The second automobile revolution-
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a3billionperannum
a levelthatithasbeenimpossibletoreducesince.
Havingplantsspecialisedbyplatformandmoreflexibilityinworkinghours
meantthatplantutilisationratesrosetomorethan100percent(usingthe
Americandefinitionoftheannualcapacityofa plantoperatingsixteenhours
a dayfor235daysa yearor3,760hoursannually).Suppliersandnotonly
PSAspartssubsidiarystartedtobuildplantsorwarehousesclosetothe
Groupsterminalplantstoenablesynchronousjust-in-timedeliveries.Acon-
vergenceplanwasimplemented,witheverysiteadoptingbestpractices,receivinghighperformancetoolsandseeinganimprovementinvehicles
assemblypossibilitiesandemployeesworkingconditions.AnElementary
ProductionUnitsbreak-downwasgeneralisedtoallsites.
Duringthisperiod,PSAcreatedthreeplantsandcloseda fourthinEurope.
In2003,a newproductionplantformechanicalparts(gearboxes)wasopened
inValenciennes.ThejointPSAToyota plantatKolinintheCzechRepublic
startedproductionin2005.In2006,a plantdedicatedtoSegmentAandB
modelsbeganoperationsatTrnva inSlovakia,justifiedbythesaturationof
othersites,theneedforanindustrialpresenceinthenewCentralEuropean
marketsandtheadvantageousproductioncoststhere.Thesameyearsaw
theannouncedclosureoftheUKsRytonplant,whichhadpreviouslypro-
ducedthesamemodels.Thisdecisionwasa forerunnertorecruitmentpolicy
changesthatwouldbecomeofficialafterthedepartureofJean-MartinFolz.
Higheremergingmarketssalesdidnotimproveoperatingmargins
immediately
SalesoutsideWesternEuroperosefrom18.8percentin2001to31.7percent
in2006.Atfirst,thisshiftinthegeographicmixledtoloweroperatingmar-
gins.Emergingmarketsaleswerenotverylucrativeatfirstandsometimes
involvedlosses.Itwasonlyin2007thattheywouldbegintocontributesig-
nificantlytoPSAsoperatingmargin(seeFigure13.1;Jetin,Chapter3,this
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a5,000modelistheepitomeofconceptualinnovation.Lacking
anymechanicalorstylisticnovelty,ithasrevealeda blindspotincarmakers
visionofthemarket(Jullien,2006):peoplewhowanttobuya newcarbut
whocannotdoitorwhocannolongerdoitduetoinsufficientincome.
Duringa visittoRussia,LouisSchweitzerfirstcameupwiththeidea ofoffer-
inga truelow-costfamilycartothenewmiddleclassestakingshapeinthe
emergingcountries,peoplewhoupuntilthatpointhadbeencondemnedto
buyingimportedusedcarsthatwerecostlytorunandsometimesexpensive
toacquire(Schweitzer,2007).Tomeetthetargetprice,designandmanufac-
turingprocesseshadtoberethoughtanda specificplatformengineered.The
vehiclestwenty-fourfunctionswereconceivedofina waythatresponded
tothedualrequirementofa particulartargetcostalongwithjust-in-timedelivery.Therewerefewercomponentsandtheonesusedweresimplified,
standardisedandproducedinlow-costcountries.Assemblywasdonewith-
outrecoursetorobotsorautomatons.Commercialisationcostsweredivided
bya factoroffive.
LaunchedinOctober2004byDacia,theLoganwasanimmediatesuccessin
Romania andneighbouringemergingmarkets(EasternEurope,theMiddle
EastandNorthAfrica).Thebiggestsurprisewastodiscoverthattherewasalso
a demandforthistypeofvehicleinWesternEurope.Renaultanditsrivals
foundoutthatthestagnationofthisregionalmarketwaspartiallyduetothe
factthata growingsectionofthepopulationhadnotbeenabletobuynew
carsduetolowpurchasingpowerorunstableincome.Thus,saleswerewell
aboveexpectationseightmonthsafterlaunch,i.e.theLoganwasalreadyin
theblack.Itwasthendecidedtoincreasethenumberofversionsplanned,so
astorespondtothevehiclesvariouspotentialusesandtoadapttoitsvarious
markets.Forexample,2007sawthelaunchofa stationwagon/estate(the
LoganMCV),a Loganutilityvananda five-doorsedancalledtheSandero,
designedfirstandforemostfortheSouthAmericanmarketandfeaturing
a lessausterebodyaswellasa flexi-fueldrivingsystem.Inthefuture,we
canexpecttoseea newpickupin2008,a 4 4in2009andthreeorfour
othervariantsby201012.Forecastsalesareupfrom500,000to1millionby
2010.TheLoganismeanttoaccountfor90percentofRenaultssalesgrowth
in2009.
