The Somali Civil War

Geography

Capital: MogadishuCoastline = 2,720 kmHorn of Africa

North hilly

Central & Southflat

"Somalia Map - African Countries, Map of Somalia Facts Landforms - World Atlas." World Atlas including Geography Facts, Maps, Flags - Worldatlas.com. Web. 07 Jan. 2012. <http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/africa/so.htm>.

Somalia GeographyPay close attention here.

•Somalia is the easternmost country in all of Africa.

•Together with Ethiopia, Somalia occupies what is called The Horn of Africa.

The Horn of Africa takes its name from the fact that if you look at this part of Africa (on a map), it looks like the horn of a rhinoceros.

On your maps, label (1) Somalia (2) Mogadishu (3) The Horn of Africa

GeographyMogadishu, at 1.5 million people, is the largest and most important city in Somalia. It is a coastal city (shown in the picture). Somalia has a predominantly desert climate—rain is irregular, and the weather is hot year-round. One last thing is that Somalia is mostly flat. The only highlands in Somalia are in the northern part of the country.

Climate

Annual RainfallNE: Less than 4 inchesCentral: 8-12 inchesSW and NW: 20-24 inches

SeasonsGu (rainy) April-JuneHagaa (dry) July-SeptemberDay (rainy) October-NovemberJiilaal (dry)December-March

Climate (cont.)

• Somalia mainly has a desert climate.• They experience irregular rainfall.

• The northeast experiences monsoons from December through February. The southwest region experiences monsoons from May to October.• Hot and humid periods exist between monsoons.

• Moderate temperatures exist in the north, and hot temperatures in the south.

Natural DisastersDroughts•A recurring disaster in Somalia

Dust Storms•Usually occur over the eastern plains during the summer season

Floods•Only occur during the rainy season

Environmental IssuesFamine

• The UN declared a famine in 5 southern regions of Somalia in 2011

• 3.2 Million people survive on food aid• 2.8 million of those live in Southern Somalia

Use of Contaminated Water

Costal Contamination

Loss of Biodiversity

Land Degradation

DeforestationOvergrazingSoil erosionDesertification

PeopleThere are only 10 million people in Somalia. Somalia is sparsely populated due to the desert-like climate and history of civil war. Almost all Somalis are Muslim. They worship Allah. Pictured is an Islamic mosque in Mogadishu.

People

60% = nomadic or semi-nomadic pastoralists (north)

25% = farmers who live mainly in the fertile agricultural zone (south)

15% = urban

"Understanding Somalia." MercatorNet: promoting human dignity. N.p., n.d. Web. 7 Jan. 2012. <http://www.mercatornet.com/articles/

" Somalia Tips." Somalia Tips. N.p., n.d. Web. 7 Jan. 2012. <http://somaliatips.files.wordpress.com

Somalia PopulationYear Population Rank Percent Change Date of Information

2008 9,558,666 85 4.82 % July 2008 est.

Population growth rate: 2.824% (2008 est.)

Age structure: 0-14 years: 44.7% (male 2,143,758/female 2,132,869)

15-64 years: 52.8% (male 2,525,562/female 2,516,879) 65 years and over: 2.5% (male 100,655/female 138,943) (2008 est.)

urban population: 37% of total population (2008)

rate of urbanization: 4.2% annual rate of change (2005-2010)

Population

Birth rate: 44.12 per 1,000 persons in the population

Death rate: 15.89 per 1,000 persons in the population

Median age: total: 17.5 years male: 17.4 years female: 17.6 years (2008 est.)

Infant mortality rate: total: 110.97 deaths/1,000 live births male: 120.17 deaths/1,000 live births female: 101.5 deaths/1,000 live births (2008 est.)

Population

Total fertility rate: 6.6 children born/woman (2008 est.)

Life expectancy at birth: total population: 49.25 years male: 47.43 years female: 51.12 years (2008 est.)

Sex ratio: at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.72 male(s)/female total population: 1 male(s)/female (2008 est.)

Population of Somaliland

Estimated at 3.5 million

Average population growth rate:

Estimated at 3.1%

Average life expectancy for: males: 50

females: 55

People

Ethnic groups: Somali 85%, Bantu and other non-Somali 15% (including Arabs 30,000)

Religions: Sunni Muslim

Languages: Somali (official), Arabic, Italian, English

PeopleSomalis maintain Islamic traditional norms about

handshaking, limiting physical contact to persons of the same sex.

