).

Table 6: Secondary School Enrolment by State and Sex (1994)

State

Abia

Adamawa

Akwa Ibom

Anambra*

BauchI

Benue

Borno

Cross River

Delta

Edo Enugu

Imo Jigawa

Kaduna

Kano

Katsina

Kebbi

Kogi

Kwara

Lagos

Niger

Ogun

Ondo

Osun

Oyo Plateau

Rivers

Sokoto

Taraba

Yobe

FCT, Abuja

Nigeria

Total

170,981

60,308

124,247

97,273

83,585

131,191

73,721

76,494

285,338

192,620

122,757

202,571

26,559

143,106

116,881

56,071

25,890

106,830

119,368

631,599

100,023

203,007

265,611

225,621

310,152

165,028

174,154

55,944

41,735

23,732

38,932

4,451,329

Female

82,485

19,063

63,062

81,454*

28,454

41,110

28,514

35,607

115,299

98,396

70,182

109,733

8,142

61,845

34,524

15,502

6,882

45,651

52,781

310,755

34,540

96,875

122,585

107,485

161,108

62,151

94,091

7,182

11,590

7,963

16,189

2,031,547

% Female

48.24

31.61

50.76

83.74*

34.46

31.33

38.68

46.55

40.41

51.1

57.17

54.17

30.66

43.21

29.54

27.65

26.58

42.73

44.21

49.20

34.53

47.72

46.15

47.64

51.94

37.66

54.03

12.84

27.77

33.55

41.58

46%

Source: Statistics Branch, Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos.

64

Gender Disparity Reversal in A n a m b r a State A distinctive phenomenon which is revealed in Table 6 is the reversal of gender

disparity in Anambra State, with 83.74% of secondary school pupils in the State in 1994 being female. The alarming unemployment rate of secondary school leavers (put at 71 .8% forthe urban and 68 .0% forthe rural youth according to N H D R , 1996 p. 117) is given as the main reason w h y m a n y parents, especially in Igbo areas, prefer their male children eitherto go into trading or learn a trade outside of school. It is hoped that efforts n o w being m a d e to strengthen the Introductory Technology and Vocational Skills components of the secondary school curriculum will result in secondary school leavers (both boys and girls) acquiring skills to m a k e them employable or better still, self-employed.

Tertiary Education: T h e s a m e pattern of steady increase in enrolment of females that has been observed at the primary and secondary levels of education also obtains at the tertiary level. More and more females are enrolling into courses in universities, polytechnics and colleges of education. They, however, still constitute less than 3 0 % of total enrolments. Again, there is regional and gender disparity with a m u c h smaller percentage of females being enrolled in tertiary institutions in such Northern States as Jigawa, Kebbi and Sokoto. (See Table 7 below).

Table?: Gross Enrolment in Tertiary Institutions in Selected States by Sex (%) 1993/94 Session

State

Abia

Adamawa Akwa Ibom

Abuja (FCT) Anambra

Bauchi

Benue Borno Cross River

Delta

Edo Enugu

Imo Jigawa Kaduna

Kano

%

Male Students

35.62 26.63

29.85 15.22

33.54

12.08

26.42 17.09

43.67

45.45

43.42 32.25

40.33

8.46 25.47

22.56

%of Female Students

29.25 7.28

20.84

7.30

29.51

2.53

8.98

2.45

28.27 26.66

30.18 21.23

32.39

0.81

9.75

2.14

State

Katsina Kebbi

Kogi

Kwara

Lagos Niger

Ogun

Ondo Osun

Oyo Plateau

Rivers

Sokoto

Taraba

Yobe

Nigeria

%of Male

Students

11.88 8.49

37.46 33.84

34.73

16.66

28.00

51.33 47.64

36.55 25.75

49.88 6.08

24.90

10.54

28.90

%

Female Students

1.03 0.87

16.82

13.98

23.79 3.71

14.89

31.36 30.11

24.51 10.59 32.52

0.97

4.94

2.25

13.58

Source NHDR, 1996 p. 116.

With regard to career choice, the females enrol more in arts-related courses than in science and technology-related courses. For instance, a detailed look at enrolments at the University of Lagos,for the 1990/91 session shows that while w o m e n constituted 34.79% of enrolment in Arts-related courses, they m a d e up only 21.96% of enrolment in science -related courses (See Table 8 below).

65

Table 8: Student Enrolment by Discipline and Sex at University of Lagos, 1990/91 Session

Arts Admin Arts Educ Law Soc. Sc.

Subtotal

(M)

1238 593

1068 480 1305

4684

(F)

391 448 988 158 514

2499

(MF)

1629 1041 2056 638 1819

7183

% Female

24% 43% 48.05% 24.76% 28.25%

34.79%

Science and Technology

Agrie. Eng/Tech Env. Design Medicine Pharm Science Vet. Med Others Subtotal

Grand Total-Arts & Science

(M) 0 1397

726 1042

0 1323

0 0 4488

9172

(F) 0 93 144 373 0 653 0 0 1263

3762

(MF) 0 1490

870 1415

0 1976

0 0 5751

12934

% Fenn ale -

6.24%

16.55% 26.36% 0 33.05% 0 0

21.96%

29.09%

Source: Statistics Branch, Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos.

It is hoped that with the continued efforts of the " W o m e n Education Unit" and such N G O s as Nigerian Association of W o m e n in Science; Technology and Mathematics, Association of Professional W o m e n Engineers, and Association of Gender & Science & Technology etc., female enrolment in science and technology-related courses will grow with time.

An interesting recommendation contained in the VISION 2010 document talks of establishing facilities in Universities and Polytechnics for training in technological acquisition and in the management of Small and Medium Enterprises Schemes. It is hoped that w o m e n in tertiary institutions will take full advantage of these schemes so that they m a y acquire more functional education which will, in turn, make them more employable or even self-employed.

Suggestions for the Future The following suggestions are given towards achieving greater progress in the

education of girls and w o m e n in the country: (i) Massive Campaign to Sensitise Educators, Textbook Publishers, Policy Makers and Others to Gender Issues in Education

Most people are simply not aware of gender issues and their impact on the education of girts and w o m e n from the h o m e and through the organised school system. It is suggested that advocacy and mobilisation programmes should be mounted to sensitise all concerned in the educational enterprise to

66

gender issues. This would be consistent with Gender and Media Workshops organised by the United Nations Fund for W o m e n (UNIFEM) during the last two years in the country.

(ii) Better Understanding and Definition of Target Beneficiaries Through Provision of Gender Disaggregated Data

A base study to provide data disaggregated by gender, states, age groups, educational attainment levels, urban/rural dimensions, etc. is an essential step that must be undertaken. The data provided will give a clear picture of w h o is being targeted, where, and for what purpose.

(iii) Needs Assessment Survey of Target Beneficiaries A needs assessment survey of target beneficiaries will also guide the choice

of programmes and curriculum content to be offered to the different categories of girls and w o m e n . This is especially important in the case of adult literacy classes and continuing education programmes of out-of-school girls and young w o m e n ;

(iv) Focus on Younger W o m e n (Ages 1 0 - 3 5 Years) The reluctance felt by older w o m e n with regard to educational pursuits is

counter-balanced by the greatyearningofyoungerwomen for educational opportunities. This high interest coupled with the large number of girls and young w o m e n w h o are not receiving any education at primary, secondary or adult and non-formal education levels, suggests that more satisfactory results will be obtained if the younger w o m e n are targeted.

(v) IVIore Functional and Employable Skills Efforts should also be geared towards more functional programmes at all levels

of education, so that beneficiaries can become either self-employed orfind employment easily in otherestablishments.

(vi) Absorption of Graduates of Non-Formal Education into the Formal School System

A commendable aspect of some of existing Adult and Non-Formal education programmes js the attempt to absorb graduates into formal education programmes, at whatever points they become suitably qualified for such integration. Greater efforts in this direction will encourage more young w o m e n to persevere in their educational pursuits.

(vii) Providing Greater Guidance and Counselling Services to Girls and Women

The numerous problems girls and w o m e n face with regard to their educational pursuits would be greatly minimised if there were more female guidance and counselling officers to advis^ them. Training of more of such officers is, therefore, greatly needed. In this regard, U N E S C O , l a g o s , in collaboration with the Federal Ministry of Education has already embarked on a series of Training Workshops on Guidance and Counselling for School-Age Girls.

(viii) Massive Training of Gender-Sensitised Teachers, Especially W o m e n W h o Would Serve as Role Models

It is evident that the successful execution of the various educational programmes for girls and w o m e n will depend on the availability of suitably trained, gender-sensitised teachers, especially w o m e n . Subject areas that particularly lack teachers include Technical and Vocational subjects, Technology, Computer Education and Local languages.

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(ix) study and Raising of Awareness on the Increasing Inability of Children to Speak Local Languages

The inability of a growing number of children (including girls and young w o m e n ) to speak their traditional languages has been pointed out earlier as a potential risk to the survival of local languages. A study of the phenomenon coupled with campaigns to raise awareness on the issue is an urgent step that is called for. From this will emerge a better appreciation of how and why the provisions contained in the National Policy on Educat on (1981 Rev.) on teaching of local languages in schools should be more rigorously enforced and implemented.

(x) Massive Provision of Literacy IVIanuals, Readers and Newsletters in Local Languages

It is fruitless to talk of basic literacy delivery if the manuals, readers and other instruction materials required to do so in the languages of the various communities are not available. This is the case now. Since the number of local languages involved is great, the problems could be alleviated by the provision of prototype manuals/readers in English which could be adapted and translated for use in different language areas. While this suggestion m a y be full of problems, they should be consciously examined for solutions.

(xi) Providing an Enabling Environment Shoddy classrooms with leaking roofs and broken desks and chairs are hardly

conducive to learning. Lack oftoilet facilities and potable water are among the problems most known to deter learners and contribute to drop-out rates. Locating schools at places and times which present difficulties to learners, especially in Adult and Non-Formal Education classes, also contributes to high drop-out rates, whereas more conducive learning environments encourage girls and w o m e n to persevere in their educational programmes.

(xii) Adequate Funding Finally, adequate funding by Federal, State and Local Governments is

fundamental in orderte ensure the success of the various educational programmes meant for girls and w o m e n . The arguments for giving a high priority to such programmes are n o w considered as self-evident, particularly since the socio-economic, political and cultural gains to the country have been amply shown.

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References

1. Afiesimama. A .F . (1991) Linguistic complexity in Rivers State: Implications for Language Use in Primary Education. Ph.D Dissertation, Dept. of Linguistics and African Languages, Uniyersityof PortHarcourt.

2. Alele-Williams, G . (1986) "Education of W o m e n for National Development". Paper Delivered at Workshop on W o m e n ' s Education in Nigeria, Lagos.

3. Federal Republic of Nigeria (1981 ) National Policy on Education. Lagos. Federal Ministryof Information (1st Published 1977).

4. Federal Government of Nigeria and United Nations Children's Fund. (1991 ). Master Plan of Operations for the 1991 -1995 Programme of Co-operation. Federal Government of Nigeria. Family Support Basic Education Programme: The Blueprint

5. Federal Republic of Nigeria (1997) VISION 2010.

6. Federal Ministry of Education (1994) Statistics of Primary and Post-Primary Education in Nigeria 1994.

7. Federal Ministry of Education Basic Education Statistics on Priman/ Schools in

Nigeria. 1995 and Enrolment in Nigerian Universities 1980-1992 (Mimeograph)

8. Federal Ministry of Education and Youth Development (1993) Nigeria Talks Basic Education: Report of the national conference on Education for All by the year2000.

9. Federal Ministry of Education, W o m e n Education Unit (1986) Blueprint on W o m e n Education in Nigeria.

10. Oakley, Ann (1972) Sex, Gender and Society - Temple Smith,

11. Okebukola. P. (1993) "Access. Retention and Attrition as key Issues in the Attainment of Education for Allin Nigeria." in Nigeria Talks Basic Education: The report of the national conference on Education for All by the Year 2000.

12. United Nations (1985) The Nairobi FonA/ard - Looking Strategies for the

Advancement of W o m e n .

13. United Nations Development Programme, Lagos, Nigeria, (1997) Nigerian H u m a n

Development Report 1996.

14. United Nations Development Fund for W o m e n (UNIFEM) Lagos (1997) Gender and

Media Workshops in Nigeria - November 1996 to April 1997.

15. U N E S C O , Lagos (1997). U N E S C O Newsletter. Lagos Office Quarterly Vol. 1. No.

Oc t . -Dec , 1997.

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CHAPTER VI

TEACHER PRODUCTION: A FOCUS ON NIGERIA

Introduction T h e importance of teachers and the roles they play in the educative process are central

to basic education, particularly in third world countries. In m o r e advanced countries, there niay be close substitutes for teacher-roles in the form of teaching mach ines with p r o g r a m m e d instruction (Balogun, 1988)^ but in third world countries such as Nigeria, teachers undoubtedly remain the m a n a g e r s of knowledge. Therefore, teacher education in Nigeria is, and should be, the foundation of quality and relevance of education at all levels. Indeed, the National Policy on Education (Revised 1981 ) clearly endorses the fact that "no education system can rise above the quality of its teachers".

T h e S u m m i t of Nine High-Population Developing Countries held at N e w Delhi, India in D e c e m b e r 1 9 9 3 re-iterated the relevance of qualitative teacher production to the quest for improved basic education for all. According to the Federal Ministry of Education report ( F M E &YD, 1994f:

Nearly all issues, whether relatera to goals, learning achievement, organisation of programmes or performance of the education system, involve an analysis of the role of teachers: their behaviour, performance, remuneration, incentives, skills and how they are used by the system.

Therefore, teacher production should be based on a sound philosophy and on such rationale that should guarantee the acquisition of necessary knowledge components and professional skills which will enable pre-service teachers to both school and 'educate' the pupils (Harris, 1992)^ This expectation is very critical, not only to the quality of teacher education, but equally to the very survival of the various disciplines in the curriculum of education.

Accordingly, the philosophy forteacher production in Nigeria is anchored on five value-objectives of teacher education as enshrined in the National Policy on Education. These are:

"(a) to produce highly motivated, conscientious and efficient classroom teachers forall levels of our educational system;

(b) to encourage furtherthe spirit of enquiry and creativity in teachers; (c) to help teachers to fit into the social life of the communi ty and society at large and

to enhancetheircommitmentto national objectives;

(d) to provide teachers with intellectual and professional background adequate for their assignment and to m a k e them adaptable to any changing situation not only in the life of their country but in the wider world;

(e) to e n h a n c e teachers' c o m m i t m e n t to the teaching profession" (op.cit 1981 ). Translated into the perception of teacher-producing centres, these national objectives could b e reduced into three major thrusts to b e achieved in the mak ing of an effective teacher. T h e s e are:

(a) the possession of a body of knowledge and understanding; (b) the possession of professional skills and techniques; (c) the possession ofcertain positive personal qualities.

T h e s e three attributes are interrelated and the o n e is m o r e often than not e n h a n c e d by the possession of the others.

70

Teacher Qualifications in Nigeria: Policies and Current Practices At the time the National Policy on Education w a s introduced, five types of teachers,

distinguished by their qualifications, were expected to operate the Nigerian educational system. According to the Nigeria Educational Research and Council ( N E R C , 1980)^^ these were:

(a) G rade II teachers at pre-primary level with N C E teachers as head; (b) N C E teachers at primary level with graduate teachers as head; (c) N C E and university graduate teachers at junior secondary level; (d) University graduates with professional qualifications in their disciplines at the

senior secondary level; (e) University graduates and post-graduates at Universities and with professional

qualifications at Colleges of Education, or practical qualifications and industrial exposure and experience at the technical colleges and polytechnics level.

Until the last decade, primary teacher production in Nigeria w a s the responsibility of Teachers G r a d e T w o Colleges. However , Nigeria's National Policy on Education in Section 9, sub-section 6 1 , m a k e s an outstanding reference to standards in teacher education as an ultimate expectation, viz:

It will be the ultimate policy that only candidates whose minimum qualification is W A S C or its equivalent will be admitted into our teacher training colleges... this will mean that the NCE will ultimately become the minimum basic qualification for entry into the teaching profession.

T h e Nigerian Certificate in Education ( N C E ) is a sub-degree but highly qualitative professional diploma in teacher education obtained after a three-yearfull-time p r o g r a m m e in a College of Education. It is therefore a higher quality and specialised teacher's certificate than the Teachers ' G r a d e T w o Certificate which it is expected to replace.

T h e establishment of the National Commiss ion for Colleges of Education ( N C C E ) in 1989 as a supervisory body for teacher education in Nigeria sawthe beginning of consistent and deliberate thrusts towards actualising the policy on the N C E qualification becoming the m i n i m u m acceptable certificate for entry into the teaching profession in Nigeria. Consequently, as the n u m b e r of Grade T w o Teachers' Colleges fell from 2 8 5 in 1996 to 153 in 1989 and less than 120 in 1991, the n u m b e r of Colleges of Education increased from 4 4 in 1983 to 61 in 1993 . Similarly, the enrolment in Colleges of Education rose from 34,710 in 1980/81 to 86 ,830 in 1990/91.

In addition to the expansion of full-time p rog rammes forthe production of primary and junior secondary teachers w h o will be holders of the N C E , several part-time programmes have been started either in Colleges of Education as sandwich courses, or by Distance Education organised by the National Teachers Institute aimed at transforming serving Grade T w o teachers into N C E holders. Indeed, between 1990 and 1996, the National Teachers' Institute has been able to up-grade 24 ,817 serving Grade II teachers to the N C E level.

T h e National Primary Education Commission personnel audit in 1996 s h o w s that only about 3 9 % of all teachers in the primary schools in Nigeria possess the N C E and above. However , with about 31,563 Grade II teachers enrolled in 1997 in the Distance Learning N C E p r o g r a m m e and another25,596 enrolled in the sandwich p rogrammes of the various Colleges of Education, it is expected that by the year 1998, the proportion of qualified teachers holding the N C E and above, w h o are serving in our primary school sector, would be s o m e w h e r e around 7 8 % of the total teachers in service.

In spite of this promising enhancemen t of teacher quality in Nigeria, there are indications that suggest a faulty implementation of the policy thrust towards the replacement ofthe Teachers Grade II Certificate with the N C E as the m i n i m u m basic qualification forentry

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into the teaching profession in Nigeria. First, the phasing out of the Teachers Grade [l Colleges had apparently taken place rather prematurely. For one thing, the Teachers Grade II Colleges have served as a veritable source of candidates forthe Colleges of Education. Therefore, the loss of this feeder-source seems to have exacerbated the paucity of candidates seeking entry into the Colleges of Education and m a y have, to a certain extent, compounded the shortfall in the nation's supply of primary school teachers. The National Policy on Education, in the Section on Teacher Education, provides that all teachers in educational institutions from pre-primary to tertiary, shall be professionally trained as teachers. In practice, however, teaching has remained an all-comers trade and real professionalization is yet to be attained. Thé situation is more distressing at the tertiary education level where the practitioners prefer not to be classified as teachers but as lecturers. A preponderance of the lecturers in the universities and polytechnics are therefore not professionally trained to function as teachers. In the Colleges of Education, professional qualification in education is an imperative criterion forthe recruitment of teacher-educators.

O n e policy provision that has appeared too intractable to attain in the Nigerian teacher education sector is the pursuit of the 60:40 Science to Arts ratio of student enrolment. T w o major factors have contributed to this disappointing situation. First, is that candidates w h o are proficient in the science subjects generally prefer to go to universities and polytechnics to prepare for professions or vocations that are more attractive than teaching. Very few science-oriented candidates opt to train as teachers; thus, the stipulated ratio cannot be attained in the recruitment of teacher-trainees.

Secondly, the Federal Colleges of Education were directed to stop offering single subject disciplines in the pure and social sciences, and ratherto offer Integrated Science and Social Studies as "double majors". The reason behind the directive w a s that the N C E graduates are expected to teach at the primary and junior secondary levels. However, there is evidence to show that Integrated Science is not popular a m o n g students in Colleges of Education. Therefore, the directive has tended to negate the policy thrust for 60:40 Science to Arts ratio in student mix. At the State Colleges of Education, however, the single science subject-disciplines are still offered but the enrolments are also disappointingly low.

The average Science to Arts ratio in student mix obtainable in 10 Colleges of Education as at 1996 is 29:71 or (60:47) ( N C C E 1996)'^ This implies that for every science teacher-trainee, w e have more than two arts teachers in training. It is also the case that the students w h o opt for Integrated Science constitute slightly over 10% of the total science-based students. Ultimately, Nigeria's desire for techno-scientific advancement m a y remain a mirage until enough science teachers have been produced to lay the foundation.

The Pursuit of Quality in Nigerian Teacher Education There is general agreement a m o n g Nigerians that teachers are the main

determinants of quality in education. Indeed, the participants at the Baguada Seminaron "Quantities and Qualities in Nigerian Education" ( N E R C , 1980)^^ shared the consensus that the quality of any education system depended very m u c h on the competence, commitment and motivation of the teachers. The report of the Seminar puts it as follows:

... teachers are the main determinantof quality in education. If they are apathetic, uncommitted, uninspired, lazy, unmotivated, immoral, anti-social, the whole nation is doomed. If they are ignorant in their disciplines and impart wrong information, they are not only useless but dangerous. The kind of teacher trained and posted to the schools may well determine what the next generation will be.

In order to maintain high standards in primary teacher production, the National

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Commiss ion for Colleges of Education ( N C C E ) w a s established in 1989 with powers a m o n g otherfunctions to:

(i) co-ordinate all aspects of sub-degree teachereducation; (ii) lay d o w n m i n i m u m standards for all p r o g r a m m e s of teacher education and

accredit their certificates and other academic awards... ;

(iii) approve guidelines setting out criteria for accreditation of all Colleges of Education in Nigeria;

(iv) lay d o w n standards to be attained and continually review such standards. (Decree 1 of 1989).

T h e Commiss ion cannot address these functions without reference to international conventions and due consideration of the majorfactors that determine educational quality and standards.

Ensuring Quality in Teacher Production By international convention, the major factors that determine standards in teacher

education are the selection of entrants into teacher education, the p r o g r a m m e s of study and the factors related to teacher-preparation institutions. W h e r e the m i n i m u m acceptable standards related to these factors are reasonably high and the degree of conformity with the standards is satisfactory, one could, with a measure of certainty, predict the production of qualitative and competent teachers. A little expatiation on each of the factors will help to illustrate h o w critical these factors are as criteria for standards in teacher education.

Selection of Entrants According to the International Labour Organisation (ILO) (1990)^^ the policy governing

entry into teachers colleges should be predicated upon the need to supply an adequate n u m b e r of teachers " w h o possess the necessary moral, intellectual and physical qualities and w h o have the required professional knowledge and skills". Watts (1989)^^ writing on Teachers for the Twenty-first Century', maintains that the status of the teaching profession is closely linked with the criteria for selection into the professi m . S h e suggests that a high standard of teacher education should start with placing a high value on the criteria guiding the selection of those "most likely to be excellent teachers". Watts further identifies four multifaceted dimensions of teacher qualities which could serve both as criteria for selecting entrants into teacher education and as traits to develop during the teacher education p r o g r a m m e . These dimensions could be s u m m e d up as follows:

(a) orientation and willingness to change;

(b) knowledge (ofcontent and method) and ethical values;

(c) communication - inter-personal relationships and professional rapport,

information technology and language skills; and

(d) decision-making in the classroom, in the school, in the system and in the

community.

Wilson reports that in the United K ingdom, the selection of candidates for teacher training w a s based inter alia on a requirement that applicants should be seen in a face to face situation; and a recognition that certain personal qualities and characteristics (e.g. optimism) were m o r e desirable than others.

In Nigeria, the " M i n i m u m Standards" forthe training of N C E teachers ( N C C E 1990)^^

requires a secondary school certificate or the Teacher Grade T w o Certificate or their

equivalents, with 5 passes at a sitting including a m i n i m u m "*three credits obtained in the

proposed major subjects of study, plus success in the selection examination set by the Joint

Admissions and Matriculation Board ( J A M B ) . In addition, there are other considerations

73

related to the federal character of the country and the need for s o m e quantitative balance a m o n g the various states. S o m e educationists (Nwana, 1993)^^ express reservations about the impact of the political factor in Nigeria's selection model. But by far the more disturbing is the absence of any strategy for assessing the personality traits of the candidates as well as their interest in the teaching profession. It would clearly be wasteful to recruit and train as teachers people w h o have no interest in teaching as a career. Indeed, the recruitment and retention of competentteachers has been one of the greatest problems of teachereducation in Nigeria and in other parts of the world. A s Ukeje(1991)2^ has succinctly put it:

the recruitment and retention of competent people into the teaching professi( n is a perennial problem all the world over But the case of Nigeria is particularly serious and disturbing. W e are reaching a point where teaching is fast becoming the last hope of the hopeless, that is, the profession for those who have nothing else better to do. This phenomenon has to change in order to usher in a new social order in Nigeha. (op.cit.)

The N C C E as the supervisory agency for all aspects of primary teacher education and teacher

professionalism in Nigeria, is examining strategies to tackle this perennial problem and is soon expected to introduce s o m e attitude and personality components into the selection tests of prospective student-teachers.

Teacher-Preparation P r o g r a m m e The fundamental requirements for a teacher-preparation p rog ramme should include

four major areas, viz: a) general studies

b) professional studies, mainly elements of philosophy, sociology as applied to education, history of education, comparative education, school administration and the methods of teaching of various subjects or educational technology

c) studies related to the student's intended field of teaching d) teaching practice.

These major p rogrammes agree with what Balogun (1987) described as a universal pattern of teacher education programmes aimed at producing "a good teacher". Atthe various levels of teachereducation in Nigeria, this pattern is strictly adopted. However, the breadth and depth ofthe curricula covered by the students essentially define the standard of teacherqualification involved. T h e min imum standardsforteachereducation in Nigerian Colleges of Education for the award ofthe N C E were fashioned to produce highly qualified and competentteachers for the primary schools and forthe junior secondary schools. While the breadth of studies covers all that is required to m a k e the products competent professional teachers, the depth of studies is deliberately fashioned to dovetail into the level 300 of the university p rog rammes for the award of a B .Ed degree. S o m e notable ingredients of standardization in the N C E programme designed by the N C C E include prescribed m o d e of teaching, quality control through the course credit system, external moderation ofsemester and final examination and required projects. In s o m e cases, however, the content of teacher-preparation programmes varies, based on the future tasks of the teacher-trainees in different types of schools. For instance, student-teachers in technical and vocational subjects are required to undertake a m in imum of sixteen weeks of Students Industrial W o r k Experience Service ( S I W E S ) for practical experience, while those training in Special Education do not normally registerfor "Double Major Subjects". Finally, the N C C E conducts an accreditation exercise to ensure that the Colleges of Education conform with set m in imum standards in their p rogrammes.

Teacher Preparation Institutions Balogun (1987)^ identifies three major variables that influence learning in the formal

74

education context. These variables give identity to educational institutions. They are:

a) the environmental variables (physical and infrastructural facilities, social system, needs, values and priorities as they affect curricular activities);

b) task and method variables and; c) personnel variables (mainly student characteristics and teacher qualities and

competencies). T h e N C C E M in imum Standards accommoda te these variables but with a different approach under entry qualifications (already discussed), staffing, facilities, leadershipand funding.

a) Staffing Emphasis is placed on the academicstaff of teacher education centres in terms of their quality, quantity, retention and dedication to duty along with commensurate conditions of service. Teacher-educators must be professionally qualified fortheirtask. Theirsense of mission and dedication to duty ought to be positive and high. Here, McDonald 's thesis about teacher performance and standards cannot be faulted. McDonald (1988) states:

teaching is rooted in the teachers own moral purpose and interests. Teachers teach what they do, andas they do, at least partly from a deep and often tacit sense of mission...

Thus , if the sense of mission of teacher-educators b e c o m e s warped by social and economic circumstances, the standard of their performance is bound to deteriorate. With regard to quantity of staff, the N C C E M in imum Standards guidelines prescribe a m in imum of 5-6 lectures per single major course. In addition, the department handling the course should have a full complement of support staff such as laboratory assistants, workshop/studio attendants, typists, technicians and messenger/cleaners.

b) Facilities Every teacher-preparation institution is expected, a s a matter or necessity, to have the basic physical facilities that give existence to the institution such as lecture rooms, administrative and office blocks, laboratories/workshops/ studios, hostel accommodation for at least a third of the student population and staff houses, even if they were rented. In addition, there should be minimal provision of infrastructural facilities that are essential to life such as water, light, health and sanitation facilities and all-season access routes. But by far of greater impact on academic standards in teacher education are the provision of library facilities with current and relevant stocks of books and journals as well as the provision of necessary equipment and materials for the various courses of study. T o ensure high standards, the min imum requirements for all aspects of the facilities have been specified in the prescribed M in imum Standards Guidelines for Colleges of Education. Clearly, therefore, the standard of learning by student-teachers has a close relationship with the prevailing circumstances in the learning environment. Abdulkadir (1991 ) w a s right w h e n he stated that:

the issue of quality of education does not stop on setting minimum academic standards and setting up high entry admission requirements and high cut off points... but also on improving the conditions under which the students both in and outside the classroom, are made to learn.

