The Social and Cognitive Transformation of Older Adult ... · Received: 3 September 2018/Accepted:...

ORIG INAL RESEARCH ART ICLE

The Social and Cognitive Transformation of Older AdultWomen: an Analysis of Community Well-Beingfor a University-Based Lifelong Learning Community

Craig A. Talmage1& Allison Ross2 & Mark S. Searle2

& Richard C. Knopf2

Received: 3 September 2018 /Accepted: 5 October 2018 /Published online: 29 October 2018# Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2018

AbstractLifelong learning is a social and cognitive process that helps individuals build on theirknowledge, skills, and abilities throughout their lives. This process is transformationalfor older adults. This study examines the social and cognitive transformation of olderadult women involved in a large lifelong learning institute in the United States. Sense ofcommunity and gerotranscendence are used as measures of social and cognitivetransformation, respectively. The relationships of these concepts with life satisfactionand quality of life are quantitatively and qualitatively investigated. Findings indicatethat sense of community positively relates to life satisfaction and quality of life, whilegerotranscendence only relates to life satisfaction. The qualitative findings supportthese connections as well as demonstrate the transformative effects of lifelong learning.This study concludes that a social and cognitive perspective on transformation will bebeneficial to future investigations of life satisfaction, quality of life, and other measuresof individual and community well-being.

Keywords Aging . Sense of community . Gerotranscendence . Quality of life . Lifesatisfaction

What is the impact of lifelong learning? Lifelong learning impacts individuals andcommunities through social transformation (Lamb et al. 2009) and cognitive transfor-mation (Formosa 2005; O’Shea and Stone 2011). Noted often in the individual andcommunity well-being literature, lifelong learning serves as a tool for building socialand human capital (Boström 2003; Havighurst 1952; Regmi 2015). Thus, this study

International Journal of Community Well-Being (2018) 1:11–31https://doi.org/10.1007/s42413-018-0003-3

* Craig A. [email protected]

1 Hobart and William Smith Colleges, 300 Pulteney St., Stern Hall, Geneva, NY 14456, USA2 School of Community Resources and Development, Arizona State University, 411 N. Central Ave.

Suite 550, Phoenix, AZ 85004-0685, USA

http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/s42413-018-0003-3&domain=pdf

mailto:[email protected]

uses a social and cognitive perspective to understand the transformative power oflifelong learning in the lives of women participating in older adult learningcommunities.

In their article from over forty years ago, Lewis and Butler (1972) criticize thewomen’s liberation movement for ignoring older adult women, in spite of the knowl-edge that women outnumbered and outlived men in older adulthood. More recently,Mitchell and Bruns (2010) write, BAging for women within a patriarchal and youth-based culture has always been fraught with oppression; the experience is even morecomplicated in the 21st century^ (p. 114). In this manuscript, the authors take theposition that lifelong learning serves as one domain where older adult women findsocial and cognitive transformation based on past research (e.g., Merriam and Kee2014; Morell 2003), and this position merits further gender-specific inquiry.1

Demographics, diversity, and inclusion are common issues of inquiry in the lifelonglearning literature and among assessments of lifelong learning institutes (Hansen et al.2016; Talmage et al. 2018). Diversity is resource for lifelong learning, inclusion is anon-going process, and inclusiveness is a desired outcome (Talmage and Knopf 2017).Looking across older adult lifelong learning programs, women, especially well-educated women, generally make up the largest proportion of learners (Kim andMerriam 2004; Yamashita et al. 2017; Yenerall 2003). Recognizing this reality, thisstudy focuses specifically on women engaged in a particular university-based lifelonglearning institute.

Transforming (Women) through Lifelong Learning

Gerontology and lifelong learning scholar Marvin Formosa (2005, 2010, 2012) advo-cates for a sufficient practice of and rationale undergirding the delivery of lifelonglearning in transformative ways for older adults, with a particular interest in thepotential for the transformation of older women. This article examines the sociallyand cognitively transforming aspects of lifelong learning, as opposed to focusing onsocial deficits and dysfunctions that might be experienced in older adulthood. As thisarticle reveals, a community well-being analysis, specifically looking at quality of life(QoL) and life satisfaction, serves as a viable avenue for such a quest. Pertinently,debate continues regarding whether life satisfaction or well-being decline in later life;however, evidence suggests that such a decline is not an inevitable feature of later life(Baird et al. 2010). Lifelong learning may prevent or supplant the postulated inevitabledecline in well-being, and this notion deserves greater attention and inquiry.

Participation in lifelong learning programs continues to grow rapidly in line with anaging population (Moody 2006; Talmage et al. 2016). This is likely because of itspotential for heightening QoL (Mehrotra 2003; Merriam and Kee 2014) and lifesatisfaction (Field 2012; Meeks and Murrell 2001). Many older adults are motivatedto learn because of the intrinsic pleasure that comes from learning, as well as theextrinsic opportunity to socialize with others (Findsen 2005). Cognitive interest appearsto be the most influential predictor of older adult participation in lifelong learning

1 While this paper focuses on older adult women, great work regarding older adult men and lifelong learninghas been undertaken (e.g., Golding et al. 2014).

12 International Journal of Community Well-Being (2018) 1:11–31

programs (Kim and Merriam 2004; Lamb and Brady 2005), with lifelong learnersdesiring breadth and depth from their lifelong learning experiences (Talmage et al.2015). Mehrotra (2003) argues social relationships are as important as intellectualstimulation because learning is most effective when a social group values it. Lamband Brady (2005) identify sense of belonging, enhanced self-esteem, and spiritualrenewal as complementary motives for enrollment and participation in lifelong learninginstitute programs across multiple institutions. The transformational power of lifelonglearning attracts older adult leaners to and engages them in lifelong learning institutesand programs (Pstross et al. 2017).