Not all people from Somalia are ethnic Somali. The Bantus, in particular, may have special needs because of their historical marginalization in Somalia and distinct language and culture.

People

Social Structure, Family, and Gender The family is deeply valued in Somali culture

Approximately one-fifth of the population lives in polygamous households

Marriages traditionally have been arranged, but marriages based on love are increasingly permitted.

The previous socialist regime made some efforts to improve opportunities for women so that Somali women generally have more freedom to learn, work, and travel than most other Muslim women.

People

Somali Clans can serve as a source of conflict or solidarity

They often form alliances for protection, access to water, or political power

These alliances are very important to many Somalis and can outweigh their allegiance to a unified country of Somalia

EconomySomalia is poor, yeah. . .Did you expect it to be rich? Per capita GDP is around $600. Somalia is a very large livestock producer. Many Somalis were nomads and pastoralists who work their livestock. Livestock produces about 40% of GDP and 65% of export earnings. Somalia currently has very little industry.

Economy

GDP (purchasing power parity): $5.387 billion (2007 est.)

GDP - real growth rate: 2.6% (2007 est.)

GDP - per capita (PPP): $600 (2007 est.)

GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 65% industry: 10% services: 25% (2000 est.)

Economy

Currency: Somali shilling

Exchange rates: Somali shillings per US dollar - 1,438.3 (2006) official rate; the unofficial black market rate was about 23,000 shillings per dollar as of February 2007

Labor force: 3.7 million (few skilled laborers) (1975 estimate)

Labor force - by occupation:

agriculture: 71% (reminder: arable land: 1.64%) industry and services: 29%

(1975 estimate)

Economy

Exports: $300 million f.o.b. (2006)

Exports - commodities: livestock, bananas, hides, fish, charcoal, scrap metal

Exports - partners: UAE 50.7%, Yemen 21%, Oman 6.1% (2007)

Economy

Imports: $798 million f.o.b. (2006)

Imports - commodities: manufactures, petroleum products, foodstuffs, construction materials, qat

Imports - partners: Djibouti 34.4%, India 9.1%, Kenya 9%, Oman 6%, UAE 5.6%, Yemen 5.5% (2007)

Child labor

UNICEF estimates 41.9 % of children (5 to 14 years) working.

Most worked in agriculture and domestic service.

Children used for forced labor or sexual exploitation.

Social Well-Being Indicators

Poverty Rate

Extreme Poverty: 43%

General Poverty: 73%

Income Inequality

Literacy

Total: 37.8%

Male: 49.7%

Female: 25.8%

Education

Primary Education Attendance

Male: 24%

Female: 22%

Secondary School Attendance

Male: 8%

Female: 4%

Lowest in the World!

!

Education

No government operated public school system or required education since1991.

62 % of primary schools in Somalia required students to pay fees.

School in Somali Refugee Camp ↑

Access to Water and Sanitation

Access to improved drinking source: 29%

Access to improved sanitation: 25%

High prices: $7

Long walks: 20km

Prioritizing

Children and IDPs

diarrheal diseases

Health

Malnutrition

Maternal Health

Communicable Diseases

HIV/AIDS

STIs

Colonial Background

Britain and Italy colonized Somalia

After WWII Italy had to give its holding to England

In 1960, Somalia declared independence

Despite sharing the same language, ethnicity and religion there are deep divisions

A system of rival clans and sub-clans made establishing a stable government almost impossible

History Clans Imperialism (late 1800s)

Britain,Italy,France Independence (June 26th,1960)

United Republic of Somalia

Abdullahi Issa & Aden Abdullah Osman Daar

Abdirashid Ali Shermarke

History (cont.)

Assassination of President Sharmarke Army seizes power, 1969

General Siad Barre leads overthrow regime

History

Somalia was formed in 1960.

Military takeover in 1969.

Mohamed Siad Barre became dictator.

Overthrown in 1991.

Civil War

Socialist dictator, Muhammad Siad Barre, is president from 1969-1991, when he is deposed in military coup

Essentially, the parties involved are:

1. the US supported Transitional Federal Government

2. the Union of Islamic Courts which has a militant wing

3. various warlords

Republic of Somaliland

Declared its own local government in 1991.

Remains unrecognized by any international organization.

Rebelled against the Siad Barre style dictatorship.

