2006

Submitted by: T. Abdulbaseer Jamal Eid

abedaed85@yahoo.com

+962788120771

ZARQA PRIVATE UNIVERSITY

1/1/2006

The Sound Systems between English and Arabic: a Comparative Study

The Sound Systems between English and Arabic: a Comparative Study 2006

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الرحمن الله بسمالرحيم

: تعالى قال

من لكم جعل الله } و أنفسكم وجعل أزواجا

بنين أزواجكم من لكم من رزقكم و وحفدة

أفبالباطل الطيبات هم الله وبنعمة يؤمنون{ يكفرون

العظيم الله صدقالنحل سورة

رقم " "72ايه

I am Abdulbaseer Eid. I was born in Lebanon. I have finished my secondary school in Zarqa city Jordan in 2003. I faced many difficulties in learning English at the beginning during my study at school so I decided to concentrate on studding English language and to be specialist in this language in order to make it easy for Arabic students to learn it. I became a student in Zarqa Private University immediately after I had finished my secondary school. During my study, I wrote three researches in English language; "The Sound Systems between English and Arabic: a Comparative Study", "The Present Tense between English and Arabic: a comparative Study", "English foundational Grammar". The idea that emerged from the first two researches is to make studding English familiar to our Arabic students because they deal with the similarities and the differences between English and Arabic language.

I have graduated from my University and I employed immediately at Al-Omareyah Schools in Amman. I am happy in working there because it has a wide reputation with its excellent teaching with Islamic vision. I have taken many courses that deal with my work as a teacher and I have given there a preliminary TOFEL levels.

Now I am still working on myself. I am doing my higher Diploma in ICT "Information Communication Technology" in Education under the umbrella of Yarmouk University/Jordan and INHOLLAND University/ The Netherlands. In addition; I am also about to finish a book under title of "The Easy Way to the High Education' this material is prepared for Al-Tawjihe Students in Jordan. It contains all the passages with a sufficient package of questions to promote students understanding "The sky is the limit to what I can do" is my slogan.

The Sound Systems between English and Arabic: a Comparative Study 2006

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DedicationTo those people who mean something to me…

To those who have touched my life in one way or another…

To those who make me smile when I really need it….

To those that make me see the brighter side when I am really

down…

To those who I want to let them know that I appreciate their love

and support…

My Dear Father, Mother…

To All of my family…

My sisters, Uncles, Aunts…

To My friends whom I have non-forgettable moments with

them…

Those who share me the moments of pleasure and labor…

Qabas, Abdulkader, Ahmad Alkhabas

I dedicate this work.

Acknowledgment

I am very much indebted to my supervisor, Dr. Mua'yyed Jum'a. Without his invaluable suggestions, helps, patience and continuous guidance, I might not have complete this research in its present shape.

Special thanks are addressed to all the people who have helped me throughout my work and support me in every way they could.

My appreciation goes also to my family for their support, and guiding me through my educational journey.

Abstract

This study tries to answer three basic questions which are; what is English sound system? What is Arabic sound system? And how does Arabic sound system differs from English sound system? All these questions refer to one basic purpose which is to accommodate one's language to those who learn English or Arabic as second languages with the correct pronunciation of sounds.

This research explains many things in English phonetics such as: the definition of phonetics, the comparison between consonants and vowels.

This study also tries to give some information about the production of Arabic sounds, the description of Arabic consonants and the description of Arabic vowels.

In addition to the explanation of English sound system and Arabic sound system; giving a comparison between them is considered as a very important purpose. We find in chapter three many similarities and differences between the two systems. There are common consonants, consonants restricted to English, consonants restricted to Arabic, common vowels, vowels restricted to English, and vowels restricted to Arabic.

In short, this study tries to compare between Arabic phonetics and English phonetics by giving some explanations about the consonants and English vowels.

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List of FiguresPage

NumberChapter 2

2.1 The organ of speech……………………………………… 42.2 Sound Waves ………...……………………………………… 52.3 Diphthongs ……………………………….…………………… 132.4 Cardinal Vowels…………………………………………… 14

Chapter 33.1 The organ of articulation ………………………………. 223.2 The main place of articulation ……………..…….. 24

List of Tables

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Page Number

Chapter 22.1 The Sounds of English / Consonants……………….. 42.2 Stops or Plosives…………………………………………… 62.3 Fricatives……………………………………………………… 72.4 Affricates…………………………………………………….. 72.5 English Consonants………………………………………. 92.6 Place of Articulation………………………………………. 102.7 The Sound of English / Vowels Part (1)…………… 112.8 The Sounds of English / Vowels Part (2)…………… 11

Chapter 33.1 The classification of Points of Articulation………. 163.2 The description of sounds……….…………………….. 243.3 The sounds of Standard Arabic Consonants…… 253.4 The Sound of Arabic Vowels………………….. 25

Chapter 44.1 Types of phonemic Differences …………………... 264.2 Common Consonants……………………………………. 274.3 English-Restricted Consonants ………………….. 284.4 Arabic-Restricted Consonants ……………………. 294.54.64.7

Vowel Comparison…………………………………………Diphthong Comparison…………………………Arabic Consonants...............................................................