Lifelong learning experiences are mechanisms for participants to address theircognitive and social motives, which can heighten their life satisfaction and overallQoL (Simone and Cesena 2010). Life satisfaction is often measured as a momentaryjudgment of a person’s life, generally regarding decisions made and experiences had;however, this evaluation tends to remain stable over time (Schimmack et al. 2002).Furthermore, QoL is an overall perception of an individual’s position in life, which iscontextualized (e.g., through culture or values) and relates to individual perceptions(e.g., expectations or concerns) (WHOQOL Group 1993).

For women, support through lifelong learning experiences and communities areimpactful on life satisfaction and QoL. In their analysis of 300 QoL studies, Pinquartand Sörensen (2001a, 2001b) note that older women report significantly lower levels ofQoL. These authors report that women who perform more cognitive activities reportbetter cognitive performance and less depressive symptoms (Vaughan et al. 2014). Forolder adult women enrolled in lifelong learning programs, a comfortable learningenvironment with a strong sense of community can reinforce life satisfaction andQoL (Narushima 2008). Additionally, the well-being (i.e., life satisfaction and QoL)of women may be impacted by their level of gerotranscendence, which may be linkedto or facilitated by lifelong learning (Formosa 2012; Manheimer 2005; Merriam andKee 2014). Narushima (2008) calls for research exploring well-being outcomes forwomen of lifelong learning programs and communities.

This research takes up Narushima’s (2008) call to explore the individual andcommunity well-being of older adult women. More specifically, this study assessesthe well-being and associated variables that contribute to the well-being of older adultwomen who participate in a particular university-based lifelong learning program. Thisprogram is affiliated with the Osher Lifelong Learning Institute network.2 Furthermore,this research undertakes a social and cognitive approach to investigate how sense ofcommunity (social) and gerotranscendence (cognitive) serve to transform older adultwomen enrolled in that program.

Social Transformation through Sense of Community

In light of the above precepts, researchers broaden the role of lifelong learningproviders to include the promulgation of sense of community (SoC) in their programs(e.g., Bennetts 2003; Merriam and Kee 2014). SoC is Ba feeling that members have of

2 For more information on Osher Lifelong Learning Institutes, visit http://www.osherfoundation.org/index.php?olli.

International Journal of Community Well-Being (2018) 1:11–31 13

http://www.osherfoundation.org/index.php?olli

http://www.osherfoundation.org/index.php?olli

belonging, a feeling that members matter to one another and to the group, and a sharedfaith that members’ needs will be met through their commitment to be together^(McMillan and Chavis 1986, p. 9). SoC is multidimensional encompassing diverseconcepts, such as membership, needs fulfillment, shared concerns, shared emotionalconnections, shared history, shared symbols, shared values, social connections, andsocial influence (McMillan and Chavis 1986; Perkins and Long 2002; Perkins et al.2002; Peterson et al. 2008). While SoC is highly influenced by features of thecommunity environment (Ross and Searle 2018), it is also affective (Luthans et al.2004). Luthans et al.’ (2004) aptly note that sense of community is felt when Bwho youknow^ becomes Bwho you are^.

Lifelong learning programs provide learners opportunities to form social ties inwhich they can find personal strength and purpose (Formosa 2005; O’Shea and Stone2011). These social networks increase individual vitality (Kim and Merriam 2004;Merriam & Key, 2014). SoC relates to course retention in lifelong learning programs(Chené 1994; Narushima 2008). As Narushima (2008) found, BThe comfortablelearning environment with an experienced engaging instructor, friendly classmates, asense of community and other mutual supports motivates seniors to remain in a singlecourse^ (p. 687). SoC is not only built; it must be nurtured and sustained in older adultlearning communities.

Despite Peter Laslett’s (1989) inclusion of SoC in the specification of his concept,The Third Age (see also Findsen 2005), few studies note the importance of SoC in olderadult lifelong learning communities. Exceptions include the works of Lawton and LaPorte (2013) and Lawton (2004), which have connected SoC, albeit indirectly, totransformative learning experiences for older adults. Given the preceding research inthis area, the following hypothesis is presented:

Hypothesis One: Sense of community transforms older adult women in lifelonglearning communities, such that it positively relates to their perceived overallquality of life and life satisfaction.

Cognitive Transformation through Gerotranscendence

Research demonstrates that many older adults see their lives as better in some wayscompared to their prior years despite previous overreaching conclusions to thecontrary (Scarcello 2010; Tornstam 2011). In this line of inquiry, Tornstam’s(2005, 2011) theory of gerotranscendence provides research with a positive agingapproach. The theory contradicts the misery perspective often reflected in agingresearch and practice, which focuses on decrement and decline in ability and well-being as adults age rather than the strengths or assets they might gain. In this samelight, Formosa (2012) criticizes the many negative connotations surrounding theterm Bold.^

Tornstam’s (2011) gerotranscendence concept is complex and multifaceted. Accord-ing to Tornstam (2011, p. 166), BGerotranscendence implies a shift in meta-perspective,from a materialistic and rational view of the world to a more cosmic and transcendentone, normally accompanied by an increase in life satisfaction.^ Gerotranscendencereflects a shift in three dimensions of human perception, as individuals get older.


