The Socialist Tradition in the French Revolution

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THE SOCIALIST

TRADITIONIN THE

FRENCH REVOLUTION

By HAROLD J. LASKIProfessor of Political Science in the University of Lonon

London :

THE FA!IAN SOCIET" A Dart#o$th Street%

&est#inster% S'&'(

and

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THE SOCIALIST

TRADITIONIN THE

FRENCH REVOLUTION

By

HAROLD J. LASKIProfessor of Political Science in the University of London

London :

TH !ABIA" SO#IT$

II Dart%o&th Street' (est%inster' S.(.) and

*O. ALL" + U"(I" LI,ITD

- ,&se&% Street' London' (.#.)

P&/lished )01



This 2a%2hlet 3as ori4inally delivered as a lect&re in the 3ell56no3n series 3hich %y

collea4&e' Professor !. J. #. Hearnsha3' or4anises ann&ally at Kin47s #olle4e' London. It

is re2rinted here /y his 6ind 2er%ission. There is not' to %y 6no3led4e' any disc&ssion

of the s&/8ect in n4lish 9 and it see%ed to %e that socialists %i4ht /e interested in a

2eriod 2ec&liarly i%2ortant in the develo2%ent of their creed.

The /i/lio4ra2hy is no %ore than a handlist of the %ore i%2ortant /oo6s on the

s&/8ect. Had I so&4ht to %a6e any 2retensions to co%2leteness' the si:e of this 2a%2hlet

3o&ld have /een at least do&/le.H. J. L.

,arch ;th' )01.



The Socialist Traition in the

French Revol$tion

I

Revol&tions centre aro&nd the relation of 2olitical a&thority to the distri/&tion of econo%ic2o3er 9 for' as ,adison lon4 a4o insisted' the

only d&ra/le so&rce of faction is 2ro2erty. Anyone 3hoe<a%ines the history of !rench social tho&4ht in theei4hteenth cent&ry realises at once that its very essenceis a chan4in4 conce2tion of the 2lace of 2ro2erty in theState. In a sense' indeed' the %ain 3or6 of the Revol&tion 3assi%2ly the translation of that chan4e fro% the real% of ideas intothe real% of fact. !ro% !ene1on tothe o&t/rea6 of catastro2he there 3ere fe3 thin6ers 3ho 3ere not i%2ressed /y t3o thin4s = the indefensi/lecharacter of 2rivile4e' &2on the one hand' and the i%5%ense dis2arity /et3een rich and 2oor' 3ith its attendantand inherent dan4ers' &2on the other. "ot %erely the

syste%atic 2hiloso2her and the 2rofessional 2a%2hleteer' /&t the novelist' the 2lay3ri4ht' even the theolo4ian'find it diffic&lt to defend the act&al distri/&tion of econ5o%ic satisfactions. They see6 consistently for a re%edy for this condition. They are 3idely a3are that its con5tin&ance %&st inevita/ly %ean the disr&2tion of the

The conse>&ence is the 2resence' thro&4ho&t the ei4hteenthcent&ry' of an attit&de to the ri4hts of 2ro2erty 3hich is2rofo&ndly critical in character. In a sense' it is even a socialistattit&de' in that' not seldo%' it is alto4ether sce2tical of there4i%e in 3hich individ&als 2ossess the %eans of 2rod&ction.B&t I hesitate to call it definitely socialist for three reasons. In thefirst 2lace' it is a 2&rely %oral criticis% 9 o&tside the A//e

,eslier' there is no 3riter of re2&te 3ho serio&sly considered the%eans of redressin4 the /alance of social 4ood. It is' %oreover'hardly a3are of the relationshi2 of an econo%ic

State.

A L L



syste% to the 2o3er of the State 9 even in Ro&ssea&' this defect isnote3orthy. It is' in the third 2lace' dia4nostic rather thanreconstr&ctive 9 ,a/ly and ,orelly' Diderot and Ro&ssea&'Se/astien ,errier and Retif de la Bretonne are all in an essentialsense socialist 9 /&t' for all of the%' the %echanis% of transition toan e4alitarian order is al3ays /y the conversion of %en7s hearts to /etter 3ays.

Ro&ssea& and those I have na%ed are' 2ro2erly s2ea6in4'%erely the e<tre%e 3in4 of a 3ider attac6 &2on the notion that2ro2erty can /e a le4al or %oral ri4ht inde2endently of the socialconse>&ences it involves. Attac6 &2on the conte%2orary socialorder 2roceeded fro% the %ost vario&s an4les. So%e of it ca%e

fro% a /itter revival of the si<teenth5cent&ry disc&ssion of &s&ry.So%e of it 3as the o&tco%e of that c&rio&s controversy over l&<&ryof 3hich ,andeville?s too5fa%o&s Fable of the Bees is' thro&4h @oltaire?s Mondain, the real 2arent. "ot a little can /e traced tothat 4ri% defence of #onservatis% /y Lin4&et' in 3hich heantici2ated so %any of the theses of Karl ,ar< for al%ost antitheticends. Part of it can /e traced to the %a6ers of i%a4inary Uto2ias 3here 2rivate 2ro2erty is &n6no3n' or' related to this' to there2orts of travellers of 2laces li6e A%erica' in 3hich a Uto2ia offact has co%e to /irth. The creation' %oreover' 3ith &esnay andthe Physiocrats' of an econo%ic 2hiloso2hy &2on so%ethin4 li6escientific fo&ndations 3as i%2ortant. Ad%inistrative chaos'econo%ic conf&sion' reli4io&s /an6r&2tcy' all contri/&ted theirlesson to the torrent of criticis%. (hen the States5*eneral 3as

s&%%oned' the %ind of !rance had /een 3idely 2re2ared for lar4eecono%ic innovation.

II

I &nderstand /y socialis% the deli/erate intervention of theState in the 2rocess of 2rod&ction and distri/&tion in order tosec&re an access to their /enefits &2on a consistently 3ider scale.!ro% this an4le' it is clear that no theories are entitled to /e

re4arded as socialist 3hich are not distin4&ished /y at least t3ofeat&res. They %&st ad%it the ri4ht' and d&ty' of the State tos&/ordinate



individ&al clai% to social need' not as an occasional incident of itso2eration /&t as a 2er%anent characteristic of its nat&re 9 and they%&st' in the second 2lace' see6 the deli/erate and contin&o&sreconstr&ction of social instit&tions to the end of satisfyin4 socialde%and &2on the lar4est 2ossi/le scale. It is in ter%s of thesedefinitions that I 2ro2ose to a22roach the diffic&lt and co%2le< years fro% );0 &ntil the fail&re of Ba/e&f' in )0C. I shall consider'first' ho3 far a 4en&ine socialis% is discovera/le in the cahiers and2a%2hlets 3hich acco%2anied the s&%%ons of the States5*eneral. Then I shall analyse the 2eriod &ntil the advent of theDirectory to see 3hat of socialis% there is in /oth the literat&re andthe le4islation of the ti%e. I shall see6' a/ove all' to sho3 that the

effort of Ba/e&f and his fello35cons2irators 3as the one 4en&inesocialist %ove%ent in this e2och 3ith a definite 2ro4ra%%e and ane>&ally definite %ethod of %ovin4 to3ards its realisation. !inally' Ishall see6 to esti%ate 3hat of si4nificance there 3as in the socialiste<2erience of this e2och and ho3 far it has 4iven any s2ecificcharacter to the socialist %ove%ent of a later ti%e.

Let %e /e4in 3ith a si%2le affir%ation. "either in the cahiersnor in the 2a%2hlets 3hich res&lted fro% the s&%%ons of theStates5*eneral is there any i%2ortant or 4eneral socialist doctrine.That does not %ean that it 3as non5e<istent 9 for' as #hassin has2ointed o&t') 3hat 3e are dealin4 3ith here are the 3ants' at the%ost' of si< %illion !rench%en' and the needs of at least as %any%ay have 4one &ne<2ressed. B&t 3hen this ty2e of literat&re ise<a%ined neither the 4rievance e<2ressed nor the clai%s 2&t

for3ard are socialistic in any serio&s sense. There is /itterness'indi4nation' 2rotest 9 /&t if these are the inevita/leacco%2ani%ent of socialis%' they are not of its inner s&/stance.Ta6en as a 3hole' 3hat do the cahiers de%and !iscal refor%'es2ecially in the %atter of e>&al ta<ation' 8&dicial refor%' ad%inis5trative reor4anisation. There is 2rofo&nd hostility to fe&dal ri4hts.There is so%e criticis%' not seldo% &r4ent' of ecclesiastical2ro2erty. There are occasional attac6s on the 4reed of richlando3ners. There is 2rotest a4ainst the erosion' /y aristocratic&s&r2ation' of co%%&nal 2ro2erty.

1 Genie de la Revolution E);CFG' i. 11-.



There is so%e de%and for ta<ation in ter%s of a/ility to 2ay' atendency to desire li%itation of testa%entary dis2osition. A caref&lsearch 3ill discover scattered de%ands for the restriction ofinheritance' occasional sche%es for 2&/lic 4ranaries' the fi<ation of2rices' the li%itation of &s&ry. "o one' I thin6' can honestly 4othro&4h the cahiers &2on any considera/le scale 3itho&t thei%2ression that they re2resent not a theory of socialreconstr&ction /&t the 6een e<2ression of 2ractical e<2erience.They are 3hat the solid %erchant' the co%forta/le 2easant' thethin6in4 and social5 %inded c&re' 3o&ld nat&rally set do3n as thelessons of the ancient re4i%e.

"or is this all. Thro&4ho&t the cahiers there is a &niversal sense

of the res2ect that is d&e to 2rivate 2ro2erty. The %ain co%2laint'indeed' a4ainst the 2ast a4e is that the ca2ricio&sness of its syste%2revented the 3holesale e<2ression of that res2ect. The o/8ect ofthe la3s' said the Third state of Paris' is to sec&re li/erty and2ro2erty. That note is o%ni2resent. ,en see% &na/le s&fficientlyto e%2hasise the fact that 2ro2erty is sacred and inviola/le' that noone can /e de2rived of 2ro2erty save for 2&/lic 2&r2oses and 3ithade>&ate co%2ensation. District after district e%2hasises the ri4htof all 2ro2erty to res2ect' save 3here its 2ossession entails a/&se 9and' to %y o3n 6no3led4e invaria/ly' a/&se only %eans the 8&stlyhated 2rivile4es of fe&dalis%. There is no o/8ection that I candiscover to &ne>&al 2ro2erty. There is disli6e of l&<&ry' a de%andfor s2ecial treat%ent of the needy and the or2han' a sense that the2roletariat sho&ld /e li4htly ta<ed or even free fro% all i%2osts.

One discovers s&s2icion of the financier' a clai% that the 2oor %ansho&ld /e a/le as s&rely to live /y his la/o&r as the rich to /e sec&rein his 2ro2erty. There is the 3ell56no3n 2lea fro% Paris for thecreation of 2&/lic 3or6sho2s. There are vario&s s&44estions for the%ore h&%ane treat%ent of the 2oor and the %endicant' and thei%2rove%ent of hos2itals. "o one can loo6 at de%ands li6e theseand call the% s2ecifically socialist &nless socialis% is a %eresynony% for h&%anitarianis%. !or the %ost 2art' they are theo/vio&s dictates of co%%on sense 9 and they are far less radical inte%2er than %&ch of the social criticis% of the ei4hteenth5cent&ry hilosohes!



Those 3ho dre3 &2 the cahiers of );0 3ere entitled' li6e #live' to /e asto&nded at their o3n %oderation.

The 2a%2hlets of );0 cannot' I thin6' /e 2&t &2on >&ite thesa%e footin4 as the cahiers 9 they anno&nce certain 2rinci2les 3hich it is diffic&lt not to descri/e as socialistic. B&t /efore Is&%%arise so%e of their ideas I 3o&ld vent&re &2on a 3ord ofca&tion. It is necessary' I s&44est' to distin4&ish /et3eendecla%atory den&nciation and definite 2lan. It is easy to find thefirst 9 it is diffic&lt to find the second. (e are no %ore entitled tocall den&nciations of ine>&ality and %isery socialistic than 3e can 8&stifia/ly ter% So&they and #arlyle and R&s6in socialists /eca&sethey 3ere indi4nant 3ith the horrors of factory civilisation. There

are inn&%era/le 2a%2hlets 3hich insist that the ri4ht to 2ro2ertyis a social creation' 3hich society can a/olish as it 2leases 9 thereare literally h&ndreds 3hich esta/lish the 2rinci2le of the ri4ht to 3or6 as inherent in the str&ct&re of the State. B&t %ost of the first4ro&2 insist e>&ally on the i%%ense dan4er of dist&r/in4esta/lished e<2ectation 9 and fe3' if any' of the second 4ro&2 leavethe ri4ht as %ore than an e%2ty declaration to 3hich no concretesche%e is anne<ed. ven ,arat' in his "#o$e%t of a e%la#ation ofthe Ri'hts of Man, 3hile he /e4ins /y insistin4 that the la3 %&st2revent e<cessive ine>&ality of fort&nes' and that a 3iseredistri/&tion of 3ealth is necessary' ends /y sayin4 that the /estthin4 that co&ld have ha22ened to !rance 3o&ld have /een for,ontes>&ie& or Ro&ssea& to have dra3n &2 its constit&tion. B&tno one 3o&ld have e<2ected either to constr&ct a socialist state.