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...w hensho uldR enaultm o v einto
C hinaandb uildac leanc ar ?
S inc e2007 ,R enaulthasc o ntinuedtoac tun p r ed ic tab l y ,sho w ingana p p etite
f o ran yc halleng eitf ac es,ho w ev erlar g e.C ar lo sG ho snsur p r ising l yd idno t
sa ynoin2006w henG Mshar eho ld erK ir kK er k o r iansug g estedanallianc e
w ithR enaultN issanasam eanso fr eb uild ingthew o r ld slar g estc ar m ak er
( seeS enterandM c M anus,C ha p ter9 ,thisv o lu m e).W henG ener alM o to r s
B o ar do fD ir ec to r sd ec id edtor enewitstr ustinC E OR ic kW ag o ner ,R enault
hadtolo o kelsew her e.A lr ead yp r esentinR ussiaw hic histheL o g anssec o nd
b ig g estm ar k etinlate2007theg o v er n m entinR ussiaautho r isedR enaultto
tak ea25p erc entstak einthelead ingc ar m ak er ,A v to v az,andtom anag eits
ind ustr ialandc o m m er c ialr ec o v ery .R enaulthadw o nr ig htstoA v to v azb y
o utb id d ingr iv alc ar m ak er sw how er eear lierf av o ur ites.T hisac q uisitio nw as
nos m allaf f air ,g iv enthein- d e p thc hang esthattheR ussianf ir mr eq uir edand
inlig hto fthec o untry sunstab lep o litic alandso c ialc o ntex t.T heex p ec tatio n
w asthatc o nsid er ab leec o no m ieso fsc alec o uldb eac hiev edb yg iv ingA v to v az
ac c esstoR enaultsm ec hanic als y ste m sandp latf o r m s( 9 00,000v ehic lesb y
2007 ).R enaultalsoc o unted ,m o r esur p r ising l y ,o nb eingab letoac c essin p uts
thatc o uldo nl yb eso ur c edf r o mtheR ussianc ar m ak er su p str ea msu p p lier s.
R eg ar d ingC hina,inear l y2008R enaultb eg ananal y singF D Io p p o r tunitiesin
thisc o untry .F o rthem o m ent,ithasnop r esenc eher e,altho ug hitsall yN issan
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a14,679million,correspondingtoa returnonsales(ROS)of8.3percent.
Buttheendofthe1980salsomarkedtheexitofFiatAutoCEO,Vittorio
Ghidella,duetodisagreementswithFiatGroupCEO,CesareRomiti.The
wishofthelatternottonamethenewCEOoftheAutoGroupfromamong
Ghidellascollaboratorsinducedhimtoleadthegroup adinterim,without
havingthetechnicalcompetenceorthenecessarycommitment. 3 Soa stageof
slowrenovationinmodelsandprocesstechnologiesbegan,justwhenbothnationallyandinternationallynewconditionswerematuring,conditions
thatwouldpushFiatAutomobilestoa significantredefinitionofitsown
strategiesandofitspositioningintheglobalcompetitivelandscape.