303132

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List of Symbols

/ / Phonemic writing[ ] Phonetic 'allophonic' writing+ Existing- Non-Existing

Table of Contents

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Page Number

Chapter 1 Introduction……………………………………………………….. 1

Chapter 2 The Sound Systems of English………………………….. 32.1 Phonetics………………………………………………….….. 32.2 Vowel and Consonant……………………………………... 32.3 Phonetic Alphabet………………………………………… 42.4 Description of Speech Sounds………………..…... 52.5.1 Vowels………………………………………………………… 122.5.2 Dephthongs…………………………………………………. 132.5.3 Triphthongs……………………….…………...……………. 141.6 Phonemes and Allophones………………………… 15

Chapter 3 The Sound Systems of Arabic…………………………... 163.1 Organs of Speech and Speech Production………. 163.2 Modification of Air……………………………………….. 173.3 Description of Speech Sounds……………………….. 19

Chapter 4 The Sound Systems of English and Arabic…….. 264.1 English and Arabic Phonetics………………………... 264.2 Common Consonants……………………………………. 264.3 Consonants Restricted to English………………….. 284.4 Consonants Restricted to Arabic……………………. 294.54.6

Vowel Comparison…………………………………………Diphthong Comparison………………………….

3030

Chapter 5 Conclusion…………………………………………………………..

Appendix I…………………………………………………………………………….....

Appendix II……………………………………………………………………………..

Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………

Arabic references…………………………………………………………………….

Chapter 1Introduction

Each language has its own phonetic system, but in this research we compare between two systems which are Arabic sound system and English sound system. This study aims to explain three things; First, the sound system of English. Next, the sound system of Arabic. Finally, the comparison between these two systems. All of these purposes refer to one basic purpose which is to accommodate one's language to those who learn English or Arabic as second languages with the correct pronunciation of sounds.

In English phonetics we describe consonants according to three criteria which are place of articulation, manner of articulation and voicing. According to the place of articulation; English consonants are divided into eight groups which are: bilabials, labio-dentals, dentals, alveolars, platao-alveolars, palatals, velars and glottals. But according to the manner of articulation English sounds are divided into six groups which are: stops, fricatives, affricates, nasals, lateral and approximants.

English vowel sounds are described according to three criteria which are: frontness – backness, closeness – openness, and lip – rounding.

In contrast, in Arabic phonetics we describe sounds according to ten criteria which are: bilabials, labio dentals, alveolars, retroflex, palatals, velars, uvulars, pharyngals and glottals. Each group has many

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characteristics such as deep, soft, whishpered, magnified, delicate, sonorous, nasal, curved, and trill.

Arabic vowels are only eight which are: a فتحة, aa and au ,أي ai ,الياء ii ,الكسرة i ,الواو uu ,الضمة u ,األلف.أو

There are some similarities and differences between the two systems, we have eighteen common consonants in both English and Arabic such as /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /ŝ/, /ĵ/, /f/, /z/, /s/, /h/, /l/, /m/, /n/, /w/, /r/, / /, / /, and /y/. There are ten consonants restricted to Arabic such as /T/ // /q/ ,/ط ء/, /?/ /ق /, /D/ /ض/, /S/ /ص/, /H/ /ح/, /X/ /خ/, /D/ /ظ/, /G/ /غ/, and /9/ /ع/ and there are consonants restricted to English such as /p/, /g/, /ĉ/, /v/, / / and /z/.

In Arabic phonetics there are eight vowels three of them are common to both English and Arabic such as /i,a,u/. Four of them are restricted to English such as /e,æ,i,ə/. Only one vowel is restricted to Arabic which is /a:/.

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Chapter 2The Sound Systems of English

2.1. Phonetics:

Phonetics can be defined as the study of speech sounds their articulation, transmission and their reception. phonation is defined as the result from opening and closing the vocal cords (voicing). The vocal cords are placed in the larynx, the lung air has to pass through these cords.

Branches of phonetics:There are three branches of phonetics. First,

articulatory phonetics which studies the means of production. Next, acoustic phonetics which studies the analysis of sound waves. Finally, auditory phonetics which tells us about how speech sounds are received by hearers. (Alkuli: 2002) & (Aitchison: 1992)

2.2 Vowel and consonant:

There are two differences between vowels and consonants. The most important difference is their different distributions; the distribution of vowels and consonants is different for each language.

Another difference between them is the obstruction. Vowels are sounds in which there is no obstruction to the flow of air as it passes from the larynx to the lips. In contrast, consonants are sounds in which there is a full obstruction. If we make a consonant sound like (s), it can

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be clearly felt that we are making it difficult or impossible for the air to pass through the mouth.

In Arabic the short vowel sounds are represented by the diacritics ( الكسره: الحركات و الضمه و الفتحه ). In English, on the other hand, all vowels are represented in orthography (the written form of the language) (letters of the alphabet). (Lyons: 1981)

2.3 Phonetic Alphabet

symbol keyword symbol keyword symbol Keywordb bad n name thinkd do p pot shipf fall r read chairg good s sad measureh hat t tap just

yes v vast singk key w wel like z Zinkm me that

Table 2.1 The Sounds of English / Consonants

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Fig. 2.1 The organ of speech Adopted from Rogers (1991)

Fig. 2.2 Sound Waves

2.4 Description of Speech Sounds1.4.1 Classification of Consonants:There are five criteria to describe each consonant:

1. Place of articulation.2. Manner of articulation. 3. Voicing.4. Airstream mechanism. (the source of air)

a. Pulmonic airstream.b. Non-pulmonic airstream.