(e %&st' then' distin4&ish /et3een decla%ation and 2ositive2lan. Of the first there is a/&ndance and to s2are. There is2assionate den&nciation of those rich 3ho eat in a sin4le %eal 3hat 3o&ld s&ffice for ten fa%ilies in a year ) 9 there is the 3arnin4 that &nless the 2eo2le is fed and the ri4ht to 3or6 ass&red'ins&rrection is certain and 8&stified. There is the /itter 2lea of %enli6e Deverite that the 3or6er is li6e an ar%y %&le 3ho /rea6s /eneath his /&rden 9 /&t the only re%edy of 3hich he can thin6 isthe s&22ression of %achinery as the root ca&se of lo3 3a4es. One 3riter' D&fo&rny de @illiers' 2oints o&t 3ith ac&teness that the real2oor are not re2resented in the

) La (ole#e du "e#e u%hene!



States5*eneral' and ar4&es that they are entitled to co%2ensationfor the 2ro2erty they lac6 9 /&t his c&re for the evil he vividlyde2icts is %erely a ne3 %oral fo&ndation for a /etter or4anisedsociety. Another 3riter' after a 2iteo&s descri2tion of thes&fferin4s of the 3or6ers' is satisfied to &r4e that 2&/lic 3or6sho2sare the lo4ical conse>&ence of the ri4ht to 3or6 9 yet he tells &snothin4 of ho3 they are to /e or4anised or 3hat they are to2rod&ce.

(e are nearer to socialistic ideas 3ith *osselin') 3hose vie3sare very a6in to the a4rarian socialists of the #ro%3ellianRevol&tion. After a trenchant e<2os&re of the in8&stice of thee<istin4 social order' and an e%2hatic note that conditions 3o&ld 8&stify s&ch a socialisation of land as e<isted in S2arta' he a4reesthat the re%edy 3o&ld /e 3orse than the disease. B&t he &r4es thedesira/ility of fo&r %eas&res in order to o/tain e>&ality.Unc&ltivated land sho&ld /e 4iven to the 2oor' as the Ro%ansfor%erly settled soldiers on the soil. The clerical de%esne sho&ldsi%ilarly /e &sed' the reci2ients 2ayin4 a s%all rent to the Stateand its for%er 2ossessors 9 and each year the 4overn%ent is to setaside a s&% for /&yin4 &2 the estates of lar4e lando3ners anddistri/&tin4 the% in the sa%e 3ay. !inally' he s&44ests a2ro4ressive ca2ital ta< on 2rivate fort&nes to e<tin4&ish the 2&/licde/t. In a /rief ti%e' he thin6s' these %eas&res 3ill esta/lish a ha22y e>&ality' if the land so divided is declared indivisi/le andinaliena/le. The 3orst feat&res of l&<&ry 3ill disa22ear 9 and theen4a4e%ent of a vast %a8ority of citi:ens in a4ric&lt&ral 2&rs&its

3ill %a6e co%%ercial fort&nes of insi4nificant i%2ortance. S&ffi5ciency 3ill %ean an instr&cted 2eo2le. Po2&lation 3ill increase 9and e%i4rants 3ill ta6e this ne3 %odel to ha22ier cli%es. *osselinhas no do&/t of the 2ractica/ility of his sche%e' and he offers it tothe 6in4 3ith a si%2le faith of 3hich no one can deny the char%.

T3o other sche%es of socialistic tendency deserve a 3ord.Seven years /efore the Revol&tion Retif de la Bretonne' in his And#o'#ahe, had 2&/lished a co%2lete Uto2ia &2on a ri4oro&slyco%%&nist fo&ndation. B&t' li6e Plato 3ith the Reubli%, he hadrealised that it 3as %eat too stron4

) Refle)ions d*un (ito+en E);G 9 on *osselin' see A. Lichten/er4er' Lt So%ialise-toi.ue E);0;G' 2. )1F.



for h&%an di4estion 9 only co%2lete a4ree%ent co&ld achieve it'and for this it 3as ho2eless to loo6. In );0' therefore' he2&/lished a revised version of his 2lan in the /heso'#ahe, 3hich %i4ht' he tho&4ht' /e ca2a/le of realisation. (hile 2rivate2ro2erty is to re%ain' its 2ossession is to /e li%ited and diffic&lt.Prices are to /e controlled /y local a&thorities and fail&re toc&ltivate as 4overn%ent 2rescri/es is to res&lt in forfeit&re. At the /ac6 of the 3hole sche%e is the 2rinci2le that 2rivate 2ro2erty is a%ere le4al convention %ade /y the State' and s&/8ect at any%o%ent to its 2o3er of e%inent do%ain.

Retif7s ideas' clearly' have no %ore than a 2a2er val&e' for hehad no vision at all of ho3 to /rin4 the% into /ein4. If Ba/e&f?sUto2ia is not less visionary' it is %ore i%2ortant' /eca&se it sho3sho3 constant 3as his devotion to the 2rinci2le of e>&ality. The sonof a for%er t&tor of Jose2hII' after a 4ri% and starved childhood he /eca%e an a4ent to ano/le%an' and ac>&ired there that 2ractical ac>&aintance 3ithfe&dal 2rivile4es 3hich 2layed so lar4e a 2art in the sha2in4 of hislife. In ); he /e4an to corres2ond 3ith the secretary of a2rovincial acade%y to 3ho% he 2&t >&estions 3hich %a6e evidenthis 2reocc&2ation 3ith e>&ality as the 6ey to social 4ood. It is toine>&ality that he traces the 2ride of the rich and the e<cessiveh&%ility of the 2oor 9 and he &r4es &2on his friend that it is theca&se of all the evils of o&r social condition. The corres2ondencereveals hi% as a %an 2rofo&ndly infl&enced /y Ro&ssea&'2assionate' and /itterly anta4onised /y the ine>&alities of the

an%ien #e'ie!In );0' in con8&nction 3ith the %athe%atician A&diffred' hes&/%itted his vie3s to the "ational Asse%/ly in so%ethin4 li6ecoherent for%. The (adast#e "e#etuel does not yet envisa4e theneed for revol&tion' /&t so%e5 thin4 at least of the s2irit 3hich'seven years later' 3as to ta6e hi% to the scaffold is already there."o %an' he says' 3ho has s&fficiency can /e re4arded as otherthan an e<2loiter if he see6s to o/tain %ore than this. ,en are /ynat&re and ri4ht e>&al' and it is the /&siness of the la3 to 6ee2the% so. $et' as the la3 3or6s' the very o22osite is the case. Therich are the %asters of society. The 2oor 4ro3 in n&%/ers andtheir 3a4es contin&ally



decrease. This is an i%2ossi/le 2osition. The land' the co%%on%other of &s all' %&st /e divided e>&ally so that each citi:en hasan ass&red 2atri%ony 3hich he cannot lose. Instr&ction %&st /eco%e 4eneral lest the 3ise o22ress the i4norant. Unless this isdone' the rich 3ill c&t the throats of the 2oor 9 and the latter areentitled to 2ro2erty' as a 3ard %ay' 3hen he attains his %a8ority'recover his ri4hts fro% a defa&ltin4 tr&stee. B&t the first ste2 onthe road to refor% is ed&cation. >&ality in 6no3led4e is the6eystone of the arch of social reconstr&ction.

Ba/e&f?s 2lans' do&/tless' did not reach %ore than a handf&l 9the Asse%/ly 3as occ&2ied 3ith %ore i%%ediate >&estions. (hatI 3ish only to e%2hasise a4ain is the 2resence of a socialist ideal

a%on4 the 2a%2hlets of );0' 3hile notin4 that it ise<traordinarily rare. (here there is an attac6 on the e<istin4 order'that is not socialis%. It is nothin4 %ore than the final de2osit ofthat sense of 3aste and in8&stice co%%on' for instance' to allrefor%ers of the a4e of Lo&is I@. There is a 4ood deal of Uto2ia5%a6in4' not a little violent 2arado<. B&t 3hat there is ofrevol&tionary destr&ctiveness co%es fro% so&rces 3hich' as 3ith,a/ly or Ro&ssea& or ,ontes>&ie&' 3e cannot call 4en&inelysocialist in the sense in 3hich I have defined that ter%. ,en feel va4&ely that a ne3 a4e has co%e' /i4 3ith 2ossi/ilities. There is as2irit of o2ti%is% a/road. B&t refor%' and not revol&tion' is theessential tenor of %en?s %inds in the first ho&rs of the ne3 da3n. (hat socialis% there is is s%all in vol&%e and insi4nificant ine<2ression. It needed the realisation that civil e>&ality and the

refor% of 2olitics did not %ean an end of s&fferin4 /efore a 3ides2read chan4e 3as 2ossi/le.

Ill

By the early %onths of )0 the &lti%ate character of theRevol&tion had /een fi<ed. !e&dal 2rivile4es had /een a/olished 9the %onarchy had /een 2&t in fetters 9 the ch&rch had /eenoverthro3n. The Declaration of Ri4hts conte%2lated a %iddle5class li/eral State. If it 3as an e<a44eration to say 3ith Lo&stalot'that every5 thin4 tends to s&/stit&te an aristocracy of 3ealth foran



aristocracy of /irth' the 2roletariat had not serio&sly /enefited /ythe chan4es %ade. Phrases had /een &sed in the Asse%/ly' even /y%en so conservative as ,ira/ea& and ,alo&et' 3hich i%2lied a /elief in e>&ality' /&t the social le4islation of the ne<t fe3 yearssho3ed clearly that they %eant nothin4. Already 2ro2erty 3asafraid 9 and the 3arnin4s of d%&nd B&r6e had fallen &2on readyears. By )0 the %ain 2reocc&2ation of the leaders 3as to sta/iliseand %a6e effective the res&lts of the first enth&sias% of theRevol&tion' 3hile ass&a4in4 the s&fferin4s of the co%%on 2eo2le.!e3 3ere a/le to see the effect of forei4n 3ar &2on social 2olicy' orto 4&ess' as B&r6e so %arvello&sly foresa3' that a s&ccessf&l4eneral 3o&ld e%er4e as the dictator of the State.

Anyone 3ho analyses the literat&re and the le4islation fro%)0 &ntil the fall of Ro/es2ierre has' a/ove all' to /e caref&l not todiscover too %&ch in 3hat he reads. He %&st re%e%/er that he isdealin4 3ith a 2easantry 3hich 3as h&n4ry for the indis2&ta/le2ossession of the land' and an4rily s&s2icio&s of its for%er%asters 9 3here' therefore' he sees 2easant riots he %&st notass&%e that they are 4ro&nded in socialist 2rinci2le. He %&stre%e%/er' too' that in these years /ad harvests 3ere 4eneral' and&ne%2loy%ent 3ides2read. The 2ro/le% of feedin4 the to3ns andfindin4 3or6 for the 2roletariat 3as a diffic&lt one' intensified /ythe ti%idity of the rich and their an<iety to 2&t a ter% toe<2eri%ent in social 2olicy. very revol&tionary leader treads theed4e of an a/yss 9 and in the effort to satisfy a h&n4ry andindi4nant con5 constit&ency he &ses 2hrases and threatens

%eas&res 3hich are %eant as den&nciation rather than ar4&%ent.The 2eriod' therefore' is f&ll of decla%ation 3hich has a socialistcharacter. Ri4hts are asserted' 2led4es are %ade' 3hich s&44est%&ch %ore than they in fact %ean. The 2olitical fi4&res of the ti%ecannot' in %y 8&d4%ent' /e called in any case socialist 9 nor 3erethey dealin4 3ith a 2&/lic 3hich' in any serio&s de4ree' e<2ectedsocialist %eas&res. (hat rather 3e are confronted 3ith is a 2eo2lef&ll of %isery to 3ho% attac6s &2on the 3ealthy as the so&rce oftheir %isfort&ne %i4ht /e e<2ected to a22eal. The *irondins'certainly' had no sort of sy%2athy 3ith socialis% 9 Danton' as Ithin6' had no sort of social 2rinci2les at all' and Brissot' differentlyfro% his earlier



vie3s' 3as the defender of the s%all 2ro2rietor rather thananythin4 else. There is socialis% a%on4 the Jaco/ins' as there isalso a%on4 the en#a'es 9 /&t I re4ard it less as a /ody of consistentand syste%atic 2rinci2le than as a series of e<traordinary ideas%eant to co2e 3ith an e<traordinary sit&ation. It is not &ntil the#ons2iracy of Ba/e&f that 3e %eet 3ith socialis% in a serio&s andeffective for%. In a 3ord' &ntil Ba/e&f there are socialist ideas' /&tthere is no socialis%.