First, the cosmic dimension encapsulates shifts in broad and existential perspectives(Tornstam 2005, 2011). These cosmic shifts involve changes in one’s definition of time,which connects the perception of the past, the present, and the future (Tornstam 2011).Individuals feel connected to earlier generations, become less afraid of death, embracethe mystery of life by accepting that our intellects as humans has limits, and spend timerejoicing in events from small to grand. In Tornstam’s words (2011), BThe joy ofexperiencing the macrocosm through the microcosm materializes, often related toexperiences in nature, such as by experiencing a transcendence into the universe whenlooking at a flower^ (p. 170–171).

The second dimension is the self, consisting of changes in perspectives around howindividuals presently view themselves and how they view their past lived experiences(Tornstam 2005, 2011). Tornstam (2011) writes, BFiguratively speaking, the individuallooks back on himself at earlier phases in life and discovers hidden aspects of the self –both good and bad.^ The individual may display changes in body perceptions, whereashe or she seeks to take care of his or her body, but does not obsess over the care of hisor her body (Tornstam 2011). He or she may be able to better integrate his or her lifeinto reality by redefining his or her current reality, which Tornstam (2011), borrowingfrom Erikson (1950), terms ego-integrity.

The final dimension is titled social and personal relationships. It captures changes inhow a person experiences and perceives his or her relationships and how thoserelationships are contextualized. This is demonstrated in how a person decides to givetime and attention to others. It also involves a better understanding of multiple socialroles played in a person’s relationships. Tornstam (2011) writes of an emancipativeinnocence that develops:

The individual develops a new skill to transcend needless conventions, norms andrules, which earlier in life had curtailed freedom to express the self. The individual whoearlier in life was afraid to ask questions when listening to a lecture, now boldly asksthem even if someone might laugh or think the question was stupid. (p. 173).

Finally, transcendence in everyday wisdom may be demonstrated, where dichoto-mous or black-and-white divisions in understanding become more blurred, spectrum-like, or gray. Tolerance and broadmindedness develop (Tornstam 2011).

Gerotranscendence appears tied to higher levels of life satisfaction (Tornstam 2011;Wang et al. 2011), better subjective health and QoL (Westerlund et al. 2009), andreduced depression (Wang et al. 2011). Specifically, the cosmic dimension ofgerotranscendence links to finding coherency and meaning within one’s life (Braamet al. 2006). Levenson et al. (2005) found the self dimension of gerotranscendence topositively relate to extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, meditation, andconscientiousness, and negatively relate to alienation and neuroticism. Also, whilegerotranscendence appears to increase with age, not all individuals may experienceor demonstrate this phenomenon (Nakagawa 2007, 2008; Tornstam 2005, 2011).Tornstam (2011) estimates that Bonly 20 percent of the population automaticallyreaches high degrees of gerotranscendence without trouble^ (p. 176). Expectations ofaging or rigidity of values, interests, and activities may work against gerotranscendence(Tornstam 2011).

Some scholars argue that gerotranscendence is nothing more than an attempt to re-enchant aging (see critique by Jönson and Magnusson 2001) or that it incorrectlyassumes transcendence as a prerequisite for life success (see Jewell 2014). Still, others


highlight its relevance to lifelong learning because of its interweaving with communityand social capital (e.g., Merriam and Kee 2014; Talmage et al. 2015). Lifelong learnersmay search for personal, shared, and universal meaning, which may also link to higherlife satisfaction and better subjective health and QoL (Tornstam 2011; Wang et al. 2011;Westerlund et al. 2009). The following hypothesis can be posed given these notions:

Hypothesis Two: Gerotranscendence transforms older adult women in lifelonglearning communities, such that it positively relates to their perceived overallquality of life and life satisfaction.

Other Influences on Community Well-Being Measures

QoL and life satisfaction are often predicated upon the physical health and socialbackgrounds of individuals. An investigation of such factors is needed to understandthe salience of sense of community and gerotranscendence as transforming factors.Both life satisfaction and QoL may be influenced by factors such as daily interferenceof pain and health conditions (MacKean and Abbott-Chapman 2012; Montross et al.2006) and demographic variables such as marital status (Gove et al. 1983; Han et al.2014), education level (Meeks and Murrell 2001; Paskulin et al. 2009), and incomelevel (Bowling and Iliffe 2006; Seymour et al. 2008). Additionally, locus of control –the amount of control people feel they have over positive and negative events in theirlives (Rotter 1966; Shewchuk et al. 1992) – has been connected to greater QoL and lifesatisfaction (Chipperfield et al. 2004; Field 2012; Kim and Merriam 2004). Notably,lifelong learners enrolled in formal learning programs understand a responsibility fortheir learning (Boulton-Lewis 2010) indicating that this understanding requires a senseof control regarding further or lifelong education. While this current study cannotcontrol every facet of older women’s lives worthy of consideration, best efforts aremade in the methods to elucidate the effects of SoC and effects of gerotranscendence byexamining and including the abovementioned variables.

Methods

Sample and Recruitment

An online survey was distributed via Qualtrics to 1117 unique email addresses derived fromregistered members of the Osher Lifelong Learning Institute at Arizona State University.The mission of the institute is threefold: (a) to connect older adults (aged 50 and above) tothe intellectual, social and cultural environments of the university, (b) to build a sense ofcommunity among those engaged in lifelong learning opportunities provided by theinstitute, and (c) to provide older adults with pathways to public service (Pstross et al.2017; Talmage et al. 2015, 2016). The institute is now comprised of over 2000 older adultlearners (around 1100 at the time of the survey), participating in a venue of over 200 shortcourses, lectures, special events, and service-learning opportunities annually.