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c) Administrative Leadership and Discipline It is generally believed that the quality of leadership In a tertiary institution - its mission and vision, effectiveness and efficiency - inevitably influences the standard of productivity by staff, and the achievements of students. The fact that teacher education institutions in Nigeria have been relatively quiet and peaceful during the recent era of rampant staff strikes and student riots is suggestive of fair administrative leadership and mature, disciplined cooperation a m o n g staff and students. Otherwise, it would be d isastrous to ed ucation generally if prospective teachers were to be involved in f ecret cults and c a m p u s gangsterism. Indeed, Hirst and Peters (1970:125)" maintaSithat since education necessarily involves learning and all learning involves discipline, education necessarily involves discipline which itself could be defined in terms of conforming with standards or rules. G o o d discipline is therefore both a requisite condition precedent as well as an index of high standard in teacher education. With regard to raising the value of the teaching profession in the eyes of the public, Avalos (1991)' suggests that the administration of teacher education institutions should include "institutional changes in the direction of greater autonomy, as it is appropriate to higher education".

d) Funding It has always been maintained that adequate funding and timely release of approved financial allocations to institutions of higher education constitute a formidable determinant of educational quality (Lassa 1992)" . Indeed, funding teacher education in a depressed economy of the magnitude that has persisted in Nigeria for nearly a decade, has posed a veritable dangerto merit and achievement of standards for m a n y

teacher education institutions. There is an obvious crisis but the impact of the funding crisis differs from one institution to another depending on the proprietorship of the of

institution, the strength of the pressure to attract funds from the proprietor and from other

sources, and the judiciousness of institutional authorities in the expenditure of available funds.

The gloomy economic conditions in Nigeria, particularly the galloping inflation that steadily reduces the purchasing power of the naira, have strong enough influences to stultify m a n y

attempts at setting minimum standards for institutional budgets. But as the then Honourable Minister of Education and Youth Development has put it during the national conference on Financing Teacher Education in a Depressed Economy :

in spite of tfie apparent gloomy situation, we cannot as a people with conscience compromise our targeted objective of bequeathing to (the) 21st century Nigeria sustainable qualitative education through the production of sufficient qualified and professionally trained teachers of science and technology, arts and language including our various mother tongues (Fafunwa, 19B2)''.

To sustain standards therefore, teacher-education institutions are being encouraged to look outwards for legitimate alternative sources of funds to supplement government subventions without compromising standards. .. ,>

Quantitative Analysis of Teacher Education The teacher heeds of a nation such as Nigeria are determined partly by pupil

enroJments in primaty schools and theirtransition rates into thejunior secondary school system and partly by the teacher-pupil ratio proposed by policy-makers. By 1980, and on the basis of the categories of teachers proposed forthe Nigerian Education system, it w a s projected that with 100% enrolment of all primary school-age children (6-12 year olds), the country would

76

need about 584,000 teachers in 1995 at the teacher-pupil ratio of 1:35 ( N E R C , 1980)^^ This implies that enrolment at the nation's primary schools would have exceeded 20 million. However, available statistics show that by 1996 the total enrolment w a s slightly less than 15 million ( N P E C , 1996)^^ Juxtaposed with the number ofteachers shown in N P E C , 1996, the observed teacher-pupil ratio will indeed be 1:35 on a national average. But great differences exist between States.

Of greater significance to our analysis however, is the fact that as high as 21 .7% of the teachers in service are either unqualified or underqualified to be in the system. This gives a false picture of the number of teachers, particularly N C E holders that have been produced but many of w h o m remain unemployed. Indeed, findings from the study on the feasibility of the N C E becoming the min imum qualification for teachers in Nigeria ( N C C E 1992)^'' suggest that by 1998 there would be enough N C E holders to adequately staff Nigeria's primary and junior secondary schools. The research report however, described the situation as "conditional plausibility" and went further to state as follows:

The observed differentials in qualified teacher availability according to states is a disturbing development which could truncate the implementation of the noble policy

'unless a unified teaching service is operationalised throughout the country.

This suggests that the qualified teachers might be available but might not be employed either due to the inability of the employers to pay or simply due to socio-political reasons.

At the post-primary school level, the figures in the Federal Ministry of Education Statistics (1995) suggest that the transition rate from primary to secondary so far attained, on a national level, is slightly over 5 0 % . Obviously, this rate ranges from about 3 0 % in s o m e educationally disadvantaged states to about 8 0 % in the educationally advanced states. A somewhat salutary development however, is that the overall teacher-pupil ratio is higher than 1:30 which is the national minimum standard. Yet, it is well known that cases of class sizes of over 40 abound in m a n y individual secondary schools in the country.

Another inevitable reality which is easily discernible from available statistics (Table 5) is the existence of untrained graduates and other categories of unqualified teachers constituting about 1 8 % of all teachers in service.

This could be explained by the fact that teaching in Nigeria is yet to b e c o m e a fully organised profession. Hence, graduates in subject disciplines w h o are "non-professional" teachers still find employment in teaching, albeit on a temporary basis as birds of passage. O n the other hand, the high retention of experienced and well-qualified teachers has not been successful because of the generally low status ofteachers in the society.

Pedagogy , Relevance and Professionalism in Nigerian Teacher Education In addition to setting up minimum academic standards for teacher education

programmes in Nigeria, there are other innovative inputs and strategies through which pedagogy and professionalism could be protected and promoted. For instance, there is now in the N C E programme, a compulsory course in Introduction to Teacher Education designed to acquaint student-teachers with the roles of the teacher, the aims and objectives of education, teacher professionalism and the ethics of the teaching profession. Otherfactors include the length of training, the quality of teaching by teacher-educators, the practicum, professionalisation, time to learn and progression through further education.

Length of Training There is usually a relationship between the quality of the intake, the standard of the

teacher education programme and the length of the training period. For instance, priorto the implementation of the 6-3-3-4 system of education, pre-service teachers were recruited after

77

primary six or "standard seven" and trained for 4-to-5 years for the Grade T w o Teachers Certificate. Those w h o trained as "pivotal" (T.C. II) teachers possessed the Wes t African School Certificate ( W A S C ) and stayed in training for two years. For the pursuance of the Nigerian Certificate in Education (NCE) , the minimum length of training is three academic sessions. Experts believe that this 3-yeartraining programme can produce a qualitative and competent primary orjunior secondary school teacher. Nevertheless, the course credit system which is now in practice, provides that student-teachers must accomplish and attain specified minimum success levels in the various courses of the programme before graduation. Extension of the length of training periods is therefore possible particularly if the entry qualification of the student is low. Indeed, candidates with slightly less than the prescribed entry qualification spend one year on a pre-NCE programme before progressing to the regular N C E programme.

The Issue of Relevance For purposes of relevance to post-graduation deployment, the programmes for the

preparation of the N C E teachers are so designed as to enable thé N C E holders to teach effectivelyateitherthe primary orthejuniorsecondary school level. The trainees for primary school teaching take courses in Primary Education Studies (PES) in addition to another major subject which they could teach at the junior secondary level if need be. The course in P E S is designed to cover the primary school core curriculum as well as the special methods and delivery techniques suited to the developmental stage and interests of primary school children. The trainees forteaching at the junior secondary school level take a combination of two major teaching subjects ora "double major" in the case of Vocational/Technical Education courses. In any case, every N C E teacher-trainee must be exposed to the general psychology and methods of teaching infants (pre-primary education inclusive) in addition to the special methodology of teaching the major subjects of specialization.

Quality of Teaching by Teacher-Educators It is generally believed that teachers teach as they were taught. Therefore, the

commitment of teacher-educators to their onerous task of moulding future professional teachers is one way of ensuring a high standard of teacher education. Avalos (1991) while admitting that teachers w h o are motivated to teach generally teach well, quotes a British Educationist (Katherine Evans) w h o had argued that "the ability to teach is not the s a m e as actually bothering to do so". Abdulkadir (1991)^ advocates two systems of monitoring the quantity and quality of teaching by lecturers in high institutions, namely: assessment by students and assessment by peers. Such assessments would contribute to quality control and the maintenance of standards.

The Practlcum The teaching practice has been described as the most singular aspect of the teacher

training programme that leads to professionalisation. Its organisation and conduct therefore determine the standards of practical experience acquired by the student-teachers. Supervision by both institution-based supervisors and school based co-operating teachers is directed towards improving the quality of the practising teacher.

For the primary teacher production that takes place in the Colleges of Education, institution-based preparations for practical teaching normally start with a course in micro-teaching and with practical drills in micro-teaching laboratories. Indeed, the availability of a well-equipped Centre for Educational Technology in which micro-teaching is situated, is a compulsory requirement for the accreditation^ f the Education Course in a College of Education. A lot of emphasis is equally accorded to the actual practical teaching, either in the

78

Model Primary School which is part of the College of Education, or in nearby co-operating practising schools at which teacher trainees function in real life circumstances similar to full-time staff of such schools, for a period of 12 weeks.

Professionalisation and Time to Learn Professionalisation of teaching implies that any person w h o would be licensed to

practice the job of teaching must be professionally trained, certified and licensed for practice as obtairtB in other recognised professions. It is believed that professionalisation will improve the quality of teachers as well as enhance their ¡mage and status in the society. However, a necessa^ corollary of professionalisation is the necessity to extend the period during which the student-teacher has to learn the practical job of teaching to a point of near perfection before he/she is registered and licensed. This implies a period of internship after obtaining the certificate from a training institution. Ohucheand Eke (1993)^° suggest that the certificates awarded on successful completion of teacher training would enable graduands to be employed as teachers but certification and registration should follow two years internship for T . C . II holders and one yearforNCE or B.Ed, holders. However, there is no agreement yet on the issue of internship as a necessary requirement for professionalising teachers in Nigeria.

Quality of Output, Progression and Performance in Further Education Before the National Commission for Colleges of Education laid down the Minimum

Standards which harmonised standards in the CoUeges of Education, the quality of the products varied enormously. S o m e colleges turned out N C E holders that were exceptionally good and could effectively rival degree holders in the teaching of their subjects even to the Senior*§ëcondary School level. Records showthat s o m e of such highly-rated N C E products had relied on knowledge acquired at the Colleges of Education, registered and passed the degree of the University of London as external candidates. O n the other hand, there equally had been N C E products whose performance in job situations was no betterthan that of the T . C . II teachers. It is clear that if the Minimum Standards for training N C E teachers are faithfully followed by the stakeholders, quality teacher production could be guaranteed. In addition, there should be continuing teacher education in the form of in-service courses for up-dating knowledge and improving teaching standards.

School authorities and teachers in Nigeria duly recognise the importance of in-service education designed to secure systematic improvement ofthe quality and content of education and of teaching techniques. Halliday (1989)^ portrays in-service education as a design "for drawing on the strengths of individuals to help others... and to overcome weaknesses, either individually or collectively, and preparing teachers for new tasks and wider responsibilities". Ukponu(1992P suggests five key factors forthe improvement of standards through in-sen/ice teacher education. These include the development of a professional subject inspectorate at national and state levels, provision of Education Resource Centres, Professional Associations of subject teachers and continuous re-examination ofthe aims and objectives of teaching in Nigeria.

The fifth factor involves long-term in-service training programmes in universities aimed at acquiring superior professional qualifications. This model s e e m s to be the most fashionable strategy for career progression in the teaching profession in Nigeria. For instance, a comparison of a sample of B.A(Ed) and B.Sc(Ed) students w h o graduated at the A h m a d u Bello University, Zana in 1986/87 shows that those w h o entered with the Nigeria Certificate in Education (NCE) accounted for 7 3 % of the graduates, while the rest were admitted through the IJMB selection examination. Ofthe 74 cases surveyed, 4 6 % obtained B.A.(Ed) degree in such subjects as Geography, History, English Language, French and Hausa while 5 4 % obtained B.Sc (Ed) in either Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Geography or

79

Mathematics Education. Although a comprehensive study has not been carried out to warrant any reliable

generalization, yet two conclusions could be elicited from the foregoing comparison. First, is the fact that those already in the teaching profession constitute the majority of the candidates pursuing further studies In the field of education. Secondly, the urge to improve themselves by the possession of a higher qualification is likely to motivate teachers entering for in-service training to perform relatively better than the n e w entrants into the field of education and teaching. This inference is supported by Watts' (1989)" argument that "the ultimate responsibility for continuing professional development must lie with the teacher, him or herself.

Problems of Teacher Production in Nigeria /

i) Aversion for the Teaching Profession Perhaps the most formidable problem of teacher-education in contemporary Nigeria

is the lack of interest on the part of secondary school leavers in the teaching profession. Very few want to be teachers because of the poor image associated with the status of teachers in the society. During the era of Mission Schools, teachers were revered by everybody in the community. Today, virtually all the extrinsic factors that operate in concert to enchance the morale and motivation of teachers are either very unattractive or completely absent. The implication is that youths in Nigeria see teaching as a profession that offers the least attractive prospects for a career. The option for a course in Teacher Education is therefore one of last resort for candidates yearning for further education. Consequently, most of the 62 Colleges of Education in Nigeria currently operate below capacity in terms of enrolment relative to available facilities, specialised equipment and academic staff at post. For instance, in 1990/ 91, the then existing 54 Colleges of Education recorded a total enrolment of 86,830. In 1994/ 95, all the 62 Colleges of Education enrolled 76,912. In fact, s o m e Colleges of Education operate with less than 1000 total student enrolment. The implications for cost-effective utilization of staff and facilities are self-evident.

ii) Teacher Retention and Turnover In the universities, most students w h o find themselves in the Faculties of Education

cannot be said to have been motivated to b e c o m e professional teachers on graduation. O h the contrary, m a n y of them simply needed a degree which would enhance their chances of obtaining employment in sectors other than teaching. Today, there are holders of professional qualifications in Education serving in the banks, customs department, hotels, immigration, ainways etc. Teaching in Nigeria has become so unpopularthat holders of the N C E have been known to conceal the fact if they can obtain clerical positions with their secondary school certificates. W h a t is being emphasized here is that quantitatively, the teaching profession could be classified as an endangered profession unless radical improvements are injected into teachers' service conditions including higher remuneration, more pleasant working environment, greater recognition to participate in policy making on education, greater advancement opportunities in the form of promotion and respect from affluent parents of pupils.

iii) Paucity in the Midst of Glut N P E C (1996) and F M E Statistics (1994) show that there are unqualified teachers still

in active service both at the primary and the post-primary school levels. This could be translated as a shortfall in the supply of qualified teachers, being nearly 2 2 % at the primary level and about 8 % at the post-primary level. However, instances exist to suggest that there are

80

thousands of qualified teachers w h o remain unemployed due to discriminatory practices in the employment policies of different states of the country. There is also intra-state discrimination a m o n g the composite Local Education Authorities. The politico-ethnic differences a m o n g Nigerians s e e m perpetually to have militated against the evolution of a National Teaching Service.

iv) Inadequate Funding Other problems of teacher education in Nigeria such as poor infrastructural facilities,

poor equipment, unstable industrial relations, a poor reading culture and even examination malpractice, all s e e m to hinge on poorfunding of teachers institutions. Indeed, poorfunding of teacher education since the nineties has become a cause ofworry to educationists as it affects the merit and standard of the certificate awarded to education graduates. Underfunding is reflected In the lack of current textbooks and journals whose costs have b e c o m e prohibitive and also in the insufficiency of workshop equipment and laboratory materials. Regrettably, teaching as a career is not such that teachers institutions can charge tuition fees and still expect to remain afloat.

Conclusion It is a settled fact that education is the key to national development and modernization.

It is also a truism that teachers hold the key to sound education. This realisation is at the root of renascent policy plans for teacher production in Nigeria. Accordingly, the necessary structures and guidelines as well as quality control measures have been put in place in order to m a k e the Nigerian teacher of the 21st century a professional, both in principle and in practice. If this aspiration is not frustrated by the problems that usher in imperfections, then only m e n and w o m e n w h o are professionally prepared would be seen to teach at the appropriate levels of our education system, and in sufficient numbers to m a k e the expected impact on the quality ofeducation delivered by the system.

81

References

1. Abdulkadir, I.A. (1991) - 'Paying for Quality: The Prospects, in Ohuche R . O . (ed) Moving Education in Nigeria towards the year 2000. The Nigerian Academy of Education, Optimal Computer Solutions Ltd., pp. 159-173.

2. Avalos. Beatrice (1991)-Approaches to Teacher Education, Initial Teacher Training. Commonwealth Secretariat, Malborough House, London.

3. Balogun. T.A. (1988) - 'Education; Technology and Behaviour Change' in Ogunrai A . (ed): Problems and Prospects of Educational Technology in Nigeria; Ibadan Heinemann Books Ltd., pp. 29 -41.

4. Fafunwa A . B . (1992) - Funding Teacher Education in a Depressed Economy -Opening Address at the National Conference on Financing Teacher Education in Nigeria, AICE, Owerri, December, 1992.

5. Federal Republic of Nigeria (1977 & 1981 ) - National Policy on Education. Lagos: Federal Ministry of Education.

6. Federal Ministry of Education and Youth Development (1994) - Education for All (EFA), Summit of Nine High Population Developing Countries in N e w Delhi, India December, 1993: M e m o Submitted to the 43rd National Council on Education, KadunaJune26-July6.

7. Federal Ministry of Education, Statistics Branch (1995). National S u m m a n / of Post-Primary School Statistics (1994).

8. Halliday. IAN (1989) - Teacher Management and Records in the National Education System. Resource Book for Educational Administrators, Commonwealth Secretariat, London, pp. 61 -64.

9. Harris, K. (1992) - Teacher and Classes: A Maxist Analysis. London, Routledge &

Kegan Publication.

10. Heyneman. S .P . (1989)- Economic Crisis and the Quality of Education.

International Journal of Educational Development Vol. 10 (2/3) pp. 115-129.

11. Hirst, P .H . & Peters, R . S . (1970) - The Logic of Education. London Routledge and

Kegan Paul, pp. 74-125 .

12. International Labour Organisation (1990) - Teachers and International Labour

Standards: A Handbook, Geneva: Internal Labour Office.

13. Lassa. P .N . (1992) - Maintaining Quality of Higher Education in Nigeria', in jpave B.(ed) -Education in Nigeria: Past. Present and Future, Macmillan Nig. Pub. Ltd. Lagos pp. 75-90.

14. National Commission for Colleges of Education (1992) - Feasibility of the N C E

becoming the Minimum Qualification for Teachers in Nigeria: A Research Report

82

Submitted to the JointConsultative Commission in Education, llorin.

15. National Commission for Colleges of Education (1990) - A Summary of Minimum Standards for N C E Teachers, Kaduna, August, 1990.

16. National Primary Education Commission (1996) PersonnelAudit Result-Primary School Teachers in Nigeria.

17. N C C E (1996) - Department of Planning Research and Statistics, "Contribution of School to Student Enrolment in S o m e C O E s .

18. N w a n a , O . C . (1993) - Standards in Nigerian Education. Keynote Speech at the 8th Annual Congress ofthe Nigerian Academy of Education, NTI, Kaduna, November 1993.

19. National Educational Research Council (1980) - Perspective on Quantities and Qualities in Nigerian Education - A Synthetic Report ofthe Bagauda Seminar, September 1-5.

20. Chuche, R . O . & Eke, Elizabeth (1993) - 'Reconstructing Primary Education in Nigeria'in Ogun et al (ed) - Education for the Reconstruction of Nigerian Society, Mekslink Publishers Ltd., Awka, pp. 196 - 207.

21. Ukeie. B . C . (1991 ) - The Education of Teachers for a N e w Social Order. The Nigerian Teacher Vol. 1 No. 1 N C C E , pp. 4-12.

22. Ukponu. V . C . (1992) - 'In Service Education of Teachers: The Nigerian Experience', in Afe, J .O. et al (eds) - College of Education, Ekiadolor, Benin, pp. xviii - xxvi.

23. Watts. Betty (1989)-Teachers forthe twenty-first century', in Wilson. J.P. etal (eds) -Assessment for Teacher' Development. The Falmer Press. London, pp. 41-52.

24. Wilson. J.D. (1989) - 'Assessment of Candidates for Entry into Initial Teacher Training', in Wilson, J.D. etal (eds): Assessment for Teacher Development. London: The Falmer Press pp. 115-124.

83

CHAPTER Vil

TRENDS IN TERTIARY EDUCATION IN NIGERIA

Introduction The tertiary education system has as constituents, all institutions offering post-

secondary degrees, certificates and diplomas. Traditionally, activities within the system gravitate around teaching, research and community service. Within this broad framework is the delimitation of three institutional types - universities, polytechnics and colleges of education. It is on these three institutions which primarily m a k e upthe higher education system (National Policy on Education, 1981 ), that this chapter is focused. The interchangeable use of "tertiary" and "higher" education is hinged on the assumption of this broad framework (Makhubu,1997).^

Tertiary education in Nigeria has c o m e a long way since the establishment of Yaba Higher College. The Ashby Commission Report marked an important landmark in the growth and development of tertiary education particularly polytechnics and colleges of education. Starting from the sixties and following from the initial impetus provided by s o m e of its recommendations on the manpower needs of the country, there has been a steady growth in the number of colleges of educ§ition and polytechnics in the country.

The establishment of University College, Ibadan w a s the final metamorphic stage of Yaba Higher College. Programme offerings at UCI were narrow, as the colonial administration did not pursue an agenda of training high level humanpower for m a n y of the professions.^ In Alele-Williams' (1996) account, the report of the Eric Ashby Commission which w a s set up in 1959 later led to the establishment of the 'Ashby universities' as regional universities in the then three regions of Nigeria: in the east, the University of Nigeria, Nsukka (1960), in the west, the then University of Ife (nowObafemi Awolowo University, lle-lfe) (1961), and A h m a d u Bello University, Zaria in the north (1962). Also in 1962, University College, Ibadan w a s granted full-fledged university status. The University of Lagos, established at Akoka, Lagos in 1962 provided courses in the humanities, social sciences,- medicine, law and engineering but, as a city university, it also laid emphasis on the promotion of part-time courses specifically designed to enable young workers to obtain degrees relevant to business and industry while at work. The University of Benin, originally established as the Midwest Institute of Science and Technology early in 1970, w a s not given full accreditation as a university until later that year after, it w a s required to include offerings in arts, social sciences and business. These six constitute Nigeria's first-generation universities.

The post-civil war oil b o o m era and the geopolitical restructuring of Nigeria into 12 states led to strident demands for more universities in the newly-created states. Government acceded to these d e m a n d s and, in 1975, seven n e w universities, of the second generation, were founded in Jos, Calabar, Kano, Maiduguri, Sokoto, llorin and Port Harcourt (three being founded as university colleges, and later, becoming full universities). In th e s a m e year, the Federal Government also took over the funding of the regional universities^ Healthy funding encouraged vast expansion, especially in student enrolment and in n e w disciplines (Alele-Williams, 1996). N e w areas in the humanities, pure sciences, applied sciences, and especially professional courses, multiplied. All the universities expanded rapidly, offering courses in professional areas as well as in the arts, social sciences, and physical and biological sciences. (See Table 1 ).

84

Table 1: Nigerian Universities, Polytechnics and Colleges of Education (1998)

UNIVERSITIES POLYTECHNICS COLLEGES OF EDUCATION

1. Abia State University 2. Abubakar Tafawa Balewa

University of Technology, Bauchi

3. University of Abuja, Abuja 4 . University of Agriculture,

Abeokuta 5. University of Agriculture,

Makurdl 6. A h m a d u Bello University,

Zaria 7. B a g a u d a University of

Science and Technology, K a n o Bayero University, K a n o

9. University of Benin, Benin-City

10. B e n u e State University, Makurdi

11. University of Calabar Calabar

12. Delta State University 13 Edo State University,

E k p o m a 14. Enugu State University

of Science and Technology,Enugu

15 Federal University of Agriculture, Umudike

16. Federal University of Technology, Akure

17. Federal University of Technology, Minna

18. Federal University of Technology, OwerrI

19. Federal University of Technology, Yola

20. University of Ibadan, Ibadan

21. University of llorín, llorín 22. I m o State University 23. University of Jos, Jos 24. Ladoke Akintola University

of Technology, Ogbomoso 25. University of Lagos,

Akoka,Lagos. 26 Lagos State University, Ojo.

27 . University of Wlalduguri, Maiduguri.

28. University of Nigeria Nsukka

29 Nigerian Defence Academy Kaduna

30. Nnamdi Azikiwe University A w k a

31. ObafemI A w o l o w o University, lle-lfe

32. Ogun State University Ago-lwoye

33. Ondo State University, Ado-Ekiti

34. University of Port Harcourt, Port Harcourt

35. Rivers State University of Science and Technology Port Harcourt

36. U s m a n Danfodiyo University, Sokoto

37. University of Uyo, Uyo

Bida

Ede Idah llaro

1. Federal Polytechnics, Ado-Ekiti

2 . Akanu ibiam Federal Polytechnics, U n w a n a .

3. AuchI Polytechnic, AuchI 4 . Federal Polytechnic,

Bauchi 5. Federal Polytechnic, 6. Federal Polytechnic

Damaturu 7 . Federal Polytechnic, 8. Federal Polytechnic, 9. Federal Polytechnic, 10. Kaduna Polytechnic,

Kaduna 11. Federal Polytechnic

K / N a m o d a 12. Federal Polytechnic,

Nasarawa. 13. Federal Polytechnic, Offa 14. Federal Polytechnic, Oko 15 Yaba College of Technology,

Yaba 16. Abia State Polytechnic,

Aba 17. Abdul -Gusau Polytechnic

Talata-IVIafara 18. Abubakar Tatarl Ali

Polytechnic, Bauchi 19. A d a m a w a State

Polytechnic, Yola 20. ^ A k w a - l b o m State

Polytechnic, Ikot-Osurua 21. A n a m b r a State

Polytechnic, Uli 22. Benue State Polytechnic,

Ugbokolo 23. The Polytechnic, Calabar 24. Institute of Management

and Tech., Enugu 25. K a d u n a State Polytechnic,

Zaria 26. M o h a m m e d Abdullahi

W a s e Polytechnic, Kano 27. Hassan U s m a n Katslna

Polytechnic, Katslna 28. Kebbi State Polytechnic,

Kebbi 29. Kogi State Polytechnic,

Lokoja 30. Kwara State Polytechnic,

llorín 31 Niger State Polytechnic,

Zungeru 32. Lagos State Polytechnic,

Isolo. 33. Ogun State Polytechnic,

Abeokuta. 34. Ondo State Polytechnic,

Owo 35. Osun State College of

Technology, Esa-Oke 36. Osun State Polytechnic,

Iree. 37. Plateau State Polytechnic,

Barkln-LadI 38 Ramat Polytechnic,

Maiduguri. 39 Rivers State Polytechnic.

Bori 40. The Polytechnic, Ibadan 41 . Jigawa State Polytechnic,

Kazaure.

1. Federal College of Education, Abeokuta

2 . Federal College of Education, (T), Yaba

3 . Federal College of Education, (T) Asaba.

4 . Federal College of Education, (T), BIchi.

5. Federal College of Education, (T , Eha-Amufu

6. Federal College of Education, (T), G o m b e

7. Federal College of Education, (T), G u s a u

8. Federal College of Education, K a n o

9. Federal College of Education, katslna

10 Federal College of Education, Kontagora

11. Federal College of Education, Obudu

12. Federal College of Education, Okene

13. Federal College of Education, (T), O m o k u

14 AdeyemI College of Education, Ondo

15 Federal College of Education, (S), O v o

16 Federal College of Education, Pankshin

17 Federal College of Education, (T), Potiskum

18. Federal College of Education, (T), U m u n z e

19. Federal College of Education, Yola

20. Federal College of Education, Zaria

21. College of Education, Etinan 22 . College of Education, Agbor 23. College of Education,

Akwanga 24. C/Rlver State College

of Education, Akamkpa 25. College of Education, Azare 26. College of Education A n k p a 27. College of Education, B a m a 28. Katslna State College of

Education (T), Dutsin-ma, Katslna

29. College of Education, Ekiadolor

30. College of Education, Awka. 31 . O s u n State College of

Education, Ilesa 32. College of Education,

Gashua 33. College of Education,

Plateau. 34. College of Education,

Gidan-Waya 35. Jigawa State College of

Education, G u m e l 36. College of Education,

H o n g , A d a m a w a State 37. Ogun State College of

Education, Ijetau-Ode.

38. O n d o State College of Education, Ikere Ekitl.

39. Kwara State College of Education,llorin

40. State College of Education, lla-Orangun

41 . College of Education, Jalingo

42. College of Education, Katsina-Ala

43. Niger State College of Education, Minna

44. College of Education, Nsugbe

45. College of Education, Maiduguri.

46. St Andrew College of Education, Oyo

47. Alvan Ikoku College of Education, OwerrI

48. College of Education, Oro

49. Adeniran 'Ogunsanya College of Education, Oto-ljanlkin

50. College of Education, Sokoto

51. College of Education, Warri

52. College of Education, Waka-Biu

53. College of Education, Oju.

54. Abia State College of Education, Arochukwu

55. Army School of Education and Administration, llorín.

56. Inst, of E c u m , Enugu 57. Our Saviour, Enugu 58. C O E , Arochukwu 59. C O E , Argungu 60. Project Time, Lagos 61. C O E , Lafiagi 62. Lagos State College of

Primary Education. Naforija, Epe

In reviewing trends In tertiary education in Nigeria, issues identified as nodes for discussion include (a) programme development; (b) access and equity (enrolment); (c) facilities; (d) teaching; (e) research; (f) community service; and (g) financing. These constitute the major sections of this chapter.