5. The nature of the airstream.a. Egressive: The air pushed out.b. Inegressive: The air pushed in.

All English and Arabic sounds are egressive pulmonic. (Aitchison: 1992)

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1. Place of articulationIt describes the point at which the articulators actually touch.

i. Bilabials: In English these are /b/, /p/, /m/ and /w/.ii. Labio-dental: In English these are /f/ and /v/.

iii. Dentals: In English these are / / and / /.iv. Alveolars: These are /t/, /d/, /n/, /s/, /z/, /l/ and /r/.v. Palato-alveolars or (Alveo-palatals): In English

these are / /, / /, / / and / /.vi. Palatals: In English there is only one palatal sound,

the /j/.vii. Velars: In English there are /k/, /g/ and /y/.

viii. Glottals: There is only one English glottal sound, /h/. (Aitchison: 1992)

2. Manner of Articulation:It describes the type of obstruction caused by the narrowing or closure of the articulators.i. Stops or plosives.

There are three steps to produce a top sound:a. Complete closure stage.b. Compression stage.c. Sudden release stage.In English jthe stops are /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/ and /g/.

Place of articulationVoicing Bilabials Alveolars VelarsVoiceless (fortes) p t kVoiced (lenis) b d g

Table 2.2 Stops or Plosives

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ii. Fricatives: To produce a fricative sound a narrow passage must be made between the two articulators, the air escapes between the two articulators and the active articulator moves to apassive articulator, In English there are / /, / /, / /, / /, / /, /z/, / /, / / and /h/.

Place of ArticulationVoicing Dentals Labio-dental Alveolar Palato-lveolar GlottalVoiceless (fortes) s hVoiced (lenis) z

Table 2.3 Fricatives

h : depends on the sound following it.

iii. Affricates: To produce an affricate sound, there are three steps:1. Complete closure stage.2. Compression stage.3. Slow release stage.In English these are / / and / /.

Place of articulationVoicing Palato-alveolars

Voiceless (fortes)Voiced (lenis) d

Table 2.4 Affricates

Affricate sounds begin as plosives and end as fricatives.

The plosive and the following fricative must be made with the same articulators, the plosive and

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fricative must be (homorganic) two sounds = one phone.

iv. Nasals: In nasal sounds there is no compression, the air escapes through the nose, for this to happen, the soft palate must be lowered. In English Nasals are /m/, /n/ and /y/.

v. Lateral: There is only one lateral sound which is /l/. To produce this sound the air must escape from aside of the tongue./l/ voiced / Alveolar/ Lateral.There are two kinds of (L):1. Dark (L): is found when it precedes a consonant.2. Clear (L): in found when it precedes a vowel.E.g. Dark (L): tell, fill. Clear (L): slim, plane.

vi. Approximants: IN English these are /j/, /w/ and /r/./r/ it is an articulation in which the Tongue is in fact usually curled back wards with the tip raised, consonants with this tongue shape are usually called (retroflex). There are two kinds of accent:a. Rhotic accent (American accent).

This accent has (r) in final position before a pause and before a consonant.

b. Non-rhotic accent (British accent): In this accent (r) only occurs before vowels.

Semi-vowels: semi- vowels are /j/ and /w/. They are phonologically like consonants but phonetically like vowels. Phonologically their function as consonants, they only occur before vowel phonemes. Phonetically the articulation of /j/ is the same as that of a front close vowel such as /i:/ but it is very short. In the same

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way /w/ we have to raise the back of the tongue toward the velum and simultaneously rounding the lips. (Aitchison: 1992)& (Alkhali: 2002) & (Alitchison: 1992) 3. Voicing:

If the vocal cords vibrate during its production, a sound is called voiced sound; otherwise, it is called voiceless. Whereas all vowel sounds are voiced.

Place

Manner

Bilabial Labio- Dental

Dental Alveolar Palato-Alveolar

Palatal Velar Glottal

StopVoiceless

p t k ?Voiced

b d g

AffricateVoiceless

VoicedFricative

Voicelessf s

hVoiced

v z

NasalVoiced

m n ŋ

LateralVoiced

l

ApproximantVoiced

w r j

Table 2.5 English ConsonantsAdopted from Aitchison (1992)

Note: /h/ phonetically, is a voiceless vowel with the quality of the voiced vowel that follows it. Phonologically, /h/ is a consonant. It is usually found before vowels (voiced) when /h/ occurs between voiced

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sound it is pronounced with voicing. E.g. greenhouse /gri:nhaυs/ , a head /əhed/.

Bilabials Labio- Dentals/p/ /b/ /m/ /w/pen bad man wet

Articulators:(The two lips)

/f/ /v/fall voice

Articulators:(lower lip + upper teeth)

Palatals Dentals/j/yes

Articulators:(Hard palate + tongue)

/ /Ө //then thin

Articulators:(teeth + tongue)

Alveolars Palato-Alveolars/t/ /d/ /n/ /s/ /z/ /l/ /r/tea did no so zoo leg red

Articulators:(Alveolar ridge + tongue)

/s/ / tʃ/ / / / /she chin vision June

Articulators:(hard palate + alveolar

ridge + tongue)Velars Glottals

/k/ /g/ /ŋ/cat got sing

Articulators:(Soft palate + tongue)

/h/how

Articulators: (Vocal cards)

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Table 2.6 Place of Articulation

Symbol Keyword Symbol KeywordSee ɔ PortShip u TooTen PutLamb Cup

а Arm 3 FurPot ə Age

Table 2.7 The Sound of English / Vowels Part (1)

Symbol Keywordpayfivejoingo

nownearpurehair

Table 2.8 The Sounds of English / Vowels Part (2)

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2.5.1. VowelsVowels are produced with no obstruction and all

vowels sounds are voiced (vibrating the vocal cards). We can describe vowels according to these criteria:1. Frontness – backness (Shape of the tongue).2. Closeness - openness (how far up or down that part

moves)3. Lip – rounding (the shape of the lips).The shape of the lips:

1) Spread.2) Rounded.3) Neutral (Neither spread nor rounded).