Rise of Siad Barre

Scientific Socialism Marxism + Koranic interpretation

Expansionist Somali nationalism Homogenous, centralized nation-state

Unstable because of clans Attempted to reclaim territory from Ethiopia

Siad Barre's Dictatorship Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC)

End "tribalism, nepotism, corruption, and misrule"

Aligned with Soviet Union National Security Services (NSS)

'Somali Gestapo' Clan favoritism

M.O.D (the Mareehaan, Ogaden and Dulbahante)

Ogaden War (1977-1978)

Ogaden region in Ethiopia Somali National Army

3 years after fall of Ethiopia’s Emperor Haile Sellasie

Soviet Union & Cuba alliance change Supported new Marxist Ethiopia Withdrew support from Barre

Ogaden War (1977-1978) cont.

Effects of the war 1983 → 1.3 million refugees in Somalia

Economy in the north Clan favoritism & resentment

Issaq clan Ogadeen clan

Brief History of Somalia

Post-World War II

Was a protectorate of Great Britain

1960

Achieved independence

1970s

Military dictatorship

Under Mohamed Siad Barre

1980s

Somalia's strategic importance was diminished due to end of the Cold War

Government became even more totalitarian

Uprising in the NW (1978-1982)

Majeerteen clan The Red Berets

Destroyed water reservoirs 2,000 Majeerteen died from thirst Violence against women/children

Overthrow of Siad Barre

Somali National Movement (SNM)

1979

Isaaq exiles 1980s → Ogadeen

refugees in (north) Isaaq clan territory

1988 SNM raided refugee camp

Barre = civilian assault

United States government provided $163.5 million to Barre

Lost Iranian ally

1979 revolution

Horn of Africa to Gulf oil shipping routes

Barre's army =120,000 troops

Overthrow of Siad Barre (cont.) United Somali Congress (USC)

1989 Hawiye clan exiles

Red Berets Violence against Hawiye and Isaaq clans

Bombing of Hargeisa, 2nd largest city, 70% destroyed, 400,000 fled to Ethiopia

January 27th,1991 → USC fought back Drove Siad Barre out of Mogadishu

The Result

Republic of Somaliland Somali National Movement (SNM) NW Mohammad Ibrahim Egal → “president of

Somaliland United Somali Congress (USC)

Seized Mogadishu Siad Barre dies in exile 4 years later →

Nigeria

Civil War

The civil war disrupted agriculture and food distribution in Somalia.

The tribes waged vicious wars against each other to control water, and pasture, and cattle.

With the country embroiled in a civil war, famine struck, and many Somalis began to die—an estimated 300,000.

Famine and Starvation in Somalia

When Somalia’s government collapsed in 1991, the resulting civil war led to severe disruptions in food production and distribution.

An estimated 300,000 Somalis starved to death.

Somali Civil War – 1991

Results of the Somali Civil War

Barre is ousted from leadership

Disrupted agriculture, food & water distribution

Based on clan allegiances and competition for resources

Somali Civil War – 1991

More Results

Famine – approx. 300,000 dead

UN Security Council authorized the limited peacekeeping operation

Completely disregarded by the warring factions

More Violence in Somalia

USC has no plans for permanent government No reconciliation between factions and

armed groups USC splits Muhammad Fara Aidid & Ali Mahdi

Mahdi → Somali Salvation Alliance (SSA) Declared himself “president of Somalia”

Warlords

The country was ruled by a number of warlords

A person with power who has military and civil control over a an area

Armed forces loyal to the warlord and not to a central government

Alliance of warlords was formed in 1992

Operated under the authority of Mohamed Farrah Aidid

Declared himself President of Somalia

More Violence in Somalia (cont.)

Somali National Front (SNF) Siad Barre's supporters

Guerbaharre

1991 → 6 months open combat between groups

September 1991 → USC dominated, more street fighting in Mogadishu

Effects of Turmoil

Government & civil society decayed Food distribution collapsed Drought exacerbated the effects

Famine in south 1992, international aid

80% food shipments looted by armed groups & government

The United Nations decides to intervene

Role of United Nations

In 1992, the United Nations (UN) authorized a peacekeeping force, whose objective was to provide food supplies to Somalia and a safe, orderly way of distributing that food.

In a way, the UN’s actions in Somalia were similar to what see saw in Rwanda. Remember that?