85

Since three institutional groups are involved, viz the universities, polytechnics and colleges of education, a possible scheme is to discuss the seven issues under each of the groups. A n alternative cross-sectional approach is to examine each of the issues as it applies to the universities, polytechnics and colleges of education. This latter approach has been adopted here on the strength of its parsimony, avoidance of unnecessary fragmentation and projection of commonalities within the tertiary education system.

P r o g r a m m e Development The curricula or programmes of the higher education system have witnessed marked

transformation over the years. Thisdynamismhasbeen in response to two majorforces. First is the need for relevance to the needs of the Nigerian society. Examples are programmes in Agriculture, and Petroleum mining/engineering, which were packaged/repackaged to respond to the nation's socio-economic thrust in the agricultural and oil sectors. Since these sectors have turned out to be major resting planks for the economy, the tertiary institutions rose tothechallengeofproducing high-level human powerforthem. While the colleges of education produced the teachers of agriculture and introductory technology, the polytechnics produced personnel with technical and practical know-how in these fields. In turn, the universities produced managers, researchers and field practitioners for the agricultural and mining industries.

The second force consisted of changes in disciplinary knowledge. Knowledge explosion, appearance on the scene of n e w technologies, and epistemic changes in the subject matter, moved the boundaries and content of the disciplines in n e w directions. For instance, architecture leapt in n e w directions with the availability of Corñputer-Aided Design (CAD) technology. In the sciences, n e w findings rendered m a n y old "facts" obsolete. The programmes on offer in the tertiary institutions then had to be modified in the light of n e w knowledge.

It is instructive to review trends in programme development with subject areas as units of analysis. S o m e faculties will be used as examples. In the Social Sciences, the universities offered courses in the early 60s that were similar to those offered in British universities. Economics, Sociology and Political Science were choice options. Between 1970 and 1980, the Social Sciences Faculty in m a n y universities increased their options as the slanttowards American-type highereducation became increasingly acceptable. The flagship universities were the then University of Ife (now Obafemi Awolowo University) and University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Thus, courses like Accounting/Accountancy, Mass Communication, Banking and Finance, Insurance and Business Administration emerged. The J A M B brochure, by 1998, shows a m e n u of courses such as Accounting, Management Finance, Business Management, Demography, Urban and Regional Planning, Social Work , Community Development, Public Administration, Accounting management and Finance, Economics, Geography, M a s s Communication, Political Science, Psychology and Sociology. In the Faculties of Education, m a n y began with degree programmes in the teaching subjects. In the 7 0 s and '80s, programmes in Special Education, Guidance and Counselling, Educational Management were mounted.

In the Faculty of Science, Botany that existed as a separate discipline b e c a m e combined with Microbiology. Faculties of Technology that were not original features of s o m e of the first generation universities e.g. University of Ibadan, were created in the '70s. Environmental programmes also appeared on the scene, e.g. at the Lagos State University, in response to the global awareness of environmental issues.

86

Access and Equity Considerations Higher education is restricted to those w h o are eligible and w h o can fit into existing

places. Access Is thus restrained by stringent admission requirements and also by the number of institutions available. Further imposition of quota has m a d e the possibility of admission more complex. For example, aside from a high score in the University Matriculation Examination, candidates go through filters of quota for merit, catchment area, developmental consideration and discipline. The discipline quota of 60:40 of Science to Arts translates into Stifter competition and hence high rejection rate for Arts students. The relatively few science students have improved chances of admission. In the non-professional science courses, the cut-off point for admission is usually low.

A s a way offurther enhancing access of candidates to science-based courses, m a n y universities in Nigeria have established pre-degree science programmes. These programmes are basically remedial in nature and serve the major purpose of increasing the pool of potential candidates for degree programmes in the sciences. Successful implementation of these programmes has m a d e it possible for m a n y universities to m o v e nearer the 60:40 Science/Arts ratio.

O n general enrolment, tertiary institutions have observed a steady increase in number and attendant enrolment spurts of rapid growth interspersed with dimples and plateaus. The overall picture shows an increase from the University College with a take-off enrolment of 210 in 1948 to six universities in 1962 enrolling a total of 23,000 students. By 1996, the total number of universities stood at 37 with a student population of 234,581. For the Polytechnics, pre-independence enrolment stood at 231. In 1998, there were 41 Polytechnics and Colleges of Technology with a total enrolment of 78,102. Enrolment in Colleges of Education in 1962 w a s 345. By 1996, the 62 colleges of education enrolled over 80,000 students.

A rapid rise in the number and enrolment in tertiary institutions occurred within five years of independence. Taiwo (1994)^ explained this rise on the basis of the increased need for local production of high level humanpower. The newly-independent nation required personnel to fill vacancies that were left by the British at the middle and high-level positions. The University of Nigeria, Nsukka, University of Ife (now Obafemi Awolowo University, lle-lfe) and the University of Lagos were established in response to this need. Enrolment grew steadily thereafter.

Session

t -UNIVERSITIES •POLYTECHNICS -- • • - COLL. OF E D |

Fiff. I Patterns of Enrolment in Tertiary Institutions in Nif^cria (¡984-1996)

87

Fig. 1 shows that enrolment in the universities has been rising steadily exceptfor 1991/92 when it dipped as a consequence of the industrial unrest in that period. The trend that can be discerned from the figure is the higher gradient in the university curves forthe Polytechnics and Colleges of Education. This depicts higher growth rate. Fig. 1 also shows a similarity in the growth pattern and gross enrolment forthe Polytechnics and Colleges of Education.

In 1981, there w a s a total of 77,791 students in the universities which rose to 110,213 in 1985 and climbed to 172,404 and 180,871 in 1989 and 1990 respectively. Problems of poorly planned growth in the student population, the introduction of n e w courses of study, and the declining government subvention surfaced. To control the growth in student enrolment, first-generation universities (those with over 10,000 students and in existence before 19/5) were restricted to a growth rate of2.5 percent a year, second-generation universities to an increase of 10 percent annually ,while third-generation universities could increase their enrolments by 15 percent. T h e student population has steadily increased, and by the 1993-94 session w a s 227,999, of w h o m 188,044 were enrolled for undergraduate programmes. T h e Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board (JAMB) , the body established by decree to provide a single central admission process for all Nigerian universities, also helps to ensure that the admission policy ratio of 60:40 science: arts is maintained. The policy is intended to solve the problem of inadequate numbers of graduates in the sciences.

A consideration of the general enrolment pattern in our tertiary institutions would be incomplete without highlights of gender-related and disciplinary enrolments. Figure 2 shows that between 1988 and 1995, more males than females were enrolled in tertiary institutions. T h e male/female disparity is more acute in the Polytechnics. At the level of the Colleges of Education, only slight differences in enrolment in favour of males.

C O L L E G E S O P EDUCATION UNIVERSITIES roLTTICHNie«

20000O/'

Fig. 2 Male/Female Enrolment in Tertiary Institutions (1988-95)

In figure 3, it is shown that in the universities, except for Education and Arts, female enrolment is less than half of males. The disparity is more pronounced in Engineering/ Technology, Environmental Design and Veterinary Medicine. Figure 4 shows that for the Colleges of Education, female enrolment in all the courses is less than that of males. A similar patternjs true of the Polytechriics. While w o m e n are encouraged to take advantage of higher educational opportunities, no deliberate attempt is m a d e to lower admission standards in favour of w o m e n . Ejirolment statistics continue to show a disproportionate profile in favour of the m e n , especially in the sciences. This inequity is a carry-over from the gender inequity in access to secondary education. Cultural factors and other socio-economic variables converge to impede the access of w o m e n to higher education, (see Chapter 5).

88

Fig. 3 Universities Enrolment by Discipline and Gender (1992/93)

10000 15000 2Û000 26000 30000

Enrolment

c a> E o k. c Ul

ARTS & SOC.SC LANGUAGES SCIENCES VOC & TECH

I MALE B FEMALE

Fig. 4 Colleges of Education Enrolment by Discipline and Gender (1991/92)

The government policy of 60:40 science to arts ratio lias been the major sustaining force in favour of science enrolment. If the number of qualified applicants were the only basis for admission, the arts and social sciences students would have m a d e up over 80% of all students enrolled even in the polytechnics. To m a k e up forthe shortfall, pre-degree, pre-ND and pre-N C E programmes are offered in science in m a n y Universities, Polytechnics and Colleges of Education respectively.

Within disciplines, J A M B data reveal that courses such as Law, Communication, Arts and English are preferred courses in the Arts, enrolling large numbers of students. In science-based disciplines, engineering, medicine and pharmacy are top-ranking options. Banking and Finance, Business Administration and M a s s Communication rank high in the Social Sciences discipline. Increased enrolment in these courses can be explained by market forces. There is a growing d e m a n d for computer engineers and scientists; so also for highly skilled personnel in the banking sector and business.

Postgraduate enrolment in the Universities has been on the increase in the last 25

89

years, significantly more so from 1988. The economic down-turn led to fewer available jobs for first degree holders, beginning from the mid-1980s. The expectation that a higher degree n o w positions them at an advantage for entry into the labour market has caused m a n y first degree holders to take a shot at higher degree programmes. Graduate unemployment is also making s o m e people wary of full-time university education. A trend that is increasingly in vogue is to undertake part-time degree programmes while retaining present job positions. These part-time programmes normally run at convenient times for the workers, especially in the evenings and at weekends. The programmes are usually self-financing and they offer aver jes for the higher institutions to generate funds. At a time when there is a call forthe reduction in the number of higher institutions as a result of funding constraints, these part-time courses could provide the opportunity for institutions that have survived the down-sizing process, to continue to offer service to the s a m e number of students, and sometimes more, and m a k e s o m e money on the side.

Graduate output from the Universities, Polytechnics and ColJeges of Education has been on the rise. The trend is depicted in figure 5.

(0

50000

45000-

40000

0)

ra ;3

(0 k

Ü o d z

35000

30000

25000

20000

15000

10000

5000-

0 80/81 81/82 82/83 83/84 84/86 86/86 86/87 87/88 88/89 89/90 90/91 91/92 92/93

Session

I UNIVERSITIES •POLYTECHNICS DCOLL. OF ED~|

Fig.5 Graduate Output from Tertiary Institutions (1980-1993) (See Appendix A for Tables)

Fig. 5 shows that, of the three institutional types, the Universities have been producing the highest numbers of graduates; but while quantity has increased, improvement in quality has been doubtful, especially within the last five years.

Teaching Teaching is one of the core goals of the tertiary education system. T h e quality of

teaching is dependent, a m o n g other things, on the quality of teachers. In turn, the quality of teachers is influenced by qualifications and teaching experience. In this section, trends in the quality of teaching in tertiary institutions will be discussed within the context of staffing and the

90

availability of instructional materials, including books and equipment. (See also Chapter VI). Although a few exemplary practices dot the scene, the noticeable general trend is a

decline in the quality of teaching in our tertiary institutions from the early 90s. This has turned out to be an anti-climax to the impressive rise beginning from 1948 to the close of the oil b o o m years (around 1985). Between 1948 and 1973, university teaching w a s elitist in the sense of creaming say the top five percent of graduates. Commitment to scholarship w a s high. Universities offered overseas training for non-doctorate degree holders. Great scholars and teachers from top overseas institutions were part ofthe teaching pool in Nigerian Universities, Polytechnics, and Colleges of Education. Thewelfareschemeforteacherswas attractive and facilities, such as books, were available to support the instructional process. These combined to enhance good quality teaching.

OTHERSpi

VETMEDJI

socsc^HUgg

sciENCEsJU^Iigig

PHARMACY p p

MEDICINE ^ H H H H p

LAW ^^BH^^HH|

ENV.DESO p m p 1 ENGR/TECH ^gggg/m/g

• MALE • FEMALE

EcxicATioN P | | | | | | | | | | | | | | H | | | | H | H | H H H | | | | | H

ARTsVUHgg AGRICULTURE J l ^ m p

ADMINláfRATIONjmymg ^S. 1 ' 1 1 ' 1

2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

N o . of Graduates

Fig. 6 Graduate output by Discipline in Nigerian Universities (1992/93) (See Appendix A for tables)

In 1973, a face-off between university lecturers and the Federal Government resulted in an evacuation order of staff from university quarters. Most lecturers had no alternative personal accommodation outside their c a m p u s and were deeply embarrassed by the implementation ofthe order. This event stimulated lecturers to look beyond the university for extra funds that could enable them build their personal houses; it w a s a turning point in the commitment profile of university teachers.

Barely seven years later, the e c o n o m y of the country started taking a dip. It w a s becoming increasingly difficult to maintain existing facilities and more difficult still, to purchase or install n e w ones. Overseas training for staff w a s difficult to sustain. Expatriate staff found salaries and other conditions of service increasingly unattractive and m a n y left for their h o m e countries. Replacement c a m e in the form of relatively less qualified staff. Facilities were decaying at an alarming rate and the cost of textual materials sky-rocketed. Student intake deteriorated, as secondary cchools, which serve as the feeder system, were not spared the deterioration in quality. Academic staff of Universities, P'olytechnics and Colleges of Education under the aegis ofthe Academic Staff Union of Universities ( A S U U ) , Academic Staff Union of Polytechnics ( A S U P ) and Colleges of Education Academic Staff Union ( C O E A S U ) respectively mounted pressure on Government including strike actions, in the early '90s. T h e pressure w a s to cause a dramatic reversal of the decay in the system through

91

resultant governmental intervention. Yet by 1994, the decay w a s proceeding unabated. The brain-drain also took its toll.

More and more, available academic staff in the tertiary institutions became less-qualified and experienced than in the 70s. "Moonlighting" to augment low wages w a s c o m m o n . The overall quality of teaching consequently dropped. In the past, tertiary-level teaching had been characterised by rich, well-delivered lectures; practicáis (where every student had materials to work with); field trips; well-organised tutorials classes; free weekly lecture hand-outs; and students w h o were well-prepared for examinations. Today, it is typical in tertiary instituti :)ns to find poorly-conducted lectures, "theory of practicáis", non-issuance of free, but sal3 of, handouts by lecturers w h o care to prepare such handouts, lack of organised tutorial classes, over-crowded lecture halls, and students w h o are poorly prepared forexaminations. This has been found to be one of the reasons for the increase in examination malpractice in tertiary institutions.

A s stated earlier, it is becoming increasingly difficult to attract and retain high quality staff in higher institutions. The difficulty a rises from unattractive welfare schemes for teachers, a situation that leads to the d rifting away of m a n y teachers to greener pastures offered by the private sector or by overseas institutions. This brain-drain has robbed m a n y higher institutions in Nigeria of m a n y of their highly qualified and experienced professionals. The situation is particularly desperate in such disciplines as medicine, engineering and the sciences.

The rise in student enrolment has not been matched by the growth in the number of teachers (Omoregie & Hartnett, 1995).^ System-wide, the number of academic staff increased by an average of 2 percent each year between 1988 and 1994, while student numbers grew at the rate of 12 percent each year. By 1994, the average student/teacher ratio w a s 1:21, a marked increase from the 1988 ratio of 1:14, and above the N U C norm of 1:12. A number of universities are operating at staff levels far below the level recommended bythe N U C .

Table 2: Staff/Student Ratios (1987 and 1994): N U C N o r m s and Actual Ratios

Course

Administration

Agriculture

Arts

Education

Engineering/

Technology

Environmental

Sciences

L a w ,

Medicine

Pharmacy

Sciences

Social Sciences

Veterinary

Medicine

1987

Actual

1:26

1:12

1:12

1:23

1:11

1:15

1:31

1:7 1:9 1:9 1:12

1:5

Norm

1:15

1:10

1:15

1:25

1:10

1:10

1:15

1:7 1:10

1:15

1:15

1:10

1994

Actual

1.45

1:13

1:16

1:29

1:21

1:21

1:30

1:10

1:14

1:15

1:21

1:7

Norm

1:20

1:9 1:20

1:24

1:9

1:10

1:20

1:16

1:10

1:10

1:20

1:6

Source: Commonwealth Universities Yearbook (1996-1997)

92

A s further revealed in the report by Omoregie and Hartnett, (1995), student/teacher ratios in 1993/94, by faculty from the 21 Federal universities s h o w that the engineering, environmental design, and science faculties are the most severely understaffed, and thus the situation has deteriorated in these areas since the late 1980s. The engineering faculties at Lagos, llorin, Minna, and Port Harcourt, for example, report about 26 students per academic staff m e m b e r , and are thus significantly understaffed relative to the N U C - r e c o m m e n d e d ratio of 9:1. System-wide, however, two disciplines - arts and social sciences-remain over-staffed relative to the N U C norm.

With the brain-drain at its most furious, teaching positions are being taken up by relatively inexperienced and not-so-qualified staff. In s o m e universities, most faculty positions are held by non-doctorate degree holders. These staff are saddled with teaching and administrative responsibilities which m a k e little time available forthem to undertake research and carry on the business of supervising the P h . D candidates. This situation breeds mediocrity and is a major cause of falling standards. It is, clearly an important managemen t problem. T h e problem can be addressed a m o n g other things, by improving the welfare scheme for teachers, (thus encouraging their retention on the job), by providing on-the-job training for staff, and offering appointments to retired lecturers on contract orto former lecturers in the private sector on a part-time basis. These interventions have been found to be successful in the Lagos State University, especially in the Social Sciences Faculty where experts from the private sector, especially in the banking and finance industry, are employed to teach courses in economics at both the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. The environmental science and education programmes draw personnel from the manufacturing industries and from national and state environmental protection agencies. Apartfrom relieving the staff shortage problems, this has been found to be a good and profitable example of university-industry partnership.

While there is a dearth in the supply of academic staff for teaching and research, universities are over-staffed in the non-teaching categories, especially administrative and technical support. Before 1987, the N U C allowed for these categories of staff in relative proportion to academic staff or student enrolment as follows: (1) 1 senior administrative support staff m e m b e r to every 5 academic staff; (ii) 1 seniortechnical support staff m e m b e r to every 4 academic staff in science-based disciplines, depending on the programmes constituting the discipline; (iii) junior staff, 30 percent (recently revised to 20 percent) of the total student enrolment figure. To-day, across universities, there exist more administrative support staff than the official ratios permit. Similarly, there are more staff in the technical cadre than the ratios to academic staff allow. Thus, itwouldappearthat universities spend more money proportionately on salaries and wages of administrative support than academic staff. The N U C parameter stipulates that at least 60 percent of a university's total operating grant should be spent on academic units while not more than 40 percent should go on administrative costs. In m a n y universities, particularly third-generation universities, the reverse appears to be the case, since m u c h less than 60 percent of total recurrent expenditure is being spent on academic units while about 60 percent is budgeted for administrative expenditure (Alele-Williams, 1996).^

Research In terms of quality and quantity, the research output of tertiary institutions in Nigeria was

about the best in sub-Saharan Africa up to the late 80s (Karani, 1997).^ The wherewithal for research, such as good research training and motivation, availability of equipment, and good library facilities prevailed. With the onset and acceleration of the decay in the system, these ingredients began to dwindle away. By 1996, the quality and quantity of research had reached an all-time low. The number of published works authored, or co-authored by Nigerians in

93

international Journals, and the number of active journals in the country can be used to exemplify this claim.

CM -sr <D 00 o CM •^ <0 00 <o CO 1" 1^ t«- 1^ r^

O < N ^ f C D 0 0 O C ^ ^ • s ^ C D 00 00 o o o o 00 (3> o> a> en. C D O > o > o > a > o > a > c f > ö > o > c o o ) c n . a > c n en

Fig. 7 Research publications authored/co-authored by Nigerians in three international science education journals (1962-96)

O n the number of published works, three science education journals were reviewed as example. These are the "Journal of Research in Science Teaching" published by John Wiley & Sons and rated as the N o . 1 Science Education Journal in the world; "Science Education" also published byJohn Wiley and "Research in Science and Technical Education", published by Carfax (UK). All the issues of the journals from 1962 to 1996 were surveyed and a frequency of authorship/co-authorship of the published articles by Nigerians w a s recorded. The result presented in Fig 7 shows a rise in the publication profile up to 1988 and a steady fall thereafter.

The number of active journals in the country as a measure of research productivity w a s also surveyed. "Active" was defined inthesenseof regularity of publication from inception. The discipline of education w a s taken as example. Fig. 8 shows that while there were 22 active journals up to 1988, including the "West African Journal of Education" (WAJE) , "African Journal of Educational Research" (AJER), "Journal of the Science Teachers Association of Nigeria" (JSTAN), "Journal of Research in Curriculum" (JORIC), "llorin Journal of Education" (IJE), "Nigeria Educational Forum" (NEF) and "Educational Perspectives", only a few including J S T A N , JORIC, and new additions, such as "Journal of Studies in Curriculum" (JOSIC) have remained active.

a> oi oi o> a> Ol a> a> ä> a> o> a> Oi a> o>

Fig. 8: Number of Active Journals in Education (1970-1998)

94

By 1988 several journals had fielded their maiden editions. Funding constraints led to the transition of m a n y to "a state of stupor." M a n y had vol. 1,no. 1, and no vol. 1 no. 2 , or vol. 2 thereafter. (Only those that published a minimum of three consecutive issues qualified in the review in order to be classified as "active").

Other noteworthy trends in research in our tertiary institutions are (a) a shift from collaborative to individual research; (b) use of out-dated methodology; (c) conduct of short-term ratherthan long-term research; and (d) reduction in available research grants. In the '60s and 70s , preference w a s for collaborative research especially in science-based disciplines. Solo work is n o w gaining ground. Collaboration is helpful in sharing resources and in bridging gaps in knowledge and skills of the individuals in the team. A m e m b e r of the team m a y be the originator of the brilliant idea while another m e m b e r has the laboratory and equipment for testing the idea. A third team-mate m a y be good in experimental design, while a fourth m a y be good in data analysis. Members of the team m a y be located in different continents or in the s a m e country. The outcome of the research efforts of such a team has a higher chance of acceptability and publication thah a solo effort, with doubtful credibility of h o w results were obtained.

Lack of access to current literature and obsolete equipment in our laboratories account for the rise of out-dated methodology in the conduct of research. M a n y researchers are knowledgeable and skilled in only what they picked up during doctoral training in sophisticated laboratories overseas. The rapid world-wide advance in knowledge and in technology makes such skills obsolete in no time. Whereas research grants are on the increase else-where, the flow of such funds has been impeded by certain procedural problems and sometimes, the failure of researchers to accountfor earlier grants.

C o m m u n i t y Service Community service is an area where ourtertiary institutions would appear to have m a d e

significant improvement overthe years. Community service involves making knowledge and skills in the "ivory tower" available to m e m b e r s of the immediate and distant public. Public lectures, conferences and consultancies are examples of community service. These have been of mutual benefit to such tertiary institutions and the communities.

Increase in consultancy services offered by tertiary institutions can also explain the increase in community service. Most tertiary institutions have established consultancy services as a w a y of generating funds internally. A s the differential between government subvention and real needs widens, the vigourof pursuit of consultancy services has increased. Since such differential has been widening in the last ten years, consultancy work has also been increasing concomitantly.

Caution has often been sounded that tertiary institutions should not expend more efforts than necessary on consultancy services to the detriment ofgood teaching and research. In situations where funds are acutely limiting, this entreaty had been difficult to entertain.

Facilities Development Facilities for teaching, learning and research in tertiary institutions include classrooms,

laboratories, workshops, staff offices and libraries. Hostels (in residential institutions), staff quarters, students and staff recreation areas, sports and g a m e s facilities, roads, electricity and water supply are others. There are two noteworthy trends in the provision and availability of facilities in these institutions. First is the steady improvement in the physical plants, from the '60s and '70s to the mid-'SOs of Universities, Polytechnics and Colleges of Education that grew orwere established during the period. Thus, the University of Ibadan.ObafemiAwolowo University, lle-lfe, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Yaba College of Technology, Kaduna Polytechnic, Alvan Ikoku College of Education and Adeyemi College of Education, crafted

95

grandiose and befitting master plans. Majorphasesofthe master plans were implemented. The oil b o o m period significantly boosted the process of master plan implementation. The result w a s imposing, purpose-built structures that gave colour and a feeling of being in a respectable higher institution, to the student or observer. A confirmation is easily obtained from a tour of the first and second generation universities.

Good classrooms, libraries, laboratories, workshops and staff offices are part of the facilities that earlier were available in adequate numbers. Imposing lecture theatres, huge libraries, well laid out laboratories and workshops, as well as spacious office accommoriation were all features of the first and second generation universities and the first gen< ration polytechnics and colleges of education. Still on facilities, tertiary institutions without m u c h strain, were able to support comfortable residential accommodation for students. In the late 1950s and in the 1960s, hostel accommodation could match accommodation provided in at least a med ium class hostel. Laundry w a s free, rooms were well laid out and three-course meals were served.

As the oil b o o m period waned in the early to mid-80s, tertiary institutions that were just being established could not match the quality and quantity of the facilities that characterised institutions established in the pre-oil b o o m era. In vogue, were "functional buildings" devoid of elegant architectural trappings. M a n y state universities, polytechnics and colleges of education that were established in the late '70s and early '80s paraded such "functional building." Thus, a trend showing the dichotomy described earlier in the provision of facilities can be gleaned by comparing the facilities available at the University of Ibadan and A h m a d u Bello University of the first generation with Delta State University andBenue State University of the third generation. Within the polytechnic and college of education system, such comparisons can respectively be m a d e between Kaduna Polytechnic and Abia State Polytechnic and between Adeyemi College of Education, O n d o and Federal College of Education (Technical), Asaba.

The second discernible trend is the decay in the facilities in all the institutions, regardless of generation of establishment. This decay is alarming and has been an issue of strike actions by academic staff and condemnation by parents and students. Government responded to this by setting up a 2 5 - m e m b e r Committee in 1996 to examine the problem (among other things) in great detail and m a k e recommendations for improvement.

In 1992, Government pursued a phased face-lifting programme for the tertiary institutions through a World Bank loan, especially for the libraries. By 1996, the Petroleum (Special) Trust Fund began an intervention which focused on the rehabilitation of facilities in the nation's tertiary institutions. State and Federal Universities, Polytechnics and Colleges of Education were to benefit. In a year, the intervention is expected to target specific institutions. Over a projected ten-year period, all tertiary institutions are expected to have benefitted.

Financing The establishment and the running of tertiary institutions are capital intensive ventures.

Running the institution requires significant investment in providing and maintaining a basic level of infrastructure-such as a facilities, staff salaries, administrative staff, and residential housing. Universities in sub-Saharan Africa have been supported largely by Government funds with little contribution by the students, or populace.

In the past several years, budgets of universities of sub-Saharan Africa have been under tremendous pressure due to declining budget allocations and rising enrolments. Higher education's share of national education budgets initially increased in the early 1980s. It grew from an average of 15.5% during 1970-74 to 18,3% in 1975-79 and 19.1% in 1980-84. It then declined to 17.5% in 1985-88. Thetremendous pressure for expansion of higher education has placed additional demands on national financial resources which have proved inadequate

96

to meet even recurrent needs. Declining budget levels and rising enrolments in higher education have combined to force down minimum unit costs in m a n y countries of sub-Saharan Africa.

In Nigeria, direct N U C , N B T E and N C C E funding dominates allocations for federal institutions. State Governments provide funds for running their tertiary institutions. From an estimated 85 percent of their total budget for eight Federal Universities in 1985/86 (World Bank 1988),^the N U C provided about 86 percent of total income in 1990/91 and 1991/92, and 93 percent in 1992/93. Estimates for 1993/94 and 1994/95 put this figure at 96 percent. A s financial dependence on Government increased, university management autonomy became circumscribed (Omoregie & Hartnett, 1995). (op.cit.)

• CAPITAL • RECURRENT P TOTAL

Millions (N)

2500

1988 1989 1990 1991 1992

Fig. 9 Capital and Recurrent Appropriations to Federal Universities (1988-92) (See Appendix Cfor tables)

Besides the recurrent grants from N U C . federal universities receive small amounts of income from other sources. These sources include fees for postgraduate courses and exanfrinations; bank interest payments; gifts and endowments; and income-generating activities, such as consultancy services and farms. According to the N U C parameters, these local sources should produce 10 percent of total income. However, local income represented just 7 percent of total income system-wide in 1992/93, d o w n from 13 percent in 1990/91. Further declines are estimated for 1993/94 and 1994/95.

Income from studenttuition fees system-wide represented 3.7 percent of total income in 1991/92, and just 2 percent in 1992/93. Estimates for 1994/95 suggest a continuing trend downward to 1.6 percent. Universities vary in terms of their reliance otj fees as a |»t)rtion of total income, and those with largésub-degree or postgraduate programmes m a y benefit more from tuition income. Jos, for example, with enrolment in sub-degree and postgraduate programmes at abouf one-third of total enrolment, received 12 percent of total income from tuitionfees in 1991/92.

Investment income, representing 6 and 3 percentoftotal income in 1991/92 and 1992/ 93, respectively, consists primarily of the proceeds from staff and student accommodation, including hostel fees, interest earned on bank deposits; and business operations. Its significance in terms of total income varies considerably, from a low of 0.5 percent in 1992/93 at Sokoto to a high of 11.3 percent at Abuja.

