THE SHIFT IN SOCIAL CONCEPTION OF OLD AGE -...
Transcript of THE SHIFT IN SOCIAL CONCEPTION OF OLD AGE -...
Chapter III
SOCIAL CONCEPTION OF OLD AGE IN MODERN KERALA
Political Changes and the Concept of Old Age
Economic Changes and the Concept of Old Age
Social Changes and the Concept of Old Age
Religious Reforms and the Conception of Old Age
Modern Education and the Conception of Old Age
Medical Education and the Conception of Old Age
Change in Family Structure and the Conception of Old Age
Emergence of Institutions and the Conception of Old Age
Chapter III
Social Conception of Old Age in Modern Kerala
Modernization is a process that results in the transformation of the total
society, and it provided the experience of a new mode of life and its
practices. It is the breakthrough of traditional practices and behaviour.
Hence, it creates changes in the social conception of old age too. This
chapter discusses the impact of social changes (modernization) that
changed the social conception of old age in modern Kerala. Cowgill and
Holmes attempted to understand the relation between modernization and
status of the aged. According to them the major aspects of modernization
combine to place the aged in a very different position from the younger
generations, and the net result is lower status for the aged, as prestige-
generating social structures are replaced with devaluing structures.1 For
Ellen Rhoads Holmes and Lowell D. Holmes, the concept of old age is
relative to the degree of modernization.2 As the degree of modernization
increases it affects the status of the old. While we consider the society of
Kerala, the impact of modernization is not restricted only to the upper
strata, but to the lower mass also. Hence it calls for a detailed study that
examines how the political, economic, social and cultural fields are
affected by the degree of modernization. Also, it says how various fields
1 Russll A. Ward, The Aging Experience…,Op.cit., p. 81. 2 Ellen Rhoads Holmes and Lowell D. Holmes, Other Cultures…, Op.cit., p. 257.
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are enabling themselves to produce changed conceptions of old age. This
study deals with the position of elderly in each aspect of modern Kerala.
Besides the societal transformations, modernization is characterized
by new frame work of ideas about man, society and nature. This new
framework of idea is known as modernity3 because it functions in the
intellectual or conceptual level. Since the study deals with the social
conception of old age in modern situations, characteristics of modernity
and its impact are of special importance.
The modernity prescribes freedom to the individual where the role
of the society is to provide context to enhance the individual
empowerment. Its power of rationality advocates autonomy for individuals,
where the ‘mind’ is more important through which rationality works and
the ‘body’ functions as a complement to such rational thoughts. It assumes
human as an autonomous individual with the embodied consciousness. It
3 The features of modernity in Tim May’s words are, it is first, a concept of freedom based
upon an autonomous human subject who is capable of acting in a conscious manner. Second, the pursuit of a universal and foundational ‘truth’ gained through a correspondence of ideas with social and physical reality. Third, a belief in natural science as the correct model for thinking about the social and natural world over, for example theology and metaphysics. Fourth, the accumulation of systematic knowledge with the progressive unfolding of history. Tim May, Situating Social Theory, Philadelphia, Open University Press, 1996, p. 8.
Modernity refers to a historical period which began in Western Europe with a series of cultural, social and economic changes during the seventeenth century, and it is usually characterized by three features: first, culturally, a reliance on reason and experience conditioned the growth of science and scientific consciousness, secularization and instrumental rationality; second as a mode of life it was based on the growth of industrial society, social mobility, market economy, literacy, bureaucratization and consolidation of the nation-state; and third, it fostered a conception of the person as free, autonomous, self controlled and reflexive.
A.S.Hornby with A.P.Cowie, Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English, Third Edition, Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1974, p. 544.
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enables modern man to act according to rationality that he has gained
through the constant interaction of social and physical reality. The freedom
of people as individuals to interpret the world against the medieval
interpretation of the world by the church is one of the characteristics of
modern society. This may question the traditional role of old as
intermediaries between man and the unknown, the interpreters of rituals
and religious rites or the specialists of spiritual power. Belief in the natural
science as the correct model for thinking is another principle of modernity.
It provides an unquestioning belief in the certainty and the eventual
completion of the quest for knowledge in science and philosophy.4 It is the
combination of scientific principles and technological power that produces
rapid changes for developing modern culture. The idea of mechanistic
universe makes all relationships within the universe mechanistic. In short,
we can say that the modernity is in favour of ‘individual’ than the
community or its correlates. Social scientists5 view that enlightenment as a
catalyst brought this development of particular school of thought. Here, the
‘aged’ in whom the traditional authority was assigned as they were heads
of communities are less adequate. The role of elderly with practical
medical skills and knowledge in genealogy are obsolete in this context. The
4 Lawrence E.Cahoone, The Dilemma of Modernity-Philosophy, Culture, and Anti-Culture,
New York, SUNY series, 1988,. p. xi. 5 Tim May, Situating …, Op.cit., p. 8. For Him, the major contributions of enlightenment are
concepts of freedom, pursuit of universal truth etc.
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long years of survival that produce a man as ‘aged’, who is considered as a
man of authority in economy, knowledge, technology and skills becomes
irrelevant.
In the new ideal of community, different communities have begun
to open themselves to other communities and more inclusive communities
have been created. It propagates emphasis to national development with
fast economic growth. Modernity is thus the consequence of process of
modernization, by which the social world comes under the domination of
asceticism, secularization, the universalistic claims of instrumental
rationality, the differentiation of the various spheres of the life world, the
bureaucratization of economic, political and military practices, and the
growing monetarization of values. Modernity with this kind of scientific,
technological and revolutionizing force allows the operation of power
through institutional arrangements. Thus, modernity is the enlightenment,
which allows philosophical project of developing the spheres of science,
morality and law, and art in accordance with their respective inner logics in
order to achieve a ‘rational organization of every day social life’.6 The
social institutions give preference to personal freedom and social justice.7
Here, the old who need care and assistance by the younger generation will
be in trouble. Similarly, the advancement of science and technology may 6 J.Habermas (1981) ‘Modernity versus Postmodernity’, New German Critique,22 in Bryan S.
Turner, ed. Theories of Modernity and Post Modernity, London, Sage Publications, 1990, p. 17. 7 K.G.Pothen., “Critique of Modernity: M.M.Thomas and Paulos Mar Gregorios,” Vision, vol.
7, no. 1, 1998, pp. 1-5.
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reduce the importance of the old. The knowledge that embodied in the old
through the long years of survival and experiences is not considering as a
big matter. In the present day context the knowledge is not confined
among the aged only, but with anyone. One who seeks can attain it. The
accumulation of capital/knowledge is considered as an individual’s right
that provide him power. So the power is with the individual who seeks it,
whether he is young or old. This thought is able to produce a different
concept about old age, to a certain extent, the aged get devalued.
Modernity arose with the spread of imperialism in the sixteenth
century in Europe8 and reached India through the European traders. The
contact with the West brought the new thought, learning, and culture called
‘renaissance’9 to India. In Lawrence E.Cahoone’s words, through
colonialism, trade, and the export of ideology, the modern West has
injected components of its own civilization into the indigenous cultures of
non-Western societies.10 Similarly, the French Revolution brought out
many structural changes. It changed the whole social, economic and
political life of the people. Money became the new measure of wealth in
place of land as in the feudal era. The social change accelerated in the West
8 Bryan S.Turner(ed.), Theories of…, Op.cit., p. .6. 9 It was the influence of Industrial Revolution and French Revolution which upheld the ideas
of ‘Liberty, Equality and Fraternity’ that brought the great fundamental transformation of ideas and institutions in the West. The Industrial Revolution led to a gradual change in the social structure of the feudal society by transforming it first into a mercantile society and later into an industrial-liberal society Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation. The Political and Economic Origin of our Time as sited in Yogendra Singh, Modernization of…,Op.cit., p. 123
10 Lawrence E.Cahoone, The Dilemma…, Op cit., p. xi.
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through the important features of Renaissance-- rational thinking, spirit of
inquiry and scientific temper about humanity and the universe-- reached
the local people in Kerala. The changed (new) conceptions of old age can
be considered as the by-product of modernity (Renaissance), the result of
new framework of idea about man, society and nature. In the West, it is the
consequence of modernization. So the study investigates the impact of
modernization on the society of Kerala in order to know whether they
caused any change in the traditional conception of old age.
The process of modernization brought about many changes in
culture and social structure of Indian society. According to Yogendra
Singh, the emergence of politically active urban middle class, breakdown
in the feudal structure, liberation of peasantry from the feudal-military
domination, decline in the credibility of church, transformation of feudal--
patrimonial system of power into liberal democratic form, were the major
forms of changes11 brought about by modernization of India. It implies
changes in a whole system of relationships. He divided the structural
changes into two: macro structural changes and micro structural changes.
Macro structural changes are industrialisation, organisation, politicisation,
while micro structural changes are changes in caste, family, village,
community etc. But the changes that take place in the micro structures, for
instance, in family, can be analysed in two frame works: first as a spread
11 Yogendra Singh, Modernization of Indian…, Op.cit. p. 125.
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effect of transformation in the society like industrialization, second as a
consequence of endogenous forces of change. That means the changes in
the macro level must have influence upon the micro level too. 12 For
example, traditional joint family not only functioned as an agency of
security for the old, widowed, disabled and of procreation and socialization
for new members, but also performed as agency for occupation, education,
leisure, recreation etc. The nuclear families evolved during the rapid
modernisation and industrialisation have reorganised all these functions.
Similarly, this study looks into the structural changes of Kerala through
micro and macro level analysis. The major areas of macro changes are
political, economic and social, and the micro changes are in the field of
education, family, religion etc. All these may contribute to the changed
conceptions of old age in modern Kerala.
Political Changes and the Conception of Old Age
Jack Goody has observed that “Politics is an area, even in industrial
societies, where old age is rarely an impediment to office. In the Western
world, political leaders are often active after others have retired, and the
same is true in non-industrial societies”13. This statement can be true to a
certain extent in the case of Kerala. For example, the former chief minister
K.Karunakaran is politically active at the age of eighty six, while many others
12 Ibid, p. 161. 13 Jack Goody, “Aging in non-industrial societies; in R.H.Binstock & E. Shanas, eds. Handbook
of Aging and Social Sciences, New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1976, p.127.
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of the same age are retired and inactive. But it does not give the meaning that
‘old age’ is the major determinant that provide political power to an elderly
like the traditional society. In traditional societies, political power rests in a
council of old men who, by virtue of their purported wisdom, serve as
community decision makers and arbiters of disputes. Such societies often
operated on an age-grade principle, where the old is ornamented with certain
‘given’ powers. But the political changes occurred through the process of
modernization will not provide such ‘given’ powers to anyone for simply
being old. This section explains the political changes happened to the society
of Kerala in modern era and its impacts on the social conception of old age.
The last phase of the pre-modern era witnessed the rigidity in caste
system, feudal system, and arrival of the Portuguese. The Portuguese arrival
could not succeed in inducing major socio-political changes in Kerala14,
except bringing the local Christians outside the ritualistic space of the
developing Hindu religion. They were not able to penetrate deeply, or were
14 Their major interest was to bring the local Christians outside the ritualistic space of the
developing Hindu religion and under Roman Catholic religious hierarchy imposed through a series of Decrees called the Synod of Diamper in 1599 dictating Western socio- religious terms of Christian existence. By 1600 A.D. the Malabar Church is brought under the Roman domination, but a section of Syrian Christians could not accept it. They put a strong resistance and took an oath (Kunan Kurisu Satyam), neither to follow the Decrees nor to obey the ecclesiastical authorities of Rome. Kunan Kurisu Satyam which divided the Syrian Christians into two; one recognising the papal sovereignty in Rome and the other recognising the authority of Patriarch of Antioch and consecrated Marthoma I Metropolitan in 1665 as their Bishop. This led to the division of the Malabar Christians into Syrian Catholics and Jacobites. Rajan Gurukkal, “Development Experience of colonial Keralam” in M.A. Oommen,, ed. Rethinking Development- Kerala’s Development Experience- I New Delhi, Institute of Social Sciences, 1999, pp. 80-81.
G.Chediath, The Malankara Catholic Church, Kottayam, Bethany Sisters’ Publication, 2003, pp. 36-46.