287
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a549million,suggeststhemagnitudeofthecostsbornetosupportsales,basicallybysellingbelowcost. 11
Theinternationalisationstrategy
Withrespecttotheinternationalisationprocess,the1990swerea timeof
strongcommitmentforFiatAutomobiles,unfortunatelypartiallyaffectedby
a chainofunfavourableeventsandsomemistakes.Theinternationalisation
envisionedbyAvvocatoAgnellibecamea realityinthemid-1990swiththe
178Project.Itconsistedina familyofcarsstartingfromthesameplatform,
tobemanufacturedina rangeofcountries,butina highlystandardisedway,
inordertoexploitsignificantscaleandlearningeconomiesbothforplant
constructionandinmanufacturing,withthepossibilityoftransferrringparts
betweenthedifferentmanufacturinglocations.Theglobalisationofthecar
wasaimedatnew-motorisationcountriessuchasBrazil,Argentina,Poland,
Russia,Turkey,India andChina.Theobjectivewastoreacha combinedvol-
umeofabout1millioncarsin2003,tobemanufacturedinabouta dozen
countries. 12 Theidea madesenseevenifitemergedthatinsidethesemar-
ketsthereweresignificantdifferencesincustomerpreferences.Aftera first
encouragingstageinLatinAmerica theinternationalfinancialcrisisof1998
ledtoa slowdownintheproject. 13 However,eventhoughtheresultswere
partlyaffectedbythenegativecontext,seriousmistakeswereundoubtedly
madebothintheprogrammeplannedforIndia,withthedevelopmentofa
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a549
millionin2001,anda lossof a1,343millionin2002.
ThecrisissituationmanifestedinDecember2001witha shockingdeclar-ationofa a4billionoveralllossforFiatGroupofwhich2.7billionwasdue
toFiatAutomobiles.In2003GianniAgnellidiedandhisbrotherUmberto
tookhisplace,thelatterdyinginMay2004.Theautomobilefirmthenfaced
a stageofcontinuouschangesingovernancethatdidnotfacilitaterecovery.
Theturnaroundtookplaceonlyin2004withLuca CorderodiMontezemolo
becomingchairmanofthewholeFiatGroup,andSergioMarchionnebecom-
ingCEO,thelatteralsobecomingCEOofFiatAutomobilesinFebruary2005
tomanagetherecoveryofthissectormoredirectly.
ThereorganisationoperatedbySergioMarchionne
ShakingupFiatAutomobilesmanagement
ThestepstakenbySergioMarchionnetoleadFiatGroup(andinparticu-
larFiatAutomobiles)outofthetunnelaremany.Someareinitiativeswith
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a1.55milliontobepaidbyGM.Immediatelyafterthis
hemovedontofinalisea setofagreements: 18
withtheIndiangroupTata forwide-rangingcooperation,includingshared
manufacturingofsomemodelsinIndia andinArgentina,butalsojoint
developmentofmodels,componentdesignandmanufacturing,joint
marketinganddistributioninIndia,throughTata networks;
withFordtousethenewcity-carplatformdesignedforthenewFiat500
alsofortheFordKa model,tobemanufacturedintheThichyplantin
Poland;
withSeverstalAutotoassembleinRussia thePalioandAlbea models
manufacturedinkitsattheTurkishTofasplant,ownedbythejoint-
venturebetweenFiatandtheKocgroup;
andwithCherytostrengthenvehiclemanufacturinginChina.
Thenewdynamismoninternationalisationhasbeensupportedbythe
comebackinthemajormarketswhereFiatAutomobileswasinvolved.LatinAmerica hasbeenfirst,whereFiatoperateswiththenewmega Betimplantin
theBrazilianstateofMinasGerais.Withtherecoveryinautomobiledemand
thattookplaceinthearea theBetimplantismanufacturingatfullcapacity
andhasmovedtoa thirdshiftinfinalassemblybyemployingnewperson-
nel,witha dailyproductionof2,500vehicles.FiatAutodoBrasil(FIASA)
hascontributedsignificantlytotheeconomiccomebackofthegroup.Other
growthareasareTurkeyandPoland,wherethemanufacturingofthe178
projectmodels(Palio,Siena,PalioWeekend,etc.),adequatelyrenovated,
wasaugmentedbynewmodels.TheLineamodelstandsoutamongoth-ers,a three-volumecardevelopedontheGrandePuntoplatforminthe
TurkishTofasplantandlaunchedinmid-2007withaninitialproduction
of60,000units,butwiththeobjectiveofreaching280,000unitsthrough
manufacturingalsoinBrazil,Russia,India andChina.
Rangerenovationandsparklingcommunication
ClearlythecentralinitiativeinMarchionnesturnaroundhasbeenthe
refreshingoftherangeofmodelsandofthebrandsoffered.ThenewCEO
couldinpartbenefitfromtheworkofsomeofhispredecessorswhohad
correctlystartedtherenewalofsomeimportantmodels.Themostobvious
caseisthatofthenewPanda launchedin2004.Thissmallcar,manufactured
inPoland,gainedtheEuropeanCaroftheYearaward.Thiscity-carhas
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a .
