The Scottish Encounter with Tropical Disease

The Scottish Encounter with Tropical Disease

by M.P. Barrett, E.A. Innes & F.E.G. Cox

Sponsored by the Wellcome Trust

Design: FBLS Graphic Support Unit, University of Glasgow

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CONTENTSWelcomeScottish Parasitologists TimelineDavid LivingstonePatrick MansonAfrican TrypanosomiasisThe Scottish Encounter with African TrypanosomiasisLeishmaniasisThe Scottish Encounter with LeishmaniasisThe FilariasesThe Scottish Encounter with FilariasesParasitic FlukesThe Scottish Encounter with Parasitic FlukesMalariaThe Scottish Encounter with MalariaToxoplasmosisThe Scottish Encounter with ToxoplasmaA Dose of Worms: The Latest Health Tonic?Wellcome Centre for Molecular Parasitology Acknowledgements

2-34-56-78-910-1112-1314-1516-1718-1920-2122-2324-2526-2728-2930-3132-3334-3536-3738

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WELCOME

Many of those diseases specifically associated with the tropics are caused by parasites. Parasites can be single-celled (protozoa) or else multi-cellular (worms, also known as helminths and arthropods including insects and mites) and live within or on other organisms. Parasites exert an appalling toll on human health, causing diseases like malaria, sleeping sickness, elephantiasis and schistosomiasis to name but a few.

The period between 1870 and 1920 has been described as “the golden age of Parasitology”. The causative agents of many important parasitic diseases were described in this time; many by Scottish investigators. This exhibition aims to celebrate these discoveries.

Why were so many discoveries in Parasitology made by Scots? The confirmation, by Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) and Robert Koch (1843-1910), of the so-called “germ theory of disease” stimulated scientists from around the world to seek microbial agents as causes of disease. British investigators naturally studied those ailments prevalent in countries of the British Empire which, by the 1870s, had spread throughout the tropical world.

Britain itself was, and remains, a conglomerate of different nation states. Scotland tied with England formally after the Acts of Union in 1707 but aspects of Scottish life, above all education, remained distinct.

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Great Scottish philosophers like David Hume (1711-1776) and Adam Smith (1723-1790) drove the so-called “Enlightenment”. Industrialisation and technological advancement flooded out of Scotland. Joseph Black (1728-1799) led a revolution in chemistry and his former Glasgow University pupil James Watt (1736-1819) invented the steam engine.

Scottish education was open to anyone whereas strict class and religious rules restricted access to higher education in England. In the early nineteenth century, Scotland, with a population only a fraction that of England, could boast four Universities to England’s two.

The educated and enlightened Scots who emerged from this system could not rely on inherited wealth to pay their way. They needed to work. And yet much of the British industrial system was dominated by an elite English establishment. Scots frequently needed to look elsewhere. Two of the most influential early European explorers of Africa were James Bruce (1730-1794), who discovered the source of the Blue Nile, and Mungo Park (1771-1806) who navigated the river Niger. Both were Scots. These pioneers preceded Dr David Livingstone (1813-1873) whose success as an explorer in Africa can be linked to his diligence as a physician so we root our discussions on the Scottish encounter with tropical disease with him (see David Livingstone, pages 6-7).

Patrick Manson (1844-1922) (see Patrick Manson, pages 8-9) was distantly related to Livingstone. Manson’s career took off in Formosa, modern day Taiwan, where he established a medical practice having found it difficult to find a lucrative position back home. Many of the individuals described in this exhibition were directly linked to Manson who is often considered to be “the Father of Tropical Medicine”.

The tradition established by these forebears in tropical medicine is upheld today. The main Scottish Universities retain active research groups in Parasitology and bring in millions of pounds in research funding every year. The country is rightly considered to be a world leader in research into parasitic disease.

SCOTTISH PARASITOLOGISTS TIMELINE

Timeline of some major discoveries on parasites of humans made by Scottish parasitologists:

1768

1841

1874

1877

1881

1885

1893

1895

1897

Lind suggests the use of the herb ipecacuanha to treat amoebiasis

Livingstone arrives in Africa

McConnell describes the liver fluke Clonorchis sinensis.

Manson demonstrates that the filarial worm Wuchereria bancrofti is transmitted by mosquitoes

Manson suggests that the lung fluke Paragonimus westermani develops in snails

Cunningham identifies leishmania parasites in an oriental sore

Davidson publishes his book on ‘Hygiene and Diseases of Warm Climates’

Argyll-Robertson suggests that the nematode worm Loa loa is transmitted by blood-sucking insects

Ross identifies malaria parasites in Anopheles mosquitoes

5. George Carmichael Low4. Ronald Ross3. Douglas Argyll-Robertson2. Patrick Manson1. David Livingstone

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Photo credits: 1. David Livingstone Centre, 2-7 and 9. Wellcome Trust Library, London, 8. Hunterian Museum, Glasgow, 10. David Ferguson, Oxford

1900

1903

1904

1905

1912

1912

1914

1915

1926

1948

1969

Low demonstrates microfilariae in mosquito mouthparts and confirms transmission through the bite of a mosquito

Leishman describes Leishmania donovani.

Symmers describes the liver pathology of schistosomiasis

Bruce confirms that trypanosomes cause sleeping sickness as well as nagana and are transmitted by tsetse flies

Leiper demonstrates transmission of Loa loa by flies of the genus Chrysops

Robertson describes developmental stages of Trypanosoma gambiense in tsetse flies

Leiper distinguishes between Schistosoma mansoni and S. haematobium and identifies their snail intermediate hosts

Stewart demonstrates the life cycle of Ascaris

Blacklock elucidates the life cycle of Onchocerca volvulus in blackflies

Shortt discovers exoerythrocytic stages of Plasmodium

Hutchison describes the life cycle of Toxoplasma gondii

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10. William Hutchison9. Henry Shortt8. Muriel Robertson7. David Bruce6. William Leishman

David Livingstone 1813-1873


1. David Livingstone

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“Dr Livingstone I presume.” With these words Henry Morton Stanley, a flamboyant journalist, in 1871, “found” the world’s most famous explorer at Ujiji, a village on the shores of Lake Tanganyika, in modern day Tanzania. David Livingstone was born to humble origins in 1813, at Blantyre, a few miles to the South of Glasgow. As a boy, he worked in cotton mills on the banks of the Clyde, but was an avid learner, and eventually enrolled to study medicine at Anderson’s College in Glasgow.

Photo credits: 1, 2, 5 David Livingstone Centre, 3-4 Wellcome Trust Library, London

Livingstone went on to join the church and it was as part of the London Missionary Society that he left Britain, in 1841, with the hope of spreading the gospel in Africa. Livingstone’s achievements are awe-inspiring. He travelled 29,000 miles, mainly on foot, through jungle, desert and swamp; discovering peoples, animals, lakes, the Victoria Falls, and vast areas of previously uncharted land. In all he made three separate expeditions to Africa and became one of the greatest figures of the Victorian age. His ultimate aim was to rid the world of slavery. He finally died aged sixty, in 1873, during an extraordinary quest to find the sources of the Nile, the greatest goal of Victorian exploration.

“Beware the Bight of Benin, for there’s one that comes out for ten that goes in” went an old sea shanty. Parts of Africa had rightly picked up the reputation as “The white man’s grave”. It was Doctor Livingstone’s diligence as a physician that allowed him to succeed where others failed. He suffered from repeated bouts of malaria, but found that quinine (an ancient remedy made from the bark of Peruvian Cinchona trees) could keep the disease at bay. Another Scottish explorer William Balfour Baikie (1824-1864) had promoted the use of quinine after navigating the Niger in 1854. Burroughs-Wellcome later marketed a quinine-based medication called Livingstone’s rousers.


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2. Victorian Hero

3. Henry Morton Stanley

4. Sir Henry Wellcome

5. David Livingstone Centre

Livingstone suggested the tsetse fly as the agent that transmitted animal trypanosomiasis, and human African trypanosomiasis was described later.