The difference in Somalia is that UN forces were there to provide food during a famine.

The problem the UN encountered, though, was that the warring tribes simply attacked the UN food supplies, stole the food, and then sold it themselves, making lots of $.

The worst of these thieves was a ruthless warlord named Mohammed Farah Aidid.

United States Response

In December of 1992, President Bush ordered Operation Restore Hope

Primary mission of restoring order in Somalia

President Bill Clinton took office in January 1993 and continued the Operation

The United States in Somalia

“Operation Restore Hope”

August – October 1992

Mohammed Farah Aidid / Operation Restore Hope

• Mohammed Farah Aidid was a tribal warlord at the center of Somalia’s civil war in 1991-1993.

• Aidid became notorious for attacking and plundering UN food and medical supplies.

• While thousands of Somalis were starving to death, Aidid’s forces were stealing relief supplies, then selling them make money.

• In December 1992, under President George HW Bush, the United States organized a military coalition whose objective was to stop the warlords (including Aidid) and to create a safe environment in Somalia so that food and medicine could be distributed.

• This mission was called Operation Restore Hope.

• Initially, Operation Restore Hope was successful. The famine was alleviated, and by May 1993, most of the US troops were withdrawn.

• Aidid did not give up, however, and after May 1993 he devised new attacks on the UN peacekeeping and humanitarian missions in Somalia.

• The US then made the fateful decision to either kill or capture Aidid.

• This set the stage for what became known as “Blackhawk Down.”

United Nations Operation in Somalia I (April 1992 - March 1993)

Monitor cease fire Escort delivery of humanitarian supplies

Resolution 751 (1992) Mission strengthens

Resolution 767 (1992) Operational zones: Berbera, Bossasso, Mogadishu

and Kismayo Military of 750 units, all ranks

Worked with United Task Force (UNITAF)

Resolution 794 (1992): “All means necessary” 24 countries led by the USA

US Involvement

UN and US begin to provide humanitarian and nation building aid prior to 1993

In June of 1993 24 UN workers were brutally murdered prompting the UN to demand the arrest and trial of those responsible

US led air raids resulted in the death of respected clan leaders and resentment

UNOSOM I (cont.) 100-Day Action Plan

massive infusion of food aid aggressive expansion of supplementary feeding provision of basic health services and mass measles

immunization urgent provision of clean water, sanitation and

hygiene provision of shelter materials, blankets and clothes simultaneous delivery of seeds, tools and animal

vaccines with food rations prevention of further refugee outflows institution-building and rehabilitation of civil

society. Factions shelled and hijacked supply ships and vehicles

The Home-Front

Many Somalis resented the international forces

Many took up arms and actively resisted the UN and US

On June 5, 1993, one of the deadliest attacks on UN forces in Somalia occurred

24 UN soldiers were killed in Mogadishu (controlled by Aidid)

The UN Responds

The next day, the UN issued Resolution 837 calling for the arrest and trial of those responsible for the ambush

US and UN began an attack on Aidid’s controlAidid remained defiant, and the violence between Somalis and UN troops escalated

The Battle of Mogadishu

Fought on October 3 and 4, 1993, in Mogadishu, Somalia

Operation was to capture top officials to Aidid

Blackhawk Down (1993)

Essentially, the US put together an elite team of soldiers called Task Force Ranger to hunt down and kill or capture Mohammed Farah Aidid and Aidid’s top lieutenants.

On October 3, 1993, the US knew that Aidid was in a building in the city of Mogadishu (the capital city of Somalia).

Task Force Ranger attempted to execute a complex “snatch and grab” mission to capture Aidid.

As part of this mission, several Blackhawk helicopters were used to drop elite US forces off at specific locations in Mogadishu.

Task Force Ranger was not expecting to encounter hostile resistance from Aidid’s men.

However, as the Blackhawk helicopters began dropping the US soldiers into Mogadishu, the Americans ran into one hell of a firefight.

Some of the Somalis were using RPGs (Rocket-Propelled Grenades), and they used these weapons to shoot down 2 of the Blackhawks.

For the next 24 hours, US forces scrambled to save the crews of the two downed Blackhawks.

This became a red-hot firefight between American forces and Somali tribal soldiers.

19 Americans were killed.

One of slain Blackhawk pilots was dragged through the streets of Mogadishu, footage that sickened Americans.