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able to induce a cleavage in the strong hold of caste based social system, but
their attempt came to a halt by the arrival of the Dutch. 15 But caste system
with its hierarchy based on hereditary rights still continued.16 Marthanda
Varma(1729–1758), initiated the monarchic feudal system in Kerala. He
helped in the formation of Travancore as a centralised Hindu monarchy.17 The
Brahmin supremacy still continued, but made certain restrictions like, the
monopoly of the trade was controlled by the State, introduced a number of
reforms into administration–organized a new public service based on
efficiency and loyal service so as to prevent the monopoly of certain families,
a regular survey of the land was undertaken, etc.18 He expanded the political
border by conquering the neighbouring chieftains, retained the political and
jurisdictional power over the land he invaded and employed a Flemish
officer.19 The regiments were increased in number, better discipline was
enforced, superior arms were supplied and a better sense of loyalty and
15 P.K Gopalakrishnan, Keralathinde Samskarika Charithram (A Cultural History of Kerala),
Thiruvananthapuram, State Institute of Languages, Kerala, 1994, p. 360. Nagam Aiya, Travancore State Manual, vol. 1…,Op.cit., p .314. 16 Rajas were mere puppets in the hands of certain Brahmins and petty chieftains. The
emergence of Swaroopangal(small feudal units) were the characteristic feature of the period. The laws known as Kachams(customs)for the temple centred administration, the extensive power to Kovil Adhikarikal (temple authority), economy with purely religious feudal character, and the constitution of Brahmin ooralasabha(temple committee)were other the prevailing characteristics of Kerala between the fifteenth and eighteenth centuries. William Logan, Malabar Manual, vol1…,Opcit., p. 350.
17 Nagam Aiya, Vol.I, Travancore State Manual…, Op.cit., p. 333. 18 Koji Kawashima, Missionaries and a Hindu State Travancore 1858-1936, Delhi, Oxford
University Press, 1998, pp. 17-18. Nagam Aiya, Vol.I, Travancore State Manual…, Op.cit., p. 334. 19 K.M.Panikkar, A History of Kerala, 1498-1801, Annamalai Nagar, The Annamalai
University, 1960, pp. 234-238. A.Sreedhara Menon, A Survey of Kerala History, Kottayam, National Book Stall, 1967, p. 221.
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obedience was infused among the rank and file.20 . He proclaimed that the
land except that which belonged to Brahmins and temples were the
property of the State. The Nairs who were the protective force once became
the salaried, disciplined and uniformed employee. This organized army and
the tax collectors were to strengthen the centralised administration of the
State. The religion and the monarchy were thus fused together in
maintaining caste system during the time. 21 All these show the influence of
the religion on the political matters.22 The Brahmin monopoly still
continued to a certain extent and their elders must have enjoyed their
political power even to the very last of pre-modern period. But the public
service based on efficiency, better discipline to the regiments, uniformity
and discipline in employment (like tax collection), State’s interference in
the trade etc. started to loosen the monopoly of the elder (among different
communities) to the political affairs.
20 Nagam Aiya, Travancore State Manual, vol.I, …, Op.cit., p. 334. 21 To introduce these radical changes, Marthanda Varma needed to establish his authority on a
more rigid basis, Koji Kawashima commented. He dedicated the state to Sri Padmanabha, the tutelary deity of his family, and became the greatest servant of sovereign deity21 and more or less adopted a divine kingship theory. The rituals observed by Marthandavarma, hiranyagarbham (ceremony of re-birth), mahadanams(great donations), tulapurusadanam (weighing the body) were all reaffirming the ritualistic importance of caste system and to promote the dignity of rulers .
Koji Kawashima, Missionaries and a Hindu…, Op.cit., p. 18-21. 22 In Marthanda Varma’s period, ‘charity’ meant to provide alms, food and other comforts to
the Brahmins. The management of Uttupuras and the construction of several new Uttupuras by the Maharaja was another feature of the time. These were to feed the Brahmin travellers. Koji Kawashima, Missionaries and a Hindu…, Op.cit., p. 18-21.
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The feudal polity had its role in a political disharmony23 which
played a major part to the invasion of the Mysoreans first and then the
British to Kerala. MarthandaVarma entered into a pact with East India
Company in 1723 to suppress the insurgence of the Nairs and to resist the
attack of Hyder Ali and later Tipu sultan, the rulers of the Mysore
Kingdom. These agreements paved the way for British interference in the
internal administration of Travancore in the nineteenth century. 24It was
through the office of the residency that the British involved themselves
with the political affairs of the country. Among the residents, Col. Munro25
had an intensified role as he introduced new administrative system. The
reforms introduced by him initiated far reaching changes on the political
formation of modern Kerala. He remodelled the administrative system
largely on the British style of ‘secretarial system’ and was successful in
bringing order and regularity in the administration.26 Slowly, the British
residents started to introduce restrictions to diminish the influence of
23 The British helped the Malabar rulers to fight against the invasion of Tipu, they could bring
supremacy all over Malabar at the withdrawal of Tipu. Their major contributions to the administration of Malabar were: declared freedom of trade except pepper, introduced the collection of revenue even from the rulers, and settled the allowances of Raja etc.
24 A British resident was appointed for the states of Cochin and Travancore from 1800 onwards and appointed Col. Macaulay as the first resident.
25 He was the resident during the period of Gouri Lakshmi Bhai(1811-1815) and Gouri Parvathi Bhai(1815-1829). When he took charge the administration was in a chaotic state. The central power was weak and the subordinates were corrupt, as was reported by Col. Munro Report to Madras Government dated 7th march 1818 cited in Nagam Aiya, Vol.I, Travancore State Manual…, Op.cit., p. 461
26 P.K.Michael Tharakan, “Socio-Economic Factors in Educational Development- Case of Nineteenth Century Travancore” in Economic and Political Weekly, vol XIX, no.45, 1984.
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temples and likewise the political domination of Nambudiris.27 Since then,
the expenditure, establishment and the routine of ceremonies, and rules for
management were settled by the Travancore Government.28 The kāriakāŗ
(mostly the elders) were deprived of their judicial and magisterial functions
and were reduced to the mere collectors of revenue.29 The accountant
Reddy Row was asked to organise an account department for the State and
secured substantial savings to the State. Abolition of several taxes [for
which the Brahmins and Nairs were already exempted], such as the tax on
the inheritance of property, taxes on Christian festivals, some vexatious
taxes imposed on ‘lower caste’ people etc. paved the way to equality of all
the subjects irrespective of their birth came into practice. The British
demanded a reduction in the expenditure of temple, a starting point to the
separation of religion from State. More specifically, it was an initiation to
the British domination over the Nambudiri domination. The result is the
creation of major political changes based on the principle of humanity and
justice where the Brahmins, Kşaţŗiyās and Nairs lost their special power
and privilege and likewise the authority of their elderly. Gradually the
British interventions shook the Brahmin supremacy and their elders’ role as
27 For instance, Colonel John Munro, the resident of 1811, assumed control of landed property
of 378 temples and also took over 1171 minor temples which had no property Koji Kawashima, Missionaries and a Hindu…, Op.cit., p. .24.
28 In 1899, the expenses of the temple were paid from the general treasury of the Government. Nagam Aiya, Travancore State Manual, vol.III…, Op.cit., p. 521.
29 Pepper, Tobacco and Salt were made government monopolies and their sale was regulated by measures beneficial to the people Nagam Aiya, Travancore State Manual, vol.I, …, Op.cit., p. 463-464.
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authority in the politics of the state. The rise of a number of well wishers
like Sankaracharya, made remarkable contribution to the development of
‘bhakti movement’30, which made a religious stir among the people. After
the ‘bhakti movement’, some social/political reformations could take place
at the time of Mysorean invasion. They took effort to regulate the system
of administration and social reforms. The most important among them was
the disappearance of feudal system of administration and its replacement
by centralised system of Government. The establishment of a clear and
definite scale of pension to dependent chiefs and siŗkaŗ servants is also
remarkable change to the political conditions of Kerala31. Otherwise, the
Brahmin elders were protected by the temple as they were provided food
and other protective measures in their old age from the temple. The
ūţţupurās and dhaŗmaśālās were the institutions that provided care to the
Brahmin elders who enter into the stage of vānapŗasta and sanyāsa. By the
above reforms these protections were restricted.
In caste society, it was the monopoly of the higher caste elders to
punish the guilty and to keep as many as slaves they wanted. Munro
30 A religious stir made possible by the act of certain leaders to fight against the ruin practices
like enmity between the rulers, and the use of artillery and weapons for own victory. The Bhakti movement emphasises the doctrine of Bhakti as the means of salvation.
31 The administration of Dewaswom was reorganised, under the direct control of sirkar, giving allowances for the performances of religious duties and the supplies for the institutions were brought from the people, giving adequate prices, rather than arbitrary extractions. New rules were framed for the management of these institutions (destroying Brahmin hegemony), paving the way for secularism.
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established civil courts with distinct procedures,32 and banned the purchase
and sale of slaves through Royal proclamation in 1812, though the total
abolition of slavery was enforced in 1855. The eradication of uncivilised
punishments with the imposition of Indian penal code was a major
outcome to the oppressed and downtrodden. This act could facilitate
bringing the guilty person to justice irrespective of caste. For the proper
administration of justice, the Court of Appeal and five jilla courts were
established for the trial of offenders and for adjudicating on civil claims.
The jilla courts had two judges each and a śāstŗi. The officers were all
selected from among the most respectable Nairs, Brahmins and
Christians.33 Col. Munro, a devout evangelical Christian, gave equal
importance to humanity and justice as that of diffusion of Christianity,
aimed at the religious, social and political renovation of the traditional
Christians34. He devised plans for their upliftment, in a period before the
awakening of a social conscience in Kerala. The first step he took was to
free them from the disabilities by the innovations in the administrations.
He also tried to improve their status by constituting new laws to appoint
them in sirkār services especially as judges35. He also provided proper
32 The Revenue department was restructured under the Tahsildar in each district with an
account or Samprati and a number of Provertikars under him, his duties being confined to the collection of land revenues. Nagam Aiya, Travancore , vol I,…, Op cit., p.462.
33 Ibid. pp. 461-462. 34 P.Cherian, The Malabar Syrians and the Church Missionary Society 1860--1840, Kottayam,
C.M.S. Press, 1935, p.84. 35 Ibid, p.85.
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leadership by strengthening the institutional structure of the Syrians. He
organized two battalions of Nair sepōys and one company of cavalry as
bodyguard and escort to Royalty.36
Srinivas says, British rule can be considered as the one which laid
‘the foundation of a modern state’ and bringing radical and lasting changes
in Indian politics and through which the humanitarianism, equalitarianism
and secularism are introduced. It resulted in the religious beliefs and social
customs of traditional culture to progress towards ‘reason and humanity’ at
both ideological and institutional levels.37 The British ideology was
marked by the humanisation of western renaissance and was motivated
with colonialism of imperial capitalism. The new ethics emphasised
equality and state protection to all irrespective of caste, creed or region to
which the person belonged. These reforms created a new consciousness
with regard to justice in public life. The new concept of equality fermented
momentum in all aspects of social and political life. Thus, the dawn of
nineteenth century arrived with the political, economic and social changes
in the history of social progress in Kerala. The practice of appointing a
British resident became irrelevant during the so called ‘Rao period’ in the
history of Travancore from 1817 to 1872. Those born and brought up in the
36 Nagam Aiya, Travancore State Manual, vol I, Op cit., p. 465. 37 T.N.Madan, “Westernization: An Essay on Indian and Japanese Responses” in A..M.Shah et al.
ed. Social Structure and Change, volume I, New Delhi, Sage Publications, 1996, p.147.
