• The Social Deconstruction of Race (1960-present)– Beginning in the 1960, science developed new techniques to

investigate the issue of race• 4 ways to demarcate whether races exist within human populations

– Subjectivity» The idea that race should be immediately and visually obvious

• Star Trek (Star Wars) vision of race• When you see a Klingon or a Wookie, it is immediately obvious

that they are not human• However, that cannot be done for humans

• Photo exercise on PBS.org– Traits

» Idea that by looking at the distribution of certain traits among human populations that racial groupings can be determined• Whether focusing on epicanthic eye fold, sickle cell anemia or any

other trait, no particular traits clusters together in what we can call a racial category

• Watch the documentary

• The Journey of Man

– Genetic Analysis

» Investigating the question of race through examining elements of DNA• Mitochondrial DNA (MtDNA) and Y-Chromosome

• MtDNA• Mitochondria is a structure that provides energy for

the cell• A piece of DNA that does not code for physical traits

and is inherited solely and wholly from your mother• MtDNA undergoes mutations (known as Palmer’s

mutation) which allows researchers to trace backward their female genetic ancestry• Issue over timing of mutations• Researchers generally argue that they occur

about every 20,000 years• Critical for determining age of modern humans

• What does MtDNA tell us about our human

origins?• Since about 8-9 mutations have

accumulated on MtDNA, they place human age around 180-200,000 years

• All modern humans originate from Central Africa

• Evidence indicates the existence of a “Mitochondrial Eve” (not the literal Biblical Eve)

• What does MtDNA tells about human migration?

• Humans originated in Central Africa about 200,000 yrs ago

• For the first 120,000 years or so humans are trapped in Sub-Sahara Africa• World is deep in the grips of an ice age• When planet’s water is trapped in ice,

there is less precipitation• As a consequence, there is a constant

state of drought, the growth of deserts, and a dramatic lowering of sea levels

• Sahara and Saudi deserts trap humans in southern Africa

• While in Africa, a number of mutations occur on MtDNA

• Humans first left Africa via the Yemen about

80,000 years ago• Coastal migration route to Australia arriving

there about 74,000 years ago• Toba super-volcano erupted in Malaysia

and human artifacts found in Kota Tampan under Toba ash

• Human population reduced worldwide to a total of about 6-10,000 individuals

• Moved in Central Asia from Middle East and from there one branch went to Europe (40,000 years ago) and then to the Americas (20,000 years ago)

• Y-Chromosome

• Inherited relatively intact from father to son• Mutations occur that allow human lineages to be

determined• What does Y-chromosome tell us about human origins?

• Humans originated from Central Africa about 150,000 years ago

• Left Africa about 50,000 years ago• Arrived in Australia about 45,000 years ago• Europe about 40,000 years ago and the Americas about

13,000 years ago• Migration routes?

• Same picture as derived from MtDNA» Conclusions from genetic analysis

• Humans are between 50,000 and 500,000• Significant range of possible origin dates

• There is no such thing as “race”• All modern humans originated from Central Africa• All humans share significant genetic similarities

» Synthesizing the conclusions from MtDNA and Y-Chromosome

• Go to following website• http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/stephenoppenheimer/

• Click on “Journey of Mankind” and go through each step

– Environment

» If the genetic analysis is accurate, then why do we look so different?• Skin color

• a function of exposure to UV radiation• Absorption of UV radiation helps body

produce Vitamin D (necessary for good health)

• However, too much UV can harm health in a number of ways• Skin cancer, destroys folic acid which is

necessary for the health of the fetus• The color of your skin is a result of the balancing

act between need to absorb some sunlight to produce Vitamin D and to protect against harmful effects of UV radiation

– Height and body type

» Adaptations to climate• Bergman’s and Allen’s Rule

• Cold climates result in shorter, rounder body types in order to conserve body heat

• Hot climates produce taller, thinner people– Hair and nose shapes

» Also affected by climate• Nose shape concerns ability to regulate body

temperature• Short, broad nose adaptive to hot climates, thin,

long noses are adaptive to cold climates• Hair type also about maintaining body temperature

• The Myth of Ethnicity– The evidence against race is overwhelming

• Yet, some people cling to “group” explanations and now argue that its not genetics but ethnicity that accounts for the differential socioeconomic outcomes of people

• They argue that ethnic groups are characterized by distinct cultures and that these cultures are either well- or poorly-suited for economic success– for example, it is argued that Mexicans are ill-suited for economic success

because Mexican culture promotes values and attitudes that interfere with economic success» Patriarchy of Mexican culture breeds authoritarianism which interferes

with education particularly that of girls» Macho element of Mexican culture values manual labor which also

interferes with education» “Manana attitude” interferes with hard work

– “Blame the Victim” ideology

• So, the argument is that culture determines an

individual’s socioeconomic outcomes (social class)– Is this view valid?