S o u r c e s : F i a t A n n u a l R e p o r t s .
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a970million.TheMitsubishicrisis
hadboundthemainmanagementandfinancialresourcesforAsia andleft
thealliancewithHyundaiwithouta future.Thecooperationprojectsinthe
passengercarsectorwithMercedes,Chrysler,MitsubishiandHyundaiwere
soonabandonedwhereasthepromisingtruckallianceswithMercedesand
Hyundai(commondieselenginedevelopmentsandproductions,shareof
distributionnetworks)failedafteryearsofnegotiationbecauseofdifferent
strategicpriorities.In2004,DCdecidedtosellthe10.5percentHyundai
stakeandtostopallallianceprojects.
TheDCstrategyforAsia crashedandtherewasnosignofa substitute
strategytotacklethisweakness.ThebreakwithMitsubishialsomeantthe
failureofthemostadvancedsynergyeffortsasMitsubishisharedcomponents
andplatformswithSmartandChrysler.OneconsequenceisthatChrysler
stilllacksa fuel-efficientsmallcar.TheattemptstocommonaliseMercedes
andChryslermodelswereunsuccessfulduetothedifferentimageandmodel
range.MercedescomponentsaretooexpensiveforChryslercarsandthe
modelsaremainlyrear-wheeldrivewhereasallChryslercarshavefront-wheel
powertrains.Theonlyprojectthatwasundertaken,theChryslerCrossfire,
a modelbuiltonprevious-generationMercedesSLKtechnologybyGermancontractcoachbuilderKarmann,didnotliveuptoexpectations.
TheMitsubishiandHyundaidealscrashedfordifferentreasons,theformer
becauseoftheinabilityofthegroupmanagementtoreinventthestruggling
Japanesepartner,thelatterbecauseofthemaintenanceofopposingstrategic
orientations;togethertheyprovedtheinoperabilityoftheworldcompany
project.
Thelossesandtroublemaker:Chrysler
TheChryslerbrandexperienceda steadycrisisimmediatelyafterthemerger.
Itsufferedhugelosses,duetoshrinkingmarketsharesanddiscountbat-
tlesintheUSmarket, 4 ranoutofsteaminthehigh-marginminivanboom,
responsiblefortheChryslersuccessstoryinthe1990s,andfailedtoopen
upnewmarketswhichcalledfora reinventionofthebrand.After2001the
rumoursabouta possibleChryslerspin-offneverceased.AstheAmerican
managersresigned,Chryslersturnaroundbecamethemasterstrokeoflater
CEODieterZetsche.Athirdoftheworkforce(40,000of122,000)wascut
andsixplantswerecloseddown.In2007anotherthree-yearrestructuring
planwasannounced,reducingtheannualoutputby400,000units,clos-
inganassemblyplantandcuttingshiftsatotherplants,withtheultimate
lossof11,000hourly-paidjobs.Chryslerwillalsoreduceandoptimise
itsdealernetworkandoutsourcenon-coreactivities,axinga further2,000
salariedposts.ThetoughturnaroundplansbroughtChryslerbacktoprofit
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a4billionlossesupto2006. 5 Inspiteofsteady
shareholderprotests,themanagementpersistedwiththeprojectwitha new
turnaroundplanfocusingonthenewSmartFortwowhichwillbeavailable
alsointheUSA,distributedbythebigretailerUnitedAutoGroup.In2005
theSmartroadsterproductionwasstopped,theoffroadprojectcancelledand
thewholemanagementandsalesstructurewasintegratedintoMercedes,
eliminating700jobsintheprocess.In2006,theSmartForfour(fourseats)
wasalsostoppedaftertwoyearsofdisappointingsales.TheForfouraxewas
extremelyexpensiveasthecompanyhadtoraisehugecompensationpayouts
fortheDutchMitsubishi/Nedcarjointventureplantwherethemodelwas
assembled.