He even introduced the use of arsenic to treat trypanosomiasis, although the microbial cause was not then known. Arsenical drugs are still used in trypanosomiasis therapy today (see African Trypanosomiasis, pages 10-11). He survived multiple different infectious agents, although many of Livingstone’s companions, including his wife, Mary, died from malaria.

Under the influence of Livingstone, a generation of young Britons set off with the aim of building what they hoped would be a better world overseas. The hope of economic gains in the lands that Livingstone and other pioneers, like Stanley, had opened up then led to the European colonisation of Africa. The prolific impact of tropical infectious disease on the colonists was a major hurdle in this process.

Sir Henry Wellcome (1853-1936), founder of the Wellcome Trust, who provided funding for this exhibition, was a pallbearer at Stanley’s funeral. Wellcome and Stanley had been great friends, with Wellcome providing Stanley with medicines for his travels in Africa.

The priority shown towards tropical medicine by the Wellcome Trust today owes a great deal to Livingstone and Stanley. The building in which Livingstone was born is preserved as a memorial in his honour “The David Livingstone Centre” in Blantyre.

patrick manson 1844-1922


1. Patrick Manson

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Patrick Manson is widely regarded as the “Father of Tropical Medicine” and is certainly one of the most important figures in the history of Parasitology. He is credited with having established “Tropical Medicine” as a distinctive discipline. Manson was born at Oldmeldrum, Aberdeenshire, and at the age of 14 went to work as an apprentice in an ironworks. However, illness prevented him from pursuing a career in this industry and he enrolled at the University of Aberdeen where he graduated in Medicine.

Photo credits: 1, 3 Wellcome Trust Library, London, 2, 4 London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, 5. Kevin Plunkett

After routine posts in England, Manson joined the Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs Service and, while working in Amoy (now Xiamen), demonstrated that the filarial worm, Wuchereria bancrofti (see The Filariases, pages 18-19) was transmitted by mosquitoes and, in doing so, established the field of vector-borne diseases.

He also recorded the nocturnal periodicity of micofilariae and postulated that infection with adult W. bancrofti was the cause of the grotesque disease elephantiasis (see The Filariases, pages 18-19). Later, with George Carmichael Low, he elucidated the developmental stages of W. bancrofti in mosquitoes.

While in Amoy, he discovered the disease-causing lung fluke, Paragonimus westermani, and suggested that it had a snail intermediate host. Additionally, he identified the first cases of human infection with larvae of the tapeworm Spirometra.

Moving to Hong Kong, he helped to establish the Hong Kong College of Medicine and became its Dean. On returning to England he made a number of important contributions to our understanding of schistosomes suggesting that there were two species of schistosome, Schistosoma haematobium and S. mansoni. He began to suspect that schistosomes had been introduced to South America from Africa.


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2. Manson’s filaria drawings

3. Patrick Manson


5. Plaque From Manson’s London home

He also reckoned that the geographical distribution of these and other parasites depended on the presence or absence of suitable intermediate hosts.

His other discoveries included the recognition of microfilariae of Loa loa (see The Filariases, pages 18-19) and, with Douglas Argyll-Thompson, a description of the morphology of the adult worms. He made a preliminary report on Onchocerca volvulus and suggested that it might be transmitted by a blood-sucking insect. He also described the filarial worms Filaria (now Mansonella) perstans and Filiaria (now Mansonella) ozzardi. Manson soon confirmed the Russian naturalist Fedchenko’s discovery that the Guinea worm, Dracunculus medinensis, developed in the tiny crustacean known as Cyclops and this led to Robert Leiper’s discovery that Cyclops was indeed the intermediate host of D. medinensis.

Apart from his ground-breaking discovery of the mosquito transmission of filarial worms, his most important contribution to Parasitology was persuading Ronald Ross to investigate the life-cycle of the malaria parasites and their transmission by mosquitoes, something he scrutinised every step of the way continually encouraging and cajoling the younger scientist. Manson was largely responsible for the foundation of the London School of Tropical Medicine and was instrumental in recruiting the helminthologist Robert Leiper to the School.

He was the first President of the Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene (now the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene). Many of the other parasitologists shown in this exhibition, and others not shown here, were the protégés of Manson.

AFRICAN TRYPANOSOMIASIS


1. Trypanosomes in blood

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The African trypanosomiases afflict both man and animals in Africa (and some can be found on other continents). Trypanosomes are flagellated protozoa of the Order Kinetoplastida. In humans, two subspecies of Trypanosoma brucei (T. b rhodesiense and T. b gambiense) respectively cause acute and chronic forms of the disease human African trypanosomiasis, or sleeping sickness. The parasites, transmitted by tsetse flies, proliferate in the blood and lymphatic systems before invading the brain.

Photo credits: 1. WHO/TDR/Stammers, 2, 4, 5 Mosby International from Peters, W. & Pasvol, G. Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 5th Edition, 3. Mhairi Stewart (University of Glasgow)

In the brain, trypanosomes cause a progressive breakdown of neurological function and changes in sleep/wake patterns are common (hence sleeping sickness). The disease is always fatal without treatment. The end of the twentieth century witnessed a dramatic resurgence in sleeping sickness with up to half a million people infected by the African trypanosome. Numbers have declined in the last couple of years due to a concerted World Health Organisation-led campaign to deal with the disease.

Treating patients, separating people from the tsetse fly and destroying the fly can all act to help control the disease.

Several drugs are registered to treat human African trypanosomiasis, however none is entirely satisfactory. For example, the most widely used drug once the nervous system is involved is called melarsoprol which is based on arsenic! This drug kills one in twenty taking it (an improvement on the inevitable death from the disease, but clearly not ideal as a drug). The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation are presently funding development of a new, oral drug for the disease, and fortunately the drug companies Sanofi-Aventis and Bayer currently donate anti-sleeping sickness drugs free of charge to the World Health Organisation to distribute in Africa.


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2. Tsetse fly

3. Trypanosomes

4. Sleeping sickness patient

5. Tsetse trap

A Geneva-based not-for-profit entity, The Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi), has development of new drugs for trypanosomiasis as a major goal.Vaccination is not feasible as the parasites are shrouded in a dense glycoprotein coat. They can periodically switch the nature of the coat, meaning that the immune system is in a constant game of catch-up to identify the ever-changing parasites.

Attempts to control the tsetse fly that transmits the disease depend on the use of traps that capture and kill the flies or else targeted spraying with insecticides. The possibility of releasing sterile male tsetse flies that mate with females unproductively has been much debated. The approach was used, alongside tsetse trapping and spraying, to eradicate trypanosomiasis from the island of Zanzibar in the late 1990s. The logistics of pursuing similar campaigns on mainland Africa will be more challenging.

A number of other trypanosome species infect animals and make the import of high-productivity livestock breeds impossible in many areas in Africa (however, some local cattle breeds are tolerant of the parasites). On the one hand trypanosomiasis is thought to deprive local communities of high protein food but, on the other hand, some consider the tsetse to have been a guardian of Africa in keeping domestic livestock at bay allowing indigenous cattle breeds and wild-life to flourish.

the scottish encounter with african trypanosomiasis


1. David Bruce

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Sir David Bruce is credited with identifying trypanosomes as the cause of sleeping sickness. David Livingstone suspected that tsetse fly bites killed domestic animals in Africa. He saw the tsetse problem as a major impediment to European settlement there. An outbreak of the tsetse-transmitted wasting disease of cattle called nagana, or “fly disease”, alarmed colonial authorities in Southern Africa towards the end of the nineteenth century.

Photo credits: 1, 2, 4, 5 Wellcome Trust Library, London, 3. Hunterian Museum, Glasgow

The turn of the century also saw serious human sleeping sickness epidemics break out across Africa. Sir Winston Churchill, in 1906, reported that sleeping sickness had reduced the population of Uganda from 6.5 million to 2.5 million.

David Bruce (1855-1931)David Bruce is credited with identifying trypanosomes as the cause of both nagana in cattle and human sleeping sickness. Bruce was born to Scottish parents in Melbourne, Australia, returning to Scotland (Stirling) aged five. He was educated at the University of Edinburgh, studying Zoology and then Medicine.