So to re4ard the character of this 2eriod is' I 6no3' to r&nco&nter to a fa%o&s thesis of Taine. B&t I thin6 his vie3 is /&ilt&2on a co%2lete %is&nderstandin4 of the evidence. Undo&/tedlythere 3ere attac6s on 2ro2erty' hatred of the rich' revol&tionary

risin4s' a 4ood deal of 2illa4e and confiscation. B&t these are theinevita/le acco%2ani%ents of any revol&tion 3here there is ah&n4ry %o/' a /e3ildered 4overn%ent' forei4n and civil 3ar.Socialis%' as I have said' is a theory of social re5 constr&ction and a%ethodolo4y 9 it is not an an4ry cro3d attac6in4 a s2ec&lator or /&rnin4 the doc&%ents of its ancient servit&de. It is not even aJaco/in de2&ty 2reachin4 the ar4arian la3' or ,arat insistin4 that'in ti%e of crisis' each co%%&ne can ta6e %eas&res 3itho&t li%it tohel2 its 2oor 9 nor is it Ro/es2ierre ar4&in4 that e<cess of 2ro2ertyis only 8&stifia/le 3here there is 4eneral s&fficiency. Broadlys2ea6in4' the te%2er 3e confront is one 3hich insists that' in a2eriod of scarcity' the rich %an 3ho does not 2&t his s&r2l&s at thedis2osal of the co%%&nity is an ene%y of society. It is a hatred of4reed' of s2ec&lation' a s&s2icion that 4reat 3ealth i%2lies

co&nter5revol&tionary senti%ent' that 3e %eet al%ost every3here.B&t this attit&de cannot /e descri/ed as socialis% any %ore thanits R&ssian analo4&e %eans an acce2tance of the 2rinci2les ofLenin.

The tr&e a22roach lies' I /elieve' alon4 >&ite different lines. TheRevol&tion inherited fro% the hilosohe# a ri4oro&s criticis% of2ro2erty as an a/sol&te ri4ht' an ethical defence of co%%&nis%'and a 2rofo&nd sense that' /eca&se the 2rivile4es of aristrocracyare indefensi/le' the state %i4ht /e %ade to serve the 2eo2lecreatively. These notions had to /e a22lied in a ti%e of crisis' 3itho&t ti%e to thin6 either of their 2hiloso2hic si4nificance ortheir ad%inistrative 2ossi/ility. They had to /e a22lied



3hen there 3as civil 3ar at the centre of national life' and forei4n 3ar at its circ&%ference. ,eas&res 3hich are s&ita/le to ane<tre%ity are rarely the e<2ression of a considered 2hiloso2hy.They re2resent %erely the res2onse to i%%ediate e<i4ency' andtheir very a&thors are' often eno&4h' the first to deny that theyhave 2er%anent si4nificance. #ertainly there co&ld not have /eenany 3ides2read socialis% in a revol&tion 3hich /e4an inenth&siastic loyalty to Lo&is @I and ended in a loyalty at leasts&2erficially enth&siastic to "a2oleon. *irondins 3hoanathe%atised the a4rarian la3' Jaco/ins 3ho hissed the leadin4en#a'es o&t of the Paris cl&/s' do not so&nd li6e the a2ostles ofsocialist 2rinci2le. ffectively' I sho&ld ar4&e' there 3o&ld have /een no socialis% at all if the econo%ic condition had not /eenac&te. (hat %en 3ere 2re2ared for 3as the a/ro4ation of 3hat 3as restrictive in the an%ien #e'ie! #risis drove %any to heroic 3ords and %eas&res 3hich they felt to /e s&ited to an heroic ti%e 9 /&t 3hen the sit&ation' after the death of Ro/es2ierre' /eca%ead%inistratively %ana4ea/le' 3hat e%er4es as sta/le is the /o&r4eois li/eralis% 3hich drove Ba/e&f to revolt. And the very%e%ory of ho3 2ro2erty had /een in dan4er 3as so driven into%en?s %inds that' after )0C' it 3as in 2rocess of /eco%in4 the very a/sol&te a4ainst 3hich the ei4hteenth cent&ry had %ade its%a4istral 2rotest.

This' at least' is ho3 I read the evidence. It does not e<cl&de thefact that there 3ere socialist ideas 9 it does deny that there 3ereeither %any to 2&t the% for3ard or a 3ide 2&/lic conscio&s of

their %eanin4 and an<io&s for their a22lication. It is 3orth 3hileto consider the e<2ression of those ideas in so%e little detail' andto note their affiliations 3ith orthodo< Jaco/inis% on the onehand' and the #ons2iracy of )0C &2on the other. I /e4in /y notin4one 4eneral 2oint = all 2arties in the State a4reed &2on the&ndesira/ility of e<cessive differences of fort&ne. ,ira/ea&',alo&et' @er4nia&d' Brissot' #ondorcet all s2o6e in this sense 9and there 3as a fairly 3ides2read tendency to a22rove the si%2lelife and a 2ro4ressive inco%e5ta<. These are' of co&rse' vie3s 3hich the elo>&ence of Ro&ssea& had %ade al%ost 2latit&des.They 3ere thin4s 3hich everyone had to say 3ho did not 3ish to /ere4arded as reactionary. The first 2erson 3orth



%ention 3ho 3ent at all far in a socialist direction 3as the A//e!a&chet' 3ho fo&nded in )0 a disc&ssion circle' and 3as hi%self'later' a *irondin de2&ty. His vie3s &ndo&/tedly infl&enced a 3idecircle' tho&4h the fact that' as #a%ille Des%o&lins tells &s' he co&ld /e hissed in his o3n section for s&22ort of the a4arian la3' sho3sthat %en 3ere rather interested in' than %oved to acce2t' his ideas.

His vie3s are o/vio&sly fo&nded &2on Ro&ssea&. His 8o&rnalthe Bou%he de Fe#0#ea%hes the o#i'inal 'ood ness of %an' and hisri4ht to an e>&al share of the earth. (hen he enters the State hes&rrenders all his ri4hts 3hich are then 2ossessed /y 4overn%entfor the 4eneral 3elfare. By this is %eant that all %en haveso%ethin4' and no %an has too %&ch. (hat %&st /e 2revented ise<tre%e 2overty and 3ealth and' a/ove all' social 2arasitis%. Hereco%%ends the esta/lish%ent of national factories' the li%itationof land5holdin4' a ri4oro&s control of inheritance' and s&ch are4&lation of the %arria4e5la3s as 3o&ld 2revent the &nion of lar4efa%ily fort&nes. It is note3orthy that even these %oderate vie3s 3ere /itterly attac6ed' not only /y conservatives li6e ,allet d&Pan' /&t also /y radicals li6e Des%o&lins. !a&chet hi%selfcontin&ally softened 3hatever of ri4o&r they %ay 2ossess 9 and he2&t the% for3ard rather as an &lti%ate' than as an i%%ediate'2ro4ra%%e. He 3as less a doctrinal socialist than a #hristian%ystic i%/&ed 3ith the i%2ortance of e>&ality /y his desire for achan4e in the heart of %an6ind.

A%on4 the *irondins' I thin6' there 3as no one 3ho 3associalist in any real sense of the ter%. Brissot 3as an e<2onent of

Jeffersonian de%ocracy' #ondorcet 3as a radical %&ch of theschool of Tho%as Paine' Se/astien ,ercier shares the horror 3hich' as he tells &s' Ro&ssea& 3o&ld have felt at the ideas ofBa/e&f 9 and Retif a/andoned his Thes%o4ra2he' /ein4 content'a%id 3ild den&nciation of Jaco/ins and sansc&lottes' to insist thate>&ality in land or in inco%es /elo3 fifty tho&sand francs is /othi%2ossi/le and cri%inal. The only i%2ortant *irondin 3ho sho3ssi4ns of %ore radical vie3s is the one5 ti%e 2astor Ra/a&t Saint5tienne 9 tho&4h he %ay /e said less to e%/race socialis% than tofrin4e its /o&ndaries. >&ality' he tells &s' is the so&l of a re2&/lic 9&ne>&al



3ealth divides classes and r&ins e>&ality in 2olitics. B&t it cannot /e esta/lished /y force' and the /est 3e can ho2e for is to red&ceine>&ality /y la3. Ho3 this is to /e done he does not tell &s indetail. A %a<i%&% fort&ne can /e fi<ed' the State ta6in4 there%ainder' 3hether /y 4ift or force' for fo&ndations of 2&/lic &tilityor &nforeseen State e<2endit&re. "ational 3or6sho2s sho&ld /ecreated' and inheritance and testa%entary dis2osition sho&ld /econ5 trolled. B&t' even %ore' Ra/a&t Saint5tienne 3o&ld desirethe State to enco&ra4e those %oral ha/its in the 2eo2le 3hich arefavo&ra/le to the at%os2here of e>&ality.

These can hardly /e called e<tre%e vie3s 9 tho&4h it is 3orth2ointin4 o&t that they' and their li6e' e<cited the 3ildest alar%

a%on4 conservative thin6ers. >&ality and an a4rarian la3see%ed to a charita/le 3or6er na%ed La%/ert a violation of allthe la3s of nat&re. ,en li6e La Har2e e<ha&sted the%selves ine<2ressions of horror at the e<tre%e and dan4ero&s attac6s &2onthe fo&ndations of social order. Their very de%and to have done 3ith e<2eri%ent nat&rally 2rovo6ed the antithesis of their ca&tion.To have acce2ted their attit&de 3o&ld have %eant si%2le f&tility /efore the 4rave econo%ic 2ro/le%s ho3 4rave ,. ,athie& hasrecently sho3n )3hich con5 fronted the State. The conservatis%of the Ri4ht did not a22eal to the *irondins. B&t the latter' to 3ho% disorder 3as hatef&l' and 3hose fear of the 2roletariat 3aso%ni2resent' shran6 fro% a 2olicy 3hich see%ed to 8eo2ardise the2ro2erty of the %iddle classes. They 3ere nat&rally overthro3n /ythe Jaco/ins' 3hose 2olicy of centralisation and e<2eri%ent

2rovided the only ho2e the %asses co&ld see for ass&a4in4 their%isfort&nes. Brissot %i4ht 8oin hands 3ith ,allet d& Pan andBarr&el to acc&se the% of s&/vertin4 the fo&ndations of socialorder 9 to the%selves' and' in 4eneral' I thin6' >&ite honestly' they%erely a22eared as %en 2re2ared to &tilise the a&thority of theState for the 2reservation of the Revol&tion.

I do not %ean to i%2ly that there 3as not a definitely socialist /ac64ro&nd to Jaco/in 2olicy. #ertainly there 3as 9 tho&4h' to&nderstand it' 3e %&st re%e%/er that its so&rces are co%2le<.Partly' it 3as /orn of i%%ediate necessity' 2artly of the fact thattheir leaders' ,arat and

) Robesie##e et la 1ie (he#e EParis' )0FG'



Ro/es2ierre in 2artic&lar' 3ere dee2ly read in those earlierthin6ers' es2ecially Ro&ssea& and ,a/ly' 3ho had insisted that theri4ht to 2ro2erty is a social conce2t %ade /y' and li%ited /y' the 3ill of the State. They never had a ne3 theory of a different socialorder. !or the %ost 2art' they 3ere the etite bou#'eoisie to 3ho%,ontes>&ie& and Ro&ssea& 3ere a 4os2el to 3hich they 3ere2re2ared to sacrifice %&ch. And the sacrifices they 3ere 2re2aredto %a6e 3ere s&ch as the 2oorer classes 3elco%ed' es2ecially 3henthese sa3 in hostility to the Jaco/ins the 2rivile4ed of the the oldre4i%e and the rich %en of the ne3. (hat they said and did no%ore %ade the% deli/erately and conscio&sly socialist than didthe 2ro4ra%%e &nfolded /y ,r. Lloyd *eor4e in )00 %a6e hi% a%e%/er of the Socialist Party. They 3o&ld attac6 the rich' /&t they 3o&ld not have the a4rarian la3. They 3o&ld de%and sacrifices,r. #ha%/erlain?s doctrine of ranso% /&t they 3o&ld donothin4 to in8&re the idea of individ&al 2ro2erty itself. Danton' fore<a%2le' 3as %erely a de%ocrat 3ho 3ished that the rich sho&ld /ear their f&ll share of the co%%on /&rden' and that %en sho&ld /e reco4nised to have an e>&al ri4ht to ha22iness. ,arat' as I havenoted' 3as a %oderate li/eral in );0. <2erience %ade hi% %ore violent in decla%ation. B&t no 8o&rnalist 3ho %erely thin6s fro%one day to the ne<t' es2ecially if he is 4a%/lin4 for his head' has aconsidered 2hiloso2hy. If he re4arded econo%ic e>&ality asdesira/le' it 3as for so%e distant f&t&re he need not disc&ss. (hathe 3as a/ove all concerned to %aintain 3as the soverei4n ri4ht ofthe State to ta6e 3hatever %eas&res it %i4ht thin6 fit to 2revent

disaster. Reasona/le 3a4es' 2rices 3ithin the reach of the 2oor'local control of food s&22lythese 3ere the thin4s he e%2hasisedday /y day in the A i du "eule! B&t no one can read his articles 3itho&t seein4 that he is %erely inventin4 re%edies for a crisis. Hehas no tho&4ht of 2er%anent 2rinci2les.