TheotherfailureissituatedintheBrazilianstateofMinasGeraiswhere
Mercedesbuilta newplant,designedfor70,000A-classvehiclesperyear
andwhichshouldserveasentrancetotheemergentSouthAmericanpas-
sengercarmarket.TheJuizdeFora plant,openedin1999andannounced
asthemostadvancedautomobileplantinSouthAmerica (Eckardtetal.,2000),hadtostoptheA-classproductionandsurvivesassemblingother
modelswithoutseeinga clearfuture.Themiddle-classmodelA-classcould
notfinda demandintheSouthAmericanmarket, centredinsmaller
andcheapermassmodelsandin2001MercedesstartedtheC-classCKD
assemblyfortheNorthAmericanexportmarketinordertomakea bet-
teruseoftheinstalledovercapacity,anoperationrequiringanadditional
$40millioninvestment.Finally,in2005theA-classassemblyinBrazilwas
stoppedandin2007theC-classSportsCoupØstartedleavingtheassem-
blylines.JuizdeFora willbetheonlyplantofthegroupproducingthis
modelmainlydestinedforEuropeanandUSmarkets.Atthesametime
theChryslerDodgeDakota plantinCampoLargo,Brazil,hada similar
fate,inauguratedin1998for12,000vehiclesperyearbutproducingonly
5,000.
Ontheonehand, thetraditionalupper-classMercedessegmentben-
efitsfromincreasingdemandsina worldwhereproductsforrichand
poorareboomingandtheclassicmiddle-classsegmentsarestruggling.
On the other hand, this segment faces increased competition from
moreandmorebrandsandproducers. TheJapaneseandKoreanmod-
elsgainmarketsharesandtraditionalmassproducerslikeVW,Fordand
GMaretryingtoenterthissegmentwithnewacquiredbrands. The
salesofthehigh-endluxuryMaybach,forinstance,arefarbehindthe
expectations.
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a500
millionlabourcostsavingsperyear)togettheguaranteethatnoGerman
employeewouldbedismissedinvoluntarilyuntiltheendof2011.Alljob
reductionprogrammeshavetobeorganisedbyvoluntaryleaveandearly
retirementmeasures.
TheSafeguardingtheFuture2012agreementisrelatedtothenewuni-
formcollectiveframeworkagreementforhourlyandsalariedemployeesinGermany(ERA)introducedin2007.Theworkactivitiesofapproximately
125,000employeeshavebeenre-evaluatedincooperationwithhuman
resourcesunits,managersandworkscouncils.InSafeguardingtheFuture
2012itwasagreedthataftertheintroductionofERAatDaimlerChrysler,
thewageincreasestipulatedinthecollectivebargainingagreementwould
notbeimplementedinfull.Itwasalsoagreedthattheexistingworkforceat
thegroupsGermanlocationswouldreceivewageandsalaryguaranteesand
companycompensationcomponentsifnecessary.Anotherconsequenceof
theagreementisthatthewagesofDaimlerChrysleremployeescoveredby
thecollectivewagebargainingagreementwerereducedby2.79percentin
2006.ForseniormanagersinGermany,variablecompensationfor2006was
reducedby10percentinadditiontothereductionoftheirregularmonthly
salaries.
Ina similarfashiontothegroupsmanagementsystem,thetransnational
labourrelationsaredominatedbythestrongGermanworkscounciland
thelabourrepresentativesinthesupervisoryboard.Asa reactiontothe
merger,a transatlanticworkinggroupcomposedofGerman(IGMetall)and
NorthAmerican(UnitedAutoWorkersandCanadianAutoWorkers(CAW))
representativeswassetupwhichsignificantlyimprovedthetraditionally
hostilerelationsbetweentheseunions.In2002theWorldEmployeeCom-
mittee(WEC)wasfoundedwithEuropean(sixGerman,oneSpanish),North
American(threeAmerican,oneCanadian),SouthAfrican(one)andBrazilian
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a5.5billion($7.4billion)totheprivateequitygroupCerberusCapitalwasannouncedasthefinalstageofitsaccumulatedproblemsandfailedintegra-
tionattempts.Otherinterestedequityfunds(Blackstone,Centerbridge,Kirk
KerkoriansTracinda)andautomotivegroups(themainsupplierofChrysler
Magna,GM)remainedoutofthedeal.Daimlerkeepsa minoritystakein
ordertodevelopseveralcommonprojectsstartedinthepast.Thebulkof
thesalespriceflewintoChryslerinordertofacetheneedforcapitalandto
securethehugeemployeepensionandhealthcareobligationsthatChrysler
hadtotakeoverwhichamountedto$17.5billionattheendof2006.The
remainingGermangroupadoptedthenameDaimlerAGwhereasChrysler
formeda newgroupnamedChryslerHoldingLLC.