An Army Medical Service posting in Malta led to the discovery of a bacterial cause of Malta fever (Brucellosis). In 1894 he was posted to South Africa to investigate a nagana epidemic. He recognised flagellates, similar to trypanosomes (T. evansi) earlier found in horses suffering from a disease called Surra in India by Griffith Evans. Bruce also incriminated the tsetse fly, Glossina morsitans, in transmission of the disease. Between 1901-1912 The Royal Society sent a series of Commissions to investigate sleeping sickness in Uganda. The first included Aldo Castellani, an Italian doctor (later a physician to Benito Mussolini) who found trypanosomes prior to the arrival of Bruce. However, it is Bruce who is credited with recognising their significance.


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2. Bruce’s drawings

3. Muriel Robertson

4. David Bruce

5. George Carmichael Low

George Carmichael Low (1872-1952)George Carmichael Low was also part of the first sleeping sickness Commission to Uganda. Low was born at Monifieth (near Dundee) and educated at the University of Edinburgh where he graduated in Medicine before moving to London to work with Patrick Manson. He later became superintendent of the London School of Tropical Medicine and played key roles in many discoveries. He showed that avoiding mosquitoes allowed him to stay malaria-free in Italy. In addition, Low conclusively demonstrated the life cycle of the nematode Wuchereria bancrofti in mosquitoes. With Sir James Cantlie, Low co-founded the Society of Tropical Medicine now the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene.

Muriel Robertson (1883-1973)Muriel Robertson made key discoveries regarding the trypanosome’s life cycle. She was born in Glasgow in 1883. Whilst studying in the Arts at Glasgow University she learned Zoology under Professor Graham Kerr. Protozoa in particular fascinated her. She moved to Ceylon (Sri Lanka) in 1907 to study trypanosome infections of reptiles and then in 1911 moved to Uganda.

She played a major role in unravelling the life cycle of Trypanosoma brucei in both mammals and in the tsetse fly. She noted the undulating parasitaemia associated with trypanosome infections and found that only the stumpy trypanosomes seen during remission could infect tsetse flies.

leishmaniasis


1. Leishmania flagellated forms (green)

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The leishmaniases are a family of diseases that are prevalent throughout much of the tropics and sub-tropics; some 88 countries harbour the causative Leishmania parasites with 350 million people at risk of this disease.Leishmania are protozoa, closely related to trypanosomes with which they share many features. Diseases caused by these parasites range from a relatively mild skin ailment to a fatal affliction of the visceral organs.

Photo credits: 1. Gerald Späth and Stephen Beverley (Washington University’ St. Louis, USA), 2, 4, 5 Mosby International from Peters, W. & Pasvol, G. Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 5th Edition, 3. WHO/TDR

A particularly unpleasant type of leishmaniasis is the mucocutaneous type which occurs in parts of Latin America. A well known TV documentary about “The Boy David” tells the story of how Dr Ian Jackson, a Scottish surgeon, reconstructed the face of David Lopez, a young Peruvian boy afflicted by mucocutaneous leishmaniasis.

Around 1.5 million people contract cutaneous disease each year and half a million or so get the visceral disease. Over 90% of the world’s cases are in India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sudan and Brazil. The disease has also emerged as a considerable problem in southern Europe associated with the HIV/AIDS epidemic.

The parasites are transmitted between mammals by blood sucking sandflies, so called because of their sandy colour. Mammals such as rodents and dogs act as reservoirs of the disease.

Drugs do exist to treat leishmaniasis. Antimony, in various forms, has been a mainstay of treatment, although recent advances have enabled a number of safer drugs to emerge, including some frequently used to treat fungal diseases.


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2. Leishmania promastigotes

3. Visceral Leishmaniasis

4. Mucocutaneous Leishmaniasis

5. Post-kala azar dermal syndrome

The Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) and another not-for-profit entity The Institute of OneWorld Health (iOWH) are seeking new treatments for leishmaniasis.

The World Health Organisation Special Programme for Research and Training for Tropical Diseases (WHO/TDR) has long been involved in research into leishmaniasis and most of the diseases in this exhibition. The Neglected Tropical Diseases Department at WHO is involved in many operational activities against most of the diseases described in this exhibition.

Leishmania parasites thrive within cells usually involved in displaying invading microbes to the immune system. Different Leishmania species somehow target different organs in the body.

Although no registered vaccines exist, there is hope that vaccines might be developed since, certainly in the case of the cutaneous disease, exposure appears to lead to lasting immunity.

This fact has led to a process of “leishmanisation” in many parts of the world, where mothers apply sandflies to their infants to induce a localised disease on the buttocks to ensure later exposure would not lead to development of unsightly lesions on the face.

Old World leishmaniasis is an ancient disease and the lesions associated with this condition were well known by a variety of local names including Balkh sore, Baghdad boil, Biskra button, Dehli boil, Sart sore, Pendeh sore and Mal d’Aleppo, throughout the regions where leishmaniasis now occurs.

the scottish encounter with leishmaniasis


1. William Leishman

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Leishmaniasis is named after the Glaswegian William Leishman who is credited with first identifying the parasites that cause this disease. Early in the nineteenth century, military and civilian clinicians in India began to record outbreaks of a febrile disease, known under a variety of local names including black disease, kala azar, Burdwan fever and Dum Dum fever, that did not fit easily into any well-established categories. There was considerable interest in its cause.

Photo credits: 1, 3, 4, 5 Wellcome Trust Library, London, 2. The Wellcome Trust (F.E.G. Cox, The Illustrated History of Tropical Diseases – 1996; from Scientific Memoirs by Medical officers of the Army of India Vol. 1, 1885)

Although the organisms causing Old World leishmaniasis had been described by the Russian, Peter Fokitsch Borovsky, in 1898, this information was not available to those working in India.

William Boog Leishman (1865-1926)William Boog Leishman, after whom leishmaniasis was named by Ronald Ross in 1903, was born in Glasgow and educated at the University of Glasgow. After graduating in Medicine he joined the Army Medical Corps in which he served for the whole of his career in India and later at the Army Medical School at Netley in Hampshire.

In 1900, using a modification of Romanowsky’s stain, now called Leishman’s stain, he discovered Leishmania donovani, the causative agent of kala azar, in a solider who had died of “Dum Dum fever”. Leishman noted the similarity between these parasites and trypanosomes. Before publishing his findings, however, Charles Donovan, serving in the Indian Medical Service, independently found the same parasite. Their two names are commemorated in the common name for the parasites, Leishman-Donovan (LD) bodies.


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2. Cunningham’s Leishmania drawings

3. David Cunningham

4. Henry Shortt

5. William Leishman

David Douglas Cunningam (1843-1914)David Douglas Cunningham made the first drawings of Leishmania amastigotes isolated from a Dehli boil. Cunningham was born in Prestonpans, East Lothian, and educated at the University of Edinburgh. He became Professor of Medicine and Pathology at the Calcutta Medical College where he made a number of contributions to Parasitology including early accounts of Entamoeba coli and Trichomonas hominis.

Henry Edward Shortt (1887-1987)Henry Edward Shortt implicated the sandfly, Phlebotomus argentipes, in the transmission of Leishmania donovani (bed bugs had been suspected hosts). Shortt was born of Scottish parents in Dhariwal, India. He returned to Inverness as a child and was educated at the University of Aberdeen where he graduated in Medicine and then joined the Indian Medical Service. He made contributions to leishmaniasis, oriental sore, malaria, canine babesiosis and hookworm disease. He was also instrumental in introducing pentavalent forms of antimony as first line treatment for leishmaniasis. On retirement from the IMS he went to London to join Robert Leiper at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine.

There he began to study the exo-erythrocytic stages of the malaria parasites in birds, monkeys and finally in humans. With Cyril Garnham, he discovered the tissue stages of the malaria parasites in the liver, something that had eluded malariologists for half a century.

the filariases


1. Wuchereria bancrofti microfilaria

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Filarial worms are members of the vast helminth family known as the nematodes (or roundworms) that comprises numerous free living forms as well as parasites. The filariases are a group of diseases caused by filarial worms and transmitted by insect vectors. The worms dwell in the blood, lymphatics, skin or other tissues.