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State lost their chance to advise, guide and direct the policy of the rulers.38
The need of the political integration of India was also on the rise. The
spread of Western education sharpened the vision and shaped the political
ideas of the people here.39 The last quarter of nineteenth century marked
the beginning of an epoch of remarkable intellectual progress, which
synchronised with the rapid spread of English education provided by the
Missionaries initially and by the Government agencies later. The impact of
western civilization brought a broad social and political outlook among the
people who became independent in spirit and critical in attitude.40 Education
aroused the civic consciousness among the younger generation and resulted in
the social and political awakening among them. This made people aware of
caste inequalities more and the struggle for the recognition of equality
started. By the early decades of twentieth century the organised form of
resistance in the social and political level gained momentum and the
situation surrounding the ideology of a Hindu State got changed. The
political awakening of various castes was the reason behind this change.
The co-existence of different religions was the specific feature of
premodern Travancore. The divān of the time, V.P.Madhava Rao at the
first meeting of Sri Mūlam Popular Assembly in 1904 stated that ‘equality
of treatment to all religions’ was one of the principal features of 38 P.K.K Menon, The History of Freedom Movement in Kerala: Vol.2 (1885-1938), The
Regional Records Survey Committee, Trivandrum, Kerala State, 1966, p. 3. 39 idem. 40 idem.
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Travancore State.41 In 1922, the dēvaswom department got separated from
the revenue department after long and repeated protests from the Syrian
Christians and the avaŗna caste.42 The political awakening of various
Hindu castes and the non-Hindus led to the creation and development of
the Legislative council and the Sri Mūlam Popular Assembly, the state
became more secular. In 1932, another reformed assembly came into
effect. But that also did not evoke a positive response from the general
public, except the Savarnas.43 The deprived communities started to
represent their case through memorandums and deputations to improve their
position in the assembly. In effect, All Travancore Ezhava political League
(for Ezhavas), Wajānathul Muhammadiya Association (for Muslims),
Travancore Latin Christian Mahajana Sabha, The Travancore State Catholic
Congress (for Christians) emerged in the year1932 demanding reservation
of seats on numerical basis.44
Then, by the joint effort of three communities (Christian, Ezhava
and Muslim), All Travancore Joint Political Congress established in
41 SMPAP, Fist meeting, 1904, p.3 in Koji Kawashima, Missionaries…, Op.cit., p. 27. 42 T.K Velu Pillai, The Travancore State Manual, vol.II, Trivandrum, Kerala Gazetteers
Department, 1996, p. 562. The Sri Mulam Assembly was neither popular nor an assembly because of its high property
qualification for voters, it was a reflection of the growth of new social forces and marked a small step in people’s participation in government.42 Also, the ‘model state’ could not satisfy the population by giving Government posts irrespective of their communal barriers. The Christians, Ezhavas and others realized that the franchise was constituted on ‘feudal theory’, for the land owners or high caste Hindus. George Mathew, Communal Road to a Secular Kerala, New Delhi, Concept Publishing Company, 1989, p. 88.
43 George Mathew, Communal Road…, Op.cit., p. 90. 44 Ibid, p. 91.
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December 1932 formed the first step towards the formation of a civil
society, says, Louis Ouwerkirk, against the unquestioned political
dominance of the Nairs45. The petition submitted requested for fair
representation of all communities but resulted in the ‘abstention
movement’. This movement was in fact the starting point of major political
change breaking the supremacy of high caste Hindus in the Government.
Later the Joint Political congress changed its name to State National
Congress, eventually becoming instrumental in bringing democracy in
Travancore. By this time Indian National Congress also became active in
Travancore. Agitation against divān C.P.Ramaswamy’s attempt to
‘independent Travancore’ also accelerated during this time. The state
congress Committee at a meeting held on 20 July 1947 demanded the
immediate dismissal of the divān, the introduction of responsible
Government to be set up, a popularly elected constituent assembly to frame
the constitution of Travancore. The State Government appealed to all
communities to take part in the fight to remove the despotic Government
and misrule, with special emphasis to stick on to non-violence and received
the support of Travancore Students Congress, the State Muslim League, the
Kerala Catholic Congress etc till the royal proclamation of granting full
45 Louis Ouwerkirk, No Elephants for the Maharaja: Social and Political Change in the
Princely State of Travancore (1921-1947), ed. by Dick Kooiman, New Delhi, Manohar, 1994, pp. 89-90.
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responsible government46. The elections on the representative body, the
first democratic election to the constituent assembly based on adult
franchise were held on 4 February, 1948, and Travancore State Congress
won with a huge majority. Pattom Thanu pillai was elected leader and
T.M.Varghese his deputy. The assembly was converted into legislative
assembly by a proclamation of the king. The palace, the royal family and
the Dewaswom were excluded from the jurisdiction of assembly. An
interim Government was formed with Pattom (Nair) as Chief Minister and
Varghese (Christian Marthomite) and Kesavan (an Ezhava rationalist and
sympathetic to Marxism) were the members of Cabinet. They struggled for
responsible government through the medium of communal representation.47
Travancore was the first state in the Indian History to have a responsible
civil Government and the first to introduce universal suffrage. In 1956,
Travancore-Cochin and Malabar merged together to form the state of
Kerala by the joint effort of intellectual elites of various communities who
were rationalists in thoughts and deeds. It revealed that small groups of
Congress men were able to exert ceaseless pressure on the Government and
to attain proper share in administration and educational facilities. Thus, in
the twentieth century political power situation reached the hands of the
common man (adult franchise) and affirmed status irrespective of
46 Ibid, p.269. 47 George Mathew, Communal Road…, Op.cit., p. 121.
117
communal barriers. The political power rests in the hands of citizens
irrespective of age, sex, caste or class.
The middle of the twentieth century the educated youths became
politically active. The agitations and struggles led by the youth gave way to
the formation of civil society, which demanded progressive association
with the administration of the State. The systematic political participation
of almost all the communities is reported: “each caste wanted a separate
unit of the body politics so that its interest may not suffer from want of
advocacy, natural instinct for self preservation and self advancement and
collective forms”.48 The participation of the dynamic youth in the political
democracy and national independence irrespective of caste restrictions
were a major change in the political situation of Kerala during the time. In
such political settings, progress are extolled with the political awareness
and assertion of individual rights of the young people. The power and
authority of the elderly became irrelevant. A sense of secularism has
developed through the long-drawn struggle for responsible government. It
created an atmosphere where the people of different communities could
work together and live together irrespective of their communal identities.
No special privilege or status for the Nambudiri or their elderly was
accorded. The authority is embedded with the politically reformed adult
and not reserved for any hierarchically determined ‘elder’. The
48 P.K.K. Menon, The History of Freedom…, Op.cit., p. 365.
118
transformation of feudal- patrimonial system of power into liberal
democratic form led to the decline of authority of the elderly belonging to
the high castes. The break up of feudal polity also was not favourable to
the elderly group who owned most of the land. The changes induced by the
reforms, social, political, and judicial by Col. Munro gave more
opportunities to the upliftment of other communities, instead of Nambudiri
Brahmins. The kāriakāŗs (mainly the Nair elders), were the principal
administrative officers who exercised several functions, fiscal, magisterial,
judicial, and military, carried much prestige in caste society. Their salary
was the authorised extractions from the people and this gave them added
power. When the revenue, Dewaswom judiciary and military department
were formed, salaried employees were appointed and thus the symbolic
power of the Nairs got reduced. Moreover, persons from other
communities, especially the Syrian Christians who got appointment as
judges became important.
The leadership and the power came into the hands of educated youth
whose initiation to the political organisations and fight for the equality of
opportunities replaced the symbolic power of the old. Here, the individual
became important irrespective of caste label or age considerations.
Democracy is the characteristic of political life in modern state. It enhances
the most important positive revolutionary aspect of modernisation, the
discovery of individual person with his/her fundamental rights of non-
119
conformity.49 But the power is depending on the strength of the individual.
So in the modern world, wisdom and accumulated experience of old may
be seen as signs of obsolescence and so disqualify rather qualify them to
lead. Ageism is appearing to have been strengthened by transitions
associated with globalisation.
Economic Changes and the Conception of Old Age
Sheehan has stated that the esteem for the aged has certain
correlation with socio-economic structure of the society. The reasons for
low esteem are “they have the fewest material resources and human
relationships available for control and usually located in harsh
environments favouring youth and vigour”50. Decline in status of the aged
is often observed in societies involved in modernization. Kerala is example
for such a society in which the radical changes of modernization affect the
socio-economic structure, which in turn result in the lower status for the
aged. The highest esteem for elders was enjoyed among the landed
peasantries. This was true in the case of Kerala on its traditional socio-
economic condition where the economy was organized around agriculture.
But the changes accompanied with modernization that equated with
industrialization, urbanization and westernization affected the fortunes and
49 M.M.Thomas, The Nagas…, Op.cit., p. 115. 50 Tom Sheehan, ‘Senior Esteem as a Factor of Socio-economic Complexity”, The
Gerontologist, 16, 1976, p. 436, referred in Ellen Rhoads Holmes and Lowell D. Holmes, Other Cultures…, Op.cit., p. 102.
120
activities of the elderly in Kerala too. This section seeks the major
economic changes that happened in the society of Kerala and its impacts on
the social conception of old age.
Agricultural production was the major means of economy in the pre-
modern society. It is believed that the Brahmins were the one who
introduced the organized way of cultivation here. The land held by them as
brahmasvom was a privilege of their birth. The hierarchy of land rights had
the landlords at the top, tenants or kudiyāŗs under them, and at the bottom
of the ladder, were a large mass of kudiyāŗ, who did substantial part of
labour on land51. Thus, the caste system that offered birth right on lands to
the Brahmins offered economic independence to their elderly especially.
The geographic and climatic conditions of Kerala also played a major role
in this type of economy based on agriculture. But the change from the caste
society to the modern society is associated with radical changes in the
agrarian field.
Cultivation of food grain, especially paddy, was the major feature of
agrarian society, and was utilised mainly for the subsistence of the
population as well as for the upkeep of the temples, Brahmanas, and
territorial chiefs.52 But the interest of kings and nāduvazhis to encourage
51 K.N.Ganesh, “Agrarian Society in Kerala (1500-1800)” as cited in P.J.Cherian, (ed.) State
Editor, Perspectives on Kerala History, The Second Millennium, Kerala State Gazetteer, Vol.II.Part.II Thiruvananthapuram, Government of Kerala, 1999. p.123.
52 Ibid, p. 127.
121
trade with foreigners played a major role in the introduction of cash crops
in Kerala53. The trade with European countries encouraged the production
of crops and other export items as it was realized that the expansion of land
for cultivation would increase the overall income of their kingdom. Many
cash crops such as cashew nut, pineapple, potato, and banana were brought
to this land. This new form of expansion was assisted by rulers of
eighteenth century particularly as they realised that the expansion of land
for crop cultivation would increase the overall income of their kingdom54.
Increase in overseas trade under the influence of Arabs and Europeans
facilitated the process of cultivation of large areas of land for cash crops
and for spices and pepper as per its increased demand. So the economic
historians did classify the period as a phase of transition from feudalism to
capitalism, which advanced the forces of production55. The change from
feudalism affected the monopoly of the Brahmin elderly as they were
experts in the paddy cultivation and in the knowledge of the weather
conditions of Kerala.
53 Among the rulers, the Marthanda Varma, who ascended the throne of Tiruvitamkur in 1729,
has realized the fact well and played a vital role to make major changes to the land system of his kingdom, so as to improve trade and commerce. Among the cash crops, pepper was the most important and Malabar was known to foreigners as the pepper country. Coconut and areca nut also became important items for sale and export by sixteenth century. Teak, rosewood, cine etc were in great demand from foreign countries, for making ships, boats etc
54 K.S.Mathew, “Trade and Commerce in Kerala(1500-1800)”, in P.J.Cherian, State Editor, Perspectives on…, Op.cit., pp. 180-221.
55 P.K.Michael Tharakan, “Factors in the Penetration and Consolidation of Colonial Power in Kerala (1721-1819)”, as cited in P.J.Cherian, State Editor, Perspectives on Kerala …,Op cit., p. 329. Capitalism means a mode of production based on the exploitation of labour by capital.