(ith Ro/es2ierre it is different 9 fro% his 3ritin4s and s2eechesone can' I thin6' 2iece to4ether a coherent doctrine 3hich hasclearly socialist affinities. Pro2erty for hi% is si%2ly a socialinstit&tion 9 it is the citi:en?s ri4ht to en8oy as he 3ill the 4oods4&aranteed to hi% /y the State. The latter can' therefore' li%it itsri4hts' 2&nish s2ec&lators' and control inheritance. B&t a/sol&te



e>&ality is a chi%era i%2ossi/le of realisation in civil society. To2reach it is to invite a detesta/le anarchy. There is an e<cessiveine>&ality 3hich the State sho&ld control. It leads to thedo%ination of the co%%&nity /y a fe3 3ealthy %en' and their vices conta%inate society. The State o3es to the 2oor' the so&rce of%oderation and civic virt&e' the ri4ht to 3or6 or %aintenance 9 to2roc&re this for the% is a %ore sacred tas6 than to 2rotect the 3ealth of the rich. !i<ation of 2rices in their interest is essential'and no 2&nish%ent is too stron4 for s2ec&lators in food. A severeand 2ro4ressive inco%e5ta< is 8&stified 9 in an ideal State no one 3o&ld have %ore than an inco%e of three tho&sand livres. All this'clearly eno&4h' is the %ind of a %an no&rished on Ro&ssea& and

,a/ly' the 2artisan of a si%2le and e>&al society' the ene%y of therich 3ho% he feels to stand in the 3ay of its achieve%ent. Hes2ea6s the lan4&a4e of /itterness and hate 9 for' to hi%' the rich arethe ene%ies of the re2&/lic. B&t if Ro/es2ierre?s ideal is anythin4'it is that of the s%all to3n radical rather than the socialist. It is thee<cess of 3ealth' not 2ro2erty itself' to 3hich he ta6es o/8ection.

,&ch the sa%e %i4ht /e said of Saint5J&st' 3hose Instit&tionsRe2&/licaines sho3s &s 2retty f&lly the direction of his %ind. Anation of s%all far%ers' 4eneral e>&ality' a co%2&lsion &2on all to 3or6' a ri4oro&s control of inheritance to the direct line' a nationalsyste% of ed&cation' and the endo3%ent of yo&n4 %arriedco&2les' are the chief 2ro2osals he %a6es. The Saint5J&st of the#onvention is less Uto2ian and %ore /itter 9 /&t loathin4 of therich a2art' there is nothin4 2ositively e<tre%e in 3hat he has to

say. And this is' in 4eneral' the te%2er of his collea4&es. The ri4htof the 2oor to 2ro2erty' the dan4er of e<cessive 3ealth' the d&ty ofthe State to confiscate that e<cess for the 4eneral /enefit' these arethe the%es of a tho&sand s2eeches. @iolent class53ar is' of co&rse' 3idely 2reached' es2ecially /y so%e of the re2resentatives on%ission. Leco%te Saint5 ,ichel?s 2hrase that the rich are the%ortal ene%ies of the Re2&/lic is ty2ical of inn&%era/le others.Billa&d5 @arenne calls the% the /ane of ordered states 9 /&t it issi4nificant that he sho&ld add that 2ro2erty is &nfort&nately thenecessary fo&ndation of civil society. B&t 3hen' 3ith the%' ors&ch 8o&rnalists and 2a%2hleteers



as Pr&dho%%e' Har%and' Des4ro&as' 3e have e<ha&sted theter%inolo4y of vit&2eration' 3e co%e /ac6 inevita/ly to a 2ositivetheory on the lines of Ro/es2ierre?s doctrine. (hen Boissyd7An4las' in his e<2osition of the #onstit&tion of the $ear III' saidthat &n 2ays 4o&verne 2ar les 2ro2rietaires est dans l7ordresocial' he 3as not far fro% the Jaco/in ideal9 the o3ner %&st not /e rich and all %&st /e o3ners. That is the distin4&ishin4 feat&re ofJaco/in theory.

I 3o&ld e%2hasise a4ain the fact that all this is not socialisticinnovation' /&t the inheritance of the criticis% of 2ro2erty %ade /y the ei4hteenth cent&ry. Political e>&ality' it had ta&4ht' isnothin4 3itho&t econo%ic e>&ality 9 %en li6e T&r4ot' Sieyes' and

#ondorcet had said so incessantly. >&ality in fact' said#ondorcet' is the final ai% of social techni>&e' since ine>&ality inriches' ine>&ality of condition' and ine>&ality of ed&cation' are the%ain ca&se of all evils. And alon4side this notion 3as the f&llrealisation that a State co%2osed of the t3o nations of rich and2oor is /o&nd to conflict. There has never /een' nor 3ill there /e' says a 2a%2hlet of );0' any /&t t3o really distinct classes ofciti:ens' the o3ners of 2ro2erty and those 3ho have none 9 the firsthave everythin4' the second nothin4. Jaco/inis% is si%2ly theseideas a22lied to a critical 2eriod in 3hich dan4er shar2ened theanta4onis% /et3een classes' and %ade the idea of e>&ality andsi%2licity see% a definite %eas&re of 2&/lic safety. It 3as neither atheory nor a %ethod of thoro&4h54oin4 social transfor%ation.Rather 3as it a de%and that the s&r2l&s of the rich /e deli/erately

&sed /y the State for the %iti4ation of 2o2&lar s&fferin4.

I@

Before I t&rn to Ba/e&f and his cons2iracy' it is 3orth 3hile tos2end a little ti%e on one or t3o of his 2rec&rsors. It is 2ro/a/lethat ideas 3hich %ay va4&ely /e ter%ed co%%&nist /e4an as earlyas );0 9 for 3e are told /y Ba&dot that the acri%ony and /itterness of the *irondins 3as d&e to fear of seein4 the ideas of

the #o%%&nists 2redo%inate. The sense contin&ally 4re3 thatany society in 3hich %en' as Billa&d5@arenne said'



e<isted &2on a direct /&t not %&t&al de2endence &2on so%eother h&%an /ein4' 3as in fact in a condition of slavery. In )01and )0- there 3ere a%on4 the sections' and nota/ly in the #l&/des #ordeliers' %en to 3ho% Jaco/in doctrine see%ed needlesslyconservative. (e 4et hints of secret societies' s&44estions of 2lansli6e the credit sche%es of Pro&dhon' de%ands that the 2rofits of /an6in4 revert to the State. In %en li6e Jac>&es Ro&<' @arlet'Dolivier' Boissel' Lan4e' there is a clear strea% of doctrine loo6in4to3ards a co%%&nist sol&tion of social 2ro/le%s.

Ther%idor destroyed 3hatever ho2es and 2ros2ects these %en%ay have cherished 9 after it there ca%e si4ns of 3hat a 2olice5s2y'one ho2es ironically' called a 2rofo&nd and &niversal 2eace. B&tthese %en had their drea%s' and it is 3orth 3hile to note theirs&/stance. !or they sho3 ho3' even in the 4ravest %o%ents of theRevol&tion' the inc&ra/le o2ti%is% of %en 3as still 2re2ared to%a6e all thin4s ne3. They had no clear idea of ho3 their vie3sco&ld /e realised 9 and I thin6 it 2ro/a/le that they had no sort ofsy%2athy 3ith the %ethods Ba/e&f 3as later to 2ro2ose. They sa3all the fallacies of laisse23fai#e, and their desire 3as to realise thate>&ality of fact of 3hich I have s2o6en. (e 6no3' alas' too little of%ost of the% 9 one 3o&ld 4ive %&ch' for instance' for a detailed /io4ra2hy of Rose Laco%/e' 3ho %&st /e very nearly the first 3o%an #o%%&nist. B&t 3hat 3e do 6no3 s&44ests si%2le5%inded and honest %en' hono&red /y the %asses for the hi4hcharacter of their ideals.

A%on4 the%' 2erha2s' Jac>&es Ro&< is 3orthy of 2artic&lar

%ention. He had /een a 2riest' and 3as' 2erha2s' one of those 3hohad /een freed /y the Revol&tion fro% that /&rnin4 indi4nation 3hich still lives for &s in the /itter 2a4es of the A//e ,eslier. He 3as al3ays 2oor' and 3e have a 2ict&re of a lonely fi4&re' 3hosesole co%2anion 3as a do4' 2reachin4 a si%2le co%%&nis% in the 3or6in45class >&arters of Paris. There is #halier' of Lyons' a%ystic' 3ho% ,ichelet has noted as an e<tra5 ordinary %an' andLan4e' in so%e sort the 2rec&rsor of !o&rier. I%2ortant' too' is @arlet' a Parisian 3or6%an' a/o&t 3ho% o&r i4norance isco%2lete' and the c&re of ,a&cha%2' Pierre Dolivier' 3hose /oo6 3as 2&/lished



for hi% /y his fello35citi:ens of the co%%&ne of Anvers. All ofthe% are ty2ical of an o&tloo6 not 3itho&t 3ide s&22ort in thosedays of a4ony. They desire the li%itation of land5holdin4' forcedloans to feed the 2eo2le' the confiscation of all 2ro2erty d&e tos2ec&lation' national 3or6sho2s' and the 2&/lic control of thefood5s&22ly. They differ fro% the Jaco/ins in that they do not 2ayre4ard to the ri4hts of 2ro2erty. They consider the &r4ency of the2osition too 4reat for %eas&res of conciliation to /e desira/le. Theysee >&ite definitely in the rich and the co%forta/le the deli/erateene%ies of the 2oor' 3ho 3ill not hesitate to ta6e advanta4e of2&/lic %isery for 2rivate 2rofit. They are %ostly' a4ain differentlyfro% the Jaco/ins' in favo&r of the a4rarian la3' tho&4h 3ith

definite leanin4s to a national control of its o2eration. Ther%idorleft the% e<as2erated' lar4ely /eca&se they sa3' in thedisa22earance of Ro/es2ierre' the fail&re of their ho2e for drasticecono%ic le4islation. B&t they co&ld not 4o so far as Ba/e&f' /eca&se they definitely res2ected a de%ocratic syste%. Dictatorshi2' said Ro&<' is the annihilation of li/erty 9 andthere is in %ost of the%' es2ecially in Dolivier' a %ar6ed trendto3ards anarchis%.