Photo credits: 1. WHO/TDR/STAMMERS, 2, 4, 5 Mosby International from Peters, W. & Pasvol, G. Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 5th Edition, 3. Lisa Bluett and David Molyneux, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine

ElephantiasisThe filarial worms Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugia malayi and Brugia timori cause lymphatic filariasis. The disease is also known as elephantiasis in severe cases due to the grotesque malformations which are characteristic of patients’ bodies. Mosquitoes carry the filaria between people. Over 120 million individuals in 80 countries throughout the tropics and sub-tropics are infected with lymphatic filariasis today. Extraordinary enlargement of the scrotum can mark advanced elephantiasis as can thickening of the skin and massive swelling of legs and feet in particular.

Drugs are available to treat infections with the young worms (microfilariae), but agents that kill adult worms have been difficult to identify. The drug companies Merck and GlaxoSmithKline, respectively donate ivermectin and albendazole for use in global programmes aimed at eliminating the disease. Large scale drug treatment programmes, targeting people living in areas where the disease is endemic, are having an impact on the prevalence of the disease. Spraying of insecticides to restrict the distribution of carrier mosquitoes is also playing a role in combating the disease.


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2. Elephantiasis leg

3. River blindness

4. Simulium blackfly

5. Loa loa in eye

OnchocerciasisOnchocerciasis, or river blindness, is a terrible disease caused by microfilarial nematodes called Onchocerca volvulus. Some 20 million people in Africa and South America are infected. The parasites are seldom fatal but cause much suffering to infected individuals.

Around a million people in the world today have been blinded by the disease. O. volvulus is transmitted by blackflies of the genus Simulium. These flies breed in well-oxygenated, fast flowing water, hence the association between the disease and rivers. Drugs can treat onchocerciasis but the blindness it causes is irreversible. In an extraordinary development, it was recently shown that the parasites rely upon bacterial symbionts called Wolbachia, so much so that the worms lose vitality and fertility when their bacterial partners are killed. Antibacterial agents are currently being tested as novel treatments for filariasis. An Onchocerciasis Control Programme in West Africa, targeting the blackfly vector, restricted spread of the disease through the 1970s and 1980s.

Programmes to eliminate the disease, using drugs as well as vector control, are ongoing in both Africa and Latin America.

LoiasisLoiasis is caused by filarial worms called Loa loa. It is restricted in distribution to West and Central Africa. The worms are transmitted by Chrysops flies. Around 20 million people are at risk of the disease. The adult worms migrate around the body and are frequently seen migrating just beneath the skin, or even across the conjunctiva of the eye. More often loaisis is characterised by swellings on the forearm, or elsewhere, called Calabar swellings. Drugs including diethylcarbamazine (DEC) are effective against Loiasis.

the scottish encounter with filariases


1. Douglas Argyll-Robertson

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Douglas Argyll-Robertson, a Scottish surgeon, noted the role of Loa loa in Calabar swelling. Various other Scots also played key roles in elucidating the nature of the filariases. The discovery of the life cycle of filarial worms by Patrick Manson (see Patrick Manson, pages 8-9) in 1878 is among the most significant discoveries in Parasitology or in Medicine more generally.

Photo credits: 1-3 Wellcome Trust Library, London, 4. London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, 5. G P Matthews, (http://www.gpmatthews.nildram.co.uk)

Larval stages (microfilariae) of Wuchereria were first seen in the blood of humans in 1863 by Jean-Nicholas Demarquay. Timothy Lewis, who trained in Aberdeen, linked the worms with filariasis in 1872.

Manson’s own breakthrough came while working in Amoy. He fed mosquitoes on the blood of his gardener, who was harbouring the parasites. Sure enough larval stages of the worms later appeared in the mosquitoes. The actual mode of transmission, through the mosquito’s bite, was only established when suggestions by the Australian parasitologist, Thomas Bancroft, were followed up by Manson’s colleague George Carmichael Low.

Douglas Moray Cooper Lamb Argyll-Robertson (1837-1909)Douglas Argyll-Robertson made key observations in regard to the filarial disease loaisis. He was born in Edinburgh and educated at the Universities of Edinburgh, St. Andrews and Berlin. After graduating in Medicine (St Andrews, 1857) he trained as an ophthalmic surgeon at the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary before becoming President of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh. In 1895 he described male and female adult Loa loa and recognised the connection between Calabar swelling and these worms. Argyll-Robertson also pioneered surgical removal of adult worms from the eye.


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2. Manson with his gardener

3. Donald Blacklock

4. Robert Leiper

5. Cyclops

Donald Breadalbane Blacklock(1879-1955)Donald Blacklock elucidated the life-cycle of Onchocerca in its blackfly vector. Blacklock was born in Oban and educated at the University of Edinburgh where he graduated in Medicine. After working in South Africa he trained in public health and took the Diploma in Tropical Medicine at the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine. In Liverpool he was appointed first as a research assistant to work on trypanosomiasis and then Lecturer and subsequently Professor of Parasitology.

Robert Thompson Leiper (1881-1969)Leiper was born in Kilmarnock and educated at the Universities of Birmingham and Glasgow where he graduated in Science, Medicine and Surgery. Manson invited him to found a Department of Helminthology at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine and made him promise to spend his whole life on the subject of Helminthology. For over 60 years Leiper was among the most eminent helminthologists in the world.

He made numerous contributions, particularly the incrimination of Chrysops in the transmission of Loa loa, the development of schistosomes in snails and the mode of infection by cercariae boring through the skin. With Manson, he elucidated the life cycle of the Guinea worm, Dracunculus medinensis, in its crustacean host, Cyclops. He was instrumental in initiating schemes to control schistosomiasis and Guinea worm and advocated the need for supplies of fresh water to prevent water-borne parasitic infections.

parasitic flukes


1. Coupling adult schistosomes

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Flukes belong to the flatworm family, a number of which cause important diseases in man and in animals. Their modes of transmission frequently involve water-dwelling intermediate hosts. Schistosomiasis in particular is one of the main scourges of mankind.

Photo credits: 1. The Wellcome Trust (F.E.G. Cox, The Illustrated History of Tropical Diseases - 1996), 2. WHO/TDR/STAMMERS, 3-5 Mosby International from Peters, W. & Pasvol, G. Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 5th Edition

SchistosomiasisSchistosomiasis, or bilharzia, is caused by parasitic trematode worms of the genus Schistosoma and transmitted by fresh-water snails including those of the Bulinus and Biomphalaria groups. Some 200 million people are infected by these worms in 76 tropical and sub-tropical countries with some 85% of cases on the African continent. Larval forms released from the snail burrow through the skin of people in fresh water. In the blood they transform into adult forms.

Different species of schistosome cause different diseases. Much of the pathology associated with the disease is due to the release of microscopic eggs by female worms.

The eggs possess spines and damage tissues in which they lodge. Male and adult female worms, reaching up to 30 mm in length, engage in a life long coupling. The females release several hundred eggs each day and immunological reactions to these can cause serious, life threatening damage to the liver, spleen, bladder, kidneys, lungs and other organs.

Schistosomiasis ranks second only to malaria as a parasitological disease in overall socio-economic and public health impact.


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2. Schistosome: cercaria

3. Coupling schistosomes

4. Biomphalaria snail

5. Schistosomiasis (splenomegaly)

The drug praziquantel is effective against schistosomiasis. It is relatively cheap and widely available. No vaccine is available although research is revealing more about the immune response to the parasite. In addition to large-scale drug administration, control methods have focused on application of molluscicides to water in which the snail hosts are found. Avoiding snail infested water limits the risk of infection.

Liver and Lung flukesOver 100 species of flukes infect humans either as adults or larvae. Hundreds of millions of people are infected with lung and liver flukes. They are usually acquired when eating infected intermediate hosts such as undercooked fish or shellfish. Sushi eaters beware! The most important human infectious flukes are Paragonimus westermani, the lung fluke that causes paragonimiasis, and the liver flukes Clonorchis (now Opisthorchis) sinensis and other Opisthorchis spp..