In total, 275 men and women out of the 1117 persons surveyed completed the entireonline questionnaire, reaching a response rate of 24.6%. The incentive for participation


was a drawing for a free class at the institute ($35 value) for five participants. The studyfindings are based off of the responses of 218 women who participated; however, only209 women completed all the items in question for this study’s analysis (76% ofrespondents). The men were excluded from the comparative analyses due to lowsample size and the primary desire to focus on women.

Overall, the sample of women was homogeneous consisting of women of white/Caucasian backgrounds (93.6%). Six percent of the women were from ethnic minoritygroups (< 4% Hispanic or Latino(a) and < 2% Asian or Pacific Islander). The centraltendency and dispersion of the demographics of the sample are found in Tables 1 and 2.

Measures

The sense of community scale developed by Peterson et al. (2008) was used in thisstudy. This scale represents a culmination of previous work around the SoC construct(e.g., McMillan and Chavis 1986). Participants were directed to examine the OsherLifelong Learning Institute as the community in question. The scale used four anchor-points ranging from Bstrongly disagree^ and Bstrongly agree.^ The reliability of thescale as measured in this study was sufficient (α = .885).

Two scales were used to measure gerotranscendence. Tornstam (2011) offered afive-item scale to measure the cosmic dimension of gerotranscendence. Levenson et al.(2005) developed a ten-item scale to measure the self dimension of gerotranscendence.For both scales, participants were asked to mark their level of agreement with the scale

Table 1 List of Topics, descriptive statistics, and psychometric scale sources

Scales and Topics Mean(St. Dev.)

Numberof items

Number ofscale anchors

Scalesource(s)

Social transformation

Sense of community 23.129(3.395)

8 4 Peterson et al. 2008

Cognitive transformation

Cosmic Gerotranscendence 13.273(3.102)

5 4 Tornstam 2011

Self Gerotranscendence 30.990(3.721)

10 4 Levenson et al. 2005

Quality of life measures

Overall quality of Life 4.197(0.639)

1 5 Single Item

Life satisfaction 65.866(5.556)

20 4 Neugarten et al. 1961

Quantitative control variables

Locus of control 51.336(5.724)

12 6 Shewchuk et al. 1992

Age 69.176(7.415)

1 – Single Item

Daily interference of pain 1.770(0.908)

1 5 Single Item


items using four anchor-points ranging from Bstrongly disagree^ and Bstrongly agree.^The scale reliabilities as measured in this study were sufficient (αCosmic = .815; αSelf

Gerotranscendence = .812). The social and personal relationships dimension ofgerotranscendence was not quantitatively measured in this study because of question-naire length limitations and lack of previously validated measures.

For community well-being, quality of life (QoL) was measured using a singleitem, which utilized a five-point scale ranging from Bpoor^ to Bexcellent.^ Lifesatisfaction was measured using Neugarten et al.’s (1961) scale. In this study,participants responded to statements about their satisfaction with certain elementsof their lives using a four anchor-points ranging from Bstrongly disagree^ toBstrongly agree.^ The reliability of this scale as measured in this study was sufficient(α = .746).

As a control measure, locus of control (LoC) was measured using Shewchuk et al.’(1992) instrument, which these authors based on Levenson’s (1973) multidimensionalLoC scale. In the current study a six-point scale ranging from Bstrongly disagree^ toBstrongly agree^ was utilized. Past estimates place the scale’s reliability betweenCronbach’s alpha values of .70 and .76 (Presson et al. 1997); however, in this studythe reliability was lower (α = .671). One item in particular, BHow many friends I havedepends on how nice a person I am,^ associated with lower inter-item and inter-scalecorrelations. The efficacy of this item and the scale should be revaluated in futurestudies of older adults; however, the item was kept for consistency in measurementacross studies.

Other Control Measures Our demographic control variables included age, maritalstatus, income level, and education level. Additionally, participants were asked torespond to the item, BIn the past 7 days, how much did pain interfere with your day-to-day activities?^ on a 5-point scale (1 = BNot at all,^ 2 = BA little bit,^ 3 = BSomewhat,^ 4 = BQuite a bit,^ and 5 = BVery much^). They were also asked BDoany of your health conditions interfere with your daily activities,^ to which they wererequested to respond with either BYes^ or BNo.^

Qualitative Measure A single qualitative measure was utilized in this study. Partici-pants were asked to respond in open-ended fashion to the prompt, BHow has yourparticipation in the Osher Lifelong Learning Institute influenced your life?^ Participantresponses were analyzed based on their common elements and themes.

Table 2 List of additional demographic categorical and/or ordinal control variables

Scales and topics Mode

Marital status Single (n = 112)

Income $85,000 or more (n = 52)a,b

Education Graduate or advanced degree (n = 125)b

Daily interference of health conditions No (n = 156)

a 58 individuals did not know or preferred not to answer the income questionb This figure was also the median


Data Analysis

Stepwise linear regression (entering variables at α = .05) was utilized using two blocksof analysis in this study to analyze the questionnaire responses. This procedure waschosen because of the number of study variables and chosen to reduce collinearity.Collinearity should be avoided to construct better regression models, especially inexploratory research (Field 2005).

The two dependent variables were the single-item measure of perceived overall QoLand the aggregate of the life satisfaction scale measure. Cosmic gerotranscendence, selfgerotranscendence, SoC, and LoC were entered as the independent variables in the firstblock of the regression analysis. In the second block, the control variables (i.e.,demographics and health issues) were entered.

Income was excluded from the regression models because 58 of the women did notto report it. The income scale was also ordinal, so Spearman’s rho was used to assessthe relationship between income and perceived QoL and was excluded from theregression model.