1.5.1. Cardinal Vowels:1. /i/ is a long, high, front vowel with

spread lips as in see.2. / / is the short /i/ as in sip.3. /e/ is a short, mid, front vowel made

with spread lips as in get.4. / / is a short, low, front vowel made

with the spread lips as in get. 5. /a/ is a long, low, back vowel made

with neutrally open lips as in park.6. / / is a short, low, back vowel made

with slightly rounded lips (in British English) as in hot.

7. / / is the long counter part of / / as in caught.

8. /υ/ is a short high back vowel made with rounded lips as in foot.

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9. /u/ is the long counter part of /υ/ as in boot.

10./ / is a short, low, central vowel as in but.11./ / is a long mid, central vowel made with slightly

rounded lips as in bird.12./ə/ "the schwa" is a short, mid, central vowel made

with slightly spread lips as in sofa. (Aitchison: 1992) & (Alkhuli: 2002)

2.5.2 DiphthongsDiphthongs are vowel sounds consisting of two parts each part considered as a single part. We produce the two sounds with two articulators without interruption. They can be divided into three kinds:1. Those ending with / /:

/ / as in late /l t/./ / as in file /f l/./ / as in toy /t /.

2. Those ending with /υ/:/əυ/ as in snow /snəυ/./aυ/ as in town /taυn/.

3. Those ending with /ə/:/ / as in near /n /./υə/ as in sure /ʃυə/./eə/ as in hair /heə/. (Aitchison: 1992)

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/ / / / / / ending in / / ending in / /

Fig 2.2 Diphthongs

1.5.3 Triphthongs:They are not counted vowels because we have two tongue movements and the last part of the triphthongs is rarely heard.Triphthongs are:1) / ə/ as in player.2) / ə/ as in liar.3) / ə/ as in lawyer.4) /aυə/ as in hour.5) /əυə/ as in lower. (Lyons: 1981)

Fig. 2.3 Cardinal Vowels

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Adopted from Aitchison (1992)

2.6 Phonemes and Allophones:

Phoneme is the smallest sound unit that indicates difference in meaning. Allophone is the different pronunciation of a phoneme.

E.g. the phoneme /l/ is pronounced differently in different word positions. In word kill it is called dark (L), but in the word killing it is called clear L. The two pronunciations are allophones of the meaning must be changed e.g. /t/ is considered a phoneme because the change of this sound in the word bit /b t/ into another such as bid /b d/ changes the meaning of the word. But whether the phoneme /t/ is pronounced as [t] in a word like pit /p t/ into [T] as in the word but /b t/ does not make any difference. (Aitchison: 1992) & (lyons: 1981) & (Alkhuli: 2002)

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Chapter 3The Sound Systems of Arabic

3.1. Organs of speech and speech production:

Speech is modified breathing. That is, the basic of human sound in all its variety is the air stream that goes through our vocal tract to or fro our lungs. Aspeech sound wave is usually set up by a source of energy. Lungs serve as an initiator. Most ordinary sounds are produced by air stream coming from the lungs. Omar (1976) proposes four processes in speech production:1. Air stream.2. Phonation.3. Oro-nasal.4. Articulatory.

The upper articulatorاألعلى العضو

The lower articulatorاألسفل العضو

The classification of articulation

المخرجي التصنيفUpper lip

Upper teethUpper teethtooth-ridge

PalateHard-palate

VelumUvula

العليا الشفهالعليا األسنانالعليا األسنان

اللثهالغار

الطبق " الغار"الصلباللين الطبقاللهاة

Lower lipLower lip

Blade of the tongueBlade of the tongueBlade of the tongueFront of the tongueFront of the tongueFront of the tongue

الشفهالسفلى الشفه

السفلى طرف

اللسان طرفالسان طرف

BilabialLabiodentals

DentalAlveolar

RetroflexPalatalVelar

Uvular

شفتاني .1 شفوي .2

أسنانيأسناني .3

لثوي .4التوائي .5

غاري .6طبقي .7لهوي .8

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السان مقدم

اللسان مؤخر

اللسان مؤخر

اللسانTable 2.1 " المخرجي The classification of Points of "التصنيف

ArticulationAdopted from Omar (1976)

9. There are some sounds are produced in the pharynx and larynx, mouth and nose don't do anything except the formation of sounds and these sounds are called "resonates".Pharyngeal are produced by the root of the tongue and the back of the mouth. So, it is better to call these sounds as linguo-pharyngal. This position may produce fricative sound or stop sound. Stops are very hard to be produced but fricatives are produced easily. "ح" and "ع" are considered as fricative pharynals.

Glottal is produced in the glottis. When we close the glottis "ء" sound is produced and when we narrow the glottis "هـ" sound is produced.