Their ideas' on the 3hole' are seen %ost clearly in the2a%2hlet' 2&/lished in );0' /y Boissel' a Jaco/in of the e<tre%eleft 3ho 3as active thro&4ho&t the Revol&tion.) Bitterly attac6edin the Asse%/ly' it see%s to have e<ercised so%e infl&ence'es2ecially after )01' and it is certainly an interestin4 lin6 /et3eenideas li6e those of ,a/ly /efore );0' and of Ba/e&f after3ards. It

/e4ins 3ith a 2assionate attac6 on or4anised society as the n&rseof all evil. It e<a%ines' and re8ects' 2ro2erty' %arria4e and reli4ionas the e<2ressions of the 3orst i%2&lses of %en. Pro2erty is si%2lyan instr&%ent of o22ression' and the root of a discord 3hich theinvention of %oney %erely increases. The /&siness of society is tores2ond to o&r tr&e instincts' 3hich are nat&rally 4ood. This can /edone if 3e reco4nise that *od is the only tr&e o3ner' and that 3ehave the ri4ht to nothin4 save in ter%s of need. (e %&st refor%ed&cation' nationalise ind&stry' and train %en in the s2irit of acollective o3ner5 shi2 3ith a vie3 to the introd&ction of co%2leteco%%&n5 ) Le (ate%hise du Ge#e Huaine!



fro% the o&tset of the Revol&tion. I need not here detail his latercareer. Tho&4h his S+stee de eoulation sho3s that' at oneti%e' he 3as /oth anti5terrorist and anti5e4alitarian' he 3as one ofthose 3ho sa3 in the fall of Ro/es2ierre the end of 3hat 3as /eneficent in the Revol&tion. Al3ays in 3ant' often in 2rison' rash'enth&siastic' self5confident' sin4le5%inded' he 3as 8&st the %an tolead a des2erate atte%2t &2on the con>&est of 2o3er. The#ons2iracy see%s to have /een for%ed d&rin4 one of his ter%s of2rison. A fe3 fello352risoners 3ere initiated into his ideas9 the4ro&2 4re3 steadily' and /eca%e the Society of the Pantheon' 3hich the 4overn%ent did not fail to 3atch and 2roclai%. It hadt3o 3in4s = at the very centre 3ere the real co%%&nists' and'

closely affiliated' /&t re%ote fro% the heart of the affair' a n&%/erof ancient Jaco/ins to 3ho% the a/ro4ation of Ro/es2ierre?sconstit&tion 3as a /itter %e%ory. The sche%e 3as lin6ed to4ether /y a secret co%%ittee of direction' to 3hich its 2&/lications 3ereal%ost certainly d&e. A%on4 the% 3ere so%e e<traordinary %en'Darthe' Sylvain ,arechal' *er%ain' and B&onarroti' 3ho 3as tos&rvive the% all and to /e their historian. They had contacts 3ithso%e for%er %e%/ers of the #onvention' 3ith the ar%y and the2olice' even 3ith the &nder3orld. I need not add that fro% theirearly days they 3ere honeyco%/ed 3ith s2ies' one of 3ho% 3as'&n6no3n to the%' introd&ced /y B&onarroti and Darthe to the very heart of the affair. They never had any real chance of s&ccess.Their 2lans 3ere 6no3n' al%ost fro% their ince2tion' to theDirectory9 it needed less honest and :ealo&s %en than they to

el&de the cold5/looded %achinations of Barras. veryone'%oreover' 3as tired of /loodshed and %isery9 the 2olice re2ortsand the di2lo%atic corres2ondence sho3 clearly that therevol&tionary s2irit 3as e<ha&sted. The leaders 3ere arrested andtried /y a s2ecial tri/&nal. Ba/e&f and Darthe' after a vain atte%2tat s&icide' 3ere e<ec&ted9 other i%2ortant cons2irators' incl&din4B&onarroti' 3ere i%2risoned or de2orted. Those 3ho lived on /eca%e the de2ositaries of a tradition 3hich' after );1' theyfo&nd the ne3 4eneration ea4er to cherish.

I shall disc&ss' first' the 2ro4ra%%e of Ba/e&f' and then hisstrate4y. "either is a very easy thin4 to do' 2artly /eca&se so%e ofthe evidence' /ein4 2rod&ced /y s2ies at the



trial' is s&s2ect' and 2artly /eca&se not a little of 3hat 3e have isclearly not in its final redaction. $et the literat&re' chec6ed /y thenarrative of B&onarroti' and' even %ore' /y the val&a/lediscoveries of Advielle' ena/les &s to see 2retty clearly 3hat 3asinvolved. And this can' I thin6' /e 2&t in a sin4le sentence. There isno real innovation in doctrine' 3hich is the ei4hteenth5cent&rytradition' clarified and %ade 2recise /y the 2rofo&nd e<2erience ofseven revol&tionary years 9 there is a definite innovation in%ethod' 3hich o2ens an e2och of decisive i%2ortance in thehistory of socialis%.

Let &s start 3ith t3o si4nificant sentences &sed /y Ba/e&f in histrial. ,y co%2anions and I' he told his 8&d4es' have 4roaned

over the &nha22y res&lts of the Revol&tion ... it has %erelyre2laced a /and of ancient sco&ndrels /y a /and of ne3 ones. !orthe o/8ect of society is the realisation of the co%%on ha22iness.That is i%2ossi/le 3itho&t the r&le of e>&ality' 3hich is the cleari%2lication of nat&ral la3. This does not %ean the a4rarian la3' 3hich is not e>&ality at all. All %en have a 2er%anent ri4ht to acontin&o&s share in the social 2rod&ct. To reco4nise 2rivate2ro2erty and differences of fort&ne is to ad%it theft to the heart ofsociety. Inheritance is &n8&st' res2ect for the s&2eriority of talent isdan4ero&s. All 3or6 has the sa%e val&e' and all ca2acity sho&ld /ee>&ally re3arded. #o%%&nis% is the only 3ay /y 3hich this can /e realised. It %eans the co%%on o3nershi2 of land. It %eans thesocialisation of ind&stry and &niversal and co%2&lsory la/o&r.d&cation' too' sho&ld /e e>&al and co%%on. The theory differs

fro% 3hat has 4one /efore in that earlier thin6ers de%andedrelative e>&ality. The Ba/o&vistes insist that this is %ore diffic&lt toachieve and to %aintain than e>&ality in the f&ll sense of the ter%. Any society in 3hich less than this e<ists is /&ilt &2on civil 3ar andis /o&nd to %ean the e<2loitation of the 2oor' of that is' the %assof the co%%&nity. There can /e no 8&stice &nless the onlyreco4nised differences in the State are those of a4e and se<. To 2&tthe 3hole 3ealth of society at the dis2osition of the 2eo2le is toass&re the %a<i%&% of virt&e' 8&stice' and ha22iness. nvy andhate disa22ear. ach can reco4nise that his 3ell5/ein4 is inti%atelyrelated to that of his nei4h/o&r. To serve society in s&ch an order isto serve oneself. The rei4n of e>&ality



3ill /e the last revol&tion necessary to the 3ell5/ein4 of %an.This /ody of doctrine 3as develo2ed in the %ost diverse and

in4enio&s 3ays 9 in the art of literary 2ro2a4anda' the Ba/o&visteshad certainly nothin4 to learn fro% their 4eneration. #aref&ldoctrinal analyses' as in the fa%o&s Anal+se de la do%t#ine de Babeuf, a /rilliant short 2ro5 4ra%%e' as in the Manifeste des E'au), dra3n &2 /y Sylvain ,arechal' son4s' 2oe%s' ne3s2a2ers's2ecial literat&re for the ar%y and the 2olice' 2lacards'%e%oranda' slo4ans' invective' all the ty2ical devices of %odern2&/licity are there. It is easy to see ho3 their elo>&entden&nciation of e<istin4 conditions 3o&ld a22eal to the&ne%2loyed' for they set o&t 3ith si%2licity the e<2erience

thro&4h 3hich the 3or6in45classes had 2assed. It is even 2ro/a/lethat their e%2hasis &2on the fail&re of the Revol&tion' theirattac6s &2on the rich' their hatred of the Directory' theiri%2assioned defence of the honesty and 4reatness of Ro/es2ierre'co%%anded 3ide sy%2athy. The 2ro4ra%%e' clearly' as Ba/e&fhi%self 3o&ld have reco4nised' is si%2ly a caref&l restate%ent ofRo&ssea& and ,a/ly' of Diderot and ,orelly. It is /oth /older and%ore 2recise than its 2redecessors. It has none of their faith in the2ossi/ility of chan4in4 %en?s hearts in an individ&alist society. It is%&ch %ore /itter a4ainst the rich' %&ch %ore insistent that theyare /ri4ands' for 3hose destr&ction all 2atriots %&st ho2e. TheBa/o&vistes are %ore o2ti%istic than their 2redecessors' in thatthey thin6 the essential revol&tion is ca2a/le of i%%ediateachieve%ent. B&t in the 4eneral conto&r of their o/8ective there is

nothin4 essential to distin4&ish the% fro% a half5score of thin6ersin the 2rerevol&tionary e2och.That is not' as I have said' the case 3ith their strate4y' 3here

there is 4en&ine and i%2ortant novelty. This can /est /e analysedin t3o 3ays. On the one hand' there are the definite ste2s they too6in the or4anisation of their cons2iracy &2 to the ti%e of their arrest9 on the other' there is the theory of 3hat 3as to /e its cond&ct afterthey had sei:ed 2olitical 2o3er. At the head of the affairs 3as thes%all central co%%ittee' 3ith Ba/e&f at its head. This 3as the /rains of the 3hole cons2iracy. It %et in .secret' 2ractically everyni4ht' al3ays alone' and not



seldo% chan4in4 its head>&arters to avoid any 2ossi/le s&s2icion.It dealt 3ith day5to5day /&siness' the act&al conditions &nder 3hich the ins&rrection 3as to ta6e 2lace' the le4islative %eas&resto /e ta6en on the %orro3 of the ins&rrection' and the f&t&reinstit&tions of the ne3 re2&/lic. It 3as res2onsi/le not only for theovert 2ro2a4anda' /&t also for sti%&latin4 the activities of its locala4ents' to 3ho% the 2ersonnel of the co%%ittee re%ained&n6no3n. Its individ&al %e%/ers had relations 3ith the a4ents' /&t rather as the%selves officers of liaison than as chiefs. Thea4ents' %ost of 3ho% 3ere chosen 3ith 4reat care' 3ere of theessence of the 2lan. Tried revol&tionaries' they 3ere the contact /et3een the central co%%ittee and the %asses. They re2orted on

the feelin4 of the 2o2&lation' its 4rievances and as2irations. Theys&22lied' therefore' that 6no3led4e &2on 3hich the leaders co&ld /&ild s&ccessf&l 2ro2a4anda and action. Lin6ed 3ith the% 3erelocal co%%ittees in the districts of Paris' 3ho %ade their i%2ress&2on the 3or6ers' 2&t &2 2lacards and distri/&ted leaflets'addressed %eetin4s in the 3or6%en?s cl&/s' tal6ed in cafes andfactories' and s2read as 3idely as 2ossi/le the vol&%e ofdiscontent' the ho2e that one final effort %i4ht %a6e all thin4sne3. (o%en' also' 2layed their 2art' and it 3as ho2ed'2artic&larly' to e%2loy the services of the de%i%onde tone&tralise any hostility in the ar%y.

To the latter s2ecial attention 3as 2aid. The leaders had caref&llychosen %ilitary a4ents' to each of 3ho% a definite tas6 3asallotted. *eneral !yon 3as in char4e of the Invalides 9 *er%ain

too6 care of the 2olice 9 ,assey controlled the detach%ents atSaint5*enes 9 @annec6 3as 4iven the tas6 of infectin4 there%ainin4 troo2s in Paris. A4ents 3ere o/tained in each /arrac6sto 3or6 on the %inds of the soldiers9 others' so%eti%es 3o%en'fre>&ented their cafes. So2hie La2ierre' 3hose /ea&ty 3as 3ell6no3n in Paris' declai%ed the 2rocla%ations of the #entral#o%%ittee and san4 its son4s. The evidence at the trial s&44eststhat no %ean s&ccess attended these efforts. They 3ere 2aralleled /y si%ilar attention to the 2olice. Infor%ation 3as also o/taineda/o&t a4ents 2rovocate&rs fro% sy%2athisers in the force 9 and inseveral cases the head of a 2olice section 3as in close contact 3iththe cons2irators.