Four subject matter experts (SMEs) – authors on this paper, professionals incommunity development, and associated with the lifelong learning institute – catego-rized the responses to the qualitative question, BHow has your participation in (institutename blinded) influenced your life?^ The SMEs evaluated the responses (n = 158) fromthe women in this study. The responses were coded based on the measures used in thewhole study (i.e., LoC, cosmic gerotranscendence, self gerotranscendence, othergerotranscendence, SoC, perceived QoL, and life satisfaction). The operationalizedversions of these codes are available in Table 3. The SMEs acquainted themselves withthese definitions and coded each response as demonstrating or not demonstrating thepresence of each code. The findings were used to triangulate the quantitative results andgive deeper understanding to this study’s claims.

Results

Quantitative Findings

Statistically significant correlations (p < .05) were found among the social and cogni-tive transformation measures and community well-being measures with the exceptionthat cosmic gerotranscendence was not significantly related to QoL (Table 4). Thetransformation constructs were interrelated; and perceived QoL and life satisfactionwere interrelated. LoC was also related to all variables except cosmicgerotranscendence. The presence of these relationships justified the use of regressiontechniques for further analyses.

SoC and three control variables were significantly associated with perceivedoverall QoL (see Table 5). The significant regression model (F[4, 212] = 18.419,p < .001) explained 25.8% (24.4% adjusted) of the variance in perceived overallQoL. LoC (β = .202, p < .01) and SoC (β = .134, p < .05) significantly associatedwith perceived overall QoL. Married or partnered status (β = .273, p < .001) and thedaily interference of pain (β = −.272, p < .001) also significantly associated withperceived overall QoL.


The self dimension of gerotranscendence (hereafter called self gerotranscendence),SoC, and two control variables were significantly associated with life satisfaction (seeTable 6). The significant regression model (F[4, 204] = 24.222, p < .001) explained32.2% (30.9% adjusted) of the variance in life satisfaction. Self gerotranscendence(β = .296, p < .001), SoC (β = .249, p < .001), and LoC (β = .208, p < .01) significantlyassociated with life satisfaction. Married or partnered status (β = .197, p < .01) alsosignificantly associated with life satisfaction.

For both models, multicollinearity appeared low as indicated by the varianceinflation factors and semi-partial correlations. Concerning whether income was

Table 3 Operational definitions used for the codebook for qualitative responses

Constructs Operational and narrative definitions of the constructs

Social transformation

Sense of community Feelings of membership, needs fulfillment, shared concerns, sharedemotional connections, shared history, shared symbols, shared values,social connections, and social influence.

Cognitive transformation

Cosmic gerotranscendence Shifts in broad and existential perspectives including changes in one’sdefinition of time and shifts in connection with nature and the world.Individuals feel connected to earlier generations, become less afraid ofdeath, embrace the mystery of life by accepting that our intellects ashumans has limits, and spend time rejoicing in events from small togrand.

Self gerotranscendence A change in perspectives around how one presently views him or herselfand how one looks upon his or her past-lived experiences, which mayinclude self-confrontation. The discovery of hidden aspects of oneself.Includes a decrease in self-centeredness and a greater focus on theneeds of others. A person may also display changes in body percep-tions. A person may be able to better integrate his or her life intoreality by redefining his or her current reality.

Social and personal Relationshipsgerotranscendence

Changes in how one experiences and perceives his or her relationships.This may include being selective in who deserves time and attentionin social life. It also involves a better understanding of the multipleroles we play in our relationships. May include transcendence ofneedless conventions, norms and rules, which earlier in life hadcurtailed freedom to express the self. The individual who earlier in lifewas afraid to ask questions when listening to a lecture, now boldlyasks them even if someone might laugh or think the question wasstupid. Modern asceticism may be demonstrated, such that individualsonly require the necessities of life and not more to be joyful. Finally,transcendence in everyday wisdom may be demonstrated, wheredichotomous or black-and-white divisions in understanding becomemore blurred, spectrum-like, or gray.

Community well-being concepts

Quality of life Perceptions of the quality of one’s life, the quality of the lives of theirfamilies, and the qualities of life for their entire community.

Life satisfaction Positive reflections of an individual’s life as reflected as perceived acrosshis or her lifespan.

Locus of control The amount of control people feel they have over positive and negativeevents in their lives.


significantly related to QoL perceptions, income appeared significantly related tooverall perceived QoL (ρ = .391, p < .001) and failed to reach significance regardinglife satisfaction (ρ = .154, p = .055, ns).

Qualitative Findings

The four SME’s independent codes of the participants’ responses yielded an inter-rateragreement of 89.50%. An overwhelming majority (96.84%) of the women in thesample studied felt participation in the institute had impacted their lives in a positiveway. The majority indicated increases in QoL (68.35%) because of participation. Self-gerotranscendence (37.34%) and SoC (27.22%) were next most frequent codes. Table 7contains the prevalence of codes assigned to the responses.

Qualitative findings confirmed that participation in the lifelong learning program,indeed, had a transformational effect. A vast majority of participants in the study noted– directly or indirectly – that the program made an impact on some aspects of theirlives. These areas pertained to the key variables of the study described below (SoC,Gerotranscendence, QoL, and life satisfaction) as well as to learning in general terms.One quote, in particular alluded to the multiplicity of overlapping influences that theprogram had on a participant who had.