10. There are some sounds which are produced fro the nose only, the air goes through the nose. We can describe the sounds if we know their place of articulation. So, it is important to indicate the position of the closure. Nasals are considered as stops. Nasals are produced when the velum is lowered to allow the air pass freely through the nose. (ibid)

3.2. Modification of air:

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1. Complete closure then open stage:This modification produce stops which are called

plosives or "occlusives" and these sounds are also called 'momentary'. Plosives are described as "Aspirated Sound" if a kind of aspiration goes with the plosion. This kind of aspiration is symbolized by (p ) or (p ). There are two kinds of plosives; the first kind is "explosives" and the second kind is "implosives". (Isteatiah: 2006)& (Omar: 1976)

2.Narrowing:In this modification "continuants" are produced

which are divided into a. "Sibilants" or "Whistles" such as (س) and (ز). Sometimes sibilants are divided into "hissing" e.g. (s) and "hushing" e.g. (S). (Ibid)b. Fricatives which are also called "constrictives" or "spirants" e.g. (ن) and (ذ).

3.Closure then narrowing:In this modification we have "Affricates" or "Affricated release" or "Semi-stops". (ibid)

4.Partial closure:There is a partial closure in one place then a partial

opening in other place. This partial closure consists of:a) Laterals such as (ل) sound.b) Nasals which are sometimes called vowel-like sounds. These sounds are produced with vibration.

5.Close trill: There are some positions for close trill: a) Uvula: which produces uvular trill sound.

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b) Tongue against teeth and tooth-ridge. This position produces lingual trill sound.c) The tip of the tongue against the palate. This position produces retroflex trill sound.d) The lip: which produces labial trill.If we have one wave of vibration, these sounds are called as one-tap- trill or flapped. Consonants are produced by these five phases.

6.Open approximation:Open approximation produces sounds without

friction or explosion. All the vowels are produced in this and some consonants such as (v), (w) and (s). (ibid)

3.3. Description of Speech Sounds:مرقق مجهور شديد .شفوي ب 1.

1. ب Delicate sonorous strict bilabial.مرقق مجهور أنفي .شفوي م 2.

2. م Delicate sonorous nasal bilabial.مرقق مجهور لين .أنفوي و 3.

و .3 Delicate sonorous soft bilabial.مرقق مهموس رخو أسناني .شفوي ف 4.

4. ف Delicate whispered lax nasal bilabial.مجهور رخو الثنايا وأطراف اللسان طرف من

.مفخمظ 5.

5. ظ Magnified sonorous lax from the blade of the tongue and the blade of the folds.

مجهور رخو الثنايا وأطراف اللسان طرف من.مرقق

ذ 6.

6. ذ Delicate sonorous lax from the blade of the

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tongue and the blade of the folds.مهموس رخو الثنايا وأطراف اللسان طرف من

.مرققث 7.

7. ث Delicate whispered lax from the blade of the tongue and the blade of the folds.

مجهور شديد الثنايا وأصول اللسان طرف من.مفخم

ط 8.

ط .8 Magnified sonorous strict from the blade of the tongue and the roots of the folds.

مجهورم شديد الثنايا وأصول اللسان طرف من.مرقق

د 9.

9. د Delicate sonorous strict from the blade of the tongue and the roots of the folds.

مهموس شديد الثنايا وأصول اللسان طرف من.مرقق

ت 10.

Delicate whispered strict from the blade of the tongue and the roots of the folds.

مرقق مجهور رخو الثنايا وفويق اللسان طرف .من ز 11.11. ز Delicate sonorous lax from the blade of the

tongue and the upper folds.مرقق مهموس رخو الثنايا وفويق اللسان طرف .من س 12.

12. س Delicate whispered lax from the blade of the tongue and the upper folds.

مفخم مجهور رخو الثنايا وفويق اللسان طرف .من ص 13.13. ص Magnified whispered lax from the blade of the

tongue and the upper folds.مجهور أنفي الثنايا وفويق اللسان طرف بين ما

.مرققن 14.

14. ن Delicate sonorous nasal from the blade of the tongue and the upper folds.

ظهر في أدخل الثنايا وفويق اللسان طرف بين مامجهور مكرر .اللسان

ر 15.

15. ر Sonorous trill between the blade of the tongue and the upper folds entered to the back of the

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tongue.منحرف فوقهما ما و الطرف إلى اللسان حافة من

.مجهورل 16.

16. ل Sonorous curved from the tip of the tongue to the blade and above them.

رخو األضراس من يليه وما اللسان حافة أول منمفخم .مجهور

ض 17.

17. ض Magnified sonorous lax from the tip of the tongue to the following teeth.

رخو األضراس من يليه وما اللسان حافة أول منمرقق .مهموس

ش 18.

18. ش Delicate whispered lax from the tip of the tongue to the following teeth.

مجهور شديد األعلى الحنك وسط اللسان وسط منمرقق .مهموس

ج 19.

19. ج Delicate sonorous strict from the middle of the tongue "the middle of the hard palate"

مجهور لين األعلى الحنك وسط اللسان وسط من.مرقق

ى 20.

20. ى Delicate sonorous soft from the middle of the tongue "the middle of the hard palate"

شديد األعلى الحنك من يليه وما اللسان مؤخر منمرقق .مهموس

ك 21.

21. ك Delicate whispered strict from the back of the tongue and the following hard palate.