Thro&4h these %eans every sort of ste2 3as ta6en



3hich %i4ht in8&re the 4overn%ent and create the e<2ectation ofso%e 4reat i%2endin4 event. very r&%o&r li6ely to in8&re theDirectory 3as 3idely s2read. #o%2laints 3ere /roadcast' %eetin4sheld' sy%2athisers fro% the 2rovinces /ro&4ht to Paris to createthe ill&sion of a national %ove%ent' asse%/lies of street5%o/s 3ere or4anised. The La3s of the F and F; *er%inal' /y 3hich the4overn%ent too6 2o3er to dissolve all 2olitical %eetin4s' sho3sthat the i%2ortance of the %ove%ent 3as realised.Ins&/ordination a%on4 the troo2s' the 2&nish%ent of 3hichrevealed &nrest in the 2olice' is f&rther 2roof that the dan4er 3asreal. B&t the fact that Barras act&ally ne4otiated' 2ro/a/lydishonestly' an atte%2t at an alliance 3ith *er%ain of the secretco%%ittee' sho3s /oth that the Directory 3as alar%ed' and that it 3as' 2ro/a/ly thro&4ho&t' co4nisant of the 2lan. (hen the#o%%ittee' after disc&ssions of %ilitary 2lans' 3as 3aitin4 for thecritical %o%ent' the Directory s3oo2ed &2on the%. It 3asesti%ated at that ti%e that' the %asses a2art' the Ins&rrectionistsco&ld co&nt &2on )' %en' of 3ho% 0'M 3ere re4&lar troo2s.These 3ere to %arch &2on the arsenals and the seat of4overn%ent' 3hile others 3ere to hold the streets of Paris andre2&lse all hostile attac6. The 2lan 3as never 2&t into action' asBarras 3as the first to stri6e his /lo3 9 /&t it is' I thin6' evidence ofthe hold the cons2irators had o/tained that so%e seven h&ndred%en sho&ld have %arched to *renelle and so&4ht to e<cite thetroo2s there to revolt and resc&e their leaders. They 3ere onlydis2ersed /y %ilitary attac6 and n&%ero&s arrests. After that' the

cons2iracy 3as at an end.#learly eno&4h' as a 2iece of or4anisation' the 2lans of theBa/o&vistes 3ere re%ar6a/ly conceived. "ot less interestin4 3astheir conce2tion of the %ethods to /e &sed in the event of s&ccess.Here their vie3s 3ere /&ilt &2on the theory of class 3ar. Society'for the%' 3as divided into rich and 2oor' and neither had anyinterest in co%%on 3ith the other. The rich de2ended for their2osition &2on their 2o3er to 6ee2 the 2oor in s&/ordination 9 thelatter co&ld con>&er their ri4hts only /y the dethrone%ent of therich. In a society in 3hich overt civil 3ar 3as the %ain feat&re' it 3as &nthin6a/le that 2o3er co&ld /e con>&ered /y the 2oor' save /y violent %eans' for the rich 3o&ld



never a/andon their 2rivile4es 3itho&t fi4htin4 for the%. This'they felt' 3as the real lesson of );0 9 it 3as the lesson of )01 9 it 3as the lesson i%2licit in the e<2erience of Ther%idor. It %eantthat 3hen the 2olitical State had /een ca2t&red' a 2eriod ofri4oro&s dictatorshi2 3o&ld /e necessary as the 2rel&de toco%%&nist de%ocracy. Only in this 3ay co&ld the 2eo2le /e 3ithdra3n fro% infl&ences hostile to e>&ality' and 4iven that &nityof 3ill essential to the ado2tion of re2&/lican ideas. It 3asevident' 3rote B&onarroti thirty years later' that the inherentnecessity of thin4s' even the s&ccess itself of o&r enter2rise' %eantan interval /et3een the fall of aristocratic 2o3er' and the finalesta/lish%ent of 2o2&lar de%ocracy. An asse%/ly 3as i%2ossi/le

since it left the s&ccess achieved to the ha:ard of a 2o2&lar vote.The revol&tion had not /een %ade %erely to chan4e the for% ofad%inistration9 its o/8ect 3as to chan4e the nat&re of society itself.This co&ld not /e left to the 2eo2le 3ho had /een trained to ha/its 3hich i4nored the nat&ral order of thin4s. The revol&tionary4overn%ent %&st therefore act on /ehalf of the 2eo2le. It %&st' asB&onarroti 3rote' snatch fro% the nat&ral ene%ies of e>&alitythe %eans of deceit and fear and division. (hat 3as re>&ired 3as an e<traordinary and necessary a&thority 3hich 3o&ld restore itsli/erty to the nation' des2ite the corr&2tion 3hich 3as theconse>&ence of its ancient slavery' and' des2ite the attac6s of thoseene%ies' 3ithin and 3itho&t' s3orn to its destr&ction. It is thedoctrine of 2er%anent revol&tion /y dictatorshi2 in the na%e ofthe 2roletariat.

To sei:e 2o3er is' therefore' only the first ste29 it does not endthe revol&tion. Parlia%entaris% and de%ocracy are i%2ossi/le /eca&se they ris6 the 3hole 2&r2ose of the ins&rrection 9 the 2eo2leis not yet fit to /e entr&sted 3ith a 2o3er 3hich co&nter5revol&tionaries %i4ht sei:e fro% the% a4ain. (hat 3asnecessary' 3rote Ba/e&f' 3as %en 3hose doctrines and%anners' 3hose 3hole life 3as in f&ll har%ony 3ith the s2irit ofthe instit&tions 3hich they 3ere called to create. Li/erty %&st /edenied at the o&tset lest it /e lost for ever. (hat 3as to /e done 3asin accord 3ith nat&ral la3. It 3as 3hat the 2eo2le 3o&ld itselfdesire 3hen it ca%e to &nderstand the e4alitarian State. TheDictatorshi2 3as th&s' in effect'



the 4eneral 3ill of the 2roletariat. It lost its freedo% only the %oref&lly to find it.

The instit&tions and %eas&res this Dictatorshi2 3o&ld createare e<traordinarily si4nificant in the li4ht of o&r recent e<2erience.The central co%%ittee had at first considered the idea ofa22ointin4 a sin4le 2erson as dictator9 /&t this idea 3as re8ected infavo&r of the 4overn%ent of the co%%ittee itself' advised /y anasse%/ly co%2osed of one de%ocrat chosen /y each of the de2art5%ents fro% a list of s&ita/le 2ersons s&/%itted to the%. This had'ho3ever' to /e %odified after disc&ssion 3ith their Jaco/in allies 9and the final for% of asse%/ly 3as to consist of so%e si<ty for%er%e%/ers of the #onvention and a h&ndred other de%ocrats

no%inated /y the 2eo2le fro% safe candidates. The #o%%itteeretained the ri4ht to initiate le4islation' to4ether 3ith f&ll e<ec&tive2o3ers. Beneath it' there 3as to /e created co%%issars in eachde2art%ent' 3ith 4reat a&thority. Their /&siness 3as to s2eed thes&ccessf&l revol&tion. They 3ere to %a6e 2ro2a4anda for its ideas'create local societies for its co%2letion' deal 3ith co&nter5revol&tionaries' and assist all active de%ocrats in the 2rovinces.Before a22oint%ent they 3ere to declare their financial 2osition'and a s2ecial tri/&nal 3as created to e<a%ine theiracco%2lish%ent of their tas6. !&rther' to stren4then the ne3order' there 3as to /e created a 6ind of revol&tionary acade%y' aseinai#e no#al, 4 3here citi:ens fro% each de2art%ent 3o&ld /e sent' in a 2redeter%ined order' to learn the 2rinci2les of thene3 revol&tion' and to /e i%/&ed 3ith the s2irit of the refor%ers.

To co%2lete the str&ct&re of the Dictator5 shi2' the Ba/o&vistesdecided to recreate all local instit&tions' incl&din4 therevol&tionary co%%issions' as they e<isted /efore the fall ofRo/es2ierre in Ther%idor.

I cannot even atte%2t here to analyse in detail the act&al%eas&res /y 3hich the central co%%ittee 2ro2osed to acco%2lishits tas6. B&t it is' I thin6' 3orth 3hile /riefly to indicate the2rinci2les &2on 3hich those %eas&res 3ere /ased. All healthy2ersons 3ere to 3or6' and no idle 2erson 3as to 2ossess 2oliticalri4hts. The ho%eless and the 2oor 3ere to /e ho&sed in the ho&sesof all 3ho had cons2ired' or %i4ht cons2ire' a4ainst theRevol&tion. The 2eo2le 3as to /e ar%ed' and all 2arasites disar%ed. The 2ress 3as to /e controlled to 2revent the s2read offalse



ne3s or attac6. S2ecial ta<es 3ere to /e levied on all notsy%2athetic to the ne3 re4i%e 3ith a ri4ht' at need' of co%2leteconfiscation. The old defenders of the Revol&tion and the&nfort&nate 3ere to /e 4iven the &se of ne3 2ossessions. Anyone 3ho had e%i4rated or re/elled 3as to lose his 2ro2erty9 andconfiscation 3as also visited &2on the ne4li4ent far%er' the 2&/licservant enriched /y the e<ercise of his office' and any 3ho 3ere 8&dicially conde%ned. The sale of national 2ro2erty 3ass&s2ended9 and' inheritance /ein4 a/olished' all 2rivate estates' ondeath' 3ere to revert to the State. ,achinery 3as to /e develo2ed'and &nc&ltivated land /ro&4ht into &se9 to this end state5sho2s 3ere to /e o2ened in each co%%&ne' and an econo%ic co&ncil'

re2resentin4 the different 2rofessions' 3as to aid the locala&thorities in the 2rovision and or4anisation of 3or6. d&cation' 3ith the necessary vocational /ias' 3as to /e co%%on to all' and sodevelo2ed that the avera4e %an %i4ht ho2e to 2lay his f&ll 2art inthe life of the State. !orei4n trade 3as to /e a state5 %ono2oly' 3hile %oney and 3a4es 3ere a/olished for internal 2&r2oses.There 3as to /e assistance for the old' and free %edical service forthe sic6 9 and the treat%ent of cri%inals 3as to /e entirelyrefor%ed. (hatever its 3ea6ness as a 2ractical sche%e' it iso/vio&s that Ba/e&f and his collea4&es had arrived at a clear2erce2tion of the 2ro4ra%%e they 3ished to achieve.

The %ode% theory of social revol&tion is nat&rally the o&tco%eof a 2rofo&nder st&dy of historic conditions than it 3as o2en toBa/e&f and his collea4&es to %a6e. $et anyone 3ho co%2ares theiranalysis 3ith the (ounist Manifesto, on the one hand' or the 3ritin4s of Lenin and Trots6y &2on the other' can hardly do&/t theori4inal so&rce of their ins2iration. The line of affiliation' indeed' isa direct o n e 9 for B&onarroti 3as the %aster of that 4eneration 3hose 3ords and acts 3ere the /asis of ,ar<ian strate4y. Theclass53ar' the fail&re of refor%' the necessity of dictatorshi2' theinsistence on a social revol&tion' the &lti%ate si4nificance of the

econo%ic >&estion' the realisation that ins&rrection is an art' thecaref&l 2re2aration



of the %eas&res it is to entail' the insistence on the 2roletariat asthe sole revol&tionary class' the 2erce2tion of the i%2ortance ofed&cation and 2ro2a4anda' the sense that intellect&al theories are /o% of the %ethods of econo%ic 2rod&ction' all these theBa/o&vistes clearly &nderstood. All these' also' /eca%e 2art of theessential Socialist tradition of the nineteenth cent&ry. It is nearlyforty years since Ba/e&f died' 3rote #harles "odier' in );1C' andhis 2arty is still livin4 ... he reco4nised tr&ths 3hich no 4overn%enthas dei4ned to acce2t' tr&ths 3hich can never die. Of the socialis%of the Revol&tion' indeed' Ba/o&vis%e is the one ele%ent destinedto 2er%anent infl&ence. @oyer d7Ar4enson' Teste' Ras2ail' Lo&isBlanc' Lero&< and Blan>&i in !rance' Belhasse and Potter inBel4i&%' Bronterre O?Brien in n4land' have all /o%e testi%onyto the 2art it 2layed in their lives thro&4h contact 3ith B&onarroti. (eitlin4?s 3or6 in the canton de @a&d /ro&4ht hi% into directcontact 3ith it also9 and it is 3orth re%e%/erin4 the 2art that theLea4&e of the J&st 2layed as an instr&%ent of early ,ar<is%. Andit is 3orth re%e%/erin4 also that one of the #o%%&nards of ); 3as the 4randson of that #lenence 3ho had sat 3ith Ba/e&f in the#entral #o%%ittee. It 3as 3ith reason that #o&nt Al/ert de ,&nsho&ld' in );0C' in the #ha%/er of De2&ties' have acc&sed the!rench socialists of /ein4 the descendants of Ba/e&f. That is' infact' their real and effective ori4in.

(e %&st not' indeed' e<a44erate their insi4ht into the techni>&ethe %odern ,ar<ian has develo2ed. They had 2ractically noconce2tion of socialis% as an international force 9 it needed the

i%2act of the Ind&strial Revol&tion to e%2hasise the li%its ofnationalis% in revol&tionary strate4y. There 3as not eno&4hrealisation of s&ccessf&l revol&tion as 4ro&nded in a set of o/8ectiveecono%ic conditions' and not %erely /o% of deter%inedor4anisation at a 2re%at&re %o%ent. There 3ere %any of thoseele%ents in the theory of Ba/e&f 3hich' in );-' ,ar< sti4%atisedas Uto2ian socialis% the /elief in an &lti%ate nat&ral la3' theconce2tion of an ori4inal endo3%ent of h&%an i%2&lse 3hich 3asdefinitely 4ood and %erely o/sc&red /y evil instit&tions'so%ethin4' at least' of the acce2tance of ins&rrection for its o3nsa6e' &2on the dan4ers of 3hich Lenin has 3ritten so /rilliantly.The latter?s 2hrase.



indeed' that Ba/e&f 3as a Jaco/in 3ho leaned on the 3or6in45classes has a real tr&th in it9 for he never s&fficiently 2erceived thedan4er of the alliances he 3as 2re2ared to %a6e for the end he hadin vie3. "or did he realise at all ho3 %&ch in advance of effective2ossi/ility 3as his 2ro4ra%%e. A social revol&tion cannot /es&ccessf&l on the fallin4 tide of a 2olitical revol&tion. Ba/o&vis%e 3as doo%ed to fail&re /efore it 4ot &nder 3ei4h.