17 million people are infected with liver flukes which cause profound inflammation within the liver. Praziquantel is active against these parasites. Praziquantel is also active against the lung flukes which can be avoided by not eating uncooked shellfish or crustaceans.

the scottish encounter with parasitic flukes


1. Robert Leiper

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Robert Leiper (see The Scottish Encounter with Filariases, pages 20-21) made key contributions to research into flatworms (flukes) as well as filarial roundworms. Schistosomiasis has been known since antiquity. The adult worms were described by Theodor Bilharz in the mid-nineteenth century, but virtually nothing was known about the pathology or the life cycle of the parasites nor how many separate schistosome species were infectious to man. Scottish parasitologists played major parts in resolving these issues.

Photo credits: 1. London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, 2. Wellcome Trust Library, London, 3. The Wellcome Trust (F.E.G. Cox, The Illustrated History of Tropical Diseases – 1996; China Imperial Maritime Customs (1881), 4. From Donald, A. (1997) Journal of the South Carolina Medical Association, (Courtesy of Ms Erica Peake),5. Web Atlas of Medical Parasitology, Korean Society of Parasitology, Tai Soon Yong

Patrick Manson (see Patrick Manson, pages 8-9) made numerous important contributions to fluke research. In 1902 Manson suggested that S. haemotobium was not the only human infectious schistosome. This was confirmed in 1915 when Robert Leiper named the second species S. mansoni.

Manson also suggested that snails may play a role in the transmission of the lung fluke Paragonimus (first discovered in the lungs of humans by Sidney Ringer in 1879). A number of Japanese investigators, between 1916-1922, described the life cycles of liver and lung flukes including Clonorchis passage through snails and also fish, and crustaceans including crayfish.

James Frederick Parry McConnell (1848-1895)James Frederick Parry McConnell first recognised Clonorchis sinensis in 1875. McConnell was born of Scottish parents in Agra, India.

He was educated at the University of Aberdeen where he studied Medicine. After qualifying in Medicine and Surgery, he joined the Indian Medical Service and later became Professor of Pathology at the Calcutta Medical College. It was there that he recognised the first case of infection with the liver fluke Clonorchis (now Opisthorchis) sinensis and realised that it was different from other flukes known from the livers of humans.


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2. S. Haematobium egg by Manson

3. Paragonimus eggs by Manson

4. William St. Clair Symmers

5. Opisthorchis

He subsequently found the fluke in a number of Chinese patients and, based on the eating habits of these individuals, surmised that the infection might be due to the consumption of uncooked fish but took this no further. He also recorded for the first time Amphistoma (now Gastrodiscoides) hominis and hookworm infections in India but did not consider the latter to be a significant cause of disease.

William St Clair Symmers (1863-1937)William St Clair Symmers implicated the eggs of schistosomes in the pathology of the disease. Symmers was born of Scottish parents in South Carolina, USA. The American Civil War left the South in disarray. Southerners were excluded from the Northern medical schools. Symmers’ Scottish relatives helped secure a place at Aberdeen University where he studied Medicine. During his studies he began to lose his sight. Undeterred he became a bacteriologist and worked with Pasteur in Paris and at the Lister Institute before going to Egypt where he became Professor of Bacteriology and Pathology at the Government Medical School in Cairo.

While there he made a five-year study of liver pathology and it was during this time that he recognised the importance of the eggs in the pathology of schistosomiasis. He went on to become Professor of Pathology at Queens College, Belfast.

malaria


1. Malaria parasites burst out of a red blood cell

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Malaria is one of the most important infectious diseases on Earth. Over 40% of the world’s population dwell in malarious regions and are at risk of infection by parasitic protozoa of the genus Plasmodium. Around 500 million people carry the parasites today and 1-3 million individuals, mainly children, die from the disease each year. Four species of Plasmodium infect humans, the deadliest being Plasmodium falciparum.

Photo credits: 1. Drew Berry, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, 2-5 Mosby International from Peters, W. & Pasvol, G. Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 5th Edition

Malaria parasites are transmitted by female mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles. Parasites, injected into the blood, rapidly enter cells in the liver. Here they transform into new forms that invade red blood cells. Every 48, or 72 hours, depending on the species, the parasites complete a cycle of multiplication in red blood cells and then burst out, inducing the profound periodic fevers that characterise the disease. The deadly falciparum malaria can, in around 1% of cases, lead to cerebral or other organ damage as parasitised red cells block the blood vessels feeding the brain and other organs.

Malaria was eradicated from Western Europe and the United States through dramatic campaigns, draining swamplands and other standing water, to deprive Anopheline mosquitoes of their breeding grounds. The introduction of DDT as an insecticide promised to facilitate eradication of Anopheline mosquitoes on a wider scale. But those efforts were thwarted by insecticide resistance and concerns that widespread insecticide use may be of detriment to the environment. Since mosquitoes bite principally at night, the use of bednets or curtains, is an important way of preventing contact.


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2. Anopheles mosquito

3. Malaria splenomegaly

4. Bednet

5. Malaria in red blood cells

Moreover, insecticide impregnated bednets offer a means of targeting insecticide just to biting insects without adverse effects on the wider insect fauna.

Drugs have been available to use against malaria for many years. Quinine, derived from the bark of the South American Cinchona tree has been used for at least 500 years. Synthetic derivatives like chloroquine were developed in the early twentieth century and used on a large scale during and since the second world war. Unfortunately parasite resistance to chloroquine is now wide-spread. New drugs based on an old Chinese herbal remedy, artemisinin, have recently been introduced.

In spite of our understanding about malaria, the last part of the twentieth Century witnessed more human beings being infected with this disease than ever before. The Roll Back Malaria (RBM) Global Partnership was launched in 1998 by the World Health Organization, UNICEF, UNDP and the World Bank. In 1999 the Medicines for Malaria Venture (MMV), a Geneva based public private partnership, was established attempting to bring new drugs to the market place and the Malaria Vaccine Initiative

(MVI) is also tapping into international expertise in attempts to develop vaccines.

The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation is providing significant finance towards these efforts. Other agencies, notably Britain’s Wellcome Trust, The World Health Organisation and various governments and charities are also contributing. It is estimated that many billions of US dollars will be required to defeat malaria.

the scottish encounter with malaria


1. Ronald Ross

28

Sir Ronald Ross won the Nobel prize for his elucidation of mosquito-transmission of malaria. The earliest accounts of malaria are those of Hippocrates in the fifth century BC and from that time onwards it became apparent that malaria was associated with marshes. Although today we consider malaria to be principally a disease of the tropics it was endemic in the United Kingdom into the twentieth century. Mussolini is frequently credited with eradicating malaria from Italy through swamp drainage programmes.

Photo credits: 1, 4, 5 Wellcome Trust Library, London, 2-3 London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine

Malaria was even present in medieval Scotland. The eponymous anti-hero of Shakespeare’s Scottish play was hopeful that his enemies, besieging Dunsinane castle in Perthshire, would succumb to The Ague. Ague was the term used for malarial fevers at this time. It was John McCulloch, born on Guernsey to a Scottish father, who first introduced the term malaria into the English language (from the Italian mal-aria meaning “bad air” ; it was long believed that the disease was transmitted by breathing miasmas emanating from stagnant water).

Our scientific understanding of malaria did not begin until the end of the nineteenth century.

The parasites themselves were first seen in 1880 by a French army surgeon, Alphonse Laveran. The discovery that the mosquito acted as a vector was due to the intuition of Patrick Manson who had already demonstrated that mosquitoes transmitted lymphatic filariasis. Manson persuaded Ronald Ross, an army surgeon, to carry out work in India to prove the hypothesis that mosquitoes carried malaria parasites. This Ross did, although Italian malariologists made related discoveries at the same time. In 1947, Henry Shortt (see The Scottish Encounter with Leishmaniasis, pages 16-17) showed that, in humans, a phase of division in the liver preceded the development of parasites in the blood.