The N U C parameters recommend that universities allocate at least 60 percent of their total expenditures to the academic units, and the remainderto administrative support, which includes central administration, works and maintenance, health and other students' services.

97

and general university expenditures. In 1992/93, the universities' devoted 56 percent of total expenditures to the academic units, an increase from the previous year's 50 percent that w a s probably a result of both the increased allocation to library development and the enhanced academic staff allowances that also resulted from the A S U U agreement. The greatest proportion to academic units w a s at Maiduguri, where about 75 percent of expenditures were devoted to academiccosts in both 1991/92 and 1992/93. However, four universities-Ovyerri, Kano, Sokoto, and Nsukka - spent less than 50 percent of total expenditures on academic units in 1992/93. At Nsukka, academic units received 43 percent of expenditures compared to 1984/85's figure of 53 percent. (Omoregie & Harnett, 1995). (op.cit.)

R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s Resource Rationalisation

The academic programmes ofourtertiary institutions must continue to exhibit the twin characteristics of relevance and currency of content. The issue of rationalisation is also topical. Theviews of U N E S C O , Lagos on this subject are pertinent. In the opinion of the Office, rationalisation is central to the efficiency of any educational system particularly in the use and channelling of resources. However, rationalisation m e a n s more than simply cutting down . Rationalisation should be seen as a systematic approach to the use of scarce resources in order to achieve specific educational needs. Properly conceived, it should involve needs assessment, assessment of social demands and abilities to meet those d e m a n d s , forecasting, monitoring and co-ordinated planning, with a view to reducing waste and maximising efficiency. The conception of rationalisation as down-sizing should therefore be reviewed. Rationalisation should thus include a phased and planned expansion of institutions, and should include at least the following areas: conception of the institution, choice of programmes, choice of chief executive, planned size expansion, programme specialisations, staff hiring particularly, the ratio of academic to non-academic staff etc. ( U N E S C O , 1997).^

More rational use of resources can be arrived at through the use of the twinning strategy. This strategy involves the sharing of resources, both material and h u m a n , by institutions situated in geographically contiguous zones and allows for optimum utilisation of these resources. Itthus eliminates waste. U N E S C O has strongly recohimended the adoption of this strategy to Governments. A s a first step in this direction, there is the need to compile available h u m a n resources in Nigeria in higher education and to draw up ah inventory of available material resources. Furthermore, U N E S C O strongly believes that there is a need to put in place a co-ordinating body for higher education in the country. This body would a m o n g other things serve as a forum for regular consultations between the various parastatals of Government with mandates for specific areas of higher education e.g. N U C , N B T E , and N C C E . The establishment of this higher education co-ordinating body d e m a n d s in turn the dismantling of the current apex structure in higher education, which is tilted in favour of universities, and the establishment of mutual recognition between all forms of higher education.

Facilities O n the issue of facilities, the position of U N E S C O is worthy of consideration. Facilities,

as noted by U N E S C O (1997) (op.cit.) play a crucial role in the efficacy of higher education. Current facilities are grossly inadequate. Books are grossly in short supply and this has given rise to a culture of the sale of hand-outs. There is therefore need for a massive programme of book production. In this regard, the tertiary books publication project by the Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council is a laudable one which should be supported and expanded with additional funds from the P T F . There is also the need to improve resource allocation for facilities. Again, the policy of providing refurbishing grants to selected higher

98

education institution is very commendable. W h a t is n o w required is a widening of the scope of this policy to cover all higher education institutions.

Funding O n funding, the prescriptions of U N E S C O (1997) are apt. There is a call for the

strengthening of university - industry partnerships so that with funds provided by industries, higher education institutions can carry out Research and Developmentfunctions for industries, with mutual benefits for both parties. Increased private sector participation would aHeviate the problems of under-funding in all sectors of education. Greater probity and transparency in the use and disbursement of public funds on the part of Government officials, proprietors and operators of higher institutions would go a long way to encourage greater confidence and participation on the part of the private sector. This strategy also would go a long way in dispelling the notion that part of the reason for under-funding is that the authorities are not fully revealing all the revenue that accrue to it and that what is m a d e available for public knowledge is only a portion of total Government revenue from users. Also, higher education institutions should are urged to put in place s o m e fund-raising structures, with the establishment of a unit charged specifically with sourcing and managing funds.

Knowledge Explosion and P r o g r a m m e Relevance In order to respond to the challenge of the explosion of knowledge, our tertiary

institutions must strive to adapt their study programmes to meet the imperative of inter­disciplinary research and teaching. Initiatives aimed at the renewal of teaching and learning must, therefore, involve the introduction of creative and innovative inter-disciplinary courses and the adoption of appropriate flexible structures which would allow the involvement of specialists from diverse sectors in the teaching of particular programmes, and the search for solutions to particular problems. Given the great practical need fortechnological development at the m o m e n t , it would seem that instruction in the natural sciences should be geared especially towards practical applications and problem solving. Serious account must be taken of the reality of rapid knowledge generation and technological innovation, so that our science graduates are not saddled with the burden of scientific and technological obsolescence.

There is also the problem of relevance. For instance, the accusation that teaching and research in higher institutions are not directed towards producing graduates w h o can solve societal problems, particularly the production of material (consumable) wealth, makes m e m b e r s of the society doubt the quality of university programmes. Unlike their counterparts in developed countries, ourtertiary institutions must show practical and prompt results (with respect to solving societal problems) in order to justify their existence.

Examples of h o w universities respond to their socio-economic environment abound elsewhere, particularly in the United States (Sawadago, 1995). For instance, the increased number of programmes in environmental studies, multicultural and intercultural studies, information technologies, critical languages and w o m e n studies, recently introduced in universities' curricula, can be cited as evidence of the response of university programmes to specific needs at specific stages of a country's socio-economic development (Bababunmi, 1996).«

Nigeria's development needs cannot be met if w o m e n as a large percentage of the population, are not offered the s a m e chances of schooling as m e n (Obanya, 1994).^ Therefore, considerable efforts should be undertaken to identify obstacles to w o m e n ' s participation in higher education in orderte increase the percentage of w o m e n in the student total population. Specific programmes can be designed through continuing education programmes that will be geared towards particular interest and work schedules of w o m e n (Okebukola, 1997).^° Chapter 5 has dealt extensively with this whole issue; and our review in

99

this Chapter reveals the s a m e pattern in higher education.

Conclusion In concluding this chapter, three major points are noteworthy. T h e first is a re­

examination of the mission statements of tertiary institutions. A s the 21 'century approaches, there is a clear need to re-examine institutional goals and repackage such goals to reflect anticipated changes in socio-economic development of the nation in the coming decades. Such goals and mission statements must be set within the context of globalisation and the advent of n e w technologies, as well as within the context of a funds-constrained setting.

Secondly, is the manner or mechanism of pursuit of institutional goals. This calls forthe institutionalisation of the process of strategic planning. Operators of the system, especially the management , must be conversant with, and encouraged to routinely iniplement such strategic plans.

Thirdly, there is a need to expand access through private sector participation in the establishment and running of universities. Already on ground are private Polytechnics and Colleges of Education. With the N U C strengthened for quality control, private universities would be sufficiently monitored and m a d e to operate above established min imum standards. Such universities will also ease the admission pressure on public universities. Happily, Decree N o . 9 of 1993, has opened the doors to this liberalised initiative, provided the specified guidelines are stringently enforced.

The Dakar African Regional Consultation Preparatory to the World Conference on Higher Education of 1997, rose with a declaration that higher education must help address four major challenges:

* the impact of globalisation which requires trans-natiorial strategies; * the growing complexity of development issues which relies on inter-disciplinary

approaches to problem-solving;

* the irreversible nature of numerous current questions which can only be contained in the future by m u c h more effective preventive action; and

* the need to ensure continuity amidst the vagaries of political currents, notably by upholding the ethnical values of h u m a n solidarity.

Nigeria's National Policy on Education has set out challenging objectives for higher education. These challenges and aims are worth pursuing vigorously in the coming years.

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References

1. Makhubu, L P . (1997, April). The Riqhtto Higher Education and Equal Opportunity Particularly for W o m e n : The Challenge of OurTime. Paper presented at the African Regional Consultation Preparatory to the World Conference on Higher Education, Dakar, Senegal.

2. Taiwo. C O . (1982). The Nigerian Educational System: Past. Present and Future. Lagos: Thomas Nelson.

3. Omoregie, P . O . , Hartnett, T . (1995). Financing Trends and Expenditure: Patterns in Nigerian Universities. World Bank Report to the N U C .

4. Alele-Williams, G . (1996). The uniyersities in Nigeria. In ACL) (Ed.). Commonwealth Uniyersities Yearbook, 1996-1997. Vol II. London: ACL) Press.

5. Karani, F.A. (1997, April). Higher Education in Africa in the 21^^ Century. Paper

presented at the African Regional Consultation Preparatory to the World Conference

on Higher Education, Dakar, Senegal.

6. World Bank (1988). Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: Policies for Adjustment, Reyitalization, and Expansion. A World Bank Policy Study.

7. U N E S C O . Lagos (1997. April). S o m e Thoughts on the Reform of Higher Education in Nigeria. Paper presented at the African Regional Consultation Preparatory to the World Conference on Higher Education, Dakar, Senegal.

U N E S C O (1995). World Education Report. U N E S C O Publisher Oxford.

8. Bababunmi, E.A. (1996) Personal Communications.

9. Obanya, P.A.I. (1994). Quality in Higher Education in Nigeria. Keynote Address

delivered at the 4th Conference on Educational Development in Nigeria, April.

10. Okebukola, P . A . O . (1997 April). Managing Higher Education in Africa. Lead

presentation at the African Regional Consultation Preparatory to the World Conference

on Higher Education, Dakar, Senegal.

11. AdeAjayi, J.F., G o m a , k.h. & Johnson, G . A . (1995). The African experience with higher education. Accra: A A U .

12. Adewoye, 0.(1973). The antecedents, in J.F. AdeAjayi & T . N . Tamuno (Ed.). The University of Ibadan: 1948-1973: A history of the firsttwenty-five years. Ibadan: Ibadan University Press.

13. Assie-Lumumba. N.T. (1995). Demand. Access and Equity Issues in African Higher

Education- Past Policies, CurrentPractices, and Readinessforthe21®*Century.

Background paperfor the joint colloquium on the University in Africa in the 1990's

and beyond.

14. Association of Commonwealth Universities (1997). Commonwealth Universities

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Yearbook (1996-1997). London: A C U .

15. Federal Ministry of Education (1990). Statistics of Education in Nigeria (1985-1989). Lagos: FIVIE.

16 Federal Republic of Nigeria (1981). National Policy on Education. Lagos: N E R D C Press.

17. Federal Republic of Nigeria (1991). Higher Education in the Nineties and Beyond.-Report of the Commission on the Review of Higher Education in Nigeria. Main Report. Lagos.

18. Gaidzanwa. R . B . (1995). Governance issues in African Universities: improving Management and Governance to make African Universities viable in the Nineties and Beyond. Background paper for the joint colloquium on the University in Africa in the 1990's and beyond.

19. Joint Admissions and Matriculations Board (1997). P C E Brochure. Lagos: J A M B .

20. Joint Admissions and Matriculations Board (1997). U M E Brochure. Lagos: J A M B .

21. Mayor, F. (1997, April). Speech of the Director-General. U N E S C O delivered at the African Regional Consultation Preparatory to the World Conference on Higher Education, Dakar, Senegal.

22. NationalCommissionforCollegesof Education (1992). Statistical Digest on Colleges of Education in Nigeria. Vol. 1. Kaduna: N C C E .

23. National Commission for Colleges of Education (1994). Statistical Digest on Colleges of Education in Nigeria. Vol.2. Kfiduna: N C C E .

24. National Universities Commission (1988). 1988 Annual Report. Abu ia :NUC.

25. National Universities Commission (1989). 1989 Annual Report. Abuia: N U C .

26. National Universities Commission (1990). 1990 Annual Report. Abuia: N U C .

27. National Universities Commission (1993). 1993 Annual Report. Abuia: N U C .

28. National Universities Commission (1994). Statistical Digest in Nigerian Universities. 1988-1992. Abuja: N U C .

29. Negrao. J. (1995). Adeguate and Sustainable Funding of African Universities. Background paperforthe joint colloquium on the University in Africa in the 1990's and beyond.

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CHAPTER VIII

NIGERIAN AND FOREIGN LANGUAGES IN EDUCATION

Introduction: Language is crucial and central to the teaching-learning process because language is

the medium through which all the subjects in the curriculum are taught in formal education from pre-primary to post-secondary In formal education and in the entire gamut of non-formal education. Language is also critical for the overall socio-economic and political development of a nation. Government policies are formulated in language. They are also implemented through language. Everything thought of and done in and out of government by individuals and groups are realize in language and through language. In monolingual and monocultural nation - states especially in the 'Old World' the place of language in education and development is taken for granted. But in multilingual and multicultural states, especially those with colonial experiences which include Eurocentric language policies and imposed foreign languages, as official languages, such as Nigeria is, the need for well-formulated language policies and implementation strategies which effectively capture the multilingual realities on the ground, becomes very imperative. But, perhaps, morethan what governments m a y want in language matter, The Universal Declaration of Linguists Rights (1996) endows the individual with certain inalienable personal rights in language matters. These include: 'the rightto be recognised as a m e m b e r of a language community, the rightto the use of one's own language both in private and in public... the right for the individual's language and culture to be taught, the right to interrelate and associate with other members of one's language community of origin, the right to an equitable presence of one's language and culture in the communications media and the right to receive attention in one's own language from government bodies and in socio­economic relations'.

The Language Situation in Nigeria The language situation in Nigeria is as complex as the Nigerian nation. Nigeria has

s o m e 400 indigenous languages including Nigerian Pidgin and recognises a number of foreign languages including English, Classical Arabic, Kiswahili, French, Portuguese, German and Russian. With regard to the indigenous languages, their exact number is not only intimidating and unknown, but even their classification is problematic, if one is to use them in education, especially, formal education. Many classifications of Nigerian languages exist, each one relevant and useful for the purpose desired. However, three broad classes of Nigerian languages, using the criteria of number of speakers, readiness for literacy, status in education and current use as a desired second language, are considered here. These are: "the developed", "the developing" and "the undeveloped languages".

The Developed Languages The developed languages are those with stable orthographies, standard written forms,

large bodies of written materials, stabilized and decimalized counting systems and large populations of speakers w h o are both native speakers and those w h o have acquired them as necessary second languages in their work-a-day lives. The developed languages are 'large group' languages. They are often called in existing literature, the 'major' languages. While definitive and up-to-date statistics are sometimes difficult to c o m e by in language matters, it is held that, 'In Nigeria, the three major languages, Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba are estimated to be spoken either as native or as second languages by about 6 0 % - 7 0 % of the population' (Bamgbose1992:2) \

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Developing Languages This group of Nigerian languages includes s o m e 60 languages with populations

ranging between a hundred thousand and one million speakers (see Emenanjo:1995)2. Languages in this group can also be referred to as the 'medium group' languages. In addition to the factor of population, these languages are only just developing their orthographies or having them stabilised. For s o m e , their standard written varieties are incipient, while for others, they are only just becoming popularized. All of these languages have very limited written materials. Most of these languages are not even being used as media of instruction in primary education or in studies as subjects in the school system, let alone being taken in public examinations at any level of formal education. The twelve Nigerian languages used in the Ibadan. Enugu and Kaduna zones of the Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria (F. R . C . N ) belong here. They include: Edo, Urhobo, igala.Tiv, Efik, Ibibio, Izon, Kanuri, Fulfuldeand Nupe. The languages used by various State Radio and Television stations belong here also. These developing languages are sometimes called the state 'media'.

The Undeveloped Languages This group of Nigerian languages is the 'undeveloped' language group. All of these

languages are 'small group' languages, each of them with a population of less than 10,000 speakers. A language like Dulbu spoken in the Jungur area of Bauchi State w a s recorded as having only 80 speakers in 1979, (Osaji: 1979)^, whileBassa - Kontagöra was said to have '10 speakers alone in 1987'(Hansfordetal, 1976)". A good number ofthe'undeveloped'or'small group' languages are 'endangered' on account of their small populations within large 'popular' Languages of the Immediate Community (LICs), or the Languages of Wider Communication (LWCs). These undeveloped languages are also endangered because ofthe 'language shift' taking place among their speakers in view of their 'sandwiched' locations. But, most importantly they are endangered partly because they have neither orthographies nor standard forms, nor standardized counting systems, nortexts available for literacy purposes, and partly because there is no strong will on the part ofthe native speakers to record their languages for posterity or develop them for contemporary literacy purposes. Nigerian Pidgin (NP), the linguistic product of English and Nigerian Languages and Cultures, especially in the southern (coastal) areas ofthe country is, despite its large population of speakers, an undeveloped language since it lacks a standard orthography or written form, large bodies of formal written texts and a homogenous and distinct geographically delimitable body of native speakers. But unlike all the undeveloped languages, Nigerian Pidgin is not endangered because it is a vibrant and expanding medium of oral communication in informal and non-formal settings, including the print and electronic media.

The Foreign Languages English is a foreign language in Nigeria. But it is not as foreign as either Classical

Arabic or French, German, Russian or Portuguese. Unlike Classical Arabic, which is the language of Islam and the Koran, English is a 'universal' language not tied to any 'regional' religion, sect or sacred literature. A s Nigeria's official language, English is the language of administration, of formal education (primary, secondary and tertiary), of science and technology, of computer and of soccer (among other games and sports). Kiswahili, French, German, Russian and Portuguese are otherforeign languages available in Nigeria. S o m e of them are used in the radio - "Voice of Nigeria". Unlike German, Russian, Kiswahili and Portuguese which are, or were at certain times, available at the tertiary level in a few Nigerian Unjversifties, e.g- Nsukka - (French and German), Ife - (French and Portuguese), Ibadan -(Frjbnch, Russian a[id German), Port Harcourt - (Kiswahili), French has always been available

i in most Colleges of Education and in most Departments of Foreign Languages as well as at

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the pre-university levels in secondary schools and, even, in s o m e élite nursery and primary schools! French is, thus, a foreign language, in a class by itself, just as English is also a foreign language, in another class, by itself. In fact, with particular reference to English, s o m e people consider it more of a special second language than a foreign language, in view of the "Official" status which both history and use have foisted on it.

Language Provisions in tlie Nigerian Polity Nigeria does not have an explicit national language policy. But Nigeria has m a d e a

number of explicit statements about the language issue in the polity. (See Emenanjo:1992). These can be found partly In the publications "National Policy on Education" (1977, revised 1981 ), partly in the "Government Views on the Political Bureau" (1981 ), partly in the 1979 and 1989 Constitutions of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, and partly in the enabling decrees of different Federal Government parastatals including the Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council ( N E R D C ) , the National Commission for Mass Literacy, Adult and Non-Formal Education ( N M E C ) , the National Institute for Nigerian Languages (NINLAN), the National Commission for Nomadic Education (NCNE) , the National Orientation Agency and the Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria (FRCN). All things considered, the implicit national language policy in Nigeria, provides for:

(i) the use of Nigerian languages in formal and non-formal education; (ii) the use of the developed Nigerian languages as co-official languages with

English; (III) the study of the developed Nigerian languages, as first languages at all tiers of

formal education, and as second languages at the Junior Secondary School (JSS) level;

(iv) the study of all Nigerian languages as subjects and as media of instruction at certain levels of formal education;

(v) the study of French and Classical Arabic as électives at all levels of formal education;

(vi) the study of such foreign languages as French, Portuguese, German, Russian and Kiswahlli as subjects at the university level.

Towards Implementing the Language Provisions in Nigerian Education A Definition of T e r m s :

It is necessary to explain or define certain recurrent terms in Nigerian language usage as set out below:

i) Mother Tongue (MT): This is the language spoken by the child, at h o m e , as his first language (LI).

ii) Second Language (L2): This is the language learnt within the formal school system in addition to the mothertongue; the four co-official languages L2 are English, Hausa, IgboandYoruba.

iii) Foreign Language (FL): This is any language not native to Nigeria (excluding English). French, Arabic, German, Portuguese, Russian, Kiswahili belong here.

iv) Official Language (OL): This Is the language ofthe entire formal education, the higher judiciary, civil service, science, technology, computer, games and sports. English is the main official language but the large group languages (Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba) are allowed by the constitution to share this status with English.

v) Lingua Franca (LF): This is the language native to a place and used asan official language. English, though official in Nigeria, is not Nigeria's lingua franca because it is not native to Nigeria.

vi) Language of Wider Community ( L W C ) : This is the dominant language in a

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community that has many languages. It is used by non native speakers for communication among themselves. Hausa is a Language of Wider Community in a good number of multilingual communities in Northern Nigeria.

vii) Language of Immediate Community (LIC): This is a Language of the Immediate Community that is not spoken by an ethnic minority in a multilingual community. Nigerian Pidgin is a Language of Immediate Community in places like Warri, Port Harcourt and the "Sabon Garis" in the North, and Military Barracks all overthe country.

Major Areas in Implementation It has to be mentioned that since the enunciation of the first definitive statements on

language in Nigerian education in the National Policy in Education, (1977), many conferences, workshops and seminars have been organised by different stake holders in language education to address various aspects ofthe resultant policy. These include the 1976 Kaduna Language Symposium, the N E R D C - sponsored seminar on Nigerian Languages and Cultural Development, the 1986 Presidency-sponsored Seminar on the National Question, the 1988 Cultural Policy for Nigeria, various annual conferences ofthe Linguistic Association of Nigeria and the (national) meetings of Committees of Provosts of Colleges of Education. But by far the most important, most comprehensive and most far-reaching of all these 'talk-shops' has been the 1992 N E R D C and Federal Ministry of Education-sponsored Seminar on "Implementation Strategies for the Language Provisions ofthe National Policy on Education". The seminar which was held at Ota, Ogun State, from October 6-10,1992 will hereafter be referred to as the "Ota Seminar". The Ota Seminar identified six major areas of concern in the effective implementation ofthe language provisions. This section will however examine the implementation ofthe languages provision ofthe policy underthe following headings:

(i) Language Policy, (ii) Language Curriculum and Material Design, (iii) Language Teachers and Language Teaching, (iv) Language Research,

(v) Evaluation, and (vi) Language Institutions.

Language Policy The policy of multilingualism is very well stated, but not so are many other aspects. For

example, the status, priorities, functions and contexts of language use are not as cleariy defined as has been done above forThe Mother Tongue (MT), First Language (LI ), Foreign Language (FL), Lingua Franca (LF), Language of Immediate Community (LIC), Language of Wider Communication (LWC) , and Official Language.

Predicating the implementation of any aspect of the policy on 'theavailability of teachers' is as evasive as the provision for the implementation of the co-official status for the developed Nigerian languages in the National Assembly on 'when adequate arrangements have been m a d e thereof (1979 Constitution, Section 51.). Implementing the extant provisions without any definite chronogram or sanctions for erring Federal, State, Local Government or non­governmental agency (including parents) will remain a leap in the dark. The policy should more clearly spell it out that when a 'Major' Nigerian Language (MNL) is to be studied as a Second Language (L2) atthe J S S level, the focus should be communicative not linguistic competence. The policy should explicitly correct the misinterpretation ofthe Major Nigerian Language as a subject in the Junior Secondary School (JSS) by the National Council on Education. The Nigerian Language prescribed for study atthe Senior Secondary School (SSS) level should not be a Major Nigerian Language but "Nigerian Language". Limiting this to a Major Nigerian Language will not only affect the further development ofthe Major Nigerian Languages, but also lead to the non-take-off of all other Nigerian Languages which are now being developed and taught in Colleges of Education. Finally, the policy should clearly define and exemplify the use ofthe terms 'core' and 'elective' in relation to languages as re-viewed and re-defined in

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the following scenario:

(a) Language in the School Curriculum with regard to level, mediunrfand status.

Level Medium Subject Pre-primary MT/LIC MT/LIC Primary MT/LIC 1-3

J S S

SSS

Tertiary

English

English

English

English 4-6

MT/LIC MNL Electives (French, Arabic)

English O n e Nigerian Language

English (+NL1) (+FL2)

MT/LIC

Note: Core subjects: MT/LIC/NL, Elective: French, Arabic

(b) Language in the polity

Formal Education: English, N L

Informal Education: NL , (English)

Electronic Media: NL , English

Amongst the revisions of the policy should be an extension of the MT/LIC as a medium of instruction for the whole of primary education which should be allowed for any communities that so desire. To facilitate the implementation of the language provisions, it is essential that these provisions be stated in a phraseology that is direct, positive and unambiguous. All the woolliness and 'escape' statements in the N P E ought to be expunged.

Language Curriculum and Material Design Any curriculum or material designed for education must follow the National Policy

guidelines. This is even more true of language than it is for other disciplines. There should be a close relationship between the broad national goals spelt out in paragraph 5 of the Policy, and the Mother Tongue or Nigerian First Language (NL1) curricula. Second Language (L2) curricula should emphasize communicative skills and competence rather than linguistic or native-speaker competence. The intention is that because it is expected that products of formal education are likely to experience more mobility and greater exposure, the communicative skills acquired through Nigerian Second Language (NL2) will stand them in very good stead as the new nationalistic élite who can communicate both in English and their Mother Tongue or Language of Immediate Community (MT/LIC) or Nigerian Second Language (NL2). In this regard it is suggested thatthe recently revised curricula forthe Major Nigerian Second Language (MNL2) be further revised so that they can be properly and

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advantageously used to produce practical and pragmatic primers and readers for use in the J S S . Our experience using the curriculum for the Igbo Nigerian Second Language (NL2) to produce course books for the J S S is that it is till too high pitched and over ambitious. The National Institute for Nigerian Languages (NINLAN) has had to translate the N E R D C for First Major Nigerian Languages (MNL1) curricula from which it has extrapotated a prototype curriculum to be adopted and adapted by non-Major Nigerian Second Languages n o w being studied in the Colleges of Education at Warri and Katsina-Ala, for purposes of text development. Interesting but enervating as the experiences have been, they underscce the need fora national prototype curriculum in Nigerian Languages (NLs). In keeping with its brief, NINLAN has been immersed in textual development through workshops for the non-major Nigerian Languages. Between Nov. 15-17, 1993, NINLAN ran a workshop on text development at the College of Education, Warri, for some of the 'state' languages being taught in the College. These are Isekiri, Isoko, Izon and Urhobo. In 1994, a similar workshop w a s organised forthe Benue State Languages: Tiv, Igede and Idoma, at the College of Education, Katsina-Ala. Perhaps it would be of interest to learn that s o m e Government Agencies and Commissions (notably the National Orientation Agency and the Commissions for Adult/Non-Formal Literacy, Nomadic Education) have produced considerable textual materials in Nigerian Languages (NLs) for and from their various programmes. S o m e language associations and individuals have also contributed much to the production of other language teaching materials fortheir languages. Forexample, the Ebira language committee produced 5,000 copies of primers for each of Primary 1-3. Chief T . O w u m i single handedly sponsored the Okpe Language Readers Project in Delta State in nearly the s a m e way as Dr. A . U . Iwara is doing for Lokaa in Cross River State (see Emenahjo:1995).

Language Teachers and Language Teaching

Teachers are the pivotforthe implementation ofany aspect ofany education policy. For language teachers tofee effective, they have to be adequate in numbers, well motivated in language education, well qualified and competent, both professionally and academically in the skills of language learning and teaching and have opportunities for various forms of relevant in-service training. In Nigeria, there has always been the perennial problem of teachers without the right mix as pointed out above, for all school subjects. (Emenanjo: 1996). With regard to numbers of teachers in relation to Nigerian languages, a 1988 very well documented report prepared forthe Federal Ministry of Education reveals that 48,854 teachers were required at that time forteaching the'major'languages alone atthe JSS. Ofthat number, only 6,393 were then available. In terms of teachers required for French, 31,000 French language teachers are required of which only 3,000 French teachers are now available. This problem of short-supply of language teachers will persist if the root causes are not adequately tackled.

With particular reference to Nigerian languages, three types of teachers are required: (i) First Languageteachersforthe major Nigerian Languages; (ii) Second Language teacherforthe major Nigerian Languages; (iii) First Languageteachersforthe non-major Nigerian Languages.

Universities and Colleges of Education are doing well producing the first category, whereas Colleges of Education are trying to produce the two others that are still in very short supply.. O n the whole, only a few State Collies of Education are making serious efforts at producing teachersforthe non-major Nigerian languages. Teachers of Isoko, Izon, Isekiri and Urhobo are being produced at the College of Education, Warri; Idoma, Igede and Tiv at the College of

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Education Katsina-Ala; Edo, Esan, Okpameri at the College of Education, Benin City, and Kanuri at the Colleges of Education in Borno State. If qualified first language teachers must be produced forthe other non-major Nigerian Languages not listed above, as demanded by the proposed revision of the National Policy on Education (1995) then state Colleges of Education in the areas where these languages are being spoken must take the assignment very seriously. The National Institute for Nigerian Languages (NINLAN) w a s set up at Aba to complement the efforts of Colleges of Education in the production of second language teachers forthe Major Nigerian Languages and first language teachers forthe non-Major Nigerian Language. This aspect of NINLAN's programmes is stilíto take off. Be that as it may , N I N U \ N is vigorously involved In various in-service programmes, workshops and seminars for practising teachers in all Nigerian Languages. The issue of language teachers for Nigerian languages, English and the Foreign Languages remains very critical and frustrating. The Ota Seminar m a d e a number of very Important and practical recommendationsforthe production, retention, motivation and up-dating of language teachers. These include: additional quotas for Departments of Linguistics and Nigerian/African Languages in tertiary institutions, provision of bursaries and other incentives for Second Nigerian Language teachers in training, financial assistance to Second Nigerian Language students on acculturation programmes as a way of ensuring the success of the Second Nigerian Language programme at the J S S level, designation of all trained Second Nigerian Language teachers' as employees of the Federal Government to remove the constraints on the mobility of such teachers throughout the Federation. Part ofthe problem with Nigerian Language teachers trained in a Mother Tongue or Language of Immediate Community medium Is that they do not rise to their fullest career levels. Governments should take adequate and radical steps to address this anomaly so that as such teachers 'grow' professionally through on-the-job experience, training workshops and seminars', they can reach their 'fullest career level'. (Ota Seminar, 1992).