شديد األعلى الحنك من يليه وما اللسان أقصى منمفخم .مجهور

ق 22.

22. ق Magnified sonorous strict from the maximum of the tongue of the following hard palate.

مفخم مجهور رخو الحلق أدنى .من غ 23.23. غ Magnified sonorous lax from the minimum of

the pharynx.مفخم مجهور رخو الحلق أجنى .من خ 24.

24. خ Magnified whispered lax from the minimum of

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the pharynx. مرقق مجهور والرخو الشديد بين الحلق وسط .من ع 25.

25. ع Delicate sonorous between strict and lax from the middle of the pharynx.

مفخم مهموس رخو الحلق وسط .من ح 26.26. ح Delicate whispered lax from the middle of the

pharynx.مرقق مجهور شديد الحلق أقصى .من ء 27.

27. ء Delicate sonorous strict from the maximum of the pharynx.

مرقق مجهور رخو الحلق أقصى .من هـ

28.

28. هـ

Delicate whispered lax from the maximum of the pharynx.

مجهور هاو الحلق أقصى أ .من 29.29. أ Sonorous deep from the maximum of the

pharynx.(Hassan: 1988)

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Fig 3.1 النطقي The organ of ' الجهازarticulation' Adopted from Omar (1976)

'Lips' الشفتان 1.'Teeth' األسنان 2.

'Tooth-ridge' اللثة 3.'Hard palate' الصلب الحنك 4.'Soft palate' اللين الحنك 5.

'Uvula' اللهاة 6.'Blade of tongue' للسان طرف 7.'Front of tongue' اللسان مقدمة 8.'Back of tongue' للسان مؤخرة 9.

'Pharynx' الحلق 10.'Epiglottis' المزمار لسان 11.

'Position of vocal cords' األوتار موقع.الصوتية

12.

'Tip of tongue' اللسان حد 13.(Omar: 1976)

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Fig. 3.2 الرئيسية النطق The main place of" أماكنarticulation"

Adopted from Omar (1976)

" و ، م "ب، Bilabial شفتاني 1."ف" Labiodental شفوي

أسناني2.

" ث ، ظ ، "ذ Dental أسناني 3.ز، " س، ، ض ، ط ت، د،

"صAlveolar لثوي

أسناني4.

" ن ، ر ، "ل Retroflex التوائي 5." ي ، ج "ش، Palatal غاري 6." غ ، خ ، "ك Velar طبقي 7.

"ق" Uvular لهوي 8." ح ، "ع Pharyngeal حلقي 9.

" هـ ، "همزه glottal حنجري 10.

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Table 3.2 الحروف "The description of sounds" صفاتAdopted from Hassan (1988)

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letter Symbol Keyword Letter symbol Keyword الهمزة

ء? حمدأ ز z زارن

ب b لدب س s لمست t ابت ص S عدصط T طبس ش مسشث لثاث ع 9 لمعج ملج غ g ابغح ћ ملح ف f اتفخ x لفخ ق q لمقد d ارد ك k المك

ص D ررص ل l معلذ هبذ م m اتمظ Ð لظ ن h ورنر r مىر و w لدوي j / y وسفي

Table 3.3 The sounds of Standard Arabic Consonants Adopted from Kharma & Bakir (2001)

Letter or Diacritic Symbol Keywordالفتحة a ذهباأللف aa ـاتلقالضمة u لقالواو uu توح

الكسرة i فقالياء ii ليـقأي ai ب تيأو au ص / وق تولTable 3.4 The Sound of Arabic Vowels

Adopted from kharma & Bakir (2001)

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Chapter 4The Sound System of English and Arabic

4.1 English and Arabic phonemes

English language has its own phonetic system, but such systems may share some similarities in addition to some differences. There are three types of relationship between English system and Arabic system. First, there are phonemes common to both languages. Second, there are phonemes existent in the first language (L1), but not in the other language (L2). Third, there are phonemes existents in (L2), but not in (L1). (Alkhuli: 1997)

Type L1 L2123

+ p+ p- p

+ p- p+ p

Table 4.1 Types of phonemic Differences Adopted from Alkhuli (1997)

4.2. Common Consonants:

There are some common consonants in both English and Arabic. These consonants are (d, b, t, j, f, , , z, š, h, l, m, n, w, r and y). There are eighteen consonants common between English and Arabic. However, these common consonants are not always identical; there are some differences. (Ibid)1. /t/ in English is alveolar, but in Arabic it is dental. Here is a difference in the point of articulation.2. /d/ in English (E) is alveolar, but dental in Arabic (A).

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3. /h/ occurs in initial and medial positions in English, but not finally, e.g., horse, behalf. In Arabic, /h/ occurs in all positions, e.g., هتف, به, وجه . Here is a difference in distribution. 4. /r/ is flat in British English and retroflexed in American English. But trilled in Arabic, especially in a final position, e.g., نهر. The terms here refer to tongue shape and tongue position. With a flat /r/, the tongue is flat, with a retroflexed /r/, the tip of the tongue is curved back. With a trilled /r/, the Sound /r/ is repeatedly produced.5. Although /l/ is a common consonant, the rules of light dark phone distribution ae different in English and Arabic. We notice that the difference may still be there: in the point of articulation, manner of articulation on distribution.Common phoneme