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2. Ross’s notebook, 1897

3. The mosquito man

4. Anti-mosquito poster

5. Henry Shortt

He also introduced the concept of pre-erythrocytic and exo-erythrocytic forms which had a significant effect on the development of antimalarial drugs and possible vaccines.

Ronald Ross (1857-1932)Ronald Ross was born in India in 1857. Ross’s family had connections with India stretching back to his great-great grandfather who was a director in the East India Company. The family descended from the Rosses of Balnagowan and Shandwick, Rossshire, Scotland. Ross moved from India to Southern England aged 10. His medical education was at St Bartholomew's Hospital and he joined the Indian Medical Service in 1881. Ross’s outstanding achievement was the discovery of the malaria parasite in Anopheles mosquitoes. In 1894, Manson encouraged Ross to use his time in India to prove a connection between mosquitoes and malaria transmission. It was on 20 August 1897 that Ross eventually made his discovery. In 1898, he observed the whole of the sporogonic life cycle of an avian malaria parasite, Plasmodium relictum, in culicine mosquitoes.

For these discoveries Ross was the first British recipient of a Nobel prize (in 1902) and is the only British parasitologist to have received this honour. In addition to his services to medicine, Ross was also an accomplished mathematician, novelist, playwright and poet. He went on to become an advocate of mosquito control as a means to curbing the transmission of malaria. He was a founding lecturer at the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine and a true giant in the field of Parasitology. He was not always an easy man to get along with. His feuds with Italian scientists over priority for the discovery of the mosquito-malaria link were but one of many spats with others in the field.

toxoplasmosis


1. Toxoplasma tachyzoite

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Around one third of the world’s human population is infected with Toxoplasma gondii, a protozoan parasite belonging to the same group as malaria-causing parasites. Toxoplasma is arguably the most successful parasite world-wide as it is able to infect all warm-blooded animals. Toxoplasma is generally a parasite of cats but it enters other animals through the consumption of either under-cooked meat containing parasite cysts, or through food and water contaminated with oocysts shed in cat faeces.

Photo credits: 1-3 David Ferguson (University of Oxford), 4. Mosby International from Peters, W. & Pasvol, G. Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 5th Edition, 5. Used with permission of Stylorouge, London

Toxoplasma is capable of living in most animals, causing a wide spectrum of diseases. It can cause abortion in sheep and goats and is a major cause of death in sea otters and Australian marsupials.

In many people the infection is apparently asymptomatic, although it is a major problem in pregnancy as it can cross the placenta and infect the developing foetus. This can lead to death or developmental problems in the unborn child including deafness, visual impairment and neurological disorders.

Generally our immune systems keep the parasites in check. However, Toxoplasma can form cysts in various organs and enter a state of dormancy until an opportunity arises for them to proliferate. This is why toxoplasmosis is a major problem in immunocompromised individuals, such as patients on immunosuppressive therapy as often used in treatment of cancer, or in people whose immune systems have been disrupted by HIV/AIDS. Irvine Welsh’s character “Tommy” dies from cerebral toxoplasmosis in the iconic novel “Trainspotting” released as a film of the same name in 1996. Tommy caught the disease from a pet kitten after contracting AIDS related to intravenous drug abuse.


31

2. Toxoplasma cyst in brain

3. Toxoplasma in cat gut

4. Toxoplasma encephalopathy

5. Trainspotting

Making sure that meat is properly cooked and avoiding close contact with cat faeces both represent good ways of avoiding Toxoplasma.

The oocysts of the parasite remain in the environment for a long time. It is important to wash hands after gardening and to clean fruit and vegetables thoroughly before eating; pregnant women in particular are advised to do so. Some drugs are available to treat parasites during their proliferative phase, but these cannot kill the parasites within the tissue cysts and thus cure is not possible. Vaccines suitable for use in animals (e.g. Toxovax®) exist to help prevent Toxoplasma-induced abortion in sheep and goats. It is hoped that a human vaccine might follow.

Extraordinary research has indicated that Toxoplasma might also have remarkable effects on behaviour, possibly making victims less risk averse. For example mice infected with Toxoplasma are less concerned about cats than are uninfected mice. The bold mice are then more likely to be eaten by cats and so pass the parasites back to their cat hosts. Other research is suggestive of behavioural changes in humans.

One study suggested that drivers involved in car accidents were more likely than people in general to be infected with Toxoplasma. A possible link to schizophrenia has also been proposed. These studies indicate that infection with Toxoplasma parasites may represent a more significant public health risk than was previously thought.

the scottish encounter with toxoplasma


1. William Hutchison

32

William McPhee Hutchison (1924-1998)William Hutchison was born in Glasgow and studied Zoology at Glasgow University. While working at the University of Strathclyde in Glasgow, in the 1960’s, he demonstrated that Toxoplasma gondii was a parasite of cats which shed oocysts in faeces. Hutchison’s work was rewarded with the Robert Koch Medal and Prize in 1970.

Photo credits: 1. David Ferguson (University of Oxford), 2. Mosby International from Peters, W. & Pasvol, G. Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 5th Edition, 3. Geoffrey A Stemp, 4-5 Steve Wright (Moredun Research institute)

T. gondii was initially discovered, largely by accident, in 1908, by Charles Nicolle, while searching for a reservoir of Leishmania in a north African rodent. At about the same time, Alfonso Splendore, working in Sao Paulo, discovered the same parasite in rabbits. Subsequently there were numerous reports from mammals and birds, both in the wild and captivity, and it gradually became clear that T. gondii was also a very common parasite in humans and domesticated animals in all parts of the world.

Hutchison first showed that T. gondii was passed in cat faeces in 1965.

Initially he thought that the parasite was transmitted with the nematode worm Toxocara cati, as happens with the flagellate Histomonas meleagridis and the nematode Heterakis gallinarum, but subsequently, in 1969, he identified the protozoan oocysts in the faeces as belonging to the group of parasites known as the coccidia.

At around the same time that Hutchison made his observations, Jack Frenkel, J. P. Dubey and Harley Sheffield in the United States, Gerhard Piekarski in Germany and other workers also identified the role of the cat as the definitive host of the parasite.


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2. Toxoplasma inside cells

3. Sheep

4. Cryptosporidium parvum

5. Cryptosporidium in the news

Prior to this discovery it had been assumed that the intestinal parasites of the coccidian group had only one host. The discovery of the T. gondii life-cycle initiated a search for similar stages in the life cycles of the other coccidian parasites. It became clear that many organisms found in a variety of animals that had eluded identification were, in fact, different life cycle stages of coccidial parasites. In most cases the parasite's transmission depended on a predator-prey relationship.

Cryptosporidium parasites: There's something in the water!Cryptosporidium is another coccidian parasite. It is very common, occurring in Scotland and other countries worldwide. It causes diarrhoea in people and young farm livestock. It can cause a persistent and potentially fatal disease in immunocompromised individuals. Cryptosporidium oocysts are resistant to chlorination, the principal means of water treatment world-wide.

Several outbreaks have occurred recently in Scotland associated with contamination of public water supplies, swimming pools, hospitals, childcare centres and recreational farm visits. Infection can be spread through contaminated water and through contact with farm animals. Cryptosporidium spreads easily among people therefore handwashing is very important after using the toilet or having contact with farm animals and before handling food.

There is no effective treatment for cryptosporidiosis. The infection usually clears up by itself in healthy people, but in very young and elderly people and in immunocompromised individuals, it causes severe disease. Public health authorities and water companies are working together to try and prevent contamination of water supplies.

A recent contamination of water in Glasgow resulted in 160,000 households being told to boil their water prior to consumption to protect them against the Cryptosporidium parasite.