English remains one ofthe worst taught subjects in the Nigerian school system from the nursery to the university. Because well-trained teachers are insufficient in numbers, and given the unemployment' syndrome in the entire school system, reluctant 'quacks' are being drafted to teach English. Teachers of English should really be specialists and not just anybody w h o has had his education in English. The Universities and the Colleges of Education must clearly intensify efforts in this direction. With regard to the Foreign Languages, especially French and Arabic, the Nigeria-French Village at Badagry, and the Nigeria-Arabic Village at Ngala are doing their best in the areas of acculturation and in-service programmes in these languages. But with particular reference to French, there is a major problem of insufficient numbers of people coming fonA/ard to be trained in the universities and Colleges of Education, where there are so many very well-trained teachers butso very few students (see Ukoyen: 1981 ; Ndoleriire: 1983). French appears to be an endangered language in Nigeria unless the current yet 'unofficial' plan to m a k e it Nigeria's second official Foreign Language comes into operation.

Language Research

The centrality of research to the education enterprise is not in dispute; language education in its multi-dimensional aspects, is one serious area harbouring not only moot points but also linguistic problems crying for desperate and practical solutions. There is the need for research to provide crucial facts, figures and statistics on which adequate planning and implementation can be done. H o w many Nigerian languages are there? W h a t are their exact locations? H o w m a n y people speak which language as first language, and/or second language? W h a t are the exact stages of development in each of these languages? Are there language shifts or Language preferences? What is the true position with regard to the Second Major Nigerian Language? W h a t progress and in what direction? W h y is French endangered

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in Nigeria? H o w much money are Governments (Federal, State and Local) putting into language teacher production and retention? Whyare projects such asthelfe Six Year Yoruba Project (SYYP) (Afolayan, 1976; Fafunwa, 1989), not being replicated in monolingual states? W h y are the strategies employed in the Rivers Readers Project not being used in other multi­lingual states? W h y is the bilingual A h m a d u Bello University-sponsored Primary Education Improvement Project (PEIP) not being replicated in other parts of the country? (Omojuwa: 1978). In spite of the Federal Government's intentions on the French language, how many Nigerians really need or think they need French? W h y are graduates of Frene' i and Foreign Languages largely unemployed even in French-related endeavours? Should FVench not only be m a d e available to those w h o need it as Evans (1972) has argued and advised? W h y does there seem to be no political will to implement the spirit and letter of the language provisions of the N P E ? These and many other questions call for research to throw up definite and definitive information which will help in fine-tuning very m a n y aspects of the policy provisions and implementation strategies of the N P E in matters of language and related disciplines. For the research to be properly carried out, funds should be m a d e available to both Government and non-governmental agencies which are stake holders in this matter:- e.g. University Departments of Linguistics and Nigerian/African Languages, Institutes/Centres of/ for Nigerian/African Studies, N INLAN, N E R D C , language and linguistic societies and individuals. Any money spent on research is an investment. There can be very little development without research, as research and development (R&D) often go together.

Evaluation Evaluation is an integral aspect of the teaching-learning process in language education

as in other areas of education. The first formal statement on language education w a s m a d e in 1979. It has twice been revised 1981 and 1995-in the light offindings from m a n y sources including the Joint Consultative Committee proceedings, and findings from various other committees, seminars and workshops. But further evaluation is necessary to answer adequately questions in language education, such aswhat languages should be taught? What should be taught or studied in these languages and why? To w h o m should these be taught and when? And h o w should all of these be disseminated? It is accepted that there should be standardized evaluation criteria for everything happening in language education. It is also believed that there is something to be said for a national evaluation of Nigerian Languages by the National Board for Educational Measurement ( N B E M ) at the J S S level, on similar lines to the West African Examinations Council's at the S S S level. All aspects of the language provisions as well as their implementation strategies need to be constantly monitored and evaluated so that these m a y be constantly updated and m a d e relevant, effective and efficacious. In all these matters, linguists, language educators and the competent agencies, both governmental, and non-governmental should be used and adequately funded for optimum results. Researches carried out in the area of evaluation should address, a m o n g others:

goals, objectives and content of language education, context, materials, learner ' attitude, aptitude, cognitive style and socio-economic status; teachers' professional training, competence and attitudes and gains from instruction.

In this way, th|b language provisions of the National Policy on Education and the Nigerian Constitution Will be better appreciated, up-dated and implemented in the local, national and regional interests.

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Language Institutions There are currently three principal language institutions in Nigeria. These are the

Nigeria-Arabic Language Village at Ngala, Borno State, the Nigeria-French Language Village at Badagry, Lagos State and the National Instituteur Nigerian Languages (NINLAN) Aba , Abia State. These three inter-university language institutions are meant to complement the efforts of the Universities, the N E R D C and the National Teachers Institute (NTI), Kaduna, in implementing the various aspects of the language policy. Through their acculturation programmes, documentation and research activities, teaching and teacher training programmes, these institutions are contributing immensely to the realization of the language provisions in the Policy. However, two things need to be done to strengthen the capacities of these institutions: viz betterfunding and better management allowing them to reach the extent of their installed capacity, as envisaged in their enabling decrees.

Conclusions The above has been an overview of many crucial issues involved in language education

in Nigeria including Foreign Languages, from policy formulation through extant practices and curricula, personnel, instructional materials to implementation strategies, adopted by Government (both Federal and State) and Non-Governmental Organisations (Language Boards and Societies). It has also considered the linguistic liberation embedded in the revised National Policy on Education and in the Cultural Policy for Nigeria (1988), as well as the formal structures established by the Federal Government for the realization of language development issues. This chapter can be concluded with a call for a new, revised and explicit National Language Policy within the National Policy on Education, which in turn, should specifically address pragmatic and achievable language provisions. This will ensure there will be greater clarity of general and specific objectives forthe various languages, their status and their functions. These will, in turn, influence curriculum design, the production of good, and properly graded instructional materials, training and re-training of personnel, the creation of a conducive implementation environment which will lead to positive changes including changes in prevailing attitudes towards languages and language education; change in languages of instruction, especially forthe new curriculum with concomitant changes in the structure of the educational system.

It is suggested that there should be more powers for Colleges of Education, the Inter-University Language Centres, the proposed English Language Institute, Universities and N E R D C to address fully all issues of languages in their various specializations and briefs. A greater political will is needed to enforce the provision of the Mother Tongue and Language of Immediate Community as the medium of instruction in nursery education or any of the three Major Nigerian Languages as 'core' subjects, as Second Language in J S S and any Nigerian Language as a core First Language subject in the S S S . Only such political will, would allow forthe use of the Mother Tongue orthe Language of Immediate Community as the medium of instruction in the whole of primary education in monolingual states or areas after the Yoruba Six Year Yoruba Project orthe Rivers Readers Project orthe Primary Education Improvement Project (PEIP). Such political will would allow Governments to provide for and even m a k e matching grants to recognised and viable language societies or language planning agencies" such as the Kanuri Language Board, The Centre for Isekiri Studies, the Egbe Akomolede Yoruba, Hausa Studies Association, Igbo Language Association, Ibibio Language Committee, Urhobo Language Committee, Nigeria Bible Translation Trust etc. It is the enthronement of such political will that will provide for further Mother Tongue Education experiments after the Six Year Yoruba Project (SYYP), the Rivers Reader Project, the Okpe Language Readers Project; the Niger State Languages Project (Maduako: 1994); the Isekiri

111

Language Readers Project (Ogharaerumi:1992),(Omamor 1982); the Ebira Language Project (Adive 1994); the Kanuri Language Project (Cyffer, 1977; 1983); the Tiv Language Project (Igben, 1994; and T s u m b a 1994). A clear political will is an imperative forthe effective implementation of the provisions of any-language policy, and will obviate any policy somersaults, or sudden 'brainwaves' as is the case with French in Nigeria. More than anything else, it will facilitate the imposition of sanctions for breaches or for non-performance. It is suggested that these measures are vital to the teaching of Nigerian and Foreign languages, and the effective implementation of policy of the Mother Tongue Education.

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CHAPTER IX

NATIONAL STANDARDS & QUALITY CONTROL IN NIGERIAN EDUCATION

Introduction O n e of the great concerns of Nigerian Education is the perennial question of standards

at all levels and the role of the various Governments-Federal, State and Local Government in the achievement of quality education. A hard look at current trends over the last decade in quality evaluation and control leads to s o m e concerns as to where the country is and where it must go in search of minimum standards compatible with qualitative education.

In highlighting educational monitoring and evaluation, one inevitably examines pedagogical standards in the Institutions of Learning and the administrative and managerial targets set for ed ucational development by the various Governments and h o w far they have been maintained. Both issues are closely interwoven and quality is clearly a factor of h o w successfully and consistently they are pursued.

While a basic concern for quality maintenance and control is subsumed in the setting up of any educational system, the imperative of c o m m o n standards in the Nigerian context of our diversity and current development stage, must be self-evident. This explains the pre­occupation with "Uniform Educational Standards" in the National Policy on Education (Revised. 1981)^ Certainly, the spectre of 36 different educational prescriptions, and their implications for national labour mobility, both at h o m e and abroad, for industrial and technological manufacturing standards and national economicdevelopment, m a y by that pre­occupation have been averted. Yet, inspite of the will and the m e a n s to ensure and maintain quality, the country has not achieved its set goals for quality education at any level of education.

The quantum and management of resources, development plans, and strategies, as well as prevailing socio-political attitudes must be properly blended to achieve sound c o m m o n educational standards throughout the country. Put differently, this m e a n s that the cry of "resources" must reverberate in harmonious counter-point with the effective management of such resources, as well as an unwavering socio-political will to do so consistently and with commitment. Failure in this challenge, leads to a run-down system anda crash from the heights sought by planners. Many informed and concerned educationists see in the Nigerian situation to-day such a disaster just round the corner, unless action is resolutely taken to reverse the currenttrends of the last decade.

Constitutional Provisions on National Education: Contrary to prevailing attitudes and even declared preferences to-day, the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (1988)^ Schedule 111, Part 111 makes Education very firmly a concurrent legislative subject, on which any of the Governments of the Federal m a y m a k e laws. It is significant to observe that the legacy of military rule for 29 out of our 37 years of independence, has tended to derogate from the truly Federal character of the Constitution in favour of a highly centralized Federal Government, that has frequently "paid the piper" and "called the tune" in the provision of resources for qualitative educational management . And when the Federal Government has failed to exercise effective quality control for a variety of reasons, the States and Local Governments, whose constitutional powers have been eroded because of their heavy dependence on funds from the Federal Government, have been poweriess or even unwilling to assert their Constitutional right to control their educational institutions and pursue quality measures in their o w n territorial boundaries.

In terms of resource availability from Federal coffers, the fierce competition from other equally meritorious social sectors, has reduced funding for Education, both for Federal

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programmes and for assistance to States. For example, in 1994, w h e n the Federal Government budgetfor Education w a s N10,284,784,920 (Recurrent, and Capital), the media headlines screamed "Education Takes the Lion(s) share again" (Daily Times, Jan. 94 front page)^ This w a s 14.9% of the N69.2 billion of the Federal Government Budget. In the previous year, N8.1 billion had been voted for Education, and on that occasion, because Defence w a s "reduced" to second place, the country hailed this development. Yet, large though this m a y have sounded, it w a s still way below the level of Government education spending in Asia and Latin America over in the 1980s (see below). The "Longe Commission" on Higher Educ ition (1992)^ had found that

Over the years, the budgetary allocation to education in Nigeria had been reported to be about 3% of GNP, in contrast to 6% in the more developed countries. With regard to the percentage of the Recurrent Budget allocated to Education ...,it is also important to note that this has never exceeded 10%, whereas in Latin America and Asia, comparable figures were 20 and 23 percent in 1980 respectively.

The real significance of these figures lies in the reality of economic dependence by all State Governments on the 30%, Federal Government's Statutory Annual Allocation to the States and their consistent tendency to await this allocation, before planning their o w n annual budgets. This has meant that funds intended for qualitative developments in education also tended to be first casualty, when available funds are in short supply. The inspectorate arm of Ministries of Education b e c o m e the first victims since schools obviously seem able to carry on without being inspected. Staff training and development are second or third place victims and pedagogical materials are only provided for classes preparing for public examinations. It is a fact that quality control within institutions is only of concern when public examinations are in view.

However, to return to the provisions of the Constitution, it should be noted that over the past decade, the centrifugal implications of education as a concurrent subject b e c a m e sufficiently alarming forthe Federal Government, through the National Policy on Education, to seek to address the matter; but it did so on an ad hoc basis. First, it inscribed into the National Policy document a prescription, which w a s not a law, on "minimum standards of education at all levels" which gave the Federal Government sole power to prescribe such minimum standards (National Policy on Education)^. The State Governments were in full concurrence. Next, in 1985, a Decree No . 16 ofthat year, titled "Education (National Minimum Standards and Establishment of Institutions) Decree 1985" w a s promulgated, giving the Federal Government, legal power to lay down Minimum Standards of Education, and to establish higher education institutions. It also allowed the setting up of private universities. In 1988, another Decree, N o . 49 amplified the earlier decree by specifically expanding the powers of the N U C "to lay down minimum standards for all universities in the Federation and to accredit their degrees and other academic awards, after obtaining prior approval thereof through the Federal Minister of Education, from the President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria" (Longe, op cit. p.95); but it abolished private universities. Since that decree, the N U C has laid d o w n specific prescriptions for academic programmes in all Nigerian universities, more and more at the expense of the academic autonomy of these institutions. In 1993, the earlier decree on minimum standards w a s further amended by Decree N o . 9 ofthat year^, which tightened the rules for setting up neW, and restored the right to establish private universities and other tertiary education institutions thus repealing the law which had banned their establishment. The failure of the Federal Government to enforce thestringent requirements of the 1993 decree has led to the sprouting of State universities without adequate funds or academic justification, and the inevitable decline in university education, aggravated by m a n y otherfactors.

Behind all of these legal/constitutional developments, a concern for quality in education

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w a s the driving factor, and because no one demurred over the growing and centralising tendencies of the Federal Government, given that a major objective w a s the pursuit of high standards, the initiative forthe maintenance of standards, in addition to their prescription w a s increasingly passed up to the Federal Government. In the event, the responsibility forquality w a s also in practice, though not constitutionally ceded up to the Federal Government.

Yet it is remarkable, that through all these stages of policy evolution, the National Policy on Education document, has never been m a d e specifically a Schedule of the Constitution, not even those sections which confer on the Federal Government quality prescription and control powers, except that under the Fundamental Objectives and Directive Principles of State Policy, certain clear "Educational Objectives" are laid down. This exclusion is perhaps attributable to a persistent conviction that Education, per se, should remain a concurrent legislative subject. Yet, overthe last two decades, beginning with the Free Primary Education decree of 1976, the Federal Government has taken over several State Universities and Colleges of Education and acquired weighty educational responsibilities, even after renouncing the funding of newer States universities, polytechnics etc. The net effect of such acquisitions and the establishment of specialised universities such as Agricultural, and Technological Universities as well as an O p e n University, has been for it to withdraw steadily from quality control responsibilities, leaving the States with a task, which has often proved beyond their capabilities, (see Allocation of Federation Account Table A - Z ; see also Chapter 7).

Atthe Primary and Secondary levels, the Federal Government w a s given responsibility forthe establishment of a"Federal Inspectorate Advisory Service to helpimprove and maintain standards "(National Policy on Education - op.cit.) and forthe" co-ordination of national school examinations and relevantteacherexaminations, testing and evaluation (op.cit. 90(b)&(d)). Again, the concern for uniform standards which is shared by both Federal and State Governments, no less than the factor of a military regime, and the "unified c o m m a n d syndrome" of the times m a y have tempered possible constitutional conflict between them. Yet, the acceptance of Federal pragmatic competence has prevented States and Local Governments from developing adequate m e a n s to pursue effective quality control within their territorial boundaries. Consequently, quality control and maintenance has gradually become a matter on which the latter look to the Federal Government for leadership and resources and are content to play a secondary role, or obliged to pursue only what they can pay for. The fact that at this level, there are no sanctions applicable for failure to perform by any Government has meant that slid ¡ng standards, except for public examinations, do not evoke the kind of public out-cry which would be an embarrassment to an elected Government and thus compel ameliorative action.

A Federal Government Initiative in Quality Control -1993. In February, 1993, Prof. Ben Nwabueze, Secretary for Education in the Transitional Government attempted to address the issue of quality, when ata meeting with all States Commissioners for Education, he announced that in pursuit of the powers conferred on him by the Minimum Standards Decl-ee N o . 16 of 1985, he proposed

"to institute and despatcfi to all the primary and secondary schools in the country, a special inspection team consisting of an Inspector from the Inspectorate Department of the Federal Ministry of Education, an Inspector from the Ministry of Education in the State in which the school is located, and a representative of the NUT. This time around, I can assure you that sanctions will be enforced against schools adversely reported upon by the special Inspection Team" ^.

H e also proposed to institute a system of Annual Performance Assessment of Schools inlhe,.

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country, beginning with Federal schools and extending, "with the concurrence and co­operation of the State Ministry of Education", to state schools. Incentives to high performance would include annual cash prizes "for the best managed secondary school in each State", culminating in an award of national honours for the Principal of the best managed school in the country, in addition to a cash prize. Thefirstofsuch "Quality Assessment Inspections" took place in M a y , 1993, and its findings confirmed what m a n y people had suspected for m a n y years. Extracts from its Report are presented later in this chapter. However, the significance of the "Nwabueze exercise" in quality control and evaluation, lay in its heroic attempt to provide a stick and carrot incentive for schools and their proprietors to pursue deliberately, the achievement of quality in primary and secondary schools across the Nation, and not necessarily on the eve of public examinations only. In recent times, this has been the only attempt by a Government to achieve a quality evaluation in education, across the country. It w a s different from the incentive of individual pride and challenge which a school with a tradition of standards relies upon to stimulate its teachers and pupils to "reach for the skies". It is an initiative which ought to be revived, and sustained, first by the Federal Government, but also by any State with a serious concern for quality education.

States and Local Governments : T h e organisation of States Ministries of Education remains similar to the Federal structure, except that the political heads are called Commissioners as against the Federal Minister of Education. The civil servants similarly range from the Director-General, and the Chief Inspector/Director, Principal Inspector etc - all of w h o m are called upon to perform quality control assessments of schools and colleges, supervise examinations in the State, run or attend staff training programmes and ofcourse attend m a n y meetings. This, in brief, represents the qualitative pre-occupations of States as agents of quality management .

In the National Policy on Education, Local Governments through their "Local Management Boards" are designated as partners with the States, with responsibility "for local, daily administration, management and quality control of schools within their jurisdiction". "They will also serve as feed-back institutions to the State and Federal Ministries with respect to curriculum and materials development, techniques of teaching and evaluation procedures "(ibid para 94) Clearly, tasks and responsibilities are well articulated in the education policy blue-print. A s in other spheres of educational challenge, it is not obscurity or lack of prescription that is the problem, but the m e a n s , and the will to translate prescription into practice. A s noted under the Federal/State/LGA Federation Account Allocation formula below, fluctuations in recent times have steadily led to increases in the State and L G A revenues, so that from 50%, 3 0 % and 15% respectively for Federal, State and Local Governments in 1990, the allocation become48 .5%, 2 4 % and 2 0 % in June 1992. (See Table A . 2 . below).

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Table A - 2 . : Vertical Allocation of the Federation Account

Federal

Government

State

Government

Local

Government

Special Funds

Federal

Capital

Territory

Jan. 1990 -Dec . 1991

50.0%

30.0%

15.0%

5.0%

J a n . - M a y 1992

50.0%

25.0%

20.0%

4.0%

1.0%

June 1992

48.5%

24.0%

20.0%

6.5%

1.0%

Source: Reportofthe National Revenue Mobilisation, Allocation and Fiscal Commission 1992 - Federal Government of Nigeria, Lagos.^

Yet in spite of such general augmentation, little impact w a s m a d e on quality maintenance activities in Education in any of the States or Local Governments. This starkly emphasises the boldness and merit of the Nwabueze initiative. It also underscores the need for more efficient, objective and dedicated management of resources available to the Education Sector. Without this all-pervading requirement, educational funding will continue to flow through ourfingers, and m a k e hardly an impression, like waterthrough a sieve.

Agents of Quality Control in Nigerian Education: Specific organs and bodies have been created by the Federal Government, and in s o m e cases replicated where appropriate, by the States Governments, in fulfillment of its responsibility for uniform standards and its co-ordinative role in quality education. These are described here as "Agents of Quality Control in Education". The National Council on Education (NCE), consisting of the Federal Minister of Education, as Chairman, and all States Commissioners for Education, represents the apex of the national political will to exercise responsibility for prescribing and maintaining sound uniform educational standards throughout the country. Its six-monthly meetings are the occasion for feed-back and co-ordinative decision-making on Nigerian education. It is significantthat, though its decisions are applicable country-wide, the Council does not appear to have any powers of sanction against an un-cooperative State, or one lagging behind in its implementation of Council decisions. Peer pressure and "noblesse oblige" together with a c o m m o n concern for quality have so far been its driving engine but with variable results.

Next, the Joint Consultative Committee on Education, (JCC) represents the apex professional, advisory instrument for defining and fashioning professional standards for political decision-making by the N . C E . It consists of Directors of Education from the Federal and States Ministries of Education, Deansof Faculties of Education in Nigerian Universities, and others with a standing interest in education, including employers, appointed in a personal capacity. Functioning through several committees which deal in detail with issues in the various sectors of education, e.g. Teacher, Technological, Primary and Secondary Education, the main committee reports to and advises the political heads of Government Ministries on all mattersof education in Nigeria.

At the structural level, specific institutional organs have been created by the Federal

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Government, s o m e only a few years old, as agents of standards and quality. A m o n g these are the National Primary Education Commission ( N P E C ) the National Board for Technical Education (NBTE) , the National Board for Educational Measurement ( N B E M ) and the National Commission for Colleges of Education ( N C C E ) . All of these organs were created to promote an orderly growth of their respective institutions and to maintain standards-or set them-at the various levels. Regrettably, for reasons of policy instability, or resource constraint, their effectiveness has sometimes been variable.

Forthe Universities, the establishment of the National Universities Commission (NUC) in full statutory status in t974, w a s long overdue and its primary mandate w a s to ensure an orderly growth of university education, aside from its funding-allocation functions in the disbursement of Federal grants to each university. Again, it w a s the s a m e pre-occupation with quality control and c o m m o n minimum standards in higher education, that led to the expansion of the powers of the N U C , via Decree N o . 49 of 1988, to the prescription of minimum standards forthe universities and forthe accreditation of their degrees. This s a m e concern by the Federal Government for co-ordination of university development, has been the source of perennial complaint by the universities against the erosion of their academic autonomy and the usurpation of powers traditionally belonging to their Senates. The mechanism of such quality control is examined below.

At other levels of education, specific testing and evaluative functions have been exercised by the West African Examinations Council ( W A E C ) for over three decades, particularly in the area of School Public Examinations, until recently, w h e n the National Teachers Institute (NTI) took over the examination ofteachers of primary education, and the Teachers' Grade II Certificate.

The Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council ( N E R D C ) by its functions and concern for relevance in curriculum and materials, significantly contributes to quality control in Education at various levels. Its mandate involves the Council not only in research and testing especially for validation of school curricular prescriptions, but also in m a n y areas such as language, social studies, pedagogical studies etc. Other organs for quality control and testing include the Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board (JAMB) whose task is to act as the first filter of candidates seeking admission to the Universities and the Polytechnics.

The existence of all these organs as agents of development as well as quality control in the education system reflects the national concern for standards but the effectiveness with which they perform their tasks is a measure of the quality of education delivered in the system. That this remains variable is the result of m a n y factors which are examined in this and other chapters.

At university and other tertiary institutions, the methodology of quality evaluation and control is largely predicated on curriculum/course offerings and on the system of "External Examiners", and the regularexchange ofteachers between the different institutions. In this way, the institutions both maintain their academic autonomy and integrity as well as strive to maintain the " c o m m o n minimum standards", which they are enjoined to protect, both nationally and internationally. Together, these organs and strategies constitute the mechanism of quality control and evaluation in education. It is important however, to rememberthatthe individual institution must itself purvey high standards in orderfor an exchange of examiners and teachers to transfer such standards, between and within countries with a concern for the quality of their products. T o do this, the internal ingredients of m e n , curricular materials, funds for books and equipment must be present in each institution, in essential quantum.

It is at the primary and secondary levels that the control of quality in the system m a k e s a critical impact on all subsequent levels, first, because it is here that the foundation is laid for all higher levels, and because the quality of the superstructure depends on its foundation and

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second, because the numbers involved at these two levels are the highest in all the system. According to the Federal Ministry of Education Statistics, the total enrolment level in 1990/91 w a s 13.9 million pupils at primary, and 2.9 million in secondary (including technical and teacher education,) while the relevant figure for all tertiary institutions was 322,305.^ W h e n the numbers of institutions are taken into consideration, the numerical impact on the system becomes self-evident. A third reason for the crucial importance of this level derives from the effect of educational experience on the pupils at this most impressionable age, w h e n the growth of their personal ethos is often decisive, whether in terms of career goals oreven of the achievement of their cognitive limits. For all of these considerations, the importance of quality control at primary and secondary levels must justify the attention paid to them. Here, too must be recognised the first-line agents of quality viz the schoolteachers, headmasters, principals of schools and colleges, w h o implement the curricula prescribed. They are the determinants, in most cases, of what quality prevails in the system, coming up from below. Their classrooms are the incubators of our later scholars scientists, engineers etc. It is here that the proper teaching of science, social studies, languages mathematics, intro-tech and technology, etc. must begin.

Finally, and because of his equally crucial role for quality provision, the responsibilities of the educational administrator or resources manager to the system should be recognised. With his control of the release of funds-both in timing and quantum - as well as the determination of comparative priorities for resource availability, and the rate of Development Plan implementation, the educational administrator has often played a crucial role for good or ill, in the achievement of educational quality. The diversion of funds to other "more urgent needs" is often a decision m a d e without full awareness of its effect on the quality issue. It has often been known to ham-string inspection visits, post-pone staff training programmes, delay the purchase of vital curricular materials and equipment - all to the detriment of qualitative activity in the field, or in the institutions, or even the Ministry Headquarters itself. In considering the agents of quality control, all the above organs and persons are factors which determine the success or otherwise of quality provision in the system. They must be co-ordinated, integrated and set in appropriate perspective so that none becomes a spanner thrown into the wheel of sound, quality education, which is valued, not merely for its o w n sake but for the individual and for the needs of the Ration. In practice, this requires effective and continuous co-operation between the Federal Government and State Government agencies, with Federal leading from the front.

Systemic Aberrations and Dysfunctions: A few extracts from the Report of the 1993 first-ever "Quality Assessment Inspection"'' as well as a Report of the Federal Inspectorate to the J C C in 1994, underscoresomeofthekeyproblemsof maintaining quality in the system. These "systemic aberrations" have resulted from the failure or omission of one government agency or another, to carry out its duties effectively.

(i) School Enrolments & Class Sizes: The National Policy on Education prescribes enrolment limits at the various levels i.e. pre-primary, primary and secondary education. "Government will bear in mind the teacher-pupil ratio of 1:20 (pre-primary) and 1:30 (primary) as a target forthenearfuture, but during this period of transition. Government will accept a ratio of 1:40 in the primary school" (ibid.p. 13). Because of the complexity of working out a uniform ratio for secondary schools, the National Policy document does not include a single prescription; but the National Council on Education (N.C.E) subsequently laid down that secondary school class-size should not exceed 35 pupils. Similarly, primary schools were to have a m a x i m u m of 40 pupils per class. Most States accepted these norms, and wrote them into their education edicts, in s o m e cases adopting rhore stringent limits.