122
The garden land cultivation offered job opportunities to the
illiterate youth as well as to the educated ones irrespective of caste
discrimination. The educated youth (mainly Syrian Christians and Nairs)
were appointed as clerks, supervisors, tea makers etc. during the colonial
times. In commercial economy, the system works on the principle that the
one who produces more can accumulate more wealth. So it encourages
individual effort. Each individual may have his own unit of economic
distribution from his accumulation; the community which he considers as
external from his own unit may not possess any consideration. Then, the
security of the old that was supposed to be provided by the community
underwent a change. At the time of old age due to degenerating health, an
individual may not be in a physical condition to work hard, which affects
productivity and thereby his position.
Introduction of land reforms, policy and revenue were the other
major changes occurred during the eighteenth century in Kerala. Since the
time British residents started residing here and were involved in the
administration of the region, the extraction of revenue, mainly land
revenue, became the major thrust. This development has prevented many
janmis from holding of unlimited areas. It was the main onslaught against
the feudal exploitation of Indian peasantry. The British authority
interpreted the “janmam” rights as equivalent to absolute ownership rights
and gave legal sanction to landlords to extract a larger share of produce
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through forcible expropriation from peasantry. The janmis, who were the
custodians of law and order in traditional society, were now made to act as
intermediaries in the collection of revenue from the producers of surplus56.
Thus, the imposition of enhanced claims to the produce of the land
eventually turned out to be a powerful destabilising factor in the
functioning of traditional society. The decline of traditional feudal society
and the decline of military and political power of chieftains reduced the
janmam right of Nambudiris and likewise their elders. Since majority of
the landlords belonged to the elder category, the introduction of land
revenue system can be considered as a major threat to the elderly. But it did
not affect the elderly of Muslim community as those in the other
communities. The reason is they did not hold land on a substantial scale
under siŗkāŗ paţţom or other tenures in the latter half of the nineteenth
century. The opening up of the economy for investment and trade of the
period had also improved the prospects of Muslims who were active in
trade.57
The land revenue became the most important source of
governmental income. Plantation agriculture and leases for plantation were
also introduced during this period as direct colonial interest behind the
policy for favouring plantations. Tiruvitamkur area (Travancore) developed 56 Ibid, p. 368. 57 M.Kabir, “Socio-Religious Reform Movements Among the Muslims of Kerala:C.1900-
1930”, in Abstracts-International Congress on Kerala Studies, Vol.I, Thiruvananthapuram, A.K.G.Centre For Research and Studies, 1994, pp. 107-109.
124
more as the land suited in terms of soil conditions, elevation etc and was
suitable for cultivation of plantation crops. But not only plantation crops,
but non- plantation commercial crops on commercial scale were also
encouraged58.By the end of nineteenth century, a significant group of
peasant proprietors emerged as the result of ‘pro-tenant’ land policy of
Tiruvitamkur59. This policy provided freedom of land development and
choice of crops for the peasant proprietors and helped to expand
commercial crops. The coconut cultivation spread rapidly in coastal plains
while spices and plantation crops expanded in midlands and high ranges.
Tea plantations, initially its principal form of ownership was proprietary,
were later taken over by public limited companies as tea-growing required
larger work-force, and thus the technological intervention helped substitute
labour. Thus, the introductions of land revenue, land policies that provide
freedom to the selection of crops for cultivation etc, decreased the
monopoly of Brahmin elders who faced problems for holding on to large
acres of lands.
The eighteenth century documents show that the Christian and
Muslim communities were becoming landholders of various kinds, for
example, the acquisition of land by the Christian churches, Christian and
58 P.K.Michael Tharakan, “Factors in the Penetration and Consolidation of Colonial Power in
Kerala (1721-1819)”, in P.J.Cherian, State Editor, Perspectives …, Op.cit., p.372. 59 Ibid, p. 382.
125
Muslims of Malabar as tenants etc.60 In 1818, a Government Regulation
encouraging conversion of waste land into agricultural land opened up the
possibility of Syrian Christians and Ezhavas acquiring siŗkāŗ land on lease for
cultivation which was impossible earlier, as distribution of land was largely
governed by the dictates of the traditional caste structure.61 In caste society,
ownership of land was the exclusive right of Brahmins by their birth or
janmam. This erosion happened as the result of two processes: transformation
of communities into tenants, and the spread of cash crop cultivation
encouraged the other communities to concentrate on agriculture.62 These
processes have shaken the absolute ownership rights of Brahmins and like
wise their elders. For example, the Janmi-Kudiyān Act gave permanent
occupancy rights to tenants on janmam land as well.63 In all, the introduction
of policies like, Madras Act, 1887, The Janmi-Kudiyān Act, 1896, Malabar
Act, 1930 have provided some restrictions on the power of Janmis. The
Syrian Christians who had considerable share of siŗkāŗ tenancies could exploit
the opportunities for developing commercial cultivation inherent in these
reforms, based on the advantages patriarchal family organisation and earlier
trading traditions.64 This shift to superior tenancies on private janmam land
60 K.N.Ganesh, “Agraian Society in Kerala…, Op.cit., p. 154. 61 T.C.Varghese (1970) referred in Michael Tharakan, “Socio-Economic Factors…, Op.cit.,
p. 1959. 62 K.N.Ganesh, “Agraian Society in Kerala…, Op.cit., p. 154 63 P.K.Michael Tharakan, “Development of …, Op.cit., p. 370. 64 Scaria Zachariah (1976) referred in Michael Tharakan, “Socio-Economic Factors…, Op.cit.,
p. 1960.
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with patriarchal equal claim of every adult to his father’s property provided
incentive to the individual initiative. Further, it helped to shift the influence of
the janmam right of Brahmin elderly to the Syrian adults. Other communities
also started to accumulate sufficient capital through land holdings and
commerce. The report of a major research by the UGC revealed that the
Syrian Christians became a powerful community in Travancore in later years.
They were able to acquire land which became available in the market. They
acquired the landed properties that were being alienated by the janmam
holders and private landholders.65
The existence of caste society was mainly on the basis of its
occupational structure. The caste identity shaped by the division of labour.
Each caste was associated with an occupation that was inherited
intergenerationally. But the changes in the economic condition have
brought forth a class society. The gradual erosion of caste based
occupational system also affected the elderly. For example, among potters
their elders were the authority in pottery making. The introduction of the
machinery to make vessels and jewellery alienated the ‘guilds’ as well as
their elderly. In caste society, the caste name or the father’s name typically
gives information on who they are and what status they occupy in the
society. In modern society, father’s (elder’s) occupation may not influence
and help in determining the status of the son. Easy way of handling the
65 Report of UGC Major Research Project; 1993-96, The Making…, Op.cit., p. 138.
127
machinery attracted the younger generation. The elder people with their
traditional techniques were becoming less in demand in the modern situation.
As the Industrial Revolution spread, the peasants and other traditional labours
started to prefer industrial work. The benefits of industrial mass production
and improved productivity 66 attracted the younger generation to the industry
rather than caste based occupation.
The wage system opened opportunities for labourers. The British
investment was mainly in coir processing, tile manufacturing and
plantations.67 In Tiruvitamkur, as early as in 1891, an Agricultural Loans
Act68, provided loans to needy agriculturists, created favourable conditions for
the growth of financial and trading and also of commercial banks. Also, the
establishment of a link between agriculture and industry is the latest
development. For example, coconut is very significant for the agrarian
economy in Kerala. At the same time the rise in demand for coconut oil and
coir products increases the importance of variety of processing industries. So
by the nineteenth century peasant proprietors emerged, in place of janmam
proprietors of caste society as a consequence of expansion of commercial
agriculture. It can be considered as the first phase in the transformation to
commercialized agriculture and a significant feature of economy. These
66 Egbert, de Vires, Man in Rapid Social Change, Garden City, New York, Doubleday &
Company, INC., 1961, p. 27 67 Michael Tharakan, “Development of …, Op. cit., p. 1963. 68 P.K. Michael Tharakan, Socio-Economic Factors…, Op.cit., p. 387.
128
changes attracted many to the commercialized agriculture and industry. “The
Industrial Revolution marked the beginning of a series of advances in
technology and a rise in per capita output rapid enough so that marked
changes occurred within each generation and indeed during each decade”69.
An active land market also developed during this time.
The commercialisation of agrarian economy has attracted the low caste
by providing job opportunities in plantation industries. Thousands of them
became salaried employees, where as earlier the work force was mainly
occupied in coolie work. Many of them were engaged in works like the
construction of roads, railways, buildings etc. and became the beneficiaries of
wage labour system. The disciplined work style and the regular salaries
attracted the younger generation more than the unorganised and uncertain
returns of traditional occupations. This reduces the tendency of following the
traditional occupation in which the elderly are authority. This situation
consequently affects the role of the elderly and they became less privileged.
Also, in commercialised economy, one who produces and works more can
accumulate more money. This encourages individual effort, and individual
could save without sharing it with the community. As a consequence, the
community support that was traditionally given to the old, aged and the
infirm. At the time of old age due to the ill health, an individual may not be in
69 Everett E. Hagen, On the Theory of Social Change as cited in Yogendra Singh,
Modernization of …, Op.cit.., p. 124.
129
a physical condition to work hard, and the security that was supposed to be
provided by the community declined considerably.
The processing industries and the plantation cultivation could employ
large sections of the rural population and provided fresh economic job
opportunities. So large groups of rural population started to move to the
industrial centres and were tempted to settle down there. This triggered the
process of urbanisation70 and the emergence of a new group called ‘sālariat’
in terms of Hamza Alavi and John Hams, which means, salaried class71.
Growth of cities and urbanisation due to industrialisation irrespective of caste
considerations began to take place in India only after its contact with the
West. Industrialisation and urbanisation give less chance to the old who are
physically unfit to work hard and earn money. The advent of industrialisation
affected the elderly because the old were unable to adapt to the new economic
processes. For many old people, who got left behind in the villages,
industrialisation disrupted family ties.72
70 Urbanization is the product of Industrial revolution, with modern facilities of health and
sanitation, a rational structure of public utility services, stable security and modern firms and industries. In traditional India, urbanization was considered as a mark of social prestige and upward social mobility. So the intention behind urbanization was to seek better life with modern facilities. But it does affect man in his basic relation between people and nature. But one of the major features of such employments is its specific demarcation of culminating time, through which one has to retire from the employment. Yogendra Singh, Modernization of Indian…, Op .cit., p. 157
71 Hamza Alavi and John Hams, Sociology of Developing Societies. South Asia, London, McMillan, 1989, p.225 in P.J.Cherian, State Editor, Perspectives on Kerala History…, Op.cit., p. 441. For Alavi, Salariat consisted of those who had received modern education that equipped them for employment in the state apparatus at various levels, as scribes and functionaries.
72 Peter N. Stearns, Oldage in Pre-industrial Society, New York, Holmes and Meier Publishers Inc, 1982, p. 12.
130
In premodern society, savaŗņa castes had dominated by appropriating
the agricultural surplus produced by the avaŗņa castes who had remained
marginalised as a result. But the diversified occupational structure emerged
through the economic interventions benefited the intermediate groups more
than the savaŗņa castes. Here too, education played its role as an agent of
transformation. In K.N.Panikkar’s opinion, Nairs were the first to accept
Western education, which gave them advantage over others in Government
employment.73 Tamil Brahmins also entered into administration by the
same route. By the end of the nineteenth century, both these groups
virtually shared the bureaucratic and administrative positions. As an impact
of malayāli Memorial in 1891, other castes like Christians, Ezhavas also
got representation in Government services. Role of Christian Missionaries
in education created a middle class of Christians, Muslims and Ezhavas.74The
educated class then clamoured for government employment and better living
conditions, and thus emerged as ‘middle class’ or salaried class who had little
dependence of agricultural economy. In the emerging system, the Brahmins
were the last to benefit, due to their reluctance to take to modern education
and secular advancement, Damodaran Namboodiri says.75 They held on to
their traditional way of life. This attitude towards modern occupation
lessened their economic security and also their dominance in the society. 73 K.N.Panikkar, Against Lord and State: Religion and Peasant Uprisings in Malabar, 1836-
1921, Delhi, OUP, 1989, p. 79. 74 D.Damodaran Namboodiri, “Caste and Social Change in Colonial Kerala” …, Op.cit., p. 436. 75 Ibid, p. 443.