The Scottish Encounterwith Tropical Disease


David Livingstone1813-1873



6


7

2. Victorian Hero

3. Henr y Morton Stanley



patrick manson1844-1922


1. Patrick M anson

8


9


3. Patrick M anson


5. Plaque From M anson’s London home



1. Trypanosomes in b lood

10


11

2. Tsetse fly

3. Trypanosomes

4. Sleeping s ickness patient

5. Tsetse trap

the scottish encounter withafrican trypanosomiasis


1. David Bruce

12


13


3. Muriel Robertson

4. David Bruce

5. George Carmichael L ow

leishmaniasis


1. Leishmania flagellated fo rms (green)

14


15



4. Mucocutaneous Leis hmaniasis

5. Po st-kala azar dermal syndrome

the scottish encounter withleishmaniasis


1. William Leishman

16


17


3. David Cunningham

4. Henr y S hortt

5. William Leishman

the filariases


1. Wuchereria bancrofti microfila ria

18


19


3. River bl indness


5. Loa loa in eye

the scottish encounter withfilariases



20


21


3. Do nald Blacklock

4. Robert Leiper

5. Cyclops

parasitic flukes


1. Coupling adult schis tosomes

22


23


3. Co up ling schis tosomes



the scottish encounter withparasitic flukes


1. Robert Leiper

24


25

2. S. Haematobium egg by Manso n


4. William St. Clair S ymmers

5. Opisthorchis

malaria


1. Malaria parasites burst out of a red b lood cell

26


27



4. Bednet

5. Malaria in red b lood cell s

the scottish encounter withmalaria


1. Ronald Ross

28


29


3. The mosquito man


5. Henr y S hortt

toxoplasmosis


1. Toxoplasma ta chyzoite

30


31

2. Toxoplasma cyst in b rain

3. Toxoplasma in ca t gut

4. Toxoplasma encephalo pathy

5. Trainspotting

the scottish encounter withtoxoplasma


1. William H utchison

32


33


3. Sheep



a dose of worms: the latesthealth tonic?


1. Heligmosomoides polygyr us; a worm that a lleviates a llergy in rodents

34

Could worms provide new hope in the fight againstallergic disease?Diseases such as asthma have risen to epidemic proportionsin many countries in the developed world, whereas theseallergic disorders are still comparatively rare in people livingin the developing world. The reasons for this are unclear,but research indicates that infection with worms dampensdown the parts of the immune system that cause allergy.


35

2. Asthma: a major problem

3. Hookw orm

4. Gut burrowing worm

5. Trichuris egg

Wellcome Centre for MolecularParasitology


36

Global travel and man’s colonisation of ever new regions,means that novel and exotic infectious agents areemerging all the time. In addition you do not have totravel very far from home to play host to a vast arrayof diverse parasitic animals such as intestinal wormsliving in your gut, headlice or Toxoplasma parasitesliving happily inside your brain.

Parasitology research in Scotland is stronger than everwith leading internationally recognized research groupsstudying parasites of impor tance in human and veterinarymedicine, food production and agriculture.

Scientists are applying the latest technological advancesto try and devise new and effective control strategiesagainst parasitic disease and also to understand whatparasites can teach us about our own immune defenceswhich may lead to novel therapies against allergicdisease.

In addition to world class research, teaching inParasitology remains important and a degree course inthis subject is taught at the University of Glasgow andoptions in Parasitology are available at most otherScottish Universities. Higher degrees, at masters level,or at doctoral level, are also available at ScottishUniversities.


37

38

This exhib ition was funded by the Wellcome Trust as part of theircontribution to an Engaging Science Award to the British Societyof Parasitology initiated by Dr Lee Innes (Moredun Research Institute).Dr Mike Barrett (University of Glasgow) conceived of and researchedmuch of the information for the exhib ition. Professor Frank Cox(London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine) conducted mostof the research into the contribution of Scottish investigators to thehistory of Parasitology.

A number of individuals and organisations kind ly provided pictures:including The Wellcome Trust Medical Photographic Library, WHO-TDR, Mosby International Publishers (from Tropical Medicine andParasitology 5th Edition, 2002, Wallace Peters and Geoffrey Pasvol,Eds.), Dr David Ferguson (University of Oxford), Dr Laurence Tetley(University of Glasgow), Maggie Reilly (Archivist, Hunterian Museum,Glasgow), Mrs Caro l Parry (College Archivist, Royal College ofPhysicians and Surgeons of Glasgow), Victoria Killick, Archivist atthe London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, KarenCarruthers (Director of the David Livingstone Centre), Mhairi Stewart(University of Glasgow), Gerald Späth and Stephen Beverley(Washington University’ St. Louis, USA), The Wellcome Trust (F.E.G.Cox, The Illustra ted History of Tropical Diseases – 1996),

Lisa Bluett and Professor Dav id Molyneux (Liverpool School ofTropical Medicine), G P Matthews,(http://www.gpmatthews.nildram.co.uk), Korean Society ofParasitology, Ms Erica Peake (Archivist of the South CarolinaMedical Association), Drew Berry, The Walter and Eliza Hall Instituteof Medical Research, Amy Clarke (University of Glasgow) ,Stylorouge, London, Steve Wright (Moredun Research institute),Constance Finney (University of Edinburgh), Frank Jackson, (MoredunResearch institute).

A number of people provided information on various diseases,including Professor Stephen Phillips, Professor Paul Hagan, ProfessorJohn Kusel, Professor Keith Vickerman and Dr Lisa Ranford-Cartwright (University of Glasgow), Professor David Molyneux(Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine), and Dr Lee Innes (MoredunResearch Institute) all of whom also provided excellent ed itorialassistance and invaluable advice. The Aberdeen Leopard Magazinefound some archived material on Manson. Rachel Kidd andespecia lly Amy Clarke also made key contributions to editing andassembly of posters. The poster and booklet design was by theFBLS Graphic Support Unit at the University of Glasgow.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

2

WELCOME

1900

1903

1904

1905

1912

1912

1914

1915

1926

1948

1969

Low demonstrates microfilariae in mosquito mouthparts and conf irms transmission through the bite of amosquito



Bruce confirms that trypanosomes cause sleeping sickness as well as nagana and are transmitted by tsetseflies



Leiper distinguishes between Schistosoma mansoni and S. haematobium and identifies their snailintermediate hosts





5

SCOTTISH PARASITOLOGISTS TIMELINETimeline of some major discoveries on parasites of humans made by Scottish parasitologists:

1768

1841

1874

1877

1881

1885

1893

1895

1897










10. William Hutchison9. Henry Shortt8. Muriel Rober tson7. David Bruce6. William Leishman5. George Carmichael Low4. Ronald Ross3. Douglas Argyll-Robertson2. Patrick M anson1. David Livingstone

3

1

CONTENTSWelcomeScottish Parasitologists TimelineDavid LivingstonePatrick MansonAfrican TrypanosomiasisThe Scottish Encounter with African TrypanosomiasisLeishmaniasisThe Scottish Encounter with LeishmaniasisThe FilariasesThe Scottish Encounter with FilariasesParasitic FlukesThe Scottish Encounter with Parasitic FlukesMalariaThe Scottish Encounter with MalariaToxoplasmosisThe Scottish Encounter with ToxoplasmaA Dose of Worms: The Latest Health Tonic?Wellcome Centre for Molecular ParasitologyAcknowledgements

2-34-56-78-910-1112-1314-1516-1718-1920-2122-2324-2526-2728-2930-3132-3334-3536-3738

4



Photo cr edits: 1. WHO/TDR/Stammers , 2 , 4 , 5 Mosby International from Peters, W. & Pasvol, G. Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 5th Edit ion, 3. Mha iri S tewart(University of Glasgow)

Photo cr edits: 1, 3 Wellcome Trust Library, London, 2, 4 London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, 5. Kevin Plunkett

Photo cr edits: 1, 2, 5 David Livingstone Centre, 3-4 Wellcome Trust Library, London

Photo cr edits: 1. David Livingstone Centre, 2-7 and 9. Wellcome Trust Library, London, 8. Hun terian Museum, Glasgow, 10. David Ferguson, Oxfo rd

Photo cr edits: 1, 2, 4, 5 Wellcome Trust Library, London, 3. Hun terian Museum, Glasgow