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The m a x i m u m size for primary schools w a s set at 6 streams per class of 40 ora total of 1440 pupils per school; and for secondary schools, likewise 6 streams of 35 pupils, or a total also of 1260 pupils - until the N . C . E . adopted the max imum figure of 35 perclass and a total of 1500 students per school. These limits have more regularly been ignored or exceeded in the more advanced States, than in the less advanced; and under pressure to expand enrolments, the former have turned a blind eye to the quality implications of over-size classes and over-enrolled schools. Let us take a look at a few figures: The 1993 Assessment Inspection found that 73 secondary schools - or 36.5% - of the 200 Good Schools visited, were over- enrolled end in many cases, grossly. The smallest college which was in Kaduna, with a total roll of 175 f-upiis, contrasted starkly with the largest - a college in Benin-City with 7047 pupils^ Instead of the max imum of 1500 approved by the N . C . E . , 34 of the 73 over-enrolled schools, i.e. 46.58%, all had enrolments over 2000 pupils, while 7 were over 3000 pupils each. It is evident that quality and effective school management were thus out of the question, especially, since staffing could not match such enrolments.

ii. Principals, Staff, and School Organisation: The Report also found that:"... most Principals have not been adequately trained or exposed for the tasks they perform... and (unlike most Federal Schools) State Schools have many inexperienced principals... ". The inspectors found that "Principals appear to spend much time travelling, between their schools and the Controlling Ministries of Education, thus losing grip of the situation in their schools. Principals hardly know their teaching staff or students...." (ibid).

On discipline, they said "Principals have lost the power to enforce discipline of both staff and students (and) discipline is on the decline. Most Principals interviewed... preferred to be 'detached' in their Administrative style (therefore)". Emphasing the Administrators power the Report observed that"... The short-comings observable in many schools are not attributable to the schools themselves, but are mostly due to other... controlling forces, especially, the Proprietor or Ministry of Education that has a concentration of the administrative power to change the direction of schools...".

Staff N u m b e r s , Quality and Performance: These have also been shown to have

suffered. The Report found that:

"... Many teachers... lack the skill required to be effective as teachers, due to poor preparation in the training process;... there are acute shortages in key areas such as Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry etc. as well as Nigerian Languages ...." "The posting of teachers to schools is virtually outside the control of Principals, and factors responsible for postings are not related to the need of the schools... "

The above random selection of examples of systemic dysfunction in the schopis underscores the crucial role of school management by an all-powerful Manager or Proprietor, whose decisions impinge on educational quality, often with cataclysmic consequences. A key set of recommendations m a d e by the Report has to do with the Regularity and Consistency of Inspection and evaluation.

"Regular inspection of schools should be embarked upon at all times. Quality Assessment Inspection of this type would be repeated, leading to National Assessment for the purpose of determining more definitively, whether the Quality of Education is rising or falling, on an annual basis".

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Regrettably for the system, since the 1993 initiative, this exercise has never been repeated. T h e sanctions promised by Nwabueze have remained a mere pronouncement of the Federal Government. And yet the inescapable question remains, as between the Federal and State Governments, w h o must sanction failures in quality control? If education remains truly a concurrent subject, with the Federal Government prescribing the "Minimum Standards" for all to follow, is there a lacuna in the power to deter or restrain any one on this matter? H o w far is funding the cause of the matter?

Before leaving the issue of systemic dysfunctions, it is note-worthy that the Report of the Federal Inspectorate to the J C C E in November, 1994 following the inspection of 858 schools nationwide, confirmed that (a) in secondary schools class size is sometimes as high as 70 or more, and consequently,

little written work is possible, and "continuous evaluation", which is a cardinal requirement of the 6-3-3-4 system, is paid little more than lip-service;

b. the copying of notes from teachers is prevalent because of the high cost of text-books, and often errors in such notes from teachers are multiplied several-fold;

c. vocational subjects are neglected for lack of equipment or of qualified teachers to use them where they exist. In a final summing up, the Report said

"it was obvious ttiat 15 years afterttie National Policy was launched, schools and their Proprietors had not come to grips with its provisions and requirements", (op.cit).

Strategies of Quality Control - Classroom Evaluation: The importance of the class-room teacher and the Headmaster or Principal as a first-line agents of quality control and evaluation has earlier been emphasised. A s those w h o implement the chosen curriculum at all levels, they constitute the determinants of what quality actually exists in the system. This role highlights the need for their sound initial training, and for all teachers to be trained and regularly re-trained. It should also be stressed that the Inspectors' visits are a form of training-on-the job forteachers visited in a school. Clearly, the instructional quality in the system is a factor of a dynamic blend of the teachers skills, the curriculum, pedagogical materials and equipment, and the firsttask of the School Proprietor is to get it as right as possible.

School Inspections: Apartfrom the teacher's evaluations and assessments in schools and colleges, themostevidentstrategy of quality controkand monitoring is the Inspector's regular and periodic inspection of institutions. Generally, this takes the following forms: (i) Advisory Visits -areusuallyofonedayduration, in which the inspector interacts with

school staff, and advises on improvement methods or the latest materials etc in particular subjects in the school;

(ii) Full General Inspections - usually 3-4 days, when thewhole institution is "combed" and

examined by a team of 6-12 inspectors according to the complexity of the school's

curriculum and the total corporate life of the institution is evaluated against its basic

school objectives, (iii) Recognition Inspections: - are similar to (ii) above but are limited to the number of

school subjects to be evaluated for envisaged external examinations of its candidates, and to decide whether or not, the school can be "recognised" as fit to enter its candidatesforthe said examination,

(iv) Re-inspections: - are a repeat of (iii) above, but confined to subjects or areas originally adjudged as inadequate i.e. "not approved" at an eariier inspection. They m a y be

specifically for given examination subjects or curriculum areas, or even of school

management , (v) Follow-up Visits/Inspections: These are conducted generally a year after (ii) above, to

assess h o w far recommendations m a d e for the institution have been implemented, or

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h o w changes proposed are working.

Inspection Reports: The Reports of Inspections on a school are carefully compiled and forwarded to the Proprietor, indicating what needs to be done, and generally summing up the quality of teaching and learning in the school. The fundamental criterion of good inspection reports is their objectivity, and as far as possible, the non-personalisation of findings. The Report is crucial to the quality control process, and generally demands action-decisions by the Proprietor, the Principal/Headmaster and teachers. Without faithful implementation of substantive recommendations, the inspection strategy becomes an empty exercise. For the Policy Administrator/ Manager of Education, the Inspector's Report is the most vital feed-back mechanism on approved policy in practice'. It also constitutes an important strategy of self-evaluation of Government Policy, which m a y lead to a review of policy. It cannot be over­emphasised therefore, that any difficulty of implementation of Inspectors' recommendations or policy reviews is hardly a reason for not doing so, since regular quality maintenance is the key objective of inspections.

Tertiary Education and Quality: In tertiary education, where inspections as above are not generally conducted (although in s o m e countries, notably the U . K . , inspectors are also used in evaluations in tertiary education), the benefits of the "outside eye" on inside activities are also recognised as valuable to the quality maintenance process. Here, the "Visitation" is an illustration of this strategy. A s w a s seen earlier, the exchange of university teachers, and the use of External Examiners are complementary strategies at this level. (See also ChapterVII).

In all of this, the critical factor of the evaluative strategy, like trained teachers, is an adequate number of inspectors, trained for the sensitive task they perform as well as adequate facilities for the job. The mistaken idea that school inspections are a disposable luxury or at best one of secondary priority, has been the bane of quality control in the Nigerian system and one which must be strenuously addressed if the decline in quality, evident in m a n y evaluative indicators which have been applied in recent times, is to be arrested and reversed.

Constraints on Effectiveness of Quality Control Strategies:

W h a t has been said earlier in this section, and highlighted by the excerpts from the Reports cited, needs no furtherexpatiation to demonstfate that "systemic aberrations" in the quality control mechanism are real and too glaring to be ignored. The major constraints which over the years have militated against the maintenance of quality in Nigerian education are easily catalogued. They m a y be summarised broadly as poorly planned expansion and enrolment, grossly inadequate funding and managemen t of resources, policy instability, inadequate political commitment to quality and to implementation of vital measures and even a lack of real awareness of the impact of certain policy decisions on the system.

For ease of consideration, the relevant specific constraints are listed as follows: (i) use or employment of unqualified and untrained persons for quality control, thus

leading to poor quality out-put. Teachers, inspectors and supervisors of education c o m e under this category;

(ii) use of officers/persons in disciplines or tasks outside their competence; (iii) inadequate tools and materials, books and equipment, transportation for

inspectorsfeupervisors, and stationery for use in institutions;

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(iv) absence or inadequacy of min imum funds and resources for inspection/ evaluation;

(v) lacl<ofbasictraining, re-training ororientation, and lacl< of exposure/attachment to experienced officers;

(vi) inadequate production of inspectors for coverage of existing over-enrolled schools and teachers colleges. It has recently been estimated by the Federal Inspectorate that a total of 2901 primary level inspectors and 3,052 secondary inspectors are required for s o m e 435,210 primary school and 152,596 secondary school teachers today. These figures do nottake into consideration, the over-bulging classes currently "in vogue" at even the erstwhile best schools in the country;

(vii) non-inadequate implementation of inspection reports and recommendations, thus derogating from their critical importance for quality, and a fall in the quality of such reports;

(viii) gross over-enrolment in schools and classes, creating over-sized institutions, which are impossible for effective m a n a g e m e n t , and sound teaching and learning;

(ix) at Proprietor levels, poor policy implementation, poor planning and decision­making as well as undue interference in school decisions, and in the powers and actions of School Heads;

(x) lack ofthe political will and consistency to address quality constraints identified; (xi) policy instability, frequent policy changes, leading to uncertainty or confusion;

e.g. school calendar alterations, abolition and re-establishment of bodies like N P E C , abolition and re-introduction of Private Universities;

(xii) failure of Regulatory Authorities to exercise lawful responsibility or apply sanctions, especially on issues affecting quality: e.g. the Federal Government and approval of n e w university applications from States or individuals;

(xiii) teachers' conditions of service at all levels and frequent non-payment of salary.

The individual or cumulative impact of these constraints on quality control nationwide, and its effect on the morale of its Agents can be readily understood. T o return to classes bursting at the s e a m s , it is clear that over-enrolment and pedagogical quality are incompatible; continuous assessment b e c o m e s phoney as teachers are forced to set the min imum tests/ assignments; and w h e n university lectures are given to thousands of students hanging in and around lecture rooms, and 'hand-outs' b e c o m e life-savers to students as well as lecturers, then educational quality, including scholarship have collapsed. (See also Chapter VII). M a n y informed educationists would argue that this is already imminent at all levels, especially as institutional discipline has b e c o m e gravely endangered at both secondary and tertiary level education. The emergence of "Student Cultism" and its m a n y facets m a y certainly be traced, inter alia, to the frustration of dilapidated institutional infra-structure, which Commission after Commission has identified in the last 10 years. At the s a m e time, signs of individual wealth abound in the Nigerian society in the face of public/government financial scarcity^ That m a n y of the "nouveau riche" nhay tiave c o m e by their wealth dubiously, c o m p o u n d s student scepticism of cries of Government penury with a sense of outrage at not being provided with materials for quality education, which they believe are well within reach. T h e scepticism of students is not unmatched tjy the rage of their teachers, w h o s e conditions of service, at all levels, are in general not conducive to best performance.

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Conclusions: Taken together, what has been said in this chapter, points the way forward to a recovery

of quality in the educational system. It w a s not so long ago that Nigerian Education w a s respected and welcomed abroad, and Nigerian students and scholars were proud to announce their academic provenance. At h o m e , certain institutions were synonymous with flying quality, whether at Secondary or Higher Education levels. W e therefore urge a determined elimination of the constraints identified, and the embracing of the n e w developments that educational research has brought to quality education. This m e a n s that in the search for lost quality, Nigeria must only raise the annual percentage of total national budgets from the present level of less than 14% so that the States which have long spent that order of funding are encouraged to do at least likewise. However, what is even more crucial is to maintain such a level of funding on a regular annual basis as evidence of political commitment. Private sector participation which is already involved should similarly be increased corporately thro' the Education Tax which should, without further delay, b e c o m e better mobilised managed , and put to use, ratherthan "stored in the cooler".

Advantage should be taken of the latest flowering of private primary and secondary schools to ensure, by effective and regular inspections, that the standards they claim in the media are true and maintained. The Federal Government's Statutory Guidelines for approving private universities and othertertiary institutions must be applied to all n e w proposals, before they are established.

Concomitant with the above, w e must n o w assert the will to m a n a g e funds and resourcesforeducationefficientlyandwithintegrity, not onlywith personal integrity, but more criticallv, with budgetan/integrity, which means that fundsforeducation. like other public funds, must only be used for their planned purposes, and never diverted, or allowed to fizzle anywhere else. Government already has in place measures which, with an appropriate political will, can ensure this objective.

Next to effective resource management , must be added the urgent issue of disciplined expansion and enrolments, so that the demographic targets propelling us towards unrealistic expansion of the different facets of education m a y be more restrained in the interest of "minimum standards" which w e have always sought. Thirdly, our commitment to quality must m e a n that such measures are accorded proper priority in all those strategies for quality evaluation and control to which attention has been drawn. The reinforcement of quality evaluation agents is clearly a "sine qua non".

Finally, it is for serious consideration, whether, and to what extent, constitutional modifications should be undertaken to energise Federal, State and L G A interaction in the area of "minimum standards" so as to implement available sanctions for non-performance. A s to the issue of stop-start policy formulation, it is thought that under an elective system of Government, such "liberties" are unlikely to be taken by elected Government responsible to elected legislatures. In the final analysis, the basic challenge of restoring efficiency and accountability to a public service - Federal, State or Local Government - is one that lies before all patriotic Nigerians, to w h o m all tiers of Government must see themselves as perennially accountable in education as in all other aspects of national life.

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References

1. FederaÍRepublic of Nigeria: National Policy on Education (Revisecl)-1981 -N E R D C Press, Lagos.

2. Federal Republic of Nigeria: Report of the Constitution Review Committee -containing the Reviewed Constitution - Vol. 1,1988: Federal Ministry of Information, Printing Division, Lagos. (Chapt.ll, para. 19).

3. (a) Federal Republic of Nigeria: The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria -1979 - Federal Ministry of Information. Printing Division, Lagos. (Chap.II, para. 18).

4. Daily Times (Nigeria): "Education Takes the Lion's Share Again" - Budget Headlines (front page) Jan. 1884 - Federal Ministry of Education Library/Archives, Lagos.

5. Federal Republic of Nigeria: - "Higher Education in the Nineties and Beyond" -Report of the Commission on the Review of Higher Education in Nigeria"-Main Report (p. 114). Federal Government Press, Lagos -1992.

6. Nwabueze. B. N. : "What to do about Illiteracy in our country and Falling Standards in our Primary and Secondary Schools" - Address to the National Council on Education-1993.

7. Federal Republic of Nigeria. Federal Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports -Nigeria (Statistics) 1990/91.

8. Federal Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports, "Quality Assessment Inspection of 200 Good Nigerian Secondary Schools - 9/19 May. 1993" - (unpublished Report by the Federal Inspectorate.

9. Federal Republic of Nigeria: Official Gazette, No . 1 Vol. 80, Federal Government Press, Lagos-20th Jan. 1993.

10. Federal Government of Nigeria: Report of the National Revenue Mobilisation. Allocation and Fiscal Commission. Lagos, 1992.

11. World Bank: World Development Report 1993 in "Nigeria. Social Sectors Strategy

Review"-Nov. 1994.

12. U N E S C O : "Development of Education in Africa - A Statistical Review" - U N E S C O -ED-82/MINEDAF/REF.2-ConferenceofMinistersofEducation....", Harare, 1982.

13. U N E S C O : " U N E S C O and E D U C A T I O N in NIGERIA" Unesco, Sub-Regional Office,

Lagos, Nigeria, July 1996.

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CHAPTER X

EDUCATIONAL DATA AND INFORMATION MANAGEMENT

Introduction: Schools are the building blocks of educational planning; as a result, they are the units

of educational data. Because of the rapid development of education in Nigeria especially

since independence, various types of educational institutions have emerged to meet the

developmental needs of the country. The evolutionary stages of the schools have largely

determined the characteristics of schools and hence the education data-types that have been

in circulation overthe years.

Although schools have characteristics of size, type, level, curriculum, location, specific

purposes, and m u c h more, not all these are of particular interest to planners. A s a result, the

limited resources available have been channelled to providing the specific data that actual and

potential users indicate they require. The classification of educational information is thus

tailored to practical needs and these have changed overtime. A consequence of this is that

data had been collected in modular form, and atomised where possible, so that as future

demands required further break-downs, it w a s possible to use existing data without going into

the expensive and sometimes impossible task of collecting fresh data all over again. In a

country like Nigeria, where administrative and political boundaries have changed almost

every five years, classifying data by the lowest political unit, is the answer.

Having noted that schools are the building blocks of planning, one runs into the obvious

problem that schools are not the only centres where education is promoted in Nigeria. Section

I, sub section 2 of the National Policy on Education proclaims, as part of the philosophy and

goals of education, that the nation would provide "equal access to educational opportunities

for citizens of the country at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels, both inside and outside

the formal school system". It should be cleartherefore.thatforcompleteness, education data

coverage ought to include both formal and informal institutions which are supposed to co-exist.

However, these non-formal centres which take care ofthe educational needs of a number of

people, have not been adequately accommodated in the education data pool ofthe country.

Yet, in all these, the constitutional arrangements which delimit the spheres of influence

as between States and the Federal Government and define the functions, characteristics, and

the curriculum of levels of education, tend to complicate the classification of data because

clear areas of overlap in coverage exist. This is one reason why data relating to the s a m e thing

often c o m e out differently.

Perhaps the most significant influence on data collection in Nigeria is the problem of

federalism. Nearly 40 years ago, there were three component regions that m a d e up a unitary

Nigeria. The number went up to 4 , 1 2 , 21, 30 and n o w there are 36 states and the Federal

Capital Territory (FCT). Difficulty in coming to terms with acceptable definitions of what

constitutes a "school", and the sharing of powerand responsibility between Federal, State and

Local Governments have m a d e the collection and management of educational data a complex

task. Until the school, the unit of data collection, is properly and uniformly defined, the

information relating to it will be difficult to interprete and incorporate into a national set.

There is a paucity of information on Nigeria at the international level. This cannot but

be so since a country is the unit of international statistics at that level. Nigeria, being a collection

of thirty six States and the F C T , and s o m e of these components being larger in themselves than

m a n y countries in Africa, the routine exercise of data collection and completion for the country

has a 1 to 36 chance of being completed on time since all 36 States must be represented

before a country picture can emerge. The failure of just one state to meet the call for data usually

results in an incomplete state of information for the country even though 35 ofthe 36 States have

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been covered. In Nigeria, the frequency of this incompleteness of coverage frustrated the Federal Government to the point where a serious and monumental effort had to be m a d e to harmonise and organise data collection throughout the country, and not merely rely on each state to render returns as and when requested. Data collection exercises had been grossly under-funded in the past, and it is only in the last ten years that an awareness of the great cost of data collection w a s promoted while the benefits in terms of savings and sale of data, were demonstrated.

In spite of an awareness of m a n y of the problems, s o m e necessary changes that would greatly facilitate the organisation and prompt collection of education data have not been effected. The constitutional arrangement whereby education is a concurrent subject calls for federal powers that could cajole the states into complying with regulations dealing with the submission of education data in specified formats, at specific times of the year, or enable the Federal Government to go to State schools to gather such information for national use. A framework for the collection of education data exists on paper but Is being ineffectively implemented.

The Organisation of Education and Data Collection The National Policy on Education identified the following four levels of formal education

- Pre-primary for those children between ages 3 and 5; Primary, for between ages 6 and 11 plus; Secondary, forthosewho have received a full primary education but priorto entering the tertiary level; and Tertiary, including professional education. In addition to these formal institutions. M a s s Literacy, Adult and Non-Formal Education classes were also properly defined. Each level or type has its unique organisation which correspondingly affects the types of data collected, the manner of collection, the frequency and the authority responsible forsuch collection.

From the m a n a g e m e n t point of view, which derives from the constitutional arrangements, State Ministries of Education are concerned almost exclusively with Pre-primary and Primary Education within their areas of jurisdiction. They m a k e laws and regulate the opening and running of such schools. They are however, expected to run the Primary Schools through Local Government Education Authorities w h o receive grants from State Governments to add to their o w n (LGA) contributions for ensuring that laid down standards are met.

A s a consequence of the historical development of education in Nigeria, the regional governments, priorto independence, did very little, about Pre-primary education as evidenced by Section 7 of the Education laws of Western Nigeria which omitted this level completely from the statutory system. T h e emergent pattern over the years has been that most of the Pre-primary schools are privately owned, and because oftheir relatively small number (where they stand alone), even the National Planning Commission has not m a d e provision fortheir coding as late as August 1995. The position therefore is that this level of education is not properly covered in official statistics, although such schools are required to fill the s a m e types of forms and m a k e appropriate returns as are all primary schools. The main problems are probably due to the following situations:

i. they mushroom and die rapidly making it difficult for governments to keep a propertally on them at any point in time.

ii. m a n y are illegal and sub-standard pre-primary schools in cities and remote areas and sufficient personnel is not available to monitor their activities;

iii. no standard procedures and terminologies are agreed by the States at the time of registering with the Ministry of Education to enable easy classification and the merging of information nationwide;

iv. the commercial orientation of m a n y of these institutions renders their returns unreliable.

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If the education data from the pre-primary level is suspect, a much clearer picture emerges at the primary level. The National Data Bank's statistical records code the number of schools, number of pupils by class and gender, and number of teachers by qualification and gender.

A distinction needs to be m a d e between education data before 1987 and there-after, especially in terms of availability, reliability, consistency, timeliness and other parameters of quality. Immediately after independence in 1960, school records were still-kept and British influence was little diminished. In the 1960s for instance, Nigeria contributed to the International Year Book of Education complied by the International Bureau of Education in Geneva and U N E S C O in Paris, for at least the first five years. The requirements were elementary - total expenditure on education, primary and secondary schools enrolment, and teachers by region. By 1978-79 Nigeria had fallen behind by six years, giving at best 1973 figures.

This poor performance in the release of up-to-date data to the international users and the difficulties created at the federal level in the planning and implementation of the Federal Government's U P E scheme (1976), gave impetus to the training of a professional cadre of planners and data managers. Data requirements were broadened in scope to cover pupil gender; province where school was located and other useful information; but in all cases, dependence w a s on administrative exercises by which data w a s culled from inspectors' reports and ad hoc questionnaires with only local coverage. Many of them passed through many hands before they found their way into official statistical reports.

The collection of data in a professional manner at the national level for both the primary and secondary institutions in Nigeria began in 1988 when the fprms used for the school population census conformed to the terms and definitions of the (1978) Revised Recommendations of the International Standardisation of Education Statistics and the International Standards Classification of Education (ISCE). U N E S C O ' s needs were especially taken into consideration by the Federal Government even though all international agencies, planners, universities, embassies and known potential users were at the workshop where the final format was agreed.

A s a result of the organisational problems described above, the Federal Government has had to work through State Governments w h o in turn, depend on the Local Education Authorities w h o then reach down to individual primary schools. In the case of secondary schools, direct contact is m a d e by the inspectors and other State Ministry of Education officials orthe Secondary School Management Boards.

The questionnaire used for the annual population census, being a census product, would have been adequate for all needs, but the National Teachers Institute (NTI) and the National Primary Education Commission (NPEC) claim thatthey have unique needs which are not properly taken care of by these forms. A s a result, the funds of the Federal Government are being used to conduct three different population surveys. A practical solution is to re-appraise the needs of all users ( say after ten years) and see h o w every need can be accommodated under a unified umbrella. It can be done and will decrease the burden on the schools and increase the reliability of the data, apart from cutting costs. For N P E C , if it must gather information at all, rand^om samples and tighter supervision would do m u c h more good.

The picture at the tertiary level is totally different. According to the National Data Bank report quoted earlier:

The bulk of post-secondary education statistics is collected administratively in the form of reports and returns. Although most of such statistics are supplied by individual institutions on forms designed and issued by Federal Ministry of Education, the forms are notas detailed as those used for collecting pre-tertiary educationstatisticsánd the data collection is not as well organised, (p. 7)

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The types of institutions involved are Universities, Colleges of Education, the Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board (JAMB) , the National Youth Service Corps ( N Y S C ) and the West African Examinations Council ( W A E C ) .

O n e advantage of institutions at this level is that they are few and mainly owned by Governments. They are also too conspicuous to be illegally set up without detection and because of costs, few persons would try to expend so m u c h m o n e y that could go down the drain. A s a result, they can be monitored easily, especially as the Federal Government has set up regulatory bodies for each type of tertiary institution. The universities have the National Universities Commission (NUC); the Colleges of Education have the National Commission for Colleges of Education ( N C C E ) ; while the National Board for Technical Education (NBTE) takes care of Polytechnics, Technical Colleges and Vocational Schools.

The Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board (JAMB) and the West African Examinations Council ( W A E C ) are examining bodies. The W A E C has very extensive data on examination performances of schools by location, subject, and students by number, n a m e , gender, state, and overall results. J A M B also issues reports on performance by State, subject, etc. but because its examination is a pre-requisite for admission to universities, it works very closely with the Universities and the National Universities Commission with which body it shares a lot of information.

The National Teachers Institute (NTI) has as its main function, the upgrading of the competences of teachers of all grades by various metfiods including distance learning. It has extensive computer facilities and renders information on teachers. The quality of its output is quite high. Note should be taken that most serving teachers on in-service training or part-time courses are recycled as 'learners' or 'students' in the overall statistics of NTI.

T h e National Universities Commission has well organised formats for obtaining information in respecto! universities. Reports ofvarious forms coming from the Planning Units in the Universities also provide in-depth information about students by university, gender, faculty, state, etc., staff by university, state, gender, qualification, etc., academic programmes, researches, budgets (estimates and expenditure) and projects. It is obvious thatwith so m a n y sources of information at the tertiary level, there is a need to harmonise all the information coming from these sources into an easy over-view of education at that level. The edicts setting up each of these bodies should therefore be re-visited to ensure that their functions do not overlap and to m a k e it possible for each to perform its functions, effectively. The Federal Ministry of Education should then 'publish' the outcome as a single source of Education statistics.

The National Youth Service Corps has custody of all information relating to n e w Nigerian graduates from tertiary institutions at h o m e and abroad. Graduates' states of origin, gender and discipline are the main contents of the information generated by the N Y S C .

There are otherformal educational institutions than those listed above. These include Computer Schools and Colleges, Secretarial Schools, Schools of Agriculture, Business Schools and Colleges, and Professional bodies that promote standards by running week-end courses and setting examinations recognised by the Federal Government. These non­governmental efforts contribute immensely to educational and professional development of the country but the information about their input is not properly co-ordinated and highlighted within the planning circles of government. Professional registration bodies need a National Registrar within or outside the Federal Ministry c^ Edüceition so that uniform-formatted information m a y be gathered on such professional bodies,, their total memberships by geographical spread, gender, level of speciali^tion or trade where applicable, and experience. With proper updates, the exact size of the pool of available skills or professionals can be ascertained at all times, aria adequate corrections madqto ensure a proper level of output sufficient to drive the engine of national development.-

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In the area of non-formal and informal education, s o m e progress has been m a d e in data collection and management . A Federal Agency, the National Commission for M a s s Literacy, Adult and Non-Formal Education ( N M E C ) has been set up in accordance with the stipulations of the National Primary Education Commission (NPEC) . This body is expected to monitor and evaluate all m a s s literacy programmes and establish links with all other agencies working in the States, down to the Local Government levels. Clearly, it is the one body that can effectively direct its various subordinate agencies to supply the type of uniform information on non-formal education for the country. This is being attempted and figures are put out from time to t. m e , especially in reports, as a response to requests from the Ministry of Education and such other bodies. All such information needs to be put out in a systematised manner similar to what is being done for primary and secondary schools.

There are s o m e otherfruitful professional sources of Information in education in Nigeria to which Brann (1994) has drawn attention. Of these, the accumulated research findings of Departments and Institutes of Education at the Universities form a major source of information and data, though these are usually atthe micro level, as againstthoseearlierdiscussed, which cover all the States of the Federation. This tradition of research has been carried on by the Colleges of Education, Universities ofTechnologyand other similar institutions.

Journals of Education such as those put out by the visibly successful "Science Teachers Association of Nigeria (STAN)" are rich sources of special information on the state of education in Nigeria. The s a m e w a s true of the Wes t African Journal of Education ( W A J E ) which had the largest run of such journals. S o m e of these sources of special information are dying out, but it should be mentioned that if indices even to past editions are published, very useful historical and other data would be m a d e more widely available. The micro data in them have their usefulness.

Far too m a n y agencies seem currently to be involved in gathering educational Information. It Is tedious and a heavy burden on institutions which have to respond to the s a m e questions m a n y times during one school year. Since change is inevitable, each request m a y result in basic record searching which distracts attention from the central objectives of the institution. N o doubt each agency is useful and perhaps needed, but the gathering of information can be greatly streamlined so that fewer disruptions are m a d e to the lives of these Institutions which are the first sources of information forthe national network of education data.

Adequacy of Coverage and S o m e of the Problems Collecting raw education data is not an end in itself but an exercise that has, as its

ultimate goal, the possibility of obtaining further information on analysis for decision-making. Unless what is painstakingly gathered is accurate and relevant, m u c h of what results from analysis m a y be unusable or erroneous and thus misleading. This is why it is important to review the adequacy of coverage of the m a n y bodies that have been identified above.