The Battle of Mogadishu

During the operation, two US Black Hawk helicopters were shot down

Some soldiers were trapped at the crash sites

A combined task force was sent to rescue the trapped soldiers

Results

US Forces19 Killed84 Wounded

Somali ForcesEst. 700+ Killed Est. 1,500 Wounded

Fallout from Mogadishu

Black Hawk Down

Somalis shot down a Black Hawk helicopter killing the soldiers on board and the US withdrew-policy during Clinton Administration

After 9/11 the US was very concerned about terrorism and the strategic location of Somalia as a breeding ground for terrorists

US began aiding warlords, training Ethiopian forces and providing counter-terrorism training to other nations in the region

Black Hawk Down

"Black Hawk Down (2001) - IMDb." The Internet Movie Database (IMDb). Web. 07 Jan. 2012. <http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0265086/>.

Black Hawk Down: A Story of Modern Warby Mark Bowden

Web. 07 Jan. 2012.<http://inquirer.philly.com/packages/somalia/>

Fallout from Mogadishu

American Foreign Policy

Became a cautionary influence on US policy When US considers sending soldiers into foreign crisis

zones – “remember Somalia”

Americans were repulsed at the images of soldiers' corpses being dragged through the streets

Reconciliation January 1993, meeting convened by the Secretary-General 14 Somali political movements agreed on a ceasefire

pledged to hand over all weapons to UNITAF and UNOSOM

General Agreement of 8 January 1993 Agreement On Implementing The Cease-fire And On

Modalities Of Disarmament Agreement On The Establishment Of An Ad Hoc

Committee The Conference on National Reconciliation in Somalia (March 1993)

leaders of 15 political movements endorsed an accord on disarmament, reconstruction and the formation of a transitional government.

Transition to UNOSOM II

Supplanted UNITAF

To help ensure a secure environment in Somalia

Rebuild and reestablish Infrastructure Economy

Chapter VII, Resolution 814 (1993)

UNOSOM II (cont.) Soldiers killed by factions → disregarded agreements of

ceasefire Resolution 837 (1993)

Take all necessary measures to defend armed attacks

Quick Reaction Force Nairobi Declaration & Addis Ababa Agreement

Peace throughout Somalia & ceasefire Factions/clans broke agreement

Secretary-General urged another conference to appoint new government

UNOSOM II(March 1993 - March 1995)

Transition of operational control from UNITAF

Effective deployment and consolidation of United Nations operational control throughout Somalia and the border regions

Reduction of UNOSOM II military activity, and assistance to civil authorities in exercising greater responsibility

Reduction of UNOSOM II force

End of UNOSOM II Secretary-General: only the Somalis themselves

could establish acceptable peace International community could help the

process → can't be sustained indefinitely

Withdraw of UNOSOM II force → March 28,1995

United Nations agencies and organizations

NGOs

The End of International Involvement

WithdrawalPresident Clinton called for a full withdrawal by March 1994.

Marines were completely removed from the area by 1995

The UN also withdrew forces

Ended the UN effort to help a country in anarchy and civil war

The End of International Involvement

ResultsSecretary of Defense Les Aspin resigned

Blamed for denying the US Army permission to use tanks

US politicians didn’t want tanks in Somalia

Thought it would look bad for “peacekeeping”

Post UNOSOM Somalia

Central government

Law system

TNG and the ICU

International Conferences

Area of conflict

ICU dominance

Effect of ICU rule

Al-Shabaab declares black Islamic flag in Somalia

ICU and Ethiopia

ICU's power spread

Ethiopian outlook

African Union

ICU-TNG Conflict

African Union thwarted

Arms buildup

Jihad

Baidoa

Puntland State of Somalia

Claimed autonomy in 1998

Do not want to be fully independent of Somalia.

Have developed at a greater rate than mainland Somalia.

Population of Puntland

Estimated at 2.4 million

Population growth rate of Puntland State is currently very high due to the influx of people from war-torn southern Somalia and from neighboring countries.

Puntland: Signs of Development

Ministry of Women Development and Family Affairs

Ministry of Finance

Ministry of Health

Ministry of Education

Somalia Overall, the government has little control and is

instable.

Forbes magazine ranked Somalia as the most dangerous destination in the world.