Photo cr edits: 1. Gerald Späth and Stephen Beverley (Washington University’ St. Louis, USA), 2, 4, 5 Mosby International from Peters, W. & Pasvol, G. Tropical Medicineand Parasitology 5th Edit ion, 3. WHO/TDR

Photo cr edits: 1, 3, 4, 5 Wellcome Trust Library, London, 2. The Wellcome Trust (F.E.G. Cox, The Il lustrated History of Tropical Diseases – 1996; from Scientific Memoirs byMedical officers of the Army of India Vol. 1 , 1885)

Photo cr edits: 1. WHO/TDR/STAMMERS, 2, 4, 5 Mosby I nternational from Peters, W. & Pasvol, G. Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 5th Edit ion, 3. Lisa Bluett andDavid Molyneux, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine

Photo cr edits: 1-3 Wellcome Trust Library, London, 4. London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, 5. G P Mat thews, (ht tp://www.gpmatthews.nildram.co .uk)

Photo cr edits: 1. The Well come Trust (F.E.G. Cox, The Il lustrated History of Tropical Diseases - 1996), 2. WHO/TDR/STAMMERS, 3-5 Mosby International from Peters, W.& Pasvol, G. Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 5th Edit ion

Photo cr edits: 1. London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, 2. Well come Trust Library, London, 3. The Well come Trust (F.E.G. Cox, The Il lustrated History of TropicalDiseases – 1996; Ch ina Imper ial Maritime Customs (1881), 4. From Donald, A. (1997) J ournal of t he South Carolina Medica l Association, (Cour tesy o f Ms Erica Peake),5. Web Atlas o f Medical Parasitology, Korean Society of Para sitology, Tai Soon Yong

Photo cr edits: 1. Dr ew Berry, The Wal ter and E liza Hall Institute of Medical Research, 2-5 Mosby International from Peters, W. & Pasvol, G. Tropical Medicine andParasitology 5th Edition

Photo cr edits: 1, 4, 5 Wellcome Trust Library, London, 2-3 London School of Hyg iene and Tropical Medicine

Photo cr edits: 1-3 David Ferguson (Univer sity o f Oxford), 4. M osby International from Peters, W. & Pasvol, G. Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 5th Edit ion, 5. Usedwith permission o f Stylorouge, London

Photo cr edits: 1. David Ferguson (Un iversity of Oxford ), 2. Mosby International from Peters, W. & Pasvol, G. Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 5th Edit ion, 3. GeoffreyA Stemp, 4-5 Steve Wright (Moredun Research institute)

Photo cr edits: 1. Constance Finney, Un iversity of Edinburgh, 2. Wellcome Trust Library, London, 3, 5 M osby International from Peters, W. & Pasvol, G. Tropical Medicineand Parasitology 5th Edit ion, 4. Frank Jackson, (Moredun Research institute)

Many of those diseases specifically associated with thetropics are caused by parasites. Parasites can be single-celled (protozoa) or else multi-cellular (worms, alsoknown as helminths and arthropods including insectsand mites) and live within or on other organisms.Parasites exert an appalling toll on human health,causing diseases like malaria, sleeping sickness,elephantiasis and schis tosomiasis to name but a few.

The period between 1870 and 1920 has been describedas “the golden age of Parasitology”. The causativeagents of many impor tant parasitic diseases weredescribed in this time; many by Scottish investigators.This exhibition aims to celebrate these discoveries.

Why were so many discoveries in Parasitology madeby Scots? The confirmation, by Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) and Robert Koch (1843-1910), of the so-called“germ theory of disease” stimulated scientists fromaround the world to seek microbial agents as causes ofdisease. British investigators naturally studied thoseailments prevalent in countries of the British Empirewhich, by the 1870s, had spread throughout the tropicalworld.

Britain itself was, and remains, a conglomerate ofdifferent nation states. Scotland tied with England formallyafter the Acts of Union in 1707 but aspects of Scott ishlife, above all education, remained distinct.

Great Scottish philosophers like David Hume (1711-1776) and A dam Smith (1723-1790) drove the so-called “Enlightenment”. Industrialisation and technologicaladvancement flooded out of Scotland. Joseph Black(1728-1799) led a revolution in chemistry and his formerGlasgow University pupil James Watt (1736-1819)invented the steam engine.

Scottish education was open to anyone whereas strictclass and religious rules restricted access to highereducation in England. In the early nineteenth century,Scotland, with a population only a fraction that ofEngland, could boast four Universities to England’s two.

The educated and enlightened Scots who emerged fromthis system could not rely on inherited wealth to paytheir way. They needed to work. And yet much of theBritish indus trial system was dominated by an eliteEnglish establishment. Scots frequently needed to lookelsewhere. Two of the most influential early Europeanexplorers of Africa were James Bruce (1730-1794),who discovered the source of the Blue Nile, and MungoPark (1771-1806) who navigated the river Niger. Bothwere Scots. These pioneers preceded Dr DavidLivingstone (1813-1873) whose success as an explorerin Africa can be linked to his diligence as a physicianso we root our discussions on the Scottish encounterwith tropical disease with him (see David Livingstone,pages 6-7).

Patrick Manson (1844-1922) (see Patrick Manson,pages 8-9) was distantly related to Livingstone. Manson’scareer took off in Formosa, modern day Taiwan, wherehe established a medical practice having found it difficultto find a lucrative position back home. Many of theindividuals described in this exhibition were directlylinked to Manson who is often considered to be “theFather of Tropical Medicine”.

The tradition established by these forebears in tropicalmedicine is upheld today. The main Scottish Universitiesretain active research groups in Parasitology and bringin millions of pounds in research funding every year.The country is right ly considered to be a world leaderin research into parasitic disease.

Livingstone went on to join the church and it was aspart of the London Missionary Society that he left Britain,in 1841, with the hope of spreading the gospel in Africa.Livingstone’s achievements are awe-inspiring. He travelled29,000 miles, mainly on foot, through jungle, desertand swamp; discovering peoples, animals, lakes, theVictoria Falls, and vast areas of previously unchartedland. In all he made three separate expeditions to Africaand became one of the greatest figures of the Victorianage. His ultimate aim was to rid the world of slavery.He finally died aged sixty, in 1873, during anextraordinary quest to find the sources of the Nile, thegreatest goal of Victorian exploration.

“Beware the Bight of Benin, for there’s one thatcomes out for ten that goes in” went an old seashanty. Parts of Africa had rightly picked up the reputationas “The white man’s grave”. I t was Doctor Livingstone’sdiligence as a physician that allowed him to succeedwhere others failed. He suffered from repeated bouts ofmalaria, but found that quinine (an ancient remedymade from the bark of Peruvian Cinchona trees) couldkeep the disease at bay. Another Scottish explorerWilliam Balfour Baikie (1824-1864) had promotedthe use of quinine after navigating the Niger in 1854.Burroughs-Wellcome later marketed a quinine-basedmedication called Livingstone’s rousers.

Livingstone suggested the tsetse fly as theagent that transmitted animaltrypanosomiasis, and human Africantrypanosomiasis was described later.

He even introduced the use of arsenic totreat trypanosomiasis, although the microbialcause was not then known. Arsenical drugsare still used in trypanosomiasis therapytoday (see African Trypanosomiasis, pages10-11). He sur vived multiple differentinfectious agents, although many ofLivingstone’s companions, including his wife,Mary, died from malar ia.

Under the influence of Livingstone, ageneration of young Britons set off with theaim of building what they hoped would bea better world overseas. The hope ofeconomic gains in the lands that Livingstoneand other pioneers, like Stanley, had openedup then led to the European colonisation ofAfrica. The prolific impact of tropicalinfectious disease on the colonis ts was amajor hurdle in this process.

Sir Henry Wellcome (1853-1936),founder of the Wellcome Trust, who providedfunding for this exhibition, was a pallbearerat Stanley’s funeral. Wellcome and Stanleyhad been great friends, with Wellcomeproviding Stanley with medicines for histravels in Africa.

The priority shown towards tropical medicineby the Wellcome Trust today owes a greatdeal to Livingstone and Stanley. The buildingin