131
Hence, the land reforms, plantation agriculture, industrial progress,
emergence of middle class, urbanization and mechanized way of
production are the major economic changes that happened in Kerala
society in its forward march to growth and development. But it led to a
particular situation of achievement-oriented workforce of individuals who
are highly materialistic in their economic values pushing the inactive and
non-productive old to a low esteem. In Simmon’s words, many societies
refer to the aged as ‘living liabilities’.76
Social Changes and the Conception of Old Age
Society is made up of individuals where each individual has his own
skills, values, attributes and roles to perform to become a fully
participating member of the society. In a modern society, an individual
who is in his old age may suffer the loss of crucial social roles. Ageing is
no doubt, a physical deterioration. But more than that, it is social changes
that provide fewer roles to the elderly by reducing them to a state of
dependence. Johnson and Williamson said, it is social expectations and
cultural values that label an individual as ‘young’ or ‘aged’ today.77 Since
the study is about the Kerala society, the trajectory of social change and its
impact on the conception of old age are described in this section.
76 L.Simmons, “Aging in Pre-industrial Societies”. In C.Tibbits, ed. Handbook of Social
Gerontology, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1960, pp. 62-91. 77 Johnson and Williamson, Growing Old: The Social Problems of Aging, Holt Rinchart and
Winston, New York, 1980 referred in Maninder Singh Randhawa, The Rural and Urban Aged, New Delhi, National Book Organization, 1991, p. 3.
132
The social change of Kerala can be identified as–reformative,
reactionary and radical. In Damodaran Namboodiri’s words, these reform
movements enveloped the domestic, socio-cultural and religious spaces
thus releasing at first the modern educated sections from the traditional ties
like caste.78 Religion, education and family played major role to bring
about social changes in traditional Kerala society. And it was the modern
educated youth who broke away from tradition first. It is a change from the
caste society to a secular society with civic sense and reformed sensibility.
For Chandra Mohan, it is the upper caste Hindus and the Christians who
got mainly affected by this; no community was outside the purview of
these changes.79 However, the social changes of Kerala are accelerated
mainly through the religious reforms, modern education and the break up
of joint family structure.
Religious Reforms and the Conception of Old Age
Religious leadership was more likely to play a role for the care of
the aged in preindustrial than in modern societies.80 It is a general trend
that people turn more to religion as they reach the end of their lives.
Religion advises the young to have filial piety to the aged, whether the
society is modern or traditional. But the correlation between religion and
78 D.Damodaran Namboodiri, “Caste and Social Change in Colonial Kerala” in P.J.Cherian,
State Editor, Perspectives on Kerala History…, Op.cit., p. 426. 79 P.Chandra Mohan “Growth of Social Reform Movements in Kerala” in P.J.Cherian, State
Editor, Perspectives on Kerala History…,Op.cit., p. 456. 80 Ellen Rhoads Holmes and Lowell D. Holmes, Other cultures…, Op.cit., p. 266.
133
the aged is such that it offers certain role to the aged even in its modernized
form. For example, the Bible says, “Honour thy father and mother that thy
days may be long”. The reforms that entered through religion did a lot for
the social transformations. It created a different outlook about religion
itself. Ultimately, the religion became an institution to organize people to
think rationally and to work reforms. This situation causes the birth of
many organizations, with separate religious titles, but the aim was to
enhance human concern and societal reformations. The religion started to
work in a better way with humanitarian concern and organized many
facilities to accommodate the poor and weaker sections of the society.
Hence, the reformed version of religion too offers certain space to the aged
as they belong to the weaker section of the society. This part explains the
various religious reforms of Kerala and its impact on the conception of old
age.
The caste system of Kerala offered religious hegemony to the
Brahmins, especially to their elders where the religious beliefs and social
practices were closely linked. Superstitions, rituals, priesthood and
polytheism were the religious practices of the upper strata while the lower
strata were beset with magic, sorcery, witchcraft and demon worship. In
both the strata, the elderly were being respected by the society due to their
respective religious cohesions. The Brahmins had the right of
consecration, ritual interpretations and religious teachings. Their monopoly
134
in vēdic-śāstŗāic-purānic cosmology and the religious knowledge never
allowed filtering down these rights to the lower strata of the society. The
lower castes were not allowed to enter temples where the Brahmins
conducted worship. 81 The social practices like untouchability, and
unapproachability were in vogue. Religion and state were not separated in
those days. The religious head was generally considered as the leader of the
whole society. Generally the heads were selected from the elder group. But
the emergence of a new epistemic order that would enable the construction
of new identities for the communities changed the situation and hence the
role of the upper caste elderly on the religious affairs. To some extent
‘bhakti pŗastānam (movement)’ was instrumental to bring out the
changes(reforms) within the Hindu religion. Under the leadership of
Tunchat Ezhutachan,82 it resisted the caste and vaŗņa system and
challenged the Brahmin hierarchy and scriptural authority. It emphasised
that all are equal before God and relinquished the sanctity of Sanskrit by
the translation of Rāmāyaņa and other epics into Malayalam. The
reformation in religion had a major role in creating a stir in this caste rigid
society.
81 The orientalists and missionaries of eighteenth century have made out the statement that “the
religious ideas and practices underlay all social structure”, they agreed “in the primacy of the Brahmin as the maintainer of the sacred tradition, through his control of the knowledge of the sacred texts” They worshipped totems, demons and deities with the offerings like fermented drinks and blood of animals. Milton Singer, and Bernard S. Cohn, Structure and Change in Indian Society …, Op.cit., p.10.
82 Tunchat Ezhuthachan was the Reformist, Social Revolutionist, Scholar, Poet and Intellect. T.B.Vijaya Kumar, Bhashaposhini, September, 2005.
135
For Chandra Mohan, the initiative for social reforms in Kerala was
first initiated by the Christian missionaries through the exertion of London
Missionary Society, Church Mission Society, Malabar Basel Mission,
Salvation Army etc. In their zeal for spreading education and abolishing
slavery and forced labour as well as their fight for granting low caste
women the privilege of covering their breasts, they became precursors of
social reform movements in Kerala83. Their work became the means to
enlighten certain sections of the society by engendering the feeling of self-
respect and equality. The social reform movements and the contemporary
changes have influenced each other for the emergence of a new educated
middle class, who favoured the introduction of contemporary Western
bourgeois order. For Hamza Alavi and John Hams, with the advent of
colonial rule, changes were evident in economic as well as in educational
field. The caste prejudices kept the backward communities from literacy as
it was limited to the upper castes. But the missionaries were the first to
open their schools to educate the children of all communities. Thus, the
reforms through religion could break the monopoly of the upper castes and
their elders’ in social life.
The reformations led by the Protestant missionaries can be
considered important landmarks to the Syrian Christian Churches of
83 P.Chandra Mohan, “Growth of Social Reform Movements in Kerala” in P.J.Cherian, State
Editor, Perspectives on Kerala History…, Op.cit ., p. 461.
136
Kerala. The ‘Mission Help’ programmes led by Benjamin Bailey, Joseph
Fenn, and Henry Baker84 were responsible in the formation of Syrian Mar
Thoma Church during the period of political turmoil of 1765–1808.
Teaching the children, preaching the Gospel in the churches, educating the
clergy, the establishment of printing press etc helped the people to start
thinking intellectually and rationally. Translation of Bible into Malayalam
by the Missionaries was also important to the reformation. The Christian
schools imparted education among the masses which enabled them to
develop a reformed mentality. The religion gave priority to humanitarian
concern and organised many facilities to accommodate the poor and
weaker sections of the society.
The reform movements in Kerala were initiated and led by the
middle class under the influence of both traditional and Western ideas and
the reformers were mainly from intermediate and lower caste
background85. The reformers of Kerala were of two categories as the first
group believed that changes in beliefs and behaviour are to be effected
through the influence of religion as the society of that time was steeped in
religious superstition and social obscurantism. Thus Chattambi Svamikal,
Sree Narayana Guru, Theerthapada Svamikal, Sadananda Swami,
Vagbhadananda and their followers held spiritual revitalisation as the basis 84 The Editorial Board, Mar Thoma Sabha Directory-Revised Edition, Tiruvalla, The
Publication Board of the Mar Thoma Church, 1999, p.22. 85 P.Chandra Mohan, “Growth of Social Reform Movements in Kerala” in P.J.Cherian, State
Editor, Perspectives on Kerala History…, Op.cit., p. 456.
137
for the advancement of the society. For instance, the religious reformations
and the struggles were undertaken by Chattambi Svamikal to eradicate the
outdated customs and practices among the Nair community like
sambandham, tālikeţţukalyāņam etc. Thus, the Sree Narayana Dharma
Paripalana Yogam, Sree Narayana Dharma Sangham and Atmavidya
Sangham are formed. The second group organised themselves under non-
religious leadership and gained their ends through constitutional means.
The movement of Nair Service Society, Sadhuparipalana Sabha and
Nambutiri Yogakshema Sabha may be placed under this category86. The
reformers realised that no social reform movement could be effective
unless Brahman ideology and hegemony was overthrown. So they started
to question the Brahman supremacy in their own way: Chattambi Svamikal
used his pen, while Narayana Guru appeared as a Kaŗma Yōgi.
Sree Narayana Guru87 took the battle against Brahman hegemony
through his consecration of śiva linga at Aruvippuram in 1888.Then he
forbade the worship of evil spirits and removed their images from the
temple of Ezhavas. Through this action, he could challenge the supremacy
held by the Brahmins of those days and at the same time, enlightened the
oppressed community of Ezhavas. His initial consecration of the idol of
Shiva despite his disapproval of idolatry was with a view to circumvent the
86 Ibid, p. 459. 87 Narayana Guru, the universalist social reformer, saint particular to Ezhava community, local
Hindu diety or ‘avatar’ of Siva.
138
influence of both the elite and popular culture88. His effort was mainly to
establish secularism with the principle of “whatever may be the religion,
people can be good.” With his influence the Ezhavas have struggled to
dissociate themselves from their natural occupation– toddy tapping and to
associate with the movement of temperance. Narayana Guru’s famous
1921 injunction says that, liquor being poison, Ezhavas should not make it,
give it, or sell it. This advice was promulgated by ‘respectable’ Ezhavas
keen for caste mobility and through SNDP campaign for alternative
employment”89. Vagbhadananda opposed the polytheism, idolatry and all
sorts of rituals and brought out a common theism that the foundation of all
religions is the belief in one Supreme Being. He propagated niŗgunōpāsana
or worship without an idol90. His leadership was tremendous for their
awakening. He was against the Westernization, Sanskritization and
Modernization but accepted the good essence of all such reformations. For
instance, they have appointed Brahmins as pūjāris (priest) in Ezhava
temples. The SNDP established in the year 1903 took great effort to
88 P.Chandra Mohan, “Growth of Social Reform Movements in Kerala” in P.J.Cherian, State
Editor, Perspectives on Kerala History…, Op.cit ., p. 461. 89 Filippo Osella and Caroline Osella, Social Mobility in Kerala-Modernity and Identity in
conflict, London, Pluto Press, 2000, p. 38. 90 P.Chandra Mohan, “Growth of Social Reform Movements in Kerala” in P.J.Cherian, State
Editor, Perspectives on Kerala History…, Op.cit ., p. 461.
139
establish schools, temples, and social organisations for the awakening of
the community.91
Some religious stir among the Nairs also took place as a result of
religious awakening that helped them to turn against the caste system in
which they were placed next to the Brahmins. They could not tolerate their
label as śudrās while they did the work of kşatriyās too. At the same time,
the Nairs were the first among other communities who adopted modern
education introduced by the British missionaries though they were
reluctant to attend the schools attached to the parishes in the beginning.
Many Nairs got influenced by the ‘bhakti movement’92 as it was promoted
by scholars like ‘Tunchat Ezhuthachan’ who himself was a Nair, through
the translation of Rāmāyana and other epics into Malayāļam. The ‘bhakti
movement’ and education was not enough to demolish the feudalism and
casteism. The legal legislation in 1867 allowing the lower caste people to
own land was an important land mark in the history of Travancore. The law
to own land favoured the Syrian Christians and Ezhavas more, which
facilitated social mobility to such communities in later centuries. Gradually
the Brahmin monopoly was replaced by the middle class. In addition to
Nairs, the Christians and Muslims also got honoured positions in the
society. The reform movements and education made the people aware of 91 Geevarughese Mar Theodosius, Naveekaranavum Paarambaryangalute Parirakshanavum
Sree Narayana Guru Darsanangalil”(Malayalam), Kottayam, D.C.Books, 1994, pp.163-165. 92 ‘Bhakti’ as the supreme means of attaining salvation just by devotion to God, not through
sacrifices or any caste originated supremacy.