Starting with the Federal Ministry of Education's Annual School Populatiori Census form, there are quite a number of glaring deficiencies of coverage. Before these are addressed however, it m a y be appropriate at this point to acknowledge Ta Ngoe Chau 's (1991 ) criticism quoted by Olalusi that

"the information collected is mainly quantitative. It covers the external aspects of the educational process, i.e. the most apparent and the most easily measured ones. It can show deviations from the norms of quantitative targets set but it does not allow to identify the real problems nor to monitor properly the system".

The simple answerto these factual statements is that developing countries need such crude Indicators to start with, otherwise they would be lost in the woods. Analysis and researches at the universities and other centres will augment the quantitative figures and systematically

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indicate areas in need of qualitative sprucing. Overtime, s o m e insight will be had to the quality issues at the s a m e time as the quantitative ones are perfected.

T h e deficiencies noted above relate to information in respect of buildings, finance, attendance, literacy rate, repeaters, wastage, etc., libraries, administrative cost and teachers' (age, specialisation, etc). S o m e ofthese deficiencies are the results of improperly formulated questions while others are due to the omission of relevant questions. For example. Part IV of the questionnaire form in use deals with physical facilities. Table 4.01 lists twelve facilities and teachers are expected to state the number of rooms, the furniture (totals) in them; the number of chalk boards, etc. Surely classrooms vary in size and sometimes special subject rooms might be just ordinary classrooms into which special teaching aids are brought w h e n a subject like Mathematics is being taught. All the twelve categories need re-definition so as to eliminate ambiguities and improve the qualitative elements in the descriptions. Classrooms could be categorised by size (area) by age, orbythe material of construction, etc.

T h e responses from schools s h o w clearly that Table 4.01 is either not properly constructed or not quite understood by the teachers. A s a result, it has not been found worthwhile to process this part of the census form. The s a m e applies to Table 4.02. However, this is not a matter of lack of information as such, but of failure to phrase the questions in such a manner as to elicit the appropriate responses to perfectly normal questions in orderte obtain needed answers.

In the questionnaire, only s o m e aspect of finance is mentioned. Teachers w h o were consulted m a d e it clearthat they would not be in any position to give information on costs of any type since they do not handle any m o n e y . The Ministry of Education and/or its agents arrange for contractors to repair or put up n e w buildings and it sends equipment and required materials to the schools. Schools generally do not have operating budgets, and therefore it is difficult to elicit any information on the finances and costs of the school.

Enrolment, which is captured by the questionnaire, is a useful piece of information but attendance, completion rates, repeaters, drop-outs (wastages) all qualify and extend the usefulness of the raw figures. Attempts at recording repeaters (Table 2.01 ) have not been too successful for reasons which will surface below. O n e of the reasons given by N P E C for cpnducting its parallel survey/census is that it needs information in respect of attendance rather than enrolment.

Another cost component that deserves serious consideration is the administrative cost of education, at the school level, but state-wide and nation-wide. T h e cost of running the Ministries of Education and all the servicing agencies of education needs to be known and compared with actual expenditure on instruction in the schools. This calls for a different but additional set of data.

Records on teachers are currently inadequate. N o information is available on teachers' ages, theirspecialisations as distinct from theirqualifications, and their special skills that could be used to determine their m a x i m u m deployment. Unless these facts surface in the proposed Teachers' Register, a review of the present Part III of the questionnaire might be called for.

M a n y problems still exist in producing the annual education data. O n e is the overlap of functions by different arms of Government. For instance, the Army, the Navy and the Air Force each has in its o w n budget heads under which education is taken care of. Universities, parastatals and other government bodies'have staff-in primary and secondary schools which cater exclusively, or mainly for staff children. While not questioning the actual establishments of such institutions, they however m a k e the determination of educational costs countrywide impossible without their data. W h e n costs begin to appear, the additional subsides injected in to these institutions over and above the universal or national costs, will create distortions that m a y not be measurable. The above are only a few of the obvious failings of the present arrangement. Ten years would seem long enough to review the form, expand s o m e areas and

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amend those that have been affected by the passage of time. b n e other problem is the failure or inability of Governments to provide record books of

first entry. Almost all the information requested in the questionnaire assumes that certain record books are being faithfully kept in schools during the year from which required information will be culled. For instance, enrolment presumes the keeping of an admission register and an attendance register. The act of repeating a class will show easily in the n e w type attendance register, as well as the class age profile required at Table 2.03. Teachers will be logged as they report at, or leave the school with details of their qualifications and specialisations. If schools handle funds, then petty cash books, receipt books and others will be required.

Unless these .basic minimum books (the Log Book; the Admission Register; Attendance Register; Accounts Books) are kept properly in schools, any information supplied on the questionnaire will be of doubtful value. And the fact is that they are not always available. A class register or school register that arrives nine weeks after the start of the school year is not likely to give very accurate information. If it does not arrive at all, then the particular cells which need information from it will either be empty or be filled with inaccurate information. A condition for gathering improved and accurate information is thus the regular provision of record books in schools.

Another important factor in obtaining accurate data from schools is in investing appropriately in the training of head-teachers w h o will complete these forms. The Federal Ministry of Education has invested heavily in its training programme of teachers to keep basic records. State governments have also contributed but the m o m e n t u m has not been kept up, even though more teachers need that type of orientation. At the time of the recommended review, these teachers already trained should m a k e their input into the design of a n e w form.

Between 1991-1994 about 95,000 head teachers and their deputies were initially trained by 450 teacher trainers w h o had years of experience in record-keeping. The head teachers and their assistants were mandated to carry out in-house training in record keeping in their schools. This participation of class teachers w a s reinforced by s o m e in-built procedures that require these classroom teachers to m a k e certain returns in respect of their classes, in writing, to the headmaster for the purpose of the census. This ensures that at one time or another, every teacher has to m a k e s o m e sort of input into the completion of the census questionnaire.

The organisation w a s a model of planning in that costs were minimised, alternate opportunities were provided those w h o were unable, for whatever reason, to attend the scheduled courses arranged for them, and each State designated one senior officer, with w h o m plans were discussed long before execution and whose commitment w a s unalloyed. The s a m e technique was developed between the State and the Local Education Offices. Thus a network of special project agents whose responsibilities included monitoring, motivating, and acting as o m b u d s m e n for the Federal Ministry of Education at every level, and in every corner of the country w a s created. Six consultants from various universities started off the whole exercise with the University of Benin leading the design team.

The central problem of funding W a s tackled by using the forum of the National Council on Education (NCE) to get states to pledge N50,000 per annum towards the training exercise. The Federal Ministry of Education m a d e an initial grant of N 1.1 m towards the project. For s o m e years, this was effective but it seems that fresh commitments need to be extracted from the States since m a n y of those w h o were parties to the earlier decisions are no longer in Government. As a result of non-payment, further training has been suspended for now.

Data Processing and Dissemination Issues There are m a n y centres at which education data is processed. Each centre sees a

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fragment of education relating to its o w n interest. At the tertiary level, each type of institution has an administrative umbrella under which data processing takes place as has been described above. T o the extent that each State has one or two institutions only of any type at this level, the Commissions set up by the Federal Ministry of Education are welcome as they provide information on other States' institutions to which a State would not ordinarily have access. T h e problem at the tertiary level therefore, is that each institutional type like Polytechnics, Colleges of Education, Universities, has complete information on its kind. O n e has to visit as m a n y centres as there are types of institutions to be able to form a global view of happenings at that level.

Basically, all these centres have adequate computing facilities and can process and hand le all their data needs. They rely on large data files from which they extract information as required. However, there has not been much standardisation of equipment and it is getting to the point n o w where exchanges could be m a d e through machine-readable forms. It is clear that the future points to the internet but with adequate communication facilities a local on-line set-up will be desirable so that a user can harvest all the detailed information he requires if he is an authorised person or agency.

The Primary and Post-primary areas are also not properly sorted out. The Federal and State Ministries of Education have their Planning Divisions; N T ! and N P E C , are also processing data in respect of primary schools and teachers. Parastatals like N B T E , N U C , N C C E and examination bodies like W A E C and J A M B have elaborate processing facilities. It will need a miracle to avoid giving conflicting information, if only because the reference dates would be different.

The outcome of the processing carried out by these centres is usually tabular, and these are useful in constructing the various indicators that planners need from analysis of the data. W h a t remains to be done is to reduce the number of these myriad centres of processing.

Although decentralisation is desirable, certain conditions need to be put in place for it to be operational, particularly in a complex country such as Nigeria. These include providing training, necessary infrastructure and the right attitude and use. A s soon as these are in place, decentralisation should be implemented incrementally. By law, the Federal Office of Statistics (FOS) and especially the National Data Bank (NDB) are the repositories for basic data in respect of all government activities, including education. For that function to be performed properly, these bodies do guide the sectoral data banks and encourage consultations between them especially in developing operational Time Series Data Bases (TSDS) of official statistics in Nigeria. While there have been consultations, m a n y of the problems in data development in the educational sector would have been minimised if consultations had been more frequent and effective.

Access to information is anotherarea in need of reform. While lots of information is lying idle in storage at different centres, those w h o need to use them frequently have problems knowing where they can be found and in what form. Dissemination of this information to the wider public is clearly required.

Conclusions W h a t can be inferred from all this is that there is a great awareness as to the need to

collect accurate information from schools and to have these processed promptly to enhance their usefulness in the process of planning. However, this ultimate centralisation of dissemination of educational information is not being given serious consideration, asfaras can be ascertained. It is the case that a user m a y need to go to as many as five different sources spread around the country to obtain complete information of a detailed type, for usé in research or planning covering from pre-primary to the various types of tertiary institutions.

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Indeed, the Statistics Unit in the Federal Ministry of Education w a s designed to play this role since 1990. A s of n o w 1997, there remains s o m e degree of confusion as to its rolç. It is aspiring to be a data processing centre which in effect, would tantamount to closing d o w n the outfit which U N D P , U N E S C O and the Federal Government have nursed for 10 years, at a cost of over N 3 0 m specifically for the purpose of processing pre-primary, primary and secondary schools data for the use, analysis and dissemination of the Statistics Unit. Further, all the information available at NTI, N P E C , N B T E , N U C and other educational centres should be deposited, analysed, and harmonised for publication at the above UNIT. That responsibility, if properly understood and passionately purpused, would greatly enlarge the unit and give it a very importent stature in educational circles. Publications, and analysis require deep insights which are broadened with each study. It is therefore important for the Federal Ministry to re­examine this issue and ensure that each section stays within its logical bounds so that over­all performance will improve ratherthan decline. The existing centres are cash-strapped and Governments should be advised to inject sufficient funds into them, since they are cost-saving sources, if allowed to operate properly. The Federal Government should be reminded that sales of publications of reliable and timely data could offset m u c h of the costs of production. That is the more reason w h y the Statistics Unit should take its responsibilities seriously and not degenerate into routine processing.

The question of funding remains a serious and urgent one since the 1996 census forms are waiting to be submitted and processed. They are m a n y months behind schedule but worse than that, is the fact that the 1997 forms have not even been printed, let alone being distributed. Overall, these two activities translate into 18 months delay. If funding is available for processing the 1996 forms, and for printing and distributing the 1997 ones before the end of the current school year, the necessary continuous flow of information from 1988 to 1997 (10 years) in respect ofthe first two levels of schooling will provide badly needed data for serious projection. It will thus be m u c h easierto maintain the m o m e n t u m than having to kick-start the process if allowed to grind to a halt.

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References

1. TaNgoeChau : inOlalusi.

2. Brann, C M B - "Existing Sources of Educational Information" - paper read at the National Workshop on Educational Information, Analysis and Flow, Kaduna, August, 1994.

3. National Policy on Education , (1981 ). - Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos.

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CHAPTER XI

THE CONTRIBUTION OF INTERNATIONAL AGENCIES TO EDUCATION IN NIGERIA

Introduction For convenience, the contribution of international agencies to education in Nigeria will

be considered underthe following categories rather than under specific agencies. i. Supply of Text Books ii. Supply of Equipment iii. Supply of Experts for Research and Training iv. Development of N e w Institutions V. Training of Educational Personnel vi. Curriculum Development vii. Refurbishing or Supplying Libraries, Language Laboratories, Science

Laboratories, Computer Laboratories etc. viii. Educational Reform and Innovation P rog rammes ix. Research This approach, however, has its limitations because the s a m e aid package m a y cut

across two or more of the categories. Wheneverthis happens, appropriate cross references will be m a d e to indicate what belong to the s a m e package.

In view of the difficulty of obtaining records, the present listing cannot claim to be exhaustive. T h e specific projects described should therefore, be more appropriately regarded as examples of international agency contributions underthe various categories. In the selection of projects, emphasis is on the last five years, although s o m e projects m a y in fact have started before this period.

Supply of Text B o o k s (a) T h e C o m m o n w e a l t h of Learning (COL) is particularly interested in distance

education. In this connection, C O L has continued to send modules of courses in distance education to Nigerian Distance Education institutions such as the National Teachers Institute (NT!) in Kaduna , C O S I T in the University of Lagos and the University of Abuja. Several Nigerian educational institutions have also received various books on distance education for their libraries.

(b) T h e World Bank in 1992 gave $120 million credit facility for a six-year Primary Education Improvement Project. A m o n g five schemes covered by the package are the provision of text books in the four core subjects of English, Mathematics, Science and Social Studies to primary school pupils; and the creation of a permanenttext book fund.

(c) T h e World Bank gave a similar $120 million credit facility to Nigerian Universities a m o n g otherthings for, the supply of text books to the libraries of the Universities.

(d) T h e French Government has continuously donated several books to the French Language Village in Badagry since 1991 w h e n the village w a s established.

Supply of E q u i p m e n t (a) T h e C o m m o n w e a l t h of Learning (COL) supplied computers to three Nigerian

tertiary institutions as follows: (i) C O S I T , University of Lagos - 3 desk-top publishing units (ii) Imo State University -1 desk-top publishing unit

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(iii) University of Abuja - 6 desl<-top publishing units and a set of field recording units.

(b) T h e G e r m a n Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ) donated equipment worth $5 million to the Departments of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering and the Foundry section of the Government College, Enugu.

(c) In 1996, the Chinese Government donated several computers to E d o State University, E k p o m a , and the College of Technology, Y a b a to set up their computer laboratories.

(d) Between 1991 and n o w , the French Government has provided a language laboratory to the French Language Village in Badagry.

(e) U N D P / U N E S C O and the University of Vancouver, Canada , supplied various items of equipment to the Federal College of Education (Special), O y o as part of the U N D P / U N E S C O project for training teachers of special education.

Supply of Experts (a) T h e French Government has been supplying experts forthe French Language

Village in Badagry since 1991. The supply of experts for educational projects w a s a very c o m m o n strategy in the first two development decades. U N E S C O especially, must have supplied hundreds of such experts to Nigerian educational establishments during that period. T h e Colleges of Education, the National Teachers Institute (NTI), University Faculties and Institutes of Education and Federal and State Ministries of Education readily c o m e to mind. T h e strategy b e c a m e less and less emphasized since the 1980s with the n e w emphasis on indigenous capacity developmsnt. This is perhaps why there have been very few instances of supply of experts in the last five years.

Establishment of N e w Institutions (a) T h e Commonwea l th of Learning (COL) created awareness of, and gave

impetus to networking in Distance Education activities inthe W e s t African sub-region including in Nigeria. It w a s actively involved financially and morally in the establishment of two organisations viz: (i) T h e W e s t African Distance Education Association ( W A D E A ) (ii) T h e Nigerian Distance Education Network ( N D E N ) .

(b) With guidance and financial support from the International Institute for Educational Planning (HEP) Paris, (one of three U N E S C O institutes concerned with education) the Federal Government of Nigeria established in 1992, "The Nigerian Institute for Educational Planning and Administration" (NIEPA) in O n d o . T o start off the institution, a national conference jointly sponsored by H E P and the F G N took place in 1992.

Training of Educational Personnel (a) U N D P / U N E S C O funded a project for training teachers for Introductory

Technology in Jalingo, Taraba State in.1988. T h e project w a s expected to last 3 years and w a s meant to (i) upgrade under-qualified teachers by in-service training; (ii) upgrade unqualified teachers through N C E (Tech) full-time and part-time courses and (iii) run short training workshops for qualified teachers to improve their competence in teaching, and in maintenance and use of equipment. The project, for various reasons could not achieve its objectives in the 3 years projected, so it w a s extended for a further three years.

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(b) A similar U N D P / U N E S C O project which started in the 1980s and has continued beyond 1991 is vocational training in Niger State (total budget $615,073). It ran into similar problems as the Jalingo project.

(c) U N D P / U N E S C O launched a projectfortraining teachers for special education at the Federal College of Education (Special), O y o in 1991, in collaboration with the University of Birmingham. U N D P / U N E S C O contribution w a s $696 ,115 while the Federal Government of Nigeria contributed N618 ,500 . It has been one of the most successful projects sponsored by U N D P / U N E S C O in Niceria. A m o n g its achievements were the following:

(i) under academic degree moderation by the University of Birmingham, 17 lecturers of the college earned the M.Phil degree, 29 earned the M . E d . , and 3 the A . C . E . (Advanced Teachers Certificate) in special education;

(ii) equipment supplied included 6 earmould laboratories. Braille repair equipment, 1 offset machine. Television and video equipment, 2 computers and 1 bubble jet printer;

(iii) up-to-date special education literature and journals were provided for the library;

(iv) the University of Vancouver, C a n a d a supplied similar equipment and books; (v) two workshops conducted by national and international staff were run to train

technicians on braille and earmould. T w o workshops were similarly held for curriculum modification;

(vi) five study tours through various states of the country, were held to stimulate awareness and broaden the experience of staff. A proposal to build a national special education resource centre w a s however, not achieved for various reasons.

(d) In 1991, a U N E S C O participation p r o g r a m m e focussed on building a local capacity for training in electronics and computer engineering at the University of Lagos.

(e) T h e C o m m o n w e a l t h of Learning ( C O L ) provided funds for various training programmes in distance education including: (i) a 10-day sub-regional training in January 1994; (ii) a training workshop in course writing and editing forstaff of the University ofAbuja; (iii) a three-month fellowship at the University of Vancouver, C a n a d a fortwo Nigerian lecturers-one from the University of Ibadan and one from the University ofAbuja; (iv) six Nigerian lecturers for a Masters Degree p r o g r a m m e in Distance Education in I G N O U , India through Distance Learning Systems (DLS).

(f) U N I C E F supported a capacity building workshop on data processing and anaiysis, lasting several w e e k s for top m a n a g e m e n t staff in educational establishments primarily in Nigeria (with a few from other African countries) at the International Centre for Educational Evaluation (ICEE), Institute of Education, University of Ibadan in late 1996. A s part of the package, five computers, U P S , and printers were supplied to the I C E E .

(g) T h e French Government since 1991 has provided continuous training for personnel of the French Language Village in Badagry.

(h) T h e Overseas Development Administration ( O D A ) , U . K . in 1988, through the British Council sponsored the introductiott&f Integrated Science as a university subject in the A h m a d u Bello University Faculty of Education and the University

144

of Ibadan, Institute of Education at a cost of over£600,000 Sterling each. T h e A B U p r o g r a m m e took off successfully but the University of Ibadan o n e did not, d u e to s o m e bureaucratic bottlenecks in that University.

(i) T h e C o m m o n w e a l t h Fund for Technical Cooperation ( C F T C ) sponsored n u m e r o u s scholarships and fellowships annually until 1995 w h e n Nigeria w a s suspended from the C o m m o n w e a l t h over h u m a n rights abuses.

(j) T h e World B a n k $ 1 2 0 million credit facility referred to in 1 (b) had as o n e of its five components , the training of about 400 ,000 education personnel in primary schools throughout the country.

Curriculum D e v e l o p m e n t (a) T h e C o m m o n w e a l t h of Learning ( C O L ) provided $23 ,000 to C O S I T , University

of Lagos to enable the Institute print already written course-materials, and another $15 ,000 forthe production of course materials in communi ty health.

(b) U N I C E F sponsored a large scale workshop to integrate Koranic Schools curriculum with primary school curriculum in 1996.

Refurbishing Libraries a n d Laboratories (a) T h e United K ingdom Gove rnmen t provided funds for the re-habilitation of

educational facilities in secondary schools in 2 6 states of Nigeria. (b) T h e World Bank $ 1 2 0 million creditfacilityfor universities referred to in 1.(c)

contains a substantial componen t for refurbishing of libraries and laboratories.

Educational R e f o r m a n d Innovation (a) T h e World B a n k $ 1 2 0 million credit facility for the Primary Education

Improvement Project 1 .(b) had provision forthe introduction of M a n a g e m e n t Information Sys tems (MIS) into primary schools.

(b) U N D P / U N E S C O funded between 1987 and 1993 a project on the computerisation of educational data in Nigeria. ( U N D P $893,278; F G N N13,460 million). Its specific objective was :

"To develop the overall capability of the Federal Ministry of Education to publish accurate educational data in respect of all educational institutions in Nigeria below tertiary level, in October of each school year, beginning from 1988, in order to raise the educational planning process to a level at which accurate and current figures could be employed in reaching professional meaningful decisions in education".

A sizable computer laboratory w a s established in the Federal Ministry of Education under a Nigerian Chief Technical Adviser. Proformas for data collection at state and local government levels were prepared. A n u m b e r of projected training workshops for personnel to m a n the system were also conducted. Howeve r , the main objective of regular production of education statistics w a s not achieved between 1988 and 1995. T h e difficulty of securing the cooperation of States and the constantly changing n u m b e r of States and Local Governments also added to the list of problems. This success is gradually being eroded because funds from the Federal Government have been reduced while U N D P / U N E S C O participation has virtually ended.

(c) T h e British Council has supported the popularisation of science a m o n g nursery and primary school teachers in collaboration with the "Early Learning Science

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Series for Africa ( E L S S A ) " , an initiative based at the University of Ibadan and an aspect of the U N E S C O sponsored Science 2 0 0 0 + project. Three zonal workshops on the E L S S A approach have been organised in Nigeria and a n u m b e r of primary school teachers and children have already been sensitized to the methodology. B y M a y 1997 , the British Council had already expended over N 5 million on the project.

(d) U N D P / U N E S C O is funding a m a s s literacy p r o g r a m m e at an estimated cost of $8,021 million over a five-year period 1995-2000 under implementatior oythe National Commiss ion for M a s s Literacy, Adult and Non-formal Education ( N M E C ) . There is also provision for appropriate counterpart funding by Federal and State Ministries of Education. T h e project is intended to assist in raising the literacy level in Nigeria from the present estimate of 4 5 % to 8 0 % by the year 2000 . It is intended to contribute to the achievement of Education for All by the year 2 0 0 0 as projected. (See Chapter 4) .

Research

(a) U N I C E F in cooperation with U N E S C O which supplied s o m e technical expertise, funded a national survey on "Situation and Policy Analysis of Basic Education in Nigeria ( S A P A ) " as part of the F G N / U N I C E F Master Plan of Operations for the 1991-1995 P r o g r a m m e of Cooperation. T h e study w a s designed to provide a springboard for the effective reform of basic education with a view to achieving education for all by the year 2 0 0 0 as projected by the Jomtien Conference on Education for All.

T h e study w a s carried out in all the States of the Federation and the capital territory of Abuja. A large n u m b e r of researchers including 32 co-ordinators for the states and F C T , drawn largely from university personnel and several other resource personnel, participated in the survey. Considerable capacity building in research methodology and data analysis w a s built into the project through several workshops and seminars. A broad spectrum of opinion w a s also brought to bear on the summar ised data and first draft report, through no less than four national critique workshops. T h e final report published in 1993 , has been a significant input into the reform of basic education in Nigeria.

(b) U N I C E F / U N E S C O is also currently funding a project on the monitoring of learning achievement in primary schools. T h e project is coordinated by the Institute of Education, University of Ibadan and also involves the research division of the Federal Ministry of Education.

(c) T h e World B a n k $ 1 2 0 million credit facility forthe Primary Education Improvement Project has provision forthe conduct of on-going action research into primary education.

Reflective Analysis T h e above represents a fairly objective listing of the intentions of various contributions

by International Agencies to education in Nigeria. In practice, the objectives have not always been fully achieved for various reasons. T h e issue of discrepancy between plans and ou tcomes is an important o n e that should b e addressed forfuture p r o g r a m m e s .

A second issue is that International A g e n c y contributions, by their very nature, are subject to world trends in development aid. T h e s e two issues will be discussed in thi¿ section

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(in the reverse order).

World Trends in Development Aid The Organisation of Economic Cooperation and Development ( O E C D ) agreed that

m e m b e r countries should devote 7 % of theirGNP to developmentaid. In actual fact, in the first two development decades, countries of the O E C D as a whole gave no more than 3.6% of their G N P , i.e. about 5 0 % of the target. The U S A contributed only about 0.2% of its G N P .

Since the 1980s, the situation has worsened due to world-wide economic recession and the debt crisis In most developing countries ( O E C D 1987). Between 1979 and 1989, Bilateral aid to education dropped from 16.5% to 10.7% of total bilateral aid, although there are important variations in some countries. In 1988, multilateral aid to education was only 4.3% of aid going to other sectors. Overall, in the 1980s education received close to 10% of all bilateral aid and 5 % of all multilateral aid (IBRD 1991 ).

In Sub-Saharan Africa, Nigeria is one of the lowest recipients of development aid in absolute totals and definitely, the lowest in per capita aid as shown in Table 1. This m a y be a reflection of need as perceived by the external donors but there would seem to be other political factors involved. The dwindling of donor assistance to Government is thought to be due to two main reasons:

i) the fact that military governments would seem to be now anathenia to the donor agencies and countries and

ii) the preference of donor countries to channel assistance through N G O s w h o are perceived to be more efficient in resource management, project kick off and closer to end beneficiaries. Certainly, the countries belonging to the group of Least Developed Countries (LDCs) are more highly favoured than others. The LDCs'per capita in 1985 ranged from 16.0 to 90.5 while those of the non-LDCs ranged from 10.8 to 49.5. Nigeria had a paltry 0.3.

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Table 1 : Development aid to 25 Sub-Saharan African Countries (1982 & 1985) Total A m o u n t in U S $Million Per Capita in U S $

LDSs

Others

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

Benin

Botswana

Burkina Faso

Burundi

Chad

Ethiopia

Guinea

Lesotho

Malawi

Mali

Niger

Rwanda

Sudan

Tanzania

Cameroon

Congo

CoteD'lvorie

Ghana

Kenya

Nigeria

Senegal

Sierra Leone

Zaire

Zambia

Zimbabwe

1982

80.6.

101.5

212.8

126.8

64.7

199.7

90.1

93.4

121.2

210.3

257.5

150.7

750.4

684,0

212.4

93.1

136.8

141.2

485.1

36.8

284.8

82.2

348.2

317.1

216.1

1985

95.6

96.8

197.4

142.7

181.7

709.7

199.2

94.4

113.0

379.9

304.6

181.4

1128.6

486.9

159.5

71.2

124.7

204.4

438.7

32.3

294.7

65.9

324.2

329.0

237.1

1982

21.7

101.4

32.8

29.5

14.0

6.1

11.5

64.2

18.7

27.4

42.7

27.4

37.4

36.0

24.1

54.9

15.5

11.6

26.8

0.4

46.8

22.2

11.3

40.1

28.8

1985

23.7

90.5

25.0

30.4

36.5

16.8

19.7

62,3

16.0

50.6

47.7

30.1

51.5

21.9

15.7

38.0

12.4

16.1

21.5

0.3

44.9

17.6

10.8

49.5

28.2

Source: O E C D (1987) in "Africa Insight" Vol. 17 N o . 4 1987 P. 102

It is clear that Nigeria is a low priority country for international development aid in general and bythesametoken, educational aid.

World trends in terms of setting priorities for educational development have m a d e significant impact on aid to Nigeria. For example, the designation by the U N General Assembly of 1990 as the International Literacy Year stimulated U N D P / U N E S C O to c o m e strongly into the support of the Mass Literacy Programme in Nigeria.

This stimulation was further reinforced by the declaration of the World Conference on Education for All held in Jomtien, Thailand in the s a m e year. A m o n g otherthings, the "World Declaration on Education for All" focussed on basic education which, it stressed, extended beyond literacy, and embraced all the kinds of basic knowledge and skills necessary for an individual to live a useful and contented life. Such skills include a functional grasp of literacy

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and numeracy, a scientific outlook and rudimentary understanding of the natural and social environment, basic knowledge and skills for rearing a family and managing a household, functional skills and knowledge for earning a living, and the knowledge and skills required for effective civic participation.

T h e document recognised the fact that the achievement of its goals required far greater resources than those available to most developing countries. It therefore advocated an "expanded vision" of education with the following five elements:

(a) Universalizing access and promoting equity; (b) Focusing on learning; (c) Broadening the m e a n s and scope of education; (d) Enhancing the environmentfor learning; (e) Strengthening partnerships. T h e conference itself set a pattern for partnership in education, sponsored as it w a s ,

jointly by the World Bank, U N E S C O , U N D P and U N I C E F . It is striking that all four agencies have since 1991 put strong emphasis in their contributions to basic education. This is demonstrated by U N D P / U N E S C O ' s input into m a s s literacy, U N I C E F ' s sponsorship of the Situation and Policy Analysis ( S A P A ) study and agreement with the Federal Government on a Plan of Operations for improving basic education in 1991-95, including the World Bank's provision of $120 million for the primary education improvement project which is being implemented through the National Primary Education Project ( N P E C ) .