English phoneme

Arabic Example

Common phoneme

English phoneme

Arabic Example

1. /b/2. /t/3. /b/4. /k/5. / /

6./f/7. / /8. / /

9. /s/10. /z/11. / /12. /h/

BaitTonDayKitJugFineThinThenSignZooShoehen

بابتأملدمكانجاءفتىثالثهذلكسوفزالشمالهذا

13. /l/14. /m/15. /n/16. /w/17. /r/18. /y/

LittleMotherNowWaterRateyet

ليثماءناموضوءرجعيتكلم

Table 4.2 Common Consonants Adopted from Alkhuli (1997)

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4.3 Consonants Restricted to English:

There are consonants that exist in English, but not in Arabic. These consonants are called English-restricted consonants. (ibid)

No. Consonant English Example Arabic Example123456

/p//g// //v// // /

PenGoodChairVineSing

measure

------

Table 4.3 English-Restricted Consonants Adopted from Alkhuli (1997)

However, some elaboration may be desirable here:"1. /p/ exists in English as a phoneme. It does not exist in Arabic as a distinct phoneme. Nevertheless, [p] exists in Arabic as an allophone of /b/ conditioned by the phonetic environment, e.g, (laps) لبس. Here /b/ in phonemic in English, i.e, significant, because it affect meaning, but the difference in Arabic is phonetic, i.e. , non-phonemic, non-functional, or insignificant, because it does not affect meaning." (Alkhuli, 1997: 4)2. /g/ is an English- restricted consonant. However, we can find this sound in some Arabic dialects such as the Egyptian dialect and the Yemenite dialects, dialects not considered standard dialects.For example, a reader of the Holy Quran would not produce /g/ in the place of / /.

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3. / / does not exist in standard Arabic, we can find this sound in some rural dialects. The counter-consonant in standard Arabic is /k/.4. / / does not exist in most Arabic dialects. However, we find this sound in Syrian Arabic and Lebanese Arabic in the place of / / in other dialects, e.g., / abal/ instead of / abal/ جبل.5. / / doesn't exist in Arabic at all. In English, it has a restriction on occurrence: it doesn't occur initially. It only occurs medially and finally, e.g. finger, sing.

4.4. Consonants Restricted to Arabic.

There are some consonants in Arabic that don't exist in English. There Consonants are called Arabic-restricted consonants. (Alkhuli: 1997)

No. Consonant Arabic Example English Example12345678910

/T/ /ط//q/ /ق//ء/ /?/

/D/ /ض//S/ /ص//H/ /ح//X/ /خ//Ð/ /ظ//G/ /غ//ع/ /9/

طعامقامأكل

ضربصامحالةخافظلغناءعمل

----------

Table 4.4 Arabic-Restricted Consonants. Adopted from Alkhuli (1997)

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4.5 Vowel Comparison:

There are some simple vowels. Three of them are common to both E and A: /i, a, u/. four of them are restricted to English /e, , i, /. Only one vowel is restricted to A i.e., /a:/, the only long vowel in the table. (Alkhuli: 1997)

No. Vowel English Example Arabic Example Type12345678

/i//e// //i// //a//a://u/

bitbetman

wantedthehot-

put

بنت----

بنىقالبهتان

EAEEEE

EAA

EATable 4.5 Vowel Comparison

Adopted from Alkhuli (1997)

4.6. Diphthong Comparison:

"A diphthong is a vowel followed by a glide or semi-vowel. E.g., boy, bow. There are four diphthongs common to E and A. Here we refer to Standard English and Arabic SA, i.e., the two standard languages. The common ones are /iy/, /ay/, /aw/, /uw/. There are four ones restricted to English: /ey, ow, oy, ɔw/. There is no diphthong restricted to Arabic." (Alkhuli: 1997,6)

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It is mention worthy to say that some phoneticians consider the diphthongs /iy, ey, uw, ɔw/ long vowels, which have to be symbolized as such: /i:, e:, u:, /. However, this disagreement among phonetians does not change the comparative observation in this respect. The types of relationship between E and A with regard to these sounds remain the same, no matter how they are transcribed. A main EA difference must be pointed out here with respect to vowels and diphthongs. English allows them to occur anywhere; initially, medially, and finally, e.g., in, not, no, with some exceptions in final positions. In contrast, Arabic does not allow them to occur initially; all Arabic words begin with consonants, never with vowels or diphthongs." (Ibid: 6-7)

No. Diphthong English Example Arabic Example Type12345678

/iy//ey//ay//aw//ow//oy//uw//ɔw/

BeatBaitFine

RoundBoatBoyBoot

bought

ريم-

بيتبوت

--

يأتون-

EAE

EAEAEE

EAE

Table 4.6 Diphthong Comparison Adopted from Alkhuli (1997)

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Place

Manner

plosiveVoiced

b d ضD

- - ء?Voiceless

- t طT

k قq

AffricateVoiced جVoiceless

-

FricativeVoiced

- ذ

z Dظ ش غ

9ع h

Voicelessf

ثs S

ص- x

خhح

-

NasalVoiced

m n ŋLateral

Voicedl

VibratesVoiced

r

Semi-Vowels

Voiced y (j)

Table 4.7. Arabic Consonants Adopted from Kharma & Bakir (2001)

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Chapter 5Conclusion

As we have seen in this research, there are many differences and similarities between the sound systems of English and the sound systems of Arabic. This research explains these differences and similarities to accommodate one's language who learns English or Arabic as a second language with the correct pronunciation.