140
their religious rights and caste disabilities which led to the conversion from
one religion to the other. Many were converted to either Christianity or
Islam. The religious conversion in Travancore region was mainly to
Christianity93. In George Wood Cock’s opinion, some high caste Hindus
also started to convert to become Christians94. Ezhava leaders even looked
for conversion to breakaway from the bondage of the caste. They were
influenced by the leadership of Ambedkar to promote the cause of
liberation. These religious conversions challenged the monopoly of the
upper caste elders.
The religious associations and caste associations were able to
produce stir among their people which led to the formation of various
organization for the upliftment of their own group. By the beginning of the
twentieth century, caste associations became superseded and both the upper
castes and lower castes of Hindus and non-Hindus like Christians and
Muslims organised themselves to form certain reform movements like
S.N.D.P yogam, N.S.S, Yogakshema Sabha95, Sadhuparipalana Sabha,
Nasrani Jathiya Sangham, Cochin Christian Association, Travancore
93 P.K. Gopalakrishnan, Keralathinde Samskarika…, Op.cit., p. 459. 94 George Wood Cock, Kerala: A Portrait of the Malabar Coast, p.115, as referred in P.K.
Gopalakrishnan, Keralathinde Samskarika…, Op.cit., p.461. 95 Social reformations engendered by the colonial powers and missionaries could not make any
impact upon the Nambudiris as those were not in their favour and so turned away from the process of English education. But the reformations in the Ezhava community could sense them in a better way to move into the path of modernity. Thus they organised together to the formation of ‘Yogakshema Sabha’ in 1907 with the following agenda: start facilities to give English education to the Nambudiri youths, break down the joint family system and divide the properties into smaller units, permit the younger Nambudiris to marry from own caste, instead of practicing the ‘sambandham’ system, permit widows to re-marriage.
141
Muslim Association, Malabar Muslim Association etc96. The effort made
by the Palakkunnathu Abraham Malpan97 (1796–1845) could create a
ferment among the people in the church who longed for removal of
unscriptural customs and practices. He strove for the abolition of auricular
confession, prayers for the dead, invocation of saints, translation of Syriac
liturgy into Malayalam for worship in the mother tongue and unhealthy
veneration of sacraments. Thus, the Malpan could affect reforms in Syrian
church. But the religious reformations made by Abraham Malpan may be
interpreted in its cultural dimension and is placed in the context of cultural
awakening of Kerala. The religious reformations in respective religions
caused an awakening among the people and were conducive for the
development of organisations. In addition to the educational institutions,
various other institutions oriented with humanitarian concern like,
orphanages, destitute homes, homes for the physically and mentally
handicapped emerged under the leadership of religious organisations. In
turn, these religious reforms help the elderly by considering them as the
weaker section of the society.
96 P.Chandra Mohan, “Growth of Social Reform Movements in Kerala” in P.J.Cherian, State
Editor, Perspectives on Kerala History…, Op.cit., p. 462. 97 The Editorial Board, Mar Thoma Sabha Directory-Revised Edition, Tiruvalla, The
publication Board of the Mar Thoma Church, 1999, p. 23. Annamma Thomas and T.M Thomas, Kerala Immigrants in America-A Sociological Study of
the St.Thomas Christians, Cochin, Simons Printers and Publishers, 1984, p. 81. In traditional cultures the religion, culture, and society were integral each other and so any
one of the region could make impact on the other fields as a whole.
142
The caste system with Brahmanic hegemony declined by the
introduction of civil society with democratic government, but the caste
organisations became prominent during this period. The census report of
1931 says that the organised form of resistance gained momentum through
the social struggles. The social reform movement became the common
feature of all the castes and communities. It carried a vigorous propaganda
for the betterment of their social, political, economic and religious
advancement. By the beginning of the twentieth century, caste associations
were formed by both the upper castes and lower castes like SNDP yogam,
NSS, Yogakshema Sabha98, Sadhuparipalana Sabha, Nasrani Jathiya
Sangham, Cochin Christian Association, Travancore Muslim Association,
and Malabar Muslim Association etc99. In Kabir’s words, the Muslim
reform movements lacked cohesion and there was no central organisation
or leadership like other communities. It is the influence of the religious
solidarity, which is against the reformations.100
98 Social reformations engendered by the colonial powers and missionaries could not make any
impact upon the Nambudiris as those were not in their favour and so turned away from the process of English education. But the reformations in the Ezhava community could sense them in a better way to move into the path of modernity. Thus they organised together to the formation of ‘Yogakshema Sabha’ in 1907 with the following agenda: start facilities to give English education to the Nambudiri youths, break down the joint family system and divide the properties into smaller units, permit the younger Nambudiris to marry from own caste, instead of practicing the ‘sambandham’ system, permit widows to re-marriage.
99 P.Chandra Mohan, “Growth of Social Reform Movements in Kerala” in P.J.Cherian, State Editor, Perspectives on Kerala History…, Op.cit., p. 462.
100 M.Kabir, “Socio-Religious Reform Movements Among the Muslims of Kerala:C.!900-!930”, in Abstracts-International…, Op.cit., p. 107-109.
143
However, in the caste organisations the notion of individual
membership, instead of corporate membership of the traditional society,
came into practice. Here the process of individuation protects the rights of
the individual. Also, it is the transition from a caste-rigid society to the
secular society. It involves a movement from the sacred ethos to the secular
ethos, an element of modernity.101 The public morality is the main agenda
of all the social reform movements, which emphasize egalitarian
consideration than caste discrimination. It promises religious rights to all
individuals irrespective of caste or religion. Similarly, the civic rights offer
rights to the individual membership in organisations as per one’s merit
rather than birthright. It encourages youth to involve in religious activities
than the ‘old’ who are less active and reformed. The unquestioned religious
hierarchy of the old (the metaphysical nature of religion) was challenged
by the reform movements of modernity. At the same time, the caste
organizations take the initiative to arrange alternate mechanisms to care
about the elderly who are isolated in the modern society.
Modern Education and the Conception of Old Age
The word ‘educate’ is meant to train the mind, character and
abilities and the process thus undergoing is learning. The oral way of
education and learning was more prominent in tradition, in the sense that
knowledge came handed down from previous generations by older
101 M.M.Thomas. The Nagas…, Op.cit., p. 115.
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members of the society. Here, the role of the elderly was so prominent that
they were the intellectuals of the society. The higher education in Vedas
was an exclusive preserve of the higher castes, particularly the Brahmins,
in medieval Kerala Society.102 vēdapāthaśālais and sabhāmaţţs were the
institutions for their higher learning, most often receiving support from the
royalty. Besides these, other institutions like paļļikūdam or kudipaļļikūdams
were there; their origin can be traced back to early Buddhists or Jains, for
basic educational facilities within the reach of caste and communities other
than Brahmins.103 Aśāns, ezhutacans or vādhyāŗs were to impart
elementary knowledge in reading, writing and arithmetic, besides a
smattering of astrology to enable simple calculations required for domestic
ritual and agricultural operations. These schools were conducted in the
houses of teachers themselves and they received some petty
emoluments.104 These teachers were generally from the elder groups and
the petty emoluments they received were known by the name dakşiņa, not
a fixed amount of fee, but a gift given out of respect and the matter to offer
blessing. However, the teachers whether Brahmins or others, were highly
respected. Here education as a means to the imparting of knowledge
offered certain roles to the elderly. They transmit it from generation to
102 Elamkulam, Kunjan Pillai K.P., Studies in Kerala History, N.B.S., 1970, p.267. 103 P.K.Michael Tharakan, “Socio-Economic Factors in Educational Development-Case of
Nineteenth Century Travancore”, in Economic and Political Weekly, vol.XIX, no.45, November 10, 1984, p. 1914.
104 Ibid, p. 1915.
145
generation orally. The traditional values and the knowledge the elders
acquired through the years of survival were the knowledge to be passed on.
Hitherto, the available education was the monopoly of upper castes.
Education was not at all required for the lower ones for their practical life.
The introduction of modern way of education changed the situation. The
Protestant Missionaries were the pioneers of modern education in Kerala.
105 They started educational institutions here. All the communities
including the lower castes were their beneficiaries. It was through modern
education that the individuation process, the formation of an individual
identity with individual rights and responsibilities initiated. In addition to
many other vested interests, missionaries had the intention to introduce
modern education to promote habits of study, reflection and investigation
and to inspire certain confidence in the natural power. They also expected
to promote thinking as opposed to mere memorizing.106 A new horizon of
knowledge was opened for the people. Another important landmark was
the introduction of printing press which made literature easily accessible to
all and to circulate more widely and systematically. The printed matters
could bring radical change in the sensibility of its readers; and likewise to
initiate a reformed mentality. Hence, the authority of the elderly as the
105 Report of U.G.C Major and Research Project ;1993-96 The Making of Modern…, Op.cit., p..31. 106 Missionary Register for 1819, p. 428.
146
reservoirs of classics who passed such knowledge personally through
generations underwent a change.
The process of schooling and the propagation of modern ideas
through a proper curriculum helped to form a dent in the customary
practices. The introduction of English education helped in the formation of
liberal democratic power. The writers of the ‘Making of Modern Keralam’
have pointed out that the objectives of English education were primarily to
train the Indians to man the lower level administrative structure and to
civilise the Indians by changing their orientation through Western culture
and the English schools were modified on the educational system in
England. The British educational system was based on Western liberal
capitalist values and was strongly ‘liberal and job oriented’. 107 The
Christian missionaries had clear conviction that education can be used as a
tool for the evangelisation too. So they opened many English schools in
different regions of the State. Thus, the beginning of Western education
marked a new era in the history of Travancore.108 English gradually took
the place of native languages of business and administration. The
107 The first Protestant missionary to establish an English school was Rev.William Tobias
Ringletaube, at Mylaudy in 1806. He dedicated his whole life for evangelisation and wherever he went he carried the mission of English Education but was strengthened by the liberal contribution of Colonel Munroe107. They knew that a successful evangelisation was possible only reading the Bible; for that education is necessary as the human conscience could only be transformed through the education process. Report of U.G.C Major and Research Project; 1993-96 The making of…, Op.cit., p.31.
108 A.Sreedhara Menon, Cultural Heritage of Kerala an Introduction, Cochin, East west Publications, 1978,p.172 as referred in K.V.Eapen, Church Missionary Society and Education In Kerala, Kottayam, Kollett publications, 1985, p. 2.
147
knowledge in English became inevitable to develop one’s prospects in the
changing social formation. Also, the missionaries had the sense to
understand that education was possible only through local medium, so that
the gospel would reach the masses. So they introduced many schools with
local medium of instruction. In that way, the Missionary schools could
attract many low castes too to the educative process and thus the credit of
initiating low caste education goes to the Christian missionaries as they
made free education available to the masses. So in all, the educational
enterprises of the missionaries could enlighten the people of India, not only
to the upper castes, but to the lower too. The Christians and Ezhavas were
the major beneficiaries of the pedagogic missionary work, says Rajan
Gurukkal109. By establishing printing press, Malayalam books reached the
masses replacing the prominence of Sanskrit, the authority of Brahmins
and the authority of elders.
Missionaries had realised the hold of women on customary practices
as they were known as the bearers of culture. For instance, the patriarchal
value structure of the family regards the claims of the husband, children
and relatives as being the women’s priority110 E.P.Hasting has reported the
power of maternal influence and her attachment to superstition and idolatry
109 Rajan Gurukkal, Development Experience of Colonial Keralam in M.A. Oommen,
Rethinking…, Op.cit., p. 91. 110 A.M.Shah, B.S.Baviskar, E.A.Ramaswamy, ed. Social Structure and Change, Volume.II,
Women in Indian Society, New Delhi, Sage Publications, 1996, p. 101.