Presently

Somalis are worried they will wind up being ruled by the Ethiopians-resentful of the standing Ethiopian army occupying their country

Ethiopia is concerned about Eritrea using the situation (instability in Somalia) to invade them and use Somalia to launch attacks against them

Ethiopia Invades

Their civil war in the 1990’s destroyed the country's government

In 2006 Ethiopia invaded Somalia (with help from the United States) to prevent it from becoming an Islamist government

Ethiopian Invasion

Victory

ICU's Fate

Islamist Groups

Al-Shabaab

Hizbul Islam

Islamic Courts Union

War Leads to Piracy

As a result of that, foreign fishing ships started fishing in Somali waters for it’s tuna, which caused economic problems in Somalia's fishing industry.

The fishermen, with access to small arms and portable rockets, went out to sea to attack the foreign cargo, and cargo ships.

This eventually turned into organized piracy

Pirates ??

Due to the extreme limited opportunities to make a living in Somalia many have turned to Piracy in the Gulf of Aiden.

Began when neighboring countries began illegally fishing in Somali waters

Angry Somali fishermen boarded and demanded “fees”

Called themselves ‘Coast guards’, organized like a military

Today Somali pirates seize anything from freighters to luxury cruise liners

Pirates in 2008 pulled in as much as $150 million, placing it as Somalia’s biggest industry

Bosses can pull in $2 million/year

http://www.marinebuzz.com/marinebuzzuploads/SomaliPiratesHowRansomCollectedisSpent_2191/Somali_piracy.jpg

Why and how they do it

They captured merchant ships off the coast of Yemen, Somalia, and Kenya and hold them for ransom

The ship owners and the insurance companies pay the ransom because it is cheaper to pay it than to lose the ship and its cargo

Piracy

Ships from the United states, United Kingdom, Russia, and India patrol the Somalia coats and try to stop the piracy

Ships are now arming themselves to protect against attack from pirates

How to Handle the Piracy Issue

Some people have suggested to use amphibious or air

attacks on the pirates

Others think we should pay them off

The best solution is to get a functioning government in

Somalia to control it citizens

Coalition Government

Moderate Islamists and the TNG

Mogadishu

Technocratic government

Recent Occurences

Drought and famine Al-Shabaab Possible AU peacekeeper increase Kenya UN

Problems that the UN face in Somalia

• United Nations aid workers in the country are limited as there is no established protection on site. Aid workers face the constant threat of kidnapping for ransom.

• International aid has been routinely looted due to a variety of factors including government corruption and desperate food and health conditions.

• Islamist groups view the United Nations with distrust and deny it access to their land, believing that the United Nations has a political agenda.

UN Role In Somalia

• No large-scale United Nations peacekeeping operation in the

country since the UNOSOM II.

• Passed Resolution 1838, in which an anti-piracy fleet is

sanctioned to operate off of Somalia's lawless coastline.

• The World Food Programme (WFP), a United Nations program, also has a presence in the country.

• A United Nations program designated towards establishing a functioning government in Somalia called the United Nations Political Office for Somalia is currently active in Kenya.

Solutions1. UN Peacekeepers

– Offensive action– Protection of aid– Protection of government institutions

2. United Nations Political Office for Somalia

– Development• IMF

Solutions (cont.)3. International Help

– AU

– Anti-insurgency

– Monetary goals

4. Political Unification

– TNG

– Puntland

– Somaliland

5. End to Piracy

6. Alleviate the Effects of the Famine– Long term and short term goals

Bibliography1. The United Nations' database on the UNOSOM I & UNOSOM II

<https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unosomi.htm>

<http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unosom2backgr1.html>

2. From United Nations Political Office for Somalia

<http://unpos.unmissions.org/Default.aspx?tabid=1911>

3. Somalia – Infrastructure, Power, and Communications

<http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/economies/Africa/Somalia-INFRASTRUCTURE-

POWER-AND-COMMUNICATIONS.html>

4. GlobalSecurity on the Somalia Civil War

<http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/somalia.htm>

5. From AllAfrica, information pertaining to the Islamist's stance on the United Nations was

obtained.

<http://allafrica.com/stories/201107260329.html>

6. General history of the Somali Civil War

<http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0861179.html>

7. Information on the Somali Civil War was taken from Conciliation Resources.

<http://www.c-r.org/our-work/accord/somalia/endless-war.php>

8. GlobalSecurity on the far-reaching consequences of the Somalia Civil War

<http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/somalia.htm>