Table 4 Correlations between measures

Socialtransformation

Cognitivetransformation

Communitywell-being

Control

Sense ofcommunity

Cosmicgerotrans-cendence

Selfgerotrans-cendence

Qualityof life

Lifesatisfaction

Locusof control

Sense of Community –

Cosmic Gerotrans-cendence .142* –

Self Gerotrans-cendence .289*** .469*** –

Quality of Life .210*** −0.017 .151* –

Life Satisfaction .373*** .197** .398*** .447*** –

Locus of Control .182** 0.056 .286*** .236*** .344*** –

Table 5 Coefficient information for predictors of perceived quality of life

Variable B (SE) β t Zero-order(r)

Semi-partial(r)

Varianceinflation factor

(Constant) 2.624 (.413) – 6.360*** – – –

Sense of Community .025 (.012) .134 2.201* .199 .130 1.052

Locus of Control .022 (.007) .202 3.357** .237 .199 1.035

Married or Partnered .347 (.077) .273 4.512*** .329 .267 1.044

Daily Interference of Pain −.193 (.043) −.272 −4.464*** −.346 −.264 1.059

*** p < 0.001 level (2-tailed). ** p < 0.01 level (2-tailed). * p < 0.05 level (2-tailed)


Gotten to know friends better, opened my mind to appreciation of subjects Ipreviously knew little about, given me another avenue to express my thoughts andideas, freed me from previously held oppressive beliefs, made me a happierperson, revived my enthusiasm for classroom learning.

Social Transformation through Sense of Community The attainment and enjoymentof sense of community, understood as a way for belonging to and interacting witha group of learners, was clear in some of the responses. As one woman explained,BI have gravitated toward teachers who are really inspiring and have terrificknowledge of their subjects.^ Another woman noted how important the socialdimension was to her, BIt has given me a wonderful resource with lots of optionsfor learning and connecting with others.^ Another participant wrote how she cameto the realization that BI am not alone in many of my experiences.^

Cognitive Transformation through Cosmic Gerotranscendence The conceptualizationof Tornstam’s (2005, 2011) concept of gerotranscendence was captured well bysome participants. One student noted,^ I love the balance of continuing myeducation while pursuing my other hobbies. My conversation with others goesto a deeper level when info/ideas gleaned from OLLI courses is integrated.^

Some participants discussed the changes in their lives in ways that connectto cosmic gerotranscendence, which describes changes in broader existentialperspectives. A complex reflection was offered by a woman who noted B[OLLI]

Table 6 Coefficient Information for predictors of perceived life satisfaction

Variable B (SE) β t Zero-order(r)

Semi-partial(r)

VarianceInflation Factor

(Constant) 30.843 (3.739) – 8.250*** – – –

Sense of Community .421 (.103) .249 4.074*** .378 .235 1.126

Self Gerotranscendence .448 (.096) .296 4.681*** .414 .270 1.201

Locus of Control .203 (.059) .208 3.432** .347 .198 1.107

Married or Partnered 2.209 (.653) .197 3.385** .168 .195 1.016

*** p < 0.001 level (2-tailed). ** p < 0.01 level (2-tailed). * p < 0.05 level (2-tailed)

Table 7 Prevalence of codes

Codes Frequency Percent

Impacted Their Life 153 96.84%

Sense of Community 43 27.22%

Cosmic Gerotranscendence 15 9.49%

Self Gerotranscendence 59 37.34%

Social and Personal Relationships Gerotranscendence 5 3.16%

Quality of Life 108 68.35%

Life Satisfaction 10 6.33%


Kept my interest level in learning at a peak. Makes me curious about ‘what’snext’. Reassuring me the future is not as bleak as some news providers wouldlead us to believe. Exposed me to all levels of communication.^ In the wordsof another, BIt gave me a wider view of them world and kept me engaged inthought.^

Cognitive Transformation through Self Gerotranscendence Participants, whose re-sponses reflected gerotranscendence, focused primarily on self gerotranscendence,which pertains to changes in a person’s perceptions of themselves and of their pastlife experiences. Responses varied in their level of detail. One participantcommented, BIt gives me gratification to learn something new. I love that.^Another student reflected, BI am constantly being challenged to push further tore-discover the person and the artist I used to be.^

Cognitive Transformation through Gerotranscendence in Social and PersonalRelationships Only a few women made statements that pertained to gerotranscendencein social and personal relationships. As one woman noted, BBeing retired has allowedme time to take classes for fun learning such as the History Detectives and knowledgethat can be applied to improve daily living.^ Another commented regarding herexperience after taking a breadth of classes: BI rarely speak in a class and so as I triedto engage more I don’t think I came off as intended.^ As this statement indicateslearning appears to relate to changes in self-perceptions of social situations, but doesnot necessarily demonstrate gerotranscendence.

Quality of Life Participants commented that engagement in the institute added tovarious components related to their overall QoL. Overall, the program Badds to thefullness of life,^ and the classes provide Bthe hope that there are different thingsthat I can enjoy now much more than before.^ The overall positive attitudetowards how the program enhanced participants’ opportunities for learning waspresent in numerous responses. One participant commented, BI like learning andam very happy to have discovered this program.^ For another, the program openedthe doors for new learning in new contexts: BMade me go to places I wouldn’tnormally go to, meet new people, take classes about interests outside my fields.Made me feel good about myself, and realize how much I missed learning newthings.^

Life Satisfaction Lastly, the responses of some women indicated that their partic-ipation in the lifelong learning program increased their overall life satisfaction.According to one woman, BI am happier, more fulfilled.^ The impact of theprogram on the participants’ life satisfaction is enthusiastically stated in the quotebelow:

I love the Osher Lifelong Learning classes!!!! They have inspired me to getbooks about the topics and to continue my study about the topics offered inclasses. I met like-minded people, which felt like a breeze of fresh air - thankyou for offering these classes! My life is full to start out with; however, the classeshave added another component to my life. I love to learn, and appreciate theopportunity to take classes without paying a fortune.