148
on the generation.111 Female education became another agenda for
missionaries for the social reformations. An organized form of teaching for
girls was initiated by lady missionaries (wives of missionaries) in 1820.112
An overall development of girls was the aim and many Syrian Christians
started sending their girls to the schools attached to the churches. They
were taught needle work, English and catechism. This type of female
education that enhanced their domestic capabilities must have attracted
girls from other communities too to these schools.113 It is reported by
Anata E.Wood that the earlier concept of Girl’s education was directed
towards developing in her those qualities which will enable her to reach
this ideal at a faster pace.114 It is believed that training in the childhood
may direct her towards realising the ideal of female modesty and domestic
duties with the virtues of dutiful, obedient and helpful wife to her husband.
Still the caste prejudices, less effort from the government side, made the
progress of female education very slow.
Gradually more and more subjects were introduced in the school
curriculum: vernacular languages, English in higher classes, history,
geography, arithmetic and elements of natural philosophy.115 Changes due
111 Proceedings of South Indian Missionary Conference on 1858, p. 197. 112 P.Cherian, The Malabar…,Op.cit., pp. 182-190. T.K.Velupillai, Travancore State Manual, Vol.II…, Op.cit., p. 698. 113 Proceedings of the Church Missionary Society for the year 1882-83, p. 139. 114 Ananda E.Wood, Knowledge Knowledge-before Printing and After-The Indian tradition in
Changing Kerala, Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1985, p. 121. 115 Nagam Aiya, vol.II…, Op.cit., p. 475.
149
to education became visible by the middle of the nineteenth century. Girls
educated from the missionary schools started to teach in girl’s schools and
thereby initiating their entry into the field of teaching profession.116
Technical training was then started and introduced printing, book-binding,
tanning etc. The Syrian Christians made the maximum use of educational
opportunities 117because in the beginning most of the schools were attached
to the churches. Then Catholics also entered into the field by seeing the job
opportunities. By the end of the century Nidheerickal Mani Kathanar, a
catholic, and Pulikottil Mar Dinosyius, a Jacobite, made a joint venure, Nazrani
Jathiya Aikya Sangham to start (a) English high schools and girls’ schools in all
Christian centres, (b) a central college in Kottayam, (c) libraries in all parishes,
and (d) go downs in Christian centres to store surplus grains till prices turned
favourable to farmers.118 To explain the benefit of schools and Sangham, a
Malayalam daily, Nazrani Deepika was also started. Following Christian
missionaries, the government also entered into the field by starting the first
school in Karamana in Trivandrum in 1859.119 As a result of all this,
schools/education became the major space of subjectivization to the
common people. Through lower caste education, female education and
technical training, a new horizon to the people of all walks of life was
116 Proceedings of the Church Missionary Society for the year 1854-55, p. 127. 117 A.Sreedhara Menon, Cultural Heritage of Kerala an Introduction, Cochin, East west
Publications, 1978, p. 172. 118 K.Michael Tharakan, “Socio-Economic Factors…Op.cit., p. 1924. 119 Ibid, p. 1923.
150
opened. So it was through modern education that the formation of
individual or the subjectivization of individual was mainly initiated in
Kerala.
In fact, education, the most important impact of missionary
endeavours could awaken the conscious of human mind to act against the
inequalities of caste system. It is reported by P.K.K.Menon that the
struggle for the recognition of equality started120 and the intellectual
progress is the causal factor to this shift. “The last quarter of nineteenth
century marked the beginning of an epoch of remarkable intellectual
progress, which synchronized with the rapid spread of English education.
The new generation under the impact of Western civilization came to have
a broad social outlook. The people became independent in spirit and
critical of their attitude”121. Education aroused the civic consciousness (by
reading news papers or other books). It became the period of reform
movements and claims for individual rights irrespective of the caste. The
native reformers like Tunchat Ezhuthachan made religious stir (bhakti
movement) that led to the social reformation. All these aimed at the socio-
political changes, and to the formation of new subjects who are aware of
their individual rights. By introducing universal scientific education, the
exclusive right of Brahmins on vēdic, śāstŗaic and sānskŗiţ learning ceased
120 P.K.K.Menon, History of Freedom Movement…, Op.cit., p. 3. 121 idem.
151
to exist. Thus, the opportunities became available for all, which hitherto
was the birthright of the higher castes. The job qualifications made them fit
for salaried jobs that led to the erosion of division of labour which was the
basis of caste. The emergence of young dynamic middle class caused
devaluation of the role played by the traditional elders like āśān or
vāddhyāŗ.
Like Brahmins, Muslims also were partially antagonistic to the
British education. It is revealed in the census of 1901that the rate of
literacy among the Muslim was 12%. In Kabir’s opinion, this educational
backwardness underscored their younger generation with poverty. 122 But
this situation prevented them from sending children to schools and colleges
and entering Government services. To a certain extent, this situation is
resulted from their desire to keep a separate identity against modernity. At
the same time, it created less opportunity to withdraw the traditional
esteem from their ‘old’.
Medical Education and the Conception of Old Age
Medical education had far reaching effects on the formation of
social conception about old age. It facilitated the general health of the
population through the introduction of vaccination and modern medicine as
preventive and curative measures. This increased the life expectancy of the
122 M.Kabir, “Socio-Religious Reform Movements Among the Muslims of Kerala:C.1900-
1930”, in Abstracts-International…, Op.cit., p. 107-108.
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people and likewise the proportion of the elderly in the population of the
country. At the same time, the self-identity and individualism that
developed among women through education (especially medical education)
has affected the care of the elderly within the familial situations.
Otherwise, the women were the primary care-taker to the family and its
members (traditional concept about a woman). In later years, medically
educated women started migrating to the other parts of India and the world
and this created a situation where many elderly persons were forced to stay
alone.
Generally old age is associated with health problems like
communicable as well as degenerative diseases. The physiological changes
in the old age lead to the impairments of sensory and circulatory functions,
incidence of infections and poor immuno-functions. All these led to poor
life expectancy and so the number of old who survived for long was very
few in earlier times. It is reported by Nagam Aiya in 1891 that the value of
vital statistics was unknown in earlier days.123But the advancement in
medicine and medial educational facilities has improved the general health
of the population through various methods: introductions of preventive
measures, e.g., vaccinations and curative measures. For instance, with the
co-operation of Rockfeller Foundation, a Public Health Department was
formed in 1933-34. Some of its activities were to maintain statistics,
123 V.Nagam Aiya, Vol.II, The Travancore…, Op.cit., p. 498.
153
control communicable diseases, vaccinate the population, use of preventive
medicine, conducting of maternity and child welfare work, public health
education, rural sanitation etc.124 The positive attitudes towards these
measures have increased the public health which in turn contributed higher
standards of health with lower mortality rate. In medical activities the
Travancore state dominated from the beginning with the contribution from
the Christian missionaries. Nagam Aiya reported the involvement of
missionaries as well as the State in the public health during the nineteenth
century. The union of European system of medical aid, started in
Travancore in 1811, and the Travancorean institutions made major impacts
in the field of medicine here.125 A General Hospital was opened in
Trivandrum in 1865 and a medical school in 1869. All such situations have
gradually increased the life expectancy of the people here and likewise the
proportion of the elderly in the population. A study by Irudaya Rajan
reported that the change in proportion of the elderly in Kerala is more
spectacular-- their proportion was around nine per cent in 1991 but is
expected to increase to twenty per cent in 2021 and thirty seven per cent in
2051.126
124 Koji Kawashima, Missionaries and…, Op.cit., p. 125. 125 Ibid, p. 116. 126 S.Irudaya Rajan, “Home away from Home:A Survey of Oldage Homes in Kerala” in Woking
Paper No.306, Thiruvananthapuram, Cenre for Development Studies, August, 2000, p. 3.
154
However the act of missionaries and the interest of the Government
worked together for the relief of diseases and sickness. Many young people
were attracted to the field of medical education. It is reported by Koji
Kawashima that the European Medical officer appointed as Physician
trained a substantial majority of Syrian Christians as medical officers under
his supervision.127 But another statement says that the Maharaja’s attention
was directed to his own people and not to a white minority. It is stated in
such a way that in order to avoid pollution through the treatment by a white
doctor, Sree Mulam Thirunal had sent one young Brahmin to learn
Western medicine.128 Whatever may be communal representation, it is true
that state responded positively to the growing public demand for medical
relief.129 But it is British colonial authorities in 1885, who began to provide
medical instruction for women as doctors, hospital assistants, nurses and
midwives. This might be introduced as a major instrument in the field of
medical education that produced far reaching effects in the social
conception of old age in Kerala context. Nagam Aiya reported that in 1887,
Victoria Medical School and Hospital was created for the purpose of
training women as midwives and nurses.130 However this step has
decreased the role of “old women and the illiterate barber women” who
127 Koji Kawashima, Missionaries and…, Op.cit., p. 117. 128 K.Rajasekharan Nair, “Prasasthiyodu Mukham Thirichuninna Dr.R.Keasavan Nair” in
Samakalika Malayalam Vaarika, August, 12, 2005, p. 68. 129 Koji Kawashima, Missionaries and…, Op.cit., p. 147. 130 V.Nagam Aiya, Vol.II, The Travancore…, Op.cit., p. 538-539.
155
were the only help in delivery cases in the traditional society. Also a large
number of high caste women, particularly widows among the Brahmins,
received education in nursing and midwifery under a lady doctor.131 A female
vaccinator was employed in 1891-92 to meet the wishes of those who
objected to male vaccinators visiting their homes.132 Likewise, the
missionary endeavours of female education and medical instructions have
attracted many women to the field of medical education. For the missionaries,
treating the sick was part of their proselytizing work. Syrian Christians may
have also been attracted to this field due to religious zeal. A good number of
women from this community started to learn nursing care and seek admission
in nursing school and medical school. In 1907, Dr. Ida Scudder, the first
lady missionary, started nursing school for women and its progress is
invariably connected with the entry and progress of Syrian Christian
women in medical profession. The missionaries also helped many to study
medical science from foreign universities. This process of entry by a large
number of women in the medical profession, especially nursing care,
created a major vacuum in rural households with nobody to look after the
aged and the sick within the familial atmosphere. Medically qualified
women were attracted by better job opportunities in foreign countries
worsened the situation in later years. It led to the break up of joint stay of
families in the rural setting of Kerala. Migration of the younger women 131 idem. 132 Koji Kawashima, Missionaries and…, Op.cit., p. 119.
156
consequently affected the care of the elderly. In short, one can say that the
changed concepts of old age can be invariably connected with female
education in Kerala.
Change in Family Structure and the Conception of Old Age
The family is humankind’s most basic, most vital, and most
influential institution. It gives foundation to the society, by moulding the
character and by being a mentor to the cultural values. The family is
important while we consider the social conception of old age because, it is
where one learns the values that will influence behaviour throughout life in
dealing with the wider society. Ideally, it is a group where people care
about and support one another in times of triumph or times of failure. With
this reason, Leo Simmons says that “throughout human history the family
has been the safest haven for the aged. Its ties have been most intimate and
long lasting, and on them the aged have relied for greatest security”.133 But
the continuation of family depends on the stability and moral cohesion
among its members. More than the physical continuation of the species, the
process of procreation, power relations, continuation of cultural norms and
practices of the society are involved. What is reproduced in each
generation is not the life itself, but the legal organisation of life. Many
ideological beliefs about the sanctity of marriage and thereby the family
133 Leo Simmons, The Role of the Aged in Primitive Society, New haven, CT, Yale University
Press, 1945 (a), p. 177.
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and the caring of the aged and the infirm are transcended from generation
to generation.