$et' it %&st /e e%2hasised' the de2th of its insi4ht isre%ar6a/le. Anyone 3ho reads its vol&%ino&s literat&re 3ithattention' and co%2ares the ha/its it 2ost&lates 3ith theo2erations of Bolshevis%' cannot hel2 /ein4 i%2ressed /y therese%/lance. lse3here I have 2ointed o&t) that the stren4th of

co%%&nis% lies in its effort to effect a co%2lete transval&ation of val&es in ter%s of a 4reat ideal 2assionately cherished. I have2ointed o&t the stren4th 4iven /y faith in that ideal to itsadherents' their 2rofo&nd sense of its e<cl&sive tr&th' their 3illin4ness to sacrifice the%selves to its 2rinci2les' their insistencethat the end is so 4reat that the %eans ado2ted to it are' 3hatevertheir cost' 8&stified. The detailed rese%/lances /et3een the 2ro54ra%%e of Ba/e&f and that of the R&ssian #o%%&nist arere%ar6a/le eno&4h9 /&t even %ore re%ar6a/le is the si%ilarity of&lti%ate te%2er 3hich r&ns thro&4h the t3o %ove%ents. There isthe sa%e e<hilaration of s2irit' the sa%e /itterly5dra3n distinction /et3een friend and foe' the sa%e &r4ency that all thin4s /e %adene3' the sa%e 2o3er relentlessly to dissect the 3ea6nesses ofconte%2orary society' the sa%e ca2acity for self5confident o2ti%5

is%' the sa%e 4eni&s for 2ro2a4anda and invective. Lenin' so tosay' is the Ba/o&vistes 3rit lar4e 9 and the architect of the"ove%/er Revol&tion 3as 4reatly inde/ted to %en 3ho' if theysa3 less clearly than he' envisa4ed a civilisation &2on the sa%e2attern he so&4ht to /&ild.

@I

(hat res&lts fro% this analysis The !rench Revol&tion' in anarro3 2ers2ective' %&st' I thin6' /e re4arded as 2ri%arily

individ&alist in character9 the real e<2ression of its effectiveo&tco%e is the #ivil #ode' in no sense a) (ounis E)0FG' 2. )1; f.



socialist doc&%ent. Its real7 res&lt 3as to transfer 2o3er fro% thearistocracy to the 2easant and %iddle classes. The i%2ress %ade&2on the% /y the socialist tendencies of the 2eriod' es2ecially /ytheir e<tre%e translation in the #ons2iracy of Ba/e&f' 3as to %a6ethe idea of 2rivate 2ro2erty %ore sacred' and less s&sce2ti/le toattac6' than it 3as held to /e at any ti%e in the ei4hteenth cent&ry.If it attac6ed the 2ro2erty of the old re4i%e' it consolidated that ofthe ne3 &2on a 3ider /asis 9 and the era of chan4e andconfiscation only %ade %en %ore ea4er to s&22ress the 2ossi/ilitythat titles co&ld /e called into >&estion. (e %&st not for4et thatthe a/olition of fe&dal ri4hts and cor2orate 2rivile4e 3as %ade inthe na%e of the individ&al9 that' 3here confiscation too6 2lace' it

3as done in the na%e of 2&/lic safety and co&ld th&s /e re4ardedas essentially a transitory %eas&re. ,ost of the attac6s &2on theri4hts of 2ro2erty 3hich did ta6e 2lace 3ere rather the inevita/leacco%2ani%ent of civil 3ar than an e<2ression of any 3ide desirefor social trans5 for%ation. *iven 2olitical li/erty' a constit&tionalstate' and e>&ality /efore the la3' and %ost %en 3ere content toa/stain fro% s2ec&lative innovation. A state 3as created 3hich layat the service of the hard53or6in4 2easant and the activeentre2rene&r. "o condition is %ore favo&ra/le to classes 3hose2o3er is a f&nction of the 2ro2erty they 2ossess.

On a lon4er vie3' ho3ever' the !rench Revol&tion is a ca2italevent in the history of Socialis%. It is so' I s&44est' for fo&rreasons. Before );0 there 3as not' in the %odern sense' anysocial 2ro/le%. ,en as6ed ho3 the 2oor 3ere to /e relieved' not'

as after3ards' 3hat 2art they 3ere to 2lay in the State. TheRevol&tion /e4an that a3a6enin4 of a social conscio&sness in the2roletariat of 3hich &niversal s&ffra4e is %erely a 2artial' and /yno %eans the &lti%ate' conse>&ence. very radical 2artythencefor3ard has fo&nd that it %&st rec6on 3ith the 3ants'indistinct' indeed' and /&t half5for%&lated' of the 2oor9 and everystate has discovered that the 4ro3th of econo%ic or4anisationsooner or later transfor%s the incoherent %ass of the 2oor into a%ove%ent &lti%ately ca2a/le of or4anisation &2on the classic linesof 2arty conflict.

This /irth of the social >&estion has a s2ecial i%2ortance foranother reason. Before );0 socialist ideas 3ere



si%2ly %oral theories 3hich lived in a vac&&% and had no chanceof effective realisation. After );0 they 3ere in a different 2osition.,en had seen the deli/erate introd&ction of 2ro2osals the 2&r2oseof 3hich 3as to le4islate for e>&ality. The fi<ation of %a<i%&%2rices' the a/olition of fe&dal 2rivile4e' the confiscation of #h&rch2ro2erty and the 2ossessions of those hostile to the Revol&tion' theatte%2ts at 2ro4ressive ta<ation and the control of inheritance'these' as e<2eri%ents' have an i%2ortance it is i%2ossi/le to over5esti%ate. Do&/tless they &s&ally failed9 do&/tless' also' they 3ereoften s&44ested 3itho&t conviction and' %ore often still' a22lied 3itho&t sincerity. This is less si4nificant than the fact that %en /eca%e acc&sto%ed to the 2erce2tion that the State %i4ht /e %ade

the tactical instr&%ent of those 3ho 2ossessed its %achinery. It isless si4nificant' also' than the fact that the Jaco/ins' not least theirre2resentatives on %ission' schooled the %asses to the&nderstandin4 that distinctions of 3ealth are le4islative creations'and that' 3here crisis de%ands it' e4alitarian innovation %ay /edeli/erately atte%2ted.

A third reason is o&tstandin4 in the i%2act it has %ade &2ons&/se>&ent history. Before );0 society 3as divided into 2rivile4edand &n2rivile4ed9 since );0 it has /een divided into rich and2oor. The distinction is a nota/le one. The 2rerevol&tionarydivision 3as the e<2ression of an a4e5lon4 tradition rooted in the2sycholo4y of ha/it and c&sto%9 its land%ar6s 3ere as %entallyfa%iliar to %en as the ho&se into 3hich they 3ere /orn. To thene3 division the sanction of tradition 3as no lon4er attached. ,en

co&ld see chan4e /efore their eyes. They co&ld see that theattain%ent of riches %eant food and shelter' clothin4 and sec&rity9they 6ne3 that its a/sence %eant h&n4er and s&fferin4. Theylearned not only that la3 co&ld %a6e and &n%a6e the 3ealthy 9they learned also that these o22osed s&ch chan4es in the la3 asinvolved sacrifice &2on their 2art. They 4re3 to thin6 of the divi5sion as an anta4onis% of interest' a necessary hostility 3hich co&ldonly /e /rid4ed /y an attac6 &2on the ri4hts of 2ro2erty. !ro%)01 the life of the Re2&/lic 3as' &ntil the e<ec&tion of Ba/e&f'so%ethin4 not &nli6e a 3ar a4ainst the rich in the interest of the2oor. The Jaco/ins 3a4ed it' no do&/t' for the 2reservation of theRe2&/lic.



The 2oor 3ho s&22orted the% did so' no do&/t as 3ell' /eca&sethey 3ere %isera/le and h&n4ry' and not /eca&se they 3eresocialists. B&t it 3as 3a4ed' also' 3ith the idea in the /ac64ro&ndthat e>&ality is an ideal' and that the rich are the ene%ies ofe>&ality. The notion 2er%anently re%ains therefore that 4reatriches are al3ays ille4iti%ate9 and' 3ith the class5conscio&s 3or6er' the %ore 4eneral vie3 that the 3ea6nesses of society arethe o&tco%e of class 2rivile4e. This feelin4 /it the %ore dee2ly /eca&se of 3ide disa22oint%ent 3ith the res&lts of the Revol&tion. After the fall of Ro/es2ierre the sense 3as 3ide5s2read that theRevol&tion 3hich 3as to /enefit the 3hole co%%&nity had' in fact'%erely aided the /o&r4eoisie to the detri%ent of the 3or6er. The

latter7s revol&tion' it 3as felt' 3as still to co%e 9 it 3as inherent inthe nat&re of thin4s. In this sense' as the 2rinci2les of );0 /e4into i%2re4nate the conse>&ences of the factory syste%'revol&tionary socialis% /eca%e an inevita/le 2art of nineteenth5cent&ry ideolo4y.

The final o&tco%e 3as the definition' 3ith invinci/le clarity' ofthe 2ro/le% of e>&ality in all its as2ects. Here I shall not vent&re torely &2on %y o3n dia4nosis' /&t atte%2t only to as6 so%e>&estions. If a 2eo2le see6s to i%2rove its sit&ation /y thealteration of 2olitical instit&tions' and is dissatisfied either 3ith theres&lt itself' or the slo3ness 3ith 3hich its /enefits acc&%&late' 3ill it /e satisfied to re%ain inactive in the econo%ic s2here (illit not as6 itself' as Toc>&eville s&44ested' 3hether the 2rivile4es of2ro2erty are not the %ain o/stacle to e>&ality a%on4 %en' and

assert that they are neither necessary nor desira/le If it as6s the>&estion' 3ill it not see6 to e<2eri%ent 3ith the 2ossi/ility of re5s2onse (ill a ne3 "a2oleon /e discovered to 2&t a ter% to theirin>&iries B&t to e<a%ine these 2ossi/ilities 3o&ld ta6e %e far /eyond the /o&ndaries of the !rench Revol&tion. It %&st s&fficehere to say that these >&estions have /een raised' and that theha22iness of %an6ind de2ends &2on the 3ay in 3hich 3e see6 to%eet the 4rave iss&es they involve.

*ADE AND PRINTED IN )REAT !RITAIN !" THE )ARDEN CIT" PRESS LTD'% LETCH&ORTH% HERTS'



@. Advielle A.

A&lard

P. B&onarroti

B&che: et Ro&<

. #ha%2ion

#hassin ...

G. Deville...

H. Doniol.

A. s2inas

J. Ja&rts ...

P. Kro2ot6in A.

Lichten/er4er

A. de ,arcel @.

,arin ...

A. ,athie:

Ro/inet ...

P. Ro/i>&et

Sch%idt. ...

*. Sender

!I!LIO)RAPH"

... Histoi#edeG! Babeuf! );;-.

.. Histoi#e "oliti.ue de la Rivolution F#an3 faise! d. of )0F. La So%iSti des 5a%obins! );;0... Histoi#e de la (onsi#ation ou# 1E'alite!

);F;... Histoi#e "a#leentai#e de la Rivolution

F#an'aise! );1-... La F#an%e d*a#Ss les (ahie#s de );0. );0... La Ginie de la Rivolution! );CF. Les Ele%tions et les (ahie#s de "a#is! );;;... Histoi#e Sodaliste! T. v. Ther%idor et

Directoire. )0M... La Revolution et la Feodalite! );;F... La "hilosohi% So%iale du i 8e Sie%le! );00... Histoi#e Sodaliste de la Rivolution F#an3

faise! d. ,athie:' )0FF... /he G#eat F#en%h Revolution!!! Le So%ialise au i 8e Sie%le! );0M. Le So%ialise /5toi.ue, );0;. Le So%ialise et la Rivolution F#anfaise! );00.... /+es Rivolutionai#es! );1.... Histoi#e Litte#ai#e de la (onvention Nation5

ale! );CC.

... Autou#de Robesie##e! )0FM. Robesie##e et la vie %hbe! )0F./he F#en%h Revolution! )0F0.