Discussion

Lifelong learning research has greatly expanded (Schuller and Desjardins 2007);however, the unique focus on the learning experiences of older women appears tohave been Bsidestepped^ (Formosa 2005, p. 397). Women, in particular, can experi-ence a reduction in QoL and life satisfaction as they age (Pinquart and Sörensen2001a, 2001b); yet, they often make up the majority of the population enrolled informal learning programs (Kim and Merriam 2004; Yamashita et al. 2017; Yenerall2003).

This research highlights the socially and cognitively transforming effects of lifelonglearning for women. Lifelong learning provides opportunities to build social networks,freedom to gain knowledge, and autonomy to grow and develop as individuals inrelationship with others and the cosmos. Moreover, the sense of community andgerotranscendent perspectives reflected among learners contribute to both QoL andlife satisfaction. The significant impacts of both constructs offer insights into howlifelong learning programs can provide opportunities to build community and promotetranscendent behavior, both of which contribute to well-being.

Social Transformation through Sense of Community

The positive relationship between SoC and both life satisfaction and overall QoLshould not be understated. Elements found in lifelong learning environments, such associal interaction and sense of belonging (Narushima 2008), contribute to the buildingof community (McMillan and Chavis 1986). Research has found that female learners,in particular, value the social inclusion and relationships obtainable in learning com-munities (Price 2006). The desire to belong, a core component of SoC, goes beyondpleasant interactions with strangers and refers to the commitment and support regularlyexchanged by members of a community. Research shows that repeated interactionswith the same group of people might have greater implications on overall life satisfac-tion (Baumeister and Leary 1995). Participation in lifelong learning fosters the bondingof social capital by helping to extend social networks, promote social interaction, andform shared norms (Bjørnskov 2003; Macinko and Starfield 2001; Schuller 2004),which links to higher well-being and life satisfaction (Bjørnskov 2003; Nilsson et al.2006). These results affirm that SoC, and markedly the social interaction with otherswho share similar interests, are essential components of lifelong learning communitiesthat contribute to life satisfaction and QoL.

Cognitive Transformation through Gerotranscendence

Gerotranscendence demonstrates its efficacy as an antecedent of life satisfaction in thisstudy, especially its self dimension; however, it appears to only indirectly relate tooverall QoL. While the link of gerotranscendence to life satisfaction is not new(Tornstam 2011; Wang et al. 2011), this study reveals the intricacies of this link andits potential for transformation. Gerotranscendence is about shifting mindsets, a com-mon aim of lifelong learning (Milton 2015). Such shifts have also been construedamong the primary needs (i.e., transcendence needs) documented by those in educa-tional gerontology (e.g., Mehrotra 2003).


Cosmic gerotranscendence demonstrates weak ties to life satisfaction (see Table 4),but may be indirectly tied to life satisfaction through self-transcendence. Furtherresearch is needed in that specific regard, especially seeing individual differencesobserved amongst the women. The women on average also appeared to be slightlymore cosmically gerotranscended than the scale anchor’s center (2.7 out of 4.0).Additionally, fifteen participant comments relate to cosmic gerotranscendence amongthe qualitative responses. Such comments tend to center around increases in breadth ofone’s world, contemplation, optimism and hope, and curiosity regarding the future.More research is needed to verify previous connections (e.g., Braam et al. 2006) ofthese transformations to sense of coherence and meaning in life for women. Further, thepotential of self gerotranscendence acting as a mediator between cosmicgerotranscendence and life satisfaction should be investigated in future studies.

Self gerotranscendence’s positive association with life satisfaction aligns with anoverarching principle of lifelong learning as a voluntary and self-motivated form ofeducation (Lindeman 1961). Self gerotranscendence involves shifts in how individualsview themselves and past experiences (Tornstam 2005, 2011). Tornstam’s (2011)rooting of his theory in Erikson (1950) ego-integrity stage may be the key to theconnection between self gerotranscendence and life satisfaction. Individuals whoindicate higher levels of life satisfaction likely have better integrated past and presentinto their current realities and have decided their lives reflect integrity and are satisfac-tory. Integrity and satisfaction are likely connected on a similar plane of perception forolder adults, but this notion warrants further inquiry.

Self gerotranscendence weakly associates with QoL (see Table 4), but stronglyassociates with life satisfaction. The women on average appeared to be more selfgerotranscended than the scale anchor’s center (3.1 out of 4.0). Additionally, fifty-nine qualitative comments relate to the self gerotranscendence. Such comments tend toconnect self gerotranscendence to a love of learning and being challenged to improveas a learner or redefine one’s self.

Qualitatively gerotranscendence in social and personal relationships was seenamong five qualitative comments. The responses reflect improvements in relationshipswith others based on learning and self-expression consistent with Tornstam’s (2005,2011) theory. Future research might explore the connection of gerotranscendence insocial and personal relationships and SoC in learning communities. Additionally, thisstudy highlights a need for a measurement scale regarding gerotranscendence in socialand personal relationships.

Perhaps an important overall question is, BAre lifelong learners moregerotranscendent?^ Well-educated females are overtly the population most often asso-ciated with older learners who enroll as members of lifelong learning institutions (Kimand Merriam 2004), which is consistent with this study’s sample; however, educationdid not associate with life satisfaction or QoL in this study. Thus, future comparisonstudies are needed with more diverse samples.

Notes on Control and Demographic Influences

This study showcases the transforming effects of SoC and gerotranscendence whilstaccounting for the physical health and social backgrounds of individuals. The controland demographic measures used illuminate the particular salience of sense of


community and gerotranscendence regarding QoL and life satisfaction. They alsohighlight connections that should be considered in future research on older adultwomen and lifelong learners in general.