In the 1980s, aid to Sub-Saharan Africa concentrated heavily on higher education. In the 90s, basic education has taken the centre stage as another consequence of Jomtien.

In June 1996, there w a s a mid-decade meeting of the International Consultative Forum on Education for All in A m m a n , Jordan bringing together more than 250 participants from 75 different countries (HEP 1996). T h e conference renewed its emphasis on both m a s s literacy and primary school education as well as the need for building n e w partnerships and broadening them to include all elements of society - voluntary and community organisations, religious groups, the private sector, the media etc. It is interesting that the S A P A report advocated similar emphasis.

Prob lems of Implementation Over and over again, shortcomings in implementation and failure to achieve stated

objectives are reported with respect to m a n y of the projects, as has been reported earlier. Recently, the World Bank withdrew the proposed credit facility for the Primary Education Improvement Project because of the failure of the implementing agency to adhere to the schedule of the project. In five years, it had utilised less than 5 % of the facility.

A n u m b e r of reasons m a y be identified for these failures. T h e first, is (i) the relative instability in the political situation in the country. Within the past five

years, the number of states in the country has increased from 21 to 36. Increase in the number of local governments has been equally dramatic. Project plans have been thrown out of gear by such rapid changes. For example, w h e n the S A P A projectbegan in 1991, there were 21 states plus the F C T . By the time field work began in 1992 however, the number had increased to 30 plus F C T . T h e computers which were provided for state use were no longer sufficient to go round all the states and the plan for states todatheir o w n data analysis had to be aborted. Similarly, the carefully designed sampling plan w a s thrown into disarray. The- * project on the computerisation of educational data ran into similar problems. \Ä/hat s e e m e d like a well organised communication network of 2 2 political units collapsed with the increase in the number of political units to 31 . Until the end of the project, the flow of data to the Data Base in Lagos occurred in only 16 states.

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O n a different dimension, tlie failure of tlie last political transition programme, with its attendant unrest and uncertainties, affected adversely the efficiency and effectiveness of work in all aspects of life in the nation and education w a s not an exception.

(ii) Secondly, this instability led to frequent changes in educational policy, often as a result of frequent changes of Ministers and Commissioners, institutional governing councils etc. For example, when the negotiation for the World Bank credit facility for Primary Education began in 1991, the National Primary Education Commission which w a s identified as the implementing agency, w a s at the height of its glory. In December 1991, it w a s summarily dissolved in the President's Budget Speech thus throwing the implementation into disarray. By the time the N P E C w a s re-constituted in 1993/94, m u c h d a m a g e had been done to the project and the new N P E C w a s less effective than the old.

(iii) A third reason m a y be identified in the bureaucratic bottlenecks which have often stalled the implementation of projects, because the need for such procedures to ensure adequate "federal character" tends to slow down implementation. The problem becomes worse as the number of political units increases. A good example, is that although Nigeria is one of the highest contributors to the Commonweal th Fund for Technical Cooperation (CFTC), it makes very little use of the funds which are legitimately available to it, mainly because of the procedures described.

(iv) Friction between the Federal Government and the international community has been yet another source of problems. For example, the suspension of Nigeria from the Commonweal th following the execution of "the Ogoni Nine" led to a suspension ofall Commonweal th fellowships and scholarships to Nigeria.

(v) Unrealistic Plans of Operations sometimes constitute problems. International agencies often send experts to help the country develop appropriate project proposals. Sometimes the experts and their local counterparts do not do a thorough job, owing to a failure to plan properly.

(vi) Lack of effective and Inbuilt Monitoring and Evaluation has also bedevilled m a n y of the projects. The tripartite evaluation meetings are no substitute for continuous monitoring and evaluation, and targets as well as objectives often fall behind schedules or become altered.

Overall Assessment In general, Nigeria has not received adequate returns from m a n y international agency

projects, for reasons which have been discussed in the preceding paragraphs. It is evident that the country would achieve greater rriilage from international agency contributions, if it would address the issues raised in future projects.

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References

1. The Africa Institute 1987, Table 47, Development Aid Recipients. Africa Insight Vol. 17 No. 4

2. FGN/UNICEF 1993. Situation and Policy Analysis of Basic Education in Nigeria: National Report Lagos, F M E & Y D .

3. Hopper. W . D . 1977. Developmentata Crossroads Ottawa, IDRC.

4. IBRD 1991 • World Developnnent Report 1991 : The Challenge of Development. New York, O U P .

5. HEP 1996. Six Years after Jomtien. Where do we stand? HEP Newsletter Vol. XIV No. 3 July- September 1996. Paris, HEP.

6. O E C D 1987. Development Cooperation, Paris. O E C D .

7. U N E S C O 1996. U N E S C O and Education in Nigeria Lagos. U N E S C O Regional

Office, Lagos.

8. U N E S C O : World Declaration on Education for All and Framework for Action to meet Basic Learning Needs. New York, The Inter-Agency Commission.

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CHAPTER XU

ABERRATIONS IN THE NIGERIAN EDUCATION SYSTEM

T h e Nigerian Education System, at all levels, has expanded tremendously in magnitude and quality, particularly since the attainment of political independence in 1960. This fact is eminently attested to by a wealth of situation reports and statistical data generated from within and by such international bodies as the U N E S C O , U N I C E F , the C o m m o n w e a l t h Secretariat, and the World Bank. These growth and development trends have not been without problems or aberrations, s o m e of which have been occasioned by the rapid rate of physical expansion of the system, and in s o m e case, by social, political, economic, and international factors in the contemporary ecological environment within which the educational institutions are located. In this chapter, a n u m b e r of these problems and p h e n o m e n a , variously referred to as "aberrations", "malfunctions", "failures", or blemishes, which have b e c o m e of national prominence will be listed, and briefly discussed. T h e idea of recounting aberrations etc. of the system is not to paint a gloomy picture of a system which is said to be the country's greatest industry, nor is it merely to evaluate it from a variety of dimensions. It is principally to present a balanced account of educational development in the country by identifying those areas in which its policy-makers and implementors can take note of these shortcomings and m a p out appropriate strategies for dealing with them.

Examination Malpractices By this is meant the massive and unprecedented abuse of rules and regulations

pertaining to internal and public examinations, beginning from the setting of such examinations, through the taking of the examinations, their marking and grading, to the release of the results, and the issuance of certificates. Persons implicated in these abuses include students, teachers. Ministry of Education officials, officials of public examination bodies as well as parents. W h e r e a s the p h e n o m e n o n b e c a m e publicly evident in the early 1970s at the secondary school level, it has n o w also b e c o m e a feature ofthe tertiary education level i.e. the Colleges of Education, Polytechnics, and the Universities. T h e malpractices include a m o n g others: leakage of examination questions/papers, bribery of supervisors and invigilators, bribery of script markers and graders, alteration of grades by officials, impersonation during examinations, collusion a m o n g candidates, inappropriate examination environments (e.g. presence of wall charts, close sitting arrangement, presence of intruders), use of unapproved electronicgadgets, forgery of certificates, etc. Theconsequenceofallthese is that the results of public examinations have b e c o m e suspect, with m a n y candidates earning grades that they that do not merit. M a n y ofthe candidates w h o have obtained 'pass' grades in this m a n n e r get admitted to courses, but are then unable to perform in accordance with the face value of their entry qualifications. In an effort to contain or reduce the incidence of examination malpractices, such measures as the following have been put in place or suggested:-

(a) increased security provision, as well as clearance at all points in the examination system;

(b) operationalised and Improved Continuous Assessment System as a w a y of reducing test consciousness a m o n g students;

(c) improved selection strategies into educational institutions to screen out those not equipped to benefitfrom such studies;

(d) up-dated laws regarding examination malpractices to facilitate court prosecution and penalty.

Clandestine Societies Students atthe Secondary and Tertiary levels of education are normally encouraged to

engage in club activities as a m e a n s of promoting social development. T o this end, a register of approved clubs and societies is kept by the institution. Each of the societies has a constitution, rules and regulations, and each has a staff m e m b e r as Patron or Adviser, w h o liaises with the institution's administration to ensure that things run well. In the universities, such linkage and monitoring is undertaken by the Department of Students Affairs. However, in contemporary times, associations have been formed by students which are un-registered (i.e. unofficial) and which d e m a n d and obtain complete loyalty as well as submission from their m e m b e r s , and whose aims and objectives are contrary to those of the institution in particular, and the nation at large. These organisations are "clandestine" to the extent that their membership is unknown officially to the institution, their operations are not open to public scrutiny and by the fact that their actions have introduced intothe education system paralleler conflicting authority outfits that challenge constituted authority within the system, after rendering institutional authorities powerless and ineffective, by theirmodes of operation.

They are usually described as "secret cults". M e m b e r s of secret cults have been rumoured to be regularly absent from classes, or have abandoned their studies in order to attend "conventions" and "conclave meetings" in distant states. Cases of student deaths have been reported as a result of cult activities. Cult induction ceremonies are said to include the administration of hard-drugs and body mutilations and a variety of sadistic activities. Frequently, there is grand warfare in which m e m b e r s of rival clandestine societies physically attack each other with daggers, matchetes, dangerous chemicals and hand-guns, resulting in d a m a g e to property and the loss of lives.

Certain remedies have been put in place with rather limited positive outcomes so far. These include:

(a) addition of tests/scales of affective attributes of behaviour into the selection mechanism of educational institutions to screen out s o m e candidates with a tendency to deviant or criminal behaviour;

(b) imposition of stiff penalties on students certified as taking part in cult activities, such as permanentwithdrawal from institutions, especially the benefit of boarding facilities where available.

Drug Abuse Drug abuse in Nigerian educational institutions begins from careless use of readily

available patent medicines as cures for routine diseases, to the un-official use of medicines which ought to be applied entirely under medical prescription, and finally, to the use of chemicals, medicines, and substances to alter behaviour not only for achieving pleasure, but for enhancing and emboldening performance beyond normal limits.

Until the end of the Nigerian civil war in 1970, drug abuse in educational institutions w a s limited to the excessive use or misuse of patent medicines, smoking cigarettes, as well as the use of drugs alleged to enhance m e m o r y and mental alertness, and the taking of alcoholic drinks. In recent times, however, drug abuse has extended to the use of hard drugs by pupils and students, as well as the use of performance- enhancing drugs for track and field sporting events.

Nigeria used to be classified as a conduit (albeit minor) in the international drug traffic. Recently, however, there is s o m e evidence to show that the country m a y well have entered the drug-use group. This is evidenced by operations of the Police, the National Drug L a w Enforcement Agency, and the results of certain research and surveys undertaken in educational institutions. It has been aggravated because s o m e cultivation locally of certain

153

hard-drug plants is also k n o w n to be taking place in Nigeria. T h e declining disciplinary tone of educational institutions m a y not be unconnected with the increasing incidence of the abuse of drugs. In the determination to address the problems, the following measures have been put in place:

(a) a p r o g r a m m e of drug-reduction education has been developed and is being experimented upon in a n u m b e r of pilot schools, especially in the urban areas. Various posters and handbills have been developed and are in circulation, warning allconcerned, about the consequences of drug abuse.

(b) increased activity of the Drug L a w Enforcement A g e n c y has been undertaken in communities housing educational institutions to reduce the spread of the possession or use of illicit drugs in such institutions.

(c) persons guilty of drug trafficking and/or use are being given stiff penalties by the courts, and the sentences are given extensive media coverage to discourage future offenders.

(d) School authorities search pupils and their luggage and personal effects, principally on first day of term and every n o w and then, to retrieve and destroy items suspected to be disapproved drugs.

M a s s Failure in Public Examinat ions Public examinations in the Nigerian educational setting refer to those tests/

examinations conducted by bodies outside the individual schools, colleges or universities, and involving generally large numbers of candidates. Success orfailure in these examinations is determined by the level of performance of candidates (criterion-referenced) as adjudged by competent authorities. Examp les of these examinations are the First School Leaving Certificate, the Junior Secondary School Certificate, and the Senior Secondary School Certificate Examinations. Studies of performance in such examinations have s h o w n that they are characterised by massive failure in terms of those w h o reach acceptable levels of achievement either in the individual subjects or in the combination of subjects for certification.

A major study (1992) carried out by the Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council ( N E R D C ) on the Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination over a period of five years showed , inter alia, that the typical performance, on a nine-point scale ranged between 7 and 8 (i.e. m e r e pass) and that 9 (i.e. outright failure) and about 7 0 % of the candidates failed English Language , onfe Of the two compulsory subjects which also is the country's official language.

T h e consequence of m a s s failure in public examinations is inability of school leavers to proceed to higher educational institutions or professional/trade training, or to gain employment in jobs requiring certain specified basic educational qualifications. A n u m b e r of medical, veterinary, engineering and business schools, for example, cannot m e e t their yearly admission quotas, partly because there are not enough candidates with the right n u m b e r of subjects passed at such levels as credit and above In the right subjects. This aberration led, in part, to the establishment, in the early 1970s, of Schools of Basic and Remedial Studies. In these institutions (which themselves are aberrations), school leavers with prominent deficiencies in their examination certificates undertake furtherstudies for o n e ortwo years to m a k e up for such deficiencies. T h e p h e n o m e n o n of m a s s failure, coupled with the operation of Schools of Basic and Remedial Studies, has inadvertently increased the duration of secondary schooling beyond the statutory six years. If obtaining credit-passes in four or m o r e subjects at a first sitting of the School Certificate Examination is a b e n c h m a r k of success in that examination, statistics from the schools s h o w that less than 3 0 % of candidates achieve this level. Candidates w h o fail, spend another year or two and , somet imes , three years

154

attempting to "cleartheir papers", as this repeated taking of examination subjects lias c o m e to be k n o w n .

T h e following measures have been undertaken to comba t massfailure:-(a) improvement of the quality of teaching through equipping the schools and

employing qualified teachers in appropriate n u m b e r s and an effort to improve the textbook shortage situation;

(b) a study of the examination procedures and the psychometric characteristics of public examinations to assess the contribution of the assessment process to the incidence of m a s s failure.

(c) improvement of the selection procedure into institutions to ensure greater concurrent and predictive validity by eliminating, ab initio, those w h o are not likely to succeed at the end of the course.

Student Indiscipline a n d Vanda l ism Educational institutions have traditionally been established not only to promote

learning, but also to promote character. T h e character component has been adjudged by m a n y in contemporary times to be m o r e important than the learning componen t , especially in a system that w a s historically pioneered by religious missionary bodies. In recent times, however, it has b e c o m e clearthatthe disciplinary tone of educational institutions leaves m u c h to be desired, and has been declining overtime. This w a s the underlying motive for organising, in 1971 , the first-ever National Conference on School Discipline followed by a Second National Conference on Discipline and Motivation in Schools in 1990. T h e level of indiscipline in educational institutions nationwide is illustrated by the n u m b e r of student demonstrations, persistentabsenteeism.tardinesstoschool, dereliction ofduties, misconduct, as well as such violent actions as assaults on teachers/lecturers, destruction of school and university property (e.g. library books, sports equipment, doors and w idows etc), and the burning d o w n of school and university buildings, vehicles, etc. T h e s e acts of vandalism have been extended to public property and often to the personal property of teachers and lecturers. In s o m e institutions, Headmasters and Provosts have been taken captive by students and detained in secret locations in a bid to compel or influence administrative action, such as the reduction or elimination of fees and levies and the relaxation of strict hostel regulations. In others, students have deflated tyres of vehicles, or even set vehicles of theirteachers on fire to compel them to be m o r e lenient in the award of examination grades.

T h e consequence of these p h e n o m e n a is the continued deterioration of educational infrastructure at a time w h e n the e c o n o m y cannot sustain frequent repairs and replacement of d a m a g e d facilities. T h e s e have had adverse effect on the quality of learning in the institutions. T h e frequent periods of time taken up by student demonstrations, indiscipline, and vandalism have also adversely affected the a m o u n t of lecture hours and subsequently, the quality of education effort as mirrored in the poor performance of pupils in public examinations.

S u c h has b e c o m e the level of social concern that the following have been suggested as remedies for this aberration:-

(a) increased use of guidance counsellors in the schools to deal with deviant behaviour and rehabilitate habitual offenders;

(b) improved administrative style inthe institutions, such as democratic school governance and the use of dialogue;

(c) limiting the size of classes and overall institutional size to approved dimensions as against the current over-population in relation to teaching facilities;

(d) strict adherence to ip' titijîional admission procedures;

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(e) improved channels of communication (vertical and horizontal) between students and the authorities, including extra-institutional administrators.

Violent Trade Un ion i sm a m o n g Staff T h e Nigerian Constitution guarantees freedom of association of its citizens, and

Nigeria is a signatory to various international trade conventions, especially underthe aegis of the International Labour Organisation. Trade Unions have existed in Nigeria as far back as the late 1920s. T h e Nigeria Union of Teachers (which serves the primary and secondary education sector of the trade) w a s established in the early 1930s. T h e Association of University Teachers (the predecessor of the present A c a d e m i c Staff Union of Universities) began in the mid-1960s, while counterpart trade unions forthe Colleges of Education and the Polytechnics c a m e into being in the mid-1980s . T h e s e trade unions, overtime, operated cooperatively and meaningfully with the proprietors of the educational institutions. Within the last ten years, they have b e c o m e unusually active, specifically resentful and confrontational to authority, for various reasons. T h e relationship between teachers, administrators, and other workers on the o n e hand, and school and university proprietors (essentially Government ) on the other hand, has soured over such issues as low w a g e s , late or non -paymen t of salaries, poor conditions of service, generally inadequate level of funding for education and n o n -recognition of teaching as a profession. This has led to endless cycles of petitions, protests, "go-slows", "stand-offs", and long periods of closure of educational institutions at all levels, particularly in the universities, even in thé w a k e of decrees, directives, regulations etc. put in place to limit and control such actions.

T h e extent of industrial action in contemporary tines w a s dramatised by the official cancellation of the entire 1993 /94 academic year in the Nigerian University calendar, d u e to the fact that no effective teaching took place during mostof that period. While the trade unions negotiated with Gove rnmen ts over intractable issues, the students remained at h o m e and relieved their b o r e d o m by indulging in such anti-intellectual pursuits as trading, smoking and drinking and crime. S o m e could no m o r e part with their n e w habits afterthe institutions were re-opened and have had to a b a n d o n their education, or attempt to comb ine t h e m (to the disadvantage of all) with their education. T h e consequence of all these has been a decline \r the standard of education at all levels and destruction of the moral tone of the institutions. By October 1996 , s o m e universities had lost the equivalent of two academic years, with studentr admitted during the 1991/92 academic session for four/five/six-year standard degree p r o g r a m m e s remaining in the institutions, w h e n they should b e in the national labour force contributing to national development.

T o address the situation, the various measu res which have been undertaken at both institutional and governmental levels include:

(a) the provision of additional sources of funding for education i.e. non-government sources, including communi ty participation.

(b) creating m o r e opportunity for dialogue between unionists and government proprietors on trade unions matters, as well as the use of traditional rulers, and notable public and religious leaders;

(c) efforts to review or abrogate laws, circulars and protocols which tend to aggravate the uncomfortable labour situation. T w o examp les of such provocative legislation which have been c o n d e m n e d , will suffice as illustration; (i) the Í 9 9 2 law which classified teaching as an "Essential Service" and

which consequently, a imed at barring teachers (as well as other education functionaries) from embarking upon boycott of classes for long periods or at alL T h e law proved to b e totally ineffective 'n

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stemming violent trade disputes, (ii) another law in 1996 which banned and prohibited trade union

organisations from being formed or operated in higher education institutions. This law has remained predominantly effective, but whether or not, it has promoted industrial harmony is yet to be demonstrated.

Misapplied Quota System in Students Admission Nigeria is a vast country geographically. It is also as ethnically and culturally diverse as

it is vast. O n e of the hard realities of the present time is that there are significantly noticeable differences in access to, retention within and acceptance of Western European type of education across the country. While in s o m e parts, especially southern areas the Western European Education model has been fully accepted and adopted and reasonable success achieved, in other parts, especially northern areas, this has not been the case. This has led toa phenomenon known as "Educational Imbalance" within the country, featured roughly along a north-south divide. It has been reasonably argued that for effective and meaningful national unity in a multi-ethnic community such as Nigeria, this educational imbalance should be seriously redressed or at least, reduced. This position informed the adoption of a "Quota System" for admission into federally-owned education institutions, including secondary schools and the universities. The policy requires that the admission exercise should reserve specified quotas (20%) for states which have been classified as educationally less-developed, students from the geographical catchment area in which the institution is located (30%), a quota for academic merit (40%) and the rest for institutional discretion (10%). The policy w a s aimed at improving the chances of, candidates from the "educationally disadvantaged" areas in competing for limited places in federally-owned universities which are not only the majority of such institutions, but also are better funded than similar State institutions. The policy seemed fair on paperas a development-oriented measure. In practice, however, the catchment area, and the "educationally disadvantaged" area quotas have been misplaced, given more value during implementation than statutorily provided for, as well as mis-applied by over-zealous administrators and politicians. Rather than be an interim measure, it is being strengthened even further 15 years after it w a s initiated as though the level of imbalance has persisted and should continue to persist, which is not the case. The consequence is that academic quality has progressively taken second place, as m a n y candidates are given admission more on non-academic grounds than on their performance in nation-wide public examinations. The effect of this misapplication of the quota system in admission m a y well lead to the institutions becoming more of centres of ethnic patronage than of academic excellence.

Again, to address the issue of misapplied quotas, s o m e of these measures have been suggested:

(i) educationally less-developed areas should put in place programmes for strengthening and expanding their secondary education system to promote

excellence and generate candidates qualified to compete for places in higher

education institutions on equal footing; (ii) as the number and quality of secondary schools improve overthenextfewyears

all over the country, the quota for educationally less developed areas should be steadily reduced and eventually eliminated.

A possibility also currently under consideration is the handing over of federally-owned institutions to states in which they are located, thus softening the adverse effects of implementing the quota system. This is still "on the drawing board", and it is feared that while

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it m a y solve one or two problems, it will certainly create even more serious problems nationwide.

Non-Professional Practices a m o n g Teachers

Teaching, as elsewhere, is one of the oldest professions in Nigeria. Its traditions are rooted in the rules and regulations of teaching and learning as practised in the English-speaking world, especially the United Kingdom. Until recently, one could be certain of what a typical Nigerian teacher would do and what he would not. Amongs t others, though he w a s lowly paid (a missionary, w h o s e reward w a s said to be in heaven) yet he w a s punctual, loyal, trust­worthy, hard-working etc, and w a s well-regarded by the community for which he worked and In which he tended to be the most educated and most enlightened. That w a s in the past. Today, the typical Nigerian teacher has b e c o m e associated with a disdained social status and often a number of non-professional actions while carrying out teaching functions. S o m e of the more disheartening examples are:

(a) lateness to school and classes social and functions are well as unauthorised absence from school for long periods of time;

(b) divided loyalty, i.e. holding other paid jobs concurrentlywith teaching, contrary to regulations;

(c) continuing to teach for several years without seeking self improvement through private reading orfurther sponsored training;

(d) falsifying continuous assessment records ofstudents to favourer penalise, and In s o m e cases, for m o n e y ;

(e) sale of poorly-prepared lesson-notes (referred to as "Handouts") to students in the absence of textbooks, at exorbitant prices and compelling students to buy them;

(f) large-scale copying without due authority and acknowledgement of published works of others - (plagiarism) either to enhance his job advancement and or make money;

(g) sexual harassment of pupils, especially of female students, often in return for going academic advantage;

(h) operating illegal schools and preparatory classes and lessons under unsatisfactory conditions for making m o n e y ;

(i) operating commercial activities during school hours i.e. trading within, or

outside the school.

T h e incidence and intensity of such non-professional practice has reached alarming dimensions in recent times. This has been attributed, a m o n g others, to such factors as the influence of a corrupt contemporary society and the existence of non-dernocraticgovernance, the absence or inaction of control mechanisms wittiin the education system, poor and irregular payment of teachers salaries, and especially the effect of economic factors and galloping inflation. A major correlate of such non-professional practices a m o n g teachers is that teachers, at all levels, have a very low status within the Nigerian society.

Suggestions m a d e regarding reduction of non-professional practice a m o n g teachers include thoroughly screening those w h o seek to be teachers for behaviour abnormalities (such as poor attitude to teaching functions), putting in place more appropriate and fonward-looking rules and regulations for teaching, running moré in-service courses to improve the academic and professional competence of teachers, upward review of teachers' salaries and conditions of service, etc. Perhaps the one remedy persistently suggested is that a Teachers

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Registration Council be established by Government to take on policy development and execution regarding teachers' professional practice all over the country. That little progress has been m a d e on these issues m e a n s that the hope of their disappearance remains dim.

Disenchantment with Education A m o n g Y o u n g People This disenchantment with education is exemplified in the following broad classes of

action:

(a) lateness to school; (b) early departure from school before closing time; (c) irregular attendance at school; (d) lack of industry in carrying out school work; (e) indiscipline in school, culminating in (f) drop-out of the school system. Officially, primary schools begin classes at 7.30 a m or 8.00 a m daily. In practice, it has

become usual to find pupils sluggishly staggering to school even as late as 10.00 a m by which time the school day would have been nearly half gone. Again, officially primary schools end classes at 1.00 p, daily. In practice, it has become usual to find pupils returning h o m e from school as early as 11.00 a . m . School registers (where they are honestly kept) show considerable absence from school of as much as 3 0 % in the urban and 5 0 % In the rural schools. In some, parts of the country, Fridays have been unoffícially declared as "lesson-free", and so children do not botherto attend school on those days. Those pupils w h o botherto go to school demonstrate considerable Inattentiveness in class, readily patronising any distracting events and activities, readily shouting and promoting nolse-making; do not carry out their home-work assignments, and are happier playing pranks In school than listening to their teachers. S o m e do not bring to school their textbooks, exercise books, pens and pencils etc even when their parents have suffered to provide them. Nor will they attend any preparatory or continuation classes after school for whatever reason. A s indicated elsewhere in this chapter, there is a considerable and rising incidence of undisciplined behaviour such as dis­respect to teachers and seniors, hostilitytojuniors, physical assault on teachers, defacement and destruction of school property, pollution of the school environment, careless dress habits as well as wearing disapproved adult-mode dresses, hair-dos and cosmetics. The ultimate demonstration of pupil disenchantment with schooling Is the phenomenon of dropping out of school which occurs from the first year through to the fifth year of the six-year primary school course. In s o m e parts of the country, less than 6 0 % of those w h o enrol in Primary-One everget to Primary-Six. Similarly about 4 0 % of those w h o enrol in the Junior Secondary-One reach Senior Secondary-Three. In the northern parts of the country, the drop-out syndrome features mainly girls, wlille In the south-eastern states it is the boys w h o feature.

The causes of disenchantment with schooling in particular, and education in general, are not far to seek. They are linked with the economic down-turn of the country which has left the education system in a state characterised by dilapidated infrastructure and lack of equipment etc. and its physical and psychological environment unattractive. It is related to changes in the society such as the apparent low utility of education, the enthronement and flaunting of material wealth, the decline of universally acceptable values, the ascendancy of the "business" class and businesses such as distributive trades, and the incidence of easy-gain pursuits such as drug-pushing.

A number of measures are being put in place to stem these tendencies. Special schools have been established to cater for those w h o are out of school prematurely for one reason or the other. The drop-out of girls has been associated with early marriages and religious tradition, and to contain this, s o m e states have legislated against early marriages. S o m e school systems have intensified punishments meted out for school offences (e.g. employing corporal punishment, manual labour, denial of privileges, and with-holding of certificates upon finishing schooling. Many of the drop-outs in the south-easternareas go into

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street-trading. S o m e communities and Local Governments have legislated against street-trading and apprenticeships of children of primary school age, and have arrested and punished offenders. S o m e systems have attempted to m a k e the school a conducive environment and community more attractive (especially private schools); s o m e have reduced or eliminated fees and miscellaneous charges, especially in the northern areas; others have installed serious guidance-counselling services to motivate and assist the pupils. S o m e of these measures have m a d e positive impact on the phenomenon of disenchantment with education by the youth. However, the combined effects of the economic down-turn, the non­availability of jobs for school-leavers (some with certificates of merit and distinction) and the relatively poor emoluments of public servants, have continued to diminish the chances of efforts to redress the disenchantment.

The country is addressing the issue of h o w the education system can be best funded in the face of economic realities. Solutions will have to c o m e from a complete overhaul of the social, political and economic system of the country (inter and intra-sectorial approaches) rather than from ad hoc, isolated, and "fire-fighting measures" commonly prescribed for such aberrations.

Conclusion It will be clear from this rather grim, but by no means exaggerated picture, that the

"aberrations" of the Nigerian education system are legion. Theyderive largely from its socio­economic and political environment, from which education itself cannot be immune. Many are the result of ineffective or even mis-management; s o m e , the result of failures which m a y be described as 'endemic' to the system; all have developed overtime. Their solutions cannot be isolated from solutions required in the national economy, and clearly must depend on the quality of leadership and management available, and the commitment of such leadership to quality education. The faint glimmer of hope is that a compendium of measures to deal with the various aberrations already exists, and once again, what is needed, as has been suggested in other chapters, is a strong political will to action, and the partnership of all concerned especially, parents and sponsors.

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