The joint family system--Hindu undivided family (with property
right to every individual-co-parcenor)where several generations stay
together in a single household(co-residence)-- was the common practice of
family in India in its pre modern set up. The institutionalised stem family
system is characterised with this co-residence of generations. Respect for
the aged tended to be greater in such system. In Rosow’s words, “the
position of the aged in a society is relatively higher when the extended
family is central to the social structure because a clan can and will act
much more effectively to meet crisis and dependency of its members than a
small family. Mutual obligations between blood relatives--specifically
including the aged-- are institutionalized as formal rights, not generous
benefactions”.134 Indian family systems consisted of both matrilineal
(several generations of maternal lineage stayed together) and patrilineal
(consisting of father, mother, father’s brother and family, unmarried/
widowed sister and children under the paternal care and guidance). In such
family patterns, support and expectations for receiving and providing
assistance in old age are part of the continuing process of interaction
among parents, children, and other kin. The family was the source of
134 I.Rosow, “And then we were old”, 1965. cited in Ellen Rhoads Holmes and Lowell D. Holmes,
Other cultures…, Op.cit., p. 113.
158
“primary oneness, a kind of symbiotic atmosphere” which prevented the
development of personal responsibility.135 This practice of un-divided
family system continued to some extent to the modern period also.
However, nuclear families have always been found among the lower castes
of the Indian society. In Devanandan and Thomas’ opinion, the influences
of different religions, especially Islam and Christianity have contributed
certain features to family organisations136. However, certain features of
joint living system have continued even in the modern social formation
also. Relations of mutual support are continued over life, but reshaped by
the historical events like industrialisation, urbanisation and migration--the
process of modernisation. A gradual disappearance of joint living
arrangement is becoming common today in Kerala. Shah pointed out many
reasons for this like demographic accidents, separation of son as the part of
traditional developmental process, and the individualism which is induced
into the present day society.137 In effect the nuclear living arrangement
today is for a single generation, but provides new conceptions about human
rights, new social laws to support it and new social structure for its
implementation. It has acceptance today as the suitable living arrangement
in keeping with the present situation. But the target group of the study,
135 M.M.Thomas. The Nagas…, Op.cit., p. 115. 136 P.D.Devanandan, M.M.Thomas, ed. The Changing Pattern Of Family in India, Bangalore,
The Christian Institute for the Study of Religion and Society, 1960, pp. 1-2. 137 A.M.Shah, The Family in India-Critical Essays, New Delhi, Orient Longman Limited, 1998,
pp. 3-5.
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aged and their comfort and well-being is invariably connected with the
nature of family arrangement. Here family is taken for granted, the one
permanent feature of society and in a sense impervious to the surging
forces of contemporary world-life138. The process of individualisation
associated with modernisation has modified the family dominance over
individual139.
Even then, the nuclear family concept of Indian context does not
give a completely detached type of living arrangement from the parental
family. Kin serve as the most essential resource for economic assistance
and security and carry the major burden of welfare functions. Social and
religious functions unite the family together with oneness. Moreover the
process of total individualisation has not taken place in modern Kerala. The
continuance of several traditional institutions like arranged marriage is not
only a union of two individuals but the beginning and continuation of
relation between two families. In addition, the values like filial piety,
respect to the old, often enunciated by religious doctrines and teachings
had considerable hold over modern situation, especially in rural
agricultural areas. Individual who subordinated their own careers and needs
to those of the family as a collective unit did so out of a sense of
responsibility, affection, and familial obligation, rather than with the
138 P.D.Devanandan, M.M.Thomas ed. The Changing Pattern…, Op.cit., p .xi. 139 The insight is borrowed from Gail Wilson, Understanding Old Age- Critical and Global
Perspectives, London, Sage Publication, 2000, p. 162.
160
expectation of immediate gain.140 As Manu says, the Indian cultural values
reaffirms, mātā, pitā, guro, daivam(Father, mother and teacher are revered
on equal footing to God), even in the modern nuclear living arrangement.
In the Indian context, aged parents co-reside with their adult
children and grand children in a multi-generational household. When the
younger son marries, elder one may move to an alternate residential
arrangement (in patriarchal families). The institutionalised stem-family
system is characterised with the co-residence of generations. The adult
children are expected to be the caregivers for the ageing parents and the
pattern of care given are voluntary rather than forced by law. In most cases,
the household is willed to the younger son (an economic resource), as he is
obliged to look after the parents in patriarchal families. In matrilineal
families, the daughters inherit the property and in turn take the
responsibility to look after the aged parents. Holding on to the household
and property--preparing ‘will’ to be effective after their life time--an
exchange for future assistance in old age is an important survival strategy
for older people. The aged parents retain their property in their life time,
however meagre it may be, to ensure their old age security. These types of
accommodations reflect greater flexibility in household arrangements.
140 Tamara K.Hareven, “Historical Perspectives on the Family and Aging” In Rosemary
Blieszner and Victoria Hilkevitch Bedford, Aging and the Family-Theory and Research, London, Praeger, 1996, p. 25.
161
Children continue to stay in the parental home or move back and
forth, in order to meet the needs of family: taking care of ageing parents, or
in some cases, young siblings or others. The life transition of younger
generation gets intertwined with those of older generations. This
interdependence dictated parental control over the children’s life
transitions, especially education, marriage alliances etc. Parents’ sense of
obligation was dictated by this family interdependence.
Modernization led only gradually to differentiation in age-specific
functions in Kerala context in twentieth century. Discontinuities in the age
specific roles were not marked. For example, parenthood was not
segregated in early adulthood. Higher fertility and extended parenting often
let at least one child remain in the household for longer period, sometimes
over the parents’ entire life period. One adult child, usually, the youngest
was expected to remain at home while the parents were ageing. Widowed
or not, the extension of motherhood over most of the life course continued
to engage women in active familial roles into old age.141 Where the
woman’s role was primary to the existence of family at the earlier stages in
other cases, as a grand mother, women had active role in the nurturing of
grandchildren or in other household affairs.
141 Tamara K.Hareven, “Historical Perspectives on Aging and Family Relations” in Robert
H.Binstock, Linda K.George, Handbook of Aging and the Social Sciences, 5th edition, New York, Academic Press, 2001, p. 144.
162
However, modernization in its advanced stage has changed the
family pattern of Kerala too. The size and composition, residential pattern
and role of family members have changed. Migration, geographical
mobility, increasing proportion of women working outside the household,
and thus a greater move towards nuclear family with emphasis on the
rearing of children and decision about their education and careers became
the common trend. The study by Leela Gulati and Irudaya Rajan reports
that more than fifty per cent of the families are nuclear in Kerala.142 This
has certain implications for the life of elderly in Kerala. With the improved
chances of survival of the old on the one hand and of the children on the
other, the distribution of time and resources in the care and support of the
elderly poses difficult choices for the younger families. It is due to the shift
from the dominance of familial values to an emphasis on individualism and
privacy. It occurred first in the middle class and later extended to the other
classes. Modernity defines social structure by giving importance to the
dignity of individual. Modern individualism favours the emergence of
interest-oriented family from a kin-oriented family system.143 The interest
enveloped by the individualistic nature includes a single generation of
immediate family members, and thereby excluding ‘aged’ from the
142 Leela Gulati and S.Irudaya Rajan, “The Added Years-Elderly in India and Kerala” in
Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.xxxiv, no.44, October 30—November 5, 1999, p.ws-48-ws-49.
143 M.M.Thomas, The Nagas…, Op.cit., p. 115.
163
membership of a modern family norm. Modern society considers
individual as the basic unit of society, instead of family in traditional
society. When we consider elderly care as a familial norm, it becomes a
burden to the individualistic society. In many cases, the children residing
abroad remit funds for the support of the elderly; finance may not be a
problem, but they have difficulty in living with the elderly in a joint
household. This creates a social problem.
Emergence of Institutions and the Conception of Old Age
Organized services or institutionalization for the aged is a modern
concept about the care of the elderly. The correlation between the
institutions and modern conceptions of old age can be summarized in two
ways:(1) the institutions are the alternate arrangements that help to adjust
with the societal changes (2) the availability of institutions is producing
modern conceptions about old age i.e. the modern ideology that those
elderly no longer able to live independently in the community must be
housed in institutions. The institutions act as a causal factor to the changed
concepts of old age to a certain extent. When we consider the situation of
Kerala, it is seen that the social ageing in Hindu communities had an
institutional structure defining the fine expressions of purusāŗta(the aims
of life) and āsŗama (the stages of life). However, purusāŗta-āsŗama
vyavasta (organisation of aims and stages of life) were relevant essentially
164
for males of the Brahmin caste144 in its traditional set up. The
establishment of ūţţupurās(dining room) and the concept of giving alms
to the Brahmins were to fulfil the concept of charity of the earlier Hindu
State. But it is the modern ideology that brought out meaning to the term
‘charity’ in a different way. The Maharajas and the Travancore
Government got convinced by the idea of ‘charitable state’ and made
great efforts to help a large section of the poor classes in Travancore like
giving food, medical aid and protection of orphans etc. The State realised
that providing charity for its people is an important function of a Hindu
State. Charity became one of the cardinal duties of Dhaŗma Rāj and
placed it within the reach of all classes of its people.145 Government took
interest in the provision of gratuitous relief to the aged, the infirm, and the
destitute, as its cardinal duty.
The role of missionary endeavours and British administration to the
modern idea of ‘charity’ is also noticeable. It inspired a radical
transformation during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It was the
British administration that made possible the egalitarian concept. The
Budget report of T.Madhava Row for 1036 M.E., dated 19 March 1861
stated the need to support thousands of men, women and children who had
no resource as the price of food rose higher due to the repeated famines and
144 Seminar, 488-Ageing-a Symposium on Greying of Our Society, April, 2000, p. 59. 145 V.Nagam Aiya, The Travancore State Manual, Vol.II …, Op.cit., p. 37.
165
droughts.146 Food was given gratuitously to the poor in several localities as
also clothes, small sums of money and other similar aid. Relief was
administered to a large section of the poor classes in Travancore by the
missionaries like giving food, medical aid and protection of orphans etc.
Charitable contributions of missionaries were involved around the medical
activities. The Salvation Army, CMS and LMS made major impacts to this
field. The CMS started a leper Asylum in 1871, the Church of England
Zenana Mission started a dispensary at Trivandrum and the Salvation
Army started medical activities etc with the same intention to do charity
through medical relief. Gradually medical relief also became the part of
charitable work.
The elderly who are impaired with the dual problems of
physiological deterioration and financial trouble fell automatically into the
category of ‘destitute’. The State considered them eligible for charity and
assistance. The Travancore State Manual by Nagam Aiya who quoted
Baroda Administration Report for 1902–03 and 1903–04 evidences to this
statement that:
The next item of relief that has engaged the attention of His
Highness’ Government is the provision of gratuitous relief to
the aged, the infirm, and the destitute, who are all thrown
upon the bounty of the State with the contraction of private
charity and the shrinking of family incomes. Relief by the 146 V.Nagam Aiya, The Travancore State Manual, vol.III, …, Op.cit., p. 124.
166
distribution of village doles, and the housing of the destitute
incapables in poor-houses, has been an acknowledged form
of help in times of famine. Directly the period of tests and
trials is over, the opening of Relief Works has to be largely
supplemented by the starting of village-doles and poor-
houses in towns.147
Besides the State, the religion also made remarkable emphasis to
protect the poor of the society. The feeding of the poor has always been
recognized a sacred duty by all Hindu governments from the olden days.
Manu speaks of it as one of the important duties of kings. Even in modern
world, religious teachings have certain relevance in the moulding of
individual life. The Mahabharata says, He who desires prosperity for
himself should give food to great Brahmins and beggars even if his own
family affairs are in distress.148 Christianity advises to practice the love of
Jesus Christ among the poor and wretched. It says, “Love your neighbour
as your brother”, the way to attain salvation. It advises its people to help
those who are in need. Buddhism also emphasises to ‘help others who are
in need’. In all, when the religion and its reforms (relief mentality)
unanimously enjoined to the duty of feeding the poor and distressed in the
country, the birth of a new institution came into practice. It is the result of
intervention of modern ideologies, the provision of relief to the aged,
destitute and distressed, regardless of the cause of destitution, whether sick, 147 Ibid, p. 126. 148 idem.
167
disabled, retarded or aged. The destitute homes became the institution for
all those who are financially struggling due to the inadequate life
situations. In other words, ‘ageing’ became a major cause to label one as
‘destitute’. The concept of old age has changed in such a way that the ‘life
stage’ must be taken care by the application of institutional devices. Today,
Kerala is abundant with destitute homes run by the Government, private
sector and also by religious denominations.