... anton, Hoe d*itat! );;0.

... Buona##oti et la Se%te des E'ou)! )0)F.

... "a#is endant la Rivolution! );;M.

Le Babouvise a#is Babeuf )0)F.



TH !ABIA" SO#IT$.11 DARTMOUTH STREET, WESTMINISTER, LONDON, S.W.1.

Those willing to join the Lao!" #a"t$, o" %esi"o!s o& otaining in&o"'ation ao!t its#"og"a''e an% #"in(i)les, a"e in*ite% to (o''!ni(ate with the Se("eta"$ o& the +aian So(iet$. The +aian So(iet$ has een, &"o' the o!tset, a (onstit!ent o%$ o& the Lao!" #a"t$ an%'e'e"shi) o& the So(iet$ (a""ies with it &!ll 'e'e"shi) o& the Lao!" #a"t$ - eligiilit$ &o"no'ination to all on&e"en(es an% O&&i(es, an% /!ali&i(ation &o" Lao!" #a"t$ (an%i%at!"es &o"#a"lia'ent an% Lo(al A!tho"ities, witho!t oligation to elong to an$ othe" o"ganisation.

The So(iet$ wel(o'es as 'e'e"s an$ )e"sons, 'en o" wo'en, whe"e*e" "esi%ent, whos!s("ie to its 0asis set &o"th elow2, an% who will (o3o)e"ate in its wo"4 a((o"%ing to thei"o))o"t!nities.

0ASIS O+ THE +A0IAN SOIET5.

To B SI*"D B$ ALL ,,BRS.G

6Adoted Ma+ F1#d, )0)0.2

The +aian So(iet$ (onsists o& So(ialists.It the"e&o"e ai's at the "eo"ganisation o& So(iet$ $ the e'an(i)ation o& Lan% an% In%!st"ial

a)ital &"o' in%i*i%!al owne"shi), an% the *esting o& the' in the (o''!nit$ &o" the gene"al ene&it. In this wa$ onl$ (an the nat!"al an% a(/!i"e% a%*antages o& the (o!nt"$ e e/!ital$sha"e% $ the whole )eo)le.

The So(iet$ a((o"%ingl$ wo"4s &o" the e6tin(tion o& )"i*ate )"o)e"t$ in lan%, with e/!itale(onsi%e"ation o& estalishe% e6)e(tations, an% %!e )"o*ision as to the ten!"e o& the ho'e an% theho'estea% &o" the t"ans&e" to the (o''!nit$, $ (onstit!tional 'etho%s, o& all s!(h in%!st"iesas (an e (on%!(te% so(iall$ an% &o" the estalish'ent, as the go*e"ning (onsi%e"ation in the"eg!lation o& )"o%!(tion, %ist"i!tion an% se"*i(e, o& the (o''on goo% instea% o& )"i*ate )"o&it.

The So(iet$ is a (onstit!ent o& the Lao!" #a"t$ an% o& the Inte"national So(ialist ong"ess !t it ta4es )a"t &"eel$ in all (onstit!tional 'o*e'ents, so(ial, e(ono'i( an% )oliti(al, whi(h (an e g!i%e% towa"%s its own oje(ts. Its %i"e(t !siness is a2 the )"o)agan%a o& So(ialis' in itsa))li(ation to (!""ent )"ole's 72 in*estigation an% %is(o*e"$ in so(ial, in%!st"ial, )oliti(alan% e(ono'i( "elations (2 the wo"4ing o!t o& So(ialist )"in(i)les in legislation an%a%'inist"ati*e "e(onst"!(tion 82 the )!li(ation o& the "es!lts o& its in*estigations an% thei"

)"a(ti(al lessons.The So(iet$, elie*ing in e/!al (iti9enshi) o& 'en an% wo'en in the &!llest sense, is o)en to

)e"sons i""es)e(ti*e o& se6, "a(e o" ("ee%, who (o''it the'sel*es to its ai's an% )!")oses asstate% ao*e, an% !n%e"ta4e to )"o'ote its wo"4.

The So(iet$ in(l!%es:I. ,e%/ers' 3ho %&st si4n the Basis and /e elected /y the #o%%ittee. Their S&/scri2tions are not fi<ed9 each is

e<2ected to s&/scri/e ann&ally accordin4 to his %eans. They control the Society thro&4h the <ec&tive#o%%ittee Eelected ann&ally /y /allot thro&4h a 2ostal voteG' and at its ann&al and other /&siness %eetin4s.

II. Associates' 3ho si4n a for% e<2ressin4 only 4eneral sy%2athy 3ith the o/8ects of the Society and 2ay not lessthan ios. a year. They can attend all e<ce2t the e<cl&sively %e%/ers? %eetin4s' /&t have no control over theSociety and its 2olicy.

III. S&/scri/ers' 3ho %&st 2ay at least Ms. a year' and 3ho can attend the Society7s Ordinary Lect&res.The 'onthl$ )a)e", Fabian Ne7s, an% the T"a(ts &"o' ti'e to ti'e )!lishe% in the well34nown +aian Se"ies, a"e )oste% to all these (lasses. The"e a"e (on*enient o''on Roo's,whe"e light "e&"esh'ents (an e otaine%, with an e6tensi*e li"a"$ &o" the &"ee !se o& 'e'e"sonl$.

A'ong the So(iet$;s a(ti*ities in whi(h it )la(es its se"*i(es !n"ese"*e%l$ at the %is)osal o&the Lao!" #a"t$ an% the Lo(al Lao!" #a"ties all o*e" the (o!nt"$, the T"a%e Unions an% T"a%eso!n(ils, an% all othe" Lao!" an% So(ialist o"ganisations2, 'a$ e 'entione%

EiG !ree lect&res /y its %e%/ers and officers9EiiG The 3ell56no3n !a/ian Boo65/o<es' each containin4 a/o&t three do:en of the /est /oo6s on cono%ics'

Politics' and Social Pro/le%s' 3hich can /e o/tained /y any or4anisation of %en or 3o%en for )Ms. 2erann&%' coverin4 an e<chan4e of /oo6s every three %onths9

EiiiG Ans3ers to &estions fro% ,e%/ers of Local A&thorities and others on le4al' technical or 2olitical%atters of Local *overn%ent' etc.9

EivG S2ecial s&/scri2tion co&rses of lect&res on ne3 develo2%ents in tho&4ht9EvG cono%ic and social investi4ation and research' and 2&/lication of the res&lts. ists of Publications, Annual Report, form of Application as Member or Associate, and any other

information can be obtained on application personally or by letter to the Secretary of the above address.



SELECT!" !# #A$A" P%$LCAT!"S.6(olete list sent on ali%ation!8THE CO**ONSENSE OF *UNICIPAL TRADIN)' By Bernard Sha3. (-. net9 2osta4e F'

*IND "OUR O&N !USINESS' By R. B. S&thers. (-. net/ 2osta4e 0'

THE DECA" OF CAPITALIST CIVILISATION' By Sidney and Beatrice (e//.

#loth' +-./ 2a2er' 0-./ 2osta4e +'

HISTOR" OF THE FA!IAN SOCIET"' By d3ard R. Pease. "e3 dition' )0FM' C-1/ 2osta4e2'

FA!IAN ESSA"S 3(40, Eition5' 0-./ 2osta4e ;'

TTATNL *AR6' By Harold J. Las6i. )-1 9 2ost free (-(7'

TO&ARDS SOCIAL DE*OCRAC" P By Sidney (e//. IS' net/ 2osta4e I'

FA!IAN TRACTS an LEAFLETS'

/#a%ts, ea%h )C to MF !, #i%e id!, o# 0d! e# do)!, unless othe#7ise stated!

Leaflets, - ! ea%h, #i%e id! fo# th#ee %oies, Fs. e# 1<<, o# F=3 e# ),.The Set% (,-1/ 8ost free (,-4' !o$n in 9$c:ra#% (2-1/ 8ost free (2-4

G.>Gene"al So(ialis' in its *a"io!s as)e(ts.Tracts.0;( Socialis# an Fa9ianis#%

$Bernard Sha3' 1

%. [email protected] Finance%

$ +. W.Pethic65

La3rence' M.#., F%. ?17. Socialis# an Freeo#% $ H. . Las6i' F%. ?<<. The State in the Ne<Social Orer% $ Harold . Las6i' F%. 1B<. The Philoso8hy of Socialis#% $ A. *l&tton Broc6. [email protected] Necessary !asis of Society% $ Sidney (e//. 187. Socialis# an S$8erior !rain% $ Bernard

Sha3' F%. 18?. !lent an Val$e' 1<. Socialis# for *illionaires% $ Bernard Sha3' F%. 1BB.Socialis# an Christianity% $ Re*. Percy Dear%er' F%. ?. The *oral As8ects of Socialis#% $Sidney Ball. C1. Socialis#= Tr$e an False% $ S. (e//' F%. 8C. The I#8ossi9ilities of Anarchis#%

$ G. B. Sha3' F%. C. Facts lor Socialists% Thi"teenth E%ition, )0FC,C%. 81. The Fa9ian Society=its Early History% $ Bernard Sha3.

II.>A))li(ations o& So(ialis' to #a"ti(!la" #"ole's.TRACTS'>0;0' The Personnel of the !ritish Forei?n Office an Di8lo#atic Serrioe% (;2(1 1@?@, $

Ro/ert T. "i4htin4ale' F%. ?B1. The Local )overn#ent Act% 1@?@= Ho< to *a:e the !est of It% $Sidney (e//' F%. ?B<. I#8erial Tr$steeshi8% 9y The Rt. Hon. Lord Olivier' .., M.G., F%. ??B.A?ric$lt$re an the La9o$r Party% $ *. T. *arratt' F%. ??. La9o$r@s Forei?n Policy% $ M"s. H.

M. S3an 3ic6' F%. ??7. The Lea?$e of Nations% $ Bernard Sha3' F%. ??B. The !ritish Ca9inet= ASt$y of its Personnel% 1@<131@?8, $ Harold . Las6i' 1%. ??<. Seitio$s Offences% $ E. . ."ee2' 1%. 1@7. The Root of La9o$r Unrest% $ Sidney (e//' F%. 1@8. Taes% Rates an LocalInco#e Ta% $ Ro/ert Jones' D.Sc.' F%. 1B. The Teacher in Politics% $ Sidney (e//' F%. 1BB.The Refor# of the Ho$se of Lors% $ Sidney (e//. i%.

III.>Lo(al Go*e"n'ent #owe"s: How to !se the'.Tracts. > ??C. E$oatlon Co##ittees= Their Po<ers an D$ties% $ H. Sa%&els' 1%. ?1B. The Co$nty

Co$ncil= &hat it Is an &hat it Does% $ H. Sa%&els. 1@<. *etro1 8olitan !oro$?h Co$noils% $. R. Attlee' M.A., F%. 1@1. !oro$?h Co$ncils $ . R. Attlee' M.A., F%. 1B@. Ur9an DistrictCo$ncils% $ . M. Lloyd' M.A., F%. 7?. Parish an District Co$ncils% F%. 1B. Parish Co$ncilsan Villa?e Life% F%.

IF.>On the o3o)e"ati*e Mo*e'ent.?<?. The Constit$tional Pro9le#s of a Co1o8erative Society% $ Sidney (e//' M.#., F%. ?<B. TheNee tor Feeral Re1or?anisation of the Co1o8erative *ove#ent% $ Sidney (e//' M.#., F%. ?<8.The Position of E#8loyees in the Co1o8erative *ove#ent% $ Lilian Harris' F%. ?<C. Co1o8erativeE$cation% $ Lilian A. Da3son' F%. ?<7. The o3o)e"ato" in #olitios, $ Al&"e% 0a"nes, M.#.,?%.

F.>0iog"a)hi(al Se"ies. In 2ortrait covers' %.00(' Bere#y !entha#% $ @ictor #ohen. 0(' Tho#as Paine% $ Kin4sley ,artin. 0(2' &illia#Co99ett% $ G. D. H. #ole. (44' &illia# Lovett% (;,,1(;% 9y Bar/ara Ha%%ond. Ro9ert O<en%Iealist% $ . . ,. Toad. (4% Bohn !$s:in an Social Ethics% $ #"o&. dith ,orley. (.2' FrancisPlace% $ StJohn G. rvine. (..' Ro9ert O<en% Social Refor#er% $ ,iss H&tchin4. (.' &illia#*orris an the Co##$nist Ieal% $ ,rs. To3nshend. (.;' Bohn St$art *U% $ J&li&s (est. (+'Charles in?sley an Christian Sooialis#% 9y #. . @&llia%y.

The Socialist Tradition in the French Revolution

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Transcript of The Socialist Tradition in the French Revolution