– What explains the differential socioeconomic outcomes by the various ethnic groups in America?• Two types of arguments

– Cultural argument

Culture(values

and goals)

Individual Behavior

(morality, intelligence)

socio-economic success

– Structural argument

» Argues that the differential outcomes of various ethnic groups in America is a function of the resources , industrial skills, or demographics of the particular immigrant group in relation to the economic opportunity structure of host country

Resources (money)

Skills (industrial)

Demographics (sex ratio, family

ratio)

Opportunity structure of host society(industrial economy)

Socioeconomic outcomes

– The Jewish Success Myth• It is a common belief in America that Jews have gained a

greater degree of economic success in America and that an understanding of this is to be found elements in Jewish culture– Have Jews been more economically successful than other

immigrant groups?» Generally, yes.

• Jews have higher rates of college graduation and professional occupations than average American• In 1971, median income of Jews , 30% higher

than average American family• 36% graduated college, 11% for non-Jews• 70% Jewish males in profession or business, 33%

for non-Jews

– However, to categorize all Jews as economically successful is incorrect

» In 1973, 15% of NYC Jews in poor or near-poor (800,000)» ¼ of Jews in NYC in manual occupations» Do not constitute an economic elite

• Concentrated mostly in professions and small business• Absent in managerial positions in large corporations• Virtually unrepresented in many major industries

• Automobile, finance, insurance, steel, oil, utilities, and transportation

• Only two major industries dominated by Jews• Movies and garment industries

– Was their economic success due to their culture or structure?» It was said that Jewish culture highly values education (rooted in

knowledge of the Torah) and saving money• Consistent with the stereotype of Jews as clever and stingy

– The myth of immigrant success

» Assumption is that all immigrant groups started out the same • No skills, no money

• Not true• Some groups come with more money than

others• Over 1/2 the English and 1/3 of the

Germans entered U.S. with at least $50 on them

• Only 12% of Jews had $50• Groups also differed significantly in terms of

occupational skills

» Jews in the U.S. • Beginning around 1880 to 1924, 5 million Jews

immigrated to America• America was in the throes of an economic expansion

• Heavy demand for all types of labor but skilled labor had significant advantage in terms of income

• Jewish immigration was primarily from Eastern Europe• 1897 Russian Census

• Enumerated nearly 5 million Jews• Severe economic and political discrimination

• Prohibited from owning land• Required to live in western areas of

Russia• Largely urban population• Could not participate in agrarian

economy

• Occupations of Jews, Russia 1897

Occupation Jews Non-Jews

Manufacturing and Artisans

38% 15%

Commerce 32% 3%

Service 19% 16%

Professions 5% 3%

Transportation 3% 2%

Agriculture 3% 61%

• Immigrant Jews arrived with an array of industrial skills • 1908 Census (percentage of skilled workers

entering the U.S., 1899-1910)• Industrial skills by ethnicity

• Jews 66%• English 50%• Germans 30%• Swedes 20%• N. Italians 15%• S. Italians 10%• Poles 6%

• All told, 20% of immigrants arrived with industrial skills

• STEINBERG, pg. 98

» Skills were widespread but concentrated in garment industry

• Industry was growing at a rate 2-3 times as great as average for all other industries

• By 1914, garment industry employed over 1/2 million workers, with an annual payroll over $300 million, and a product value over $1 billion

• Wages offered generally better than other industries• Average wages of foreign-born workers in 1908 was

$11.92/week• For Russian Jewish males $13.28/week, for other

Jews $14.90/week• Structure of industry conducive to individual enterprise

• Contract labor and sweatshops• In 1913, there were over 16,000 in NYC alone• Does not require much start-up capital

• Jews did possess a higher rate of literacy

• Literacy rates for W. European immigrants rarely above 5%

• For Jews, it was 26%• Facilitated acquisition of foreign language• Facilitated entry into business

• Jews took advantage of educational opportunities• Pushing their children to pursue an education

followed, did not precede, economic success• Public education• CUNY was free to city residents• Established Jewish colleges from 1900-1920

– Conclusion» Ethnicity (culture) does not explain economic success

• STEINBERG, pg. 103