This research tries to distinguish between these two systems, as we have seen in chapter one, it shows many things about English consonants and vowels. It gives many of information about classification of consonants and description of speech sounds of both consonants and vowels. In contrast, in chapter two it explains many things such as organs of speech, speech production, modification of air and description of Arabic speech sounds.

In addition to these things, this research gives us a clear comparison between these two systems, as we have seen in chapter three there are some consonants restricted to English and others restricted to Arabic. There is another comparison for vowels and diphthongs between Arabic and English.

In conclusion, the purpose of this research which is to help people to pronounce sounds properly is fulfilled through this kind of comparative study between the sound systems of English and Arabic.

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Appendix I

English Phonemes

1. / / sheep 24. / / yes2. / / farm 25. / / we3. / / coo 26. / / moon4. / / horse 27. / / name5. / / bird 28. / / sing6. / / ship 29. / / pen7. / / hat 30. / / town8. / / foot 31. / / cat9. / / sock UK) 32. / / fish

10. / / cup 33. / / think11. / / head 34. / / say12. / / above 35. / / she13. / / mother (US) 36. / / cheese14. / / book 37. / / day15. / / day 38. / / eye16. / / give 40. / / boy17. / / very 41. / / mouth18. / / the 42. / / nose (UK)19. / / zoo 43. / / nose (US)20. / / vision 44. / / ear (UK)21. / / jump 45. / / hair (UK)22. / / look 46. / / pure (UK)23. / / run 47. / / hand

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Appendix IIArabic Phonemes

1. /t/ ت 24. /n/ ن2. /T/ ط| 25. /l/ ل3. /k/ ك 26. /r/ ر4. /q/ ق 27. /w/ ) و ولد(5. /?/ ء 28. /y/ ي (يد)6. /b/ ب 29. /i/ ' ' 7. /d/ د 30. /a/ ' '8. /D/ ض 31. /u/ ' '9. /ĵ/ ج 32. /i:/ ي (سليم)

10. /f/ ف 33. /a:/ ا (سار)11. /θ/ ث 34. /u:/ و (يدنو)12. /s/ س13. /S/ ص14. /ŝ/ ش15. /x/ خ16. /H/ ح17. /ð/ ذ18. /z/ ز19. /D/ ظ20. /G/ غ21. /9/ ع22. /h/ هـ23. /m/ م

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Bibliography

1. Alkhuli, M. (1999). Comparative linguistics: English and Arabic. (Amman: The National Library).

2. Alkhuli, M. (2002). English Phonetics and Phonology. (Amman: Dar Al-Falah).

3. Aitchison, J. (1992) linguistics. (London: Hodder Headline Plc).

4.Kharma, N, & M. Bakir. (2001). Introduction to Linguistics. (Amman: The National Liprary).

5. Lyons, J. (1981). Language and Linguistics. (London: C.U.P.).

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Arabic References العربيه المراجع

وائل: / – .1 دار عمان اللغوية األصوات استيتيه،سمير).2006للنشر (

2. : اللغوي للفكر ابيستمولوجيه دراسة تمام ، حسانالعامه / – المصريه الهيئة العراق و مصر العرب عند

العامة ( الثقافيه الشؤون دار و ).1988للكاتب

3. – / : دار القاهرة اللغوي الصوت دراسة أحمد ، عمر).1976الكتب (

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الخالصة وهما: أساسيه أسئله ثالثة عن تجيب أن الرسالة هذه تحاول

و العربي؟ األصوات علم هو وما اإلنجليزي؟ الصوتيات علم هو ما العربي. الصوتيات علم عن اإلنجليزي األصوات علم يختلف كيف اللغة تعليم وهو رئسي واحد لهدف تعود األسئله هذه وكل

الصحيح. بالفظ المكتسبة اإلنجليزي األصوات علم في عديدة أشياء البحث هذا يفسر

و الصحيحه األحرف بين المقارنه و الصوتيات علم مثل: تعريفالعله. وأحرف الصحيحة األحرف وصف و العله أحرف الدراسة هذه تحاول و عن المعلومات بحض تعطي أن أيضا العربيه وأحرف العربيه العله أحرف وصف و العربيه األصوات انتاج

الصحيحه. علم و اإلنجليزي األصوات علم عن تفسير إعطاء إلى باإلضافة

هدف يعد العلمين هذين بين مقارنه إعطاء إن العربي، األصوات من العديد الثالث الفصل في نجد البحث. فإننا هذا في مهم

اللغويين. فهناك النظامين هذين بين اإلختالفات و التشابهات العربيه اللغة على فقط مقصورة وأحرف مشتركه صحيحه أحرف مقورة علة وأحرف اللغتين بين مشتركه عله أحرف نجد كذلكالعربيه. اللغة على مقصورة عله وأحرف اإلنجليزيه اللغة على

بين بمقارنة تقوم أن تحاول الدراسة هذه أن نرى وهكذا إعطاء بواسطة اإلنجليزي اللغوي النظام و العربي اللغوي النظام

األحرف و الصحيحه العربيه األحرف انتاج عن التفسيرات بعض العله وأحرف العربيه العلة أحرف عن وكذلك الصحيحه اإلنجليزيه

اإلنجليزية.

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اإلهلية الزرقاء جامعة

الصوتيات علم في

والعربية: اإلنجليزية اللغةمقارنة دراسة

إعدادعيد جمال البصير عبد المدرس

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2007 لعام األول / كانون ديسمبر