Locus of Control LoC associates with both QoL and life satisfaction. LoC has a moresalient association than SoC and gerotranscendence on QoL but has a less salientassociation regarding life satisfaction. This result is consistent with previous research(Kunzmann et al. 2002; Lachman et al. 2008) and indicates that adult learners want tohave control over the learning process and intended outcomes. Formalized definitionsof lifelong learning reflect the idea that LoC guides individual learning objectives forparticipants (Mocker and Spear 1982) with the ultimate goal of transforming the livesof learners (Reed and Loughran 1984). In this sample, the vast majority of participantcomments (96.84%) include mention of how the program impacted their life, with morethan half (68.35%) reporting an increase in QoL and 6.33% describing an increase inlife satisfaction. These benefits align with past research on gains in self-efficacy andsense of agency from lifelong learning (Hammond and Feinstein 2006).

Age In this study, age does not significantly relate to QoL or life satisfaction continuingdebates of whether age in general relates to community well-being. A possible limita-tion and explanation may be the minimal variation in age among participants. Mostindividuals in the sample are between the ages of 62 and 76, with very few personsfalling into the octogenarian or above categories. Studies should be repeated with morepersons in the later years of life.

Marital Status Being married significantly associates with increased QoL and lifesatisfaction. Married or partnered status associates more saliently than SoC andgerotranscendence regarding QoL, but not regarding life satisfaction. These resultsaffirm similar findings that married women have higher QoL (Han et al. 2014) andoverall life satisfaction (Gove et al. 1983). Being married, however, is correlated withother traits that may impact QoL and life satisfaction. The marital resource model (seeWilliams and Umberson 2004, for explanation) theorizes that married individualsexperience enhanced health and well-being due to greater social support and financialresources.

Being married is often considered a marker for positive relationships, which islinked to elevated SoC (Wood et al. 2010) and positive health (Umberson 1992).However, not all marriages provide social support. Some research shows it may bethe quality of marriage that actually influences QoL and life satisfaction more. Forexample, Holt-Lunstad et al. (2008) find single individuals have greater life satisfactioncompared to their unhappily married counterparts. In this study, marriage quality is notconsidered, but it should be examined.

Pain Interference The presence of physical pain that interferes with daily life associateswith a decline in reported QoL. Physical pain associates more saliently than SoC andgerotranscendence regarding QoL, but does not associate with life satisfaction. Thisfinding echoes similar research (Peat et al. 2004; Thomas et al. 2004). This study findsno significant association between pain interference and life satisfaction, perhapsbecause participants were examining contentment throughout their lifespan and not


limited to specifically old age. In general, research often focuses on a loss view of aging(Dixon 2000), in which a decline in health, physical abilities, and cognitive processesare seen as major barriers to productive or successful aging. Given that pain interfer-ence does not significantly alter life satisfaction among the participants in this study, apositive or gains view of aging may be a more appropriate lens from which to viewlifelong learning through. The gains that learning provides may outweigh or disrupt theeffect of pain interference with regard to overall life satisfaction.

Conclusion

So what is the impact of lifelong learning? One answer may be transformation.Participation in lifelong learning is an indispensable pursuit for older adults to remainactive, cognitively and socially (Pstross et al. 2017). A social and cognitive transfor-mation perspective helps address the transformative power of lifelong learning in thelives of women in older adult learning communities. Lifelong learning providers can besources of transformation for women, but they should seek to foster sense of commu-nity and gerotranscendence. Breadth and depth are needed in learning opportunities(Talmage et al. 2015) promoting introspection and social opportunities to look outsideoneself and look to the greater community.

This study found sense of community positively relates to life satisfaction andquality of life for older adult women. The positive relationship was more salient forlife satisfaction than quality of life. Sense of community was also the second mostfrequent code observed amongst the qualitative responses. Lifelong learning providersmust work to foster sense of community in their offerings and processes. Sense ofcommunity may be a path to the greater inclusion of women in lifelong learning. Futurestudies should investigate if these relationships are similar between men and womeninvolved in lifelong learning programs.

Self, not cosmic, gerotranscendence relates to life satisfaction. This finding mayneed further corroboration as both concepts as individuals to focus on their lifespans(George and Dixon 2018). Still, self gerotranscendence was the most prevalent codeobserved amongst the qualitative responses. Cosmic gerotranscendence was also ob-served, but much less frequently. Lifelong learning providers would do well to draw onTornstam’s (2005, 2011) work as they seek to enrich their curriculums and theirpositive interactions with older adults. Again, future studies should investigate if theserelationships are similar between men and women involved in lifelong learningprograms.

This study’s findings are particularly notable for women who are disproportionatelyrepresented among older age groups and who are often not specifically studied. Acrossthe study variables, the women displayed higher levels of well-being in general, but thehigh levels of well-being may relate to financial well-being and education levels. Thisstudy contained women who are doing well financially and are well-educated. Morework is needed regarding increasing access to lifelong learning for older adult womenwho are not doing as well financially and/or are not as well-educated as those found inthis study’s sample. This will be a difficult endeavor given the current make up of olderadult lifelong learning programs. Future studies must assess the ability of lifelong


learning communities to transform women who are vulnerable, marginalized, ordisadvantaged compared to this study’s sample. As these studies seek to discover thekeys to transformation, a social and cognitive perspective will be beneficial.

Acknowledgements A special thanks is offered to Cindy Warren of Hobart & William Smith Colleges forher assistance with this manuscript. Special thanks are offered to Mikulas Pstross and Kevin Wilson ofArizona State University for their assistance with the data analyzed and literature found in this manuscript.

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