Thefinancialconditionsofthedealconfirmthemergerasa hugestrategic
failureandcapitalbleedingoperationforDaimler.TheremainingGerman
groupgot$0.65billionfora companyacquiredfor$36billionnineyears
beforeandtheoperatingprofitdroppeddownnearly a3billionin2007.The
operationhadtobeadditionallysupportedbya $1.5billioncreditlineforthe
operativebusinessofChrysleranda $1billionguaranteefortheChrysler
pensionfund.WinnersofthedealareagainmanagerslikeLa Sorda and
Ridenour,responsiblefortheChryslerlosses,butawardedhugeextra bonus
paymentsfortheChryslersale.DuringthesenineyearsChryslerconsumed
a lotoftechnical,financialandhumanresourcessupportfromtheMercedes
division.ButDaimlerhasatleasta solidindustrialbasisintheMercedescar
andtruckgroupswhilethefutureofChryslerlooksmorethanuncertain.The
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a
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N o t e s : ( 1 ) A d j u s t e d , e x c l . o n e - t i m e e f f e c t s .
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w a s
d i v i d e d i n t h e T r u c k G r o u p a n d V a n ,
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B u s e s .
S o u r c e
: A n n u a l R e p o r t s o f
D a i m l e r C h r y s l e r .
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a million)
2005 2006 2007
EBIT 2,873 4,992 8,710
Netprofit 4,215 3,783 3,985
Employees(31Dec) 293,839 274,024 272,382
Unitsales 2,041,704 2,072,885 2,088,973
Mercedescars 1,216,838 1,251,797 1,293,184
Daimlertrucks 509,299 516,087 467,667
Vans,buses,other 315,567 305,001 328,122
Source :AnnualReportsofDaimlerAGGroup.
Notes
1. ForanoverviewofthetrajectoryandinternationalisationstrategiesofDaimler-Benz
andChryslerandthedetailedmergerprocess,seeKhler(2003).
2. EveryyearafterpublishingthebadChryslerresults, thesamestrategywas
announcedandneverrealised:closercollaborationbetweenChryslerandMercedes
inordertoproducesynergiesandreducecosts.
3. ItisanironyofhistorythatSchremppwantedtoinvestinNissanin1999butwas
overruledbyhismanagementboard,whicharguedagainsttwobigacquisitionsatonce.ProbablytheNissandealwouldhavetakenDaimler-Benzmuchfurther
towardsa globalcompanythantheChryslerandMitsubishidisasters.
4. In2007themediumdiscountfora ChryslercarintheUSmarketwas$3,962,$3,187
forFordand$2,830forGM.Honda andToyota modelshadtobesoldwith$1,397
and$1,308discountrespectively(Reuters,11July2007).
5. Recentreportsspeakofevenhigherfigures:DaimlerChryslerdoesnotpublish
separateresultsforitsSmartdivision,butaccordingtoa report,ithascostDaim-
lerChrysler a3.9bninlossesbetween2003and2006,muchmorethananalystshad
estimated(just-auto.com,12June2007).
6. IntheUSAandGermanyDCranitsownsecond-handcarretailerbrandscalled
StarmarkandMotormeilerespectively.
7. Thelabourcommitteewasa compensationfortheshareholdercommitteeestab-
lishedafterthemergeronthedemandoftheChryslermanagementwhichwanted
anexclusivemanagementbodypreparingthemeetingswiththeco-determined
supervisoryboard.TheGermanmanagementhadtonegotiatethiswiththeworks
councilwhichacceptedagainsttheconcessionofa parallelemployeebody.
8. TheendoftheDeutschlandAGreferstoa trendwhichunderminesthemain
pillarsoftheGermanmodelofcoordinatedcapitalismbasedonstablelong-term
stakesofthebigbanksinthemainindustrialenterprisesanda consensusstrategy
withthemainstakeholders(management,publicauthorities,financialentitiesand
tradeunions).
9. In2003,theshareholderrepresentativeEkkehardWengercriticisedSchremppasthe
biggestcapitaldestroyerinthecompanyshistoryandshowedthatthesameinvest-
ment(a511)incompetitorBMWssharesincreasedthevalueto a2,129whereasin
thecaseofDCitdecreaseditsvalueto a409(DPA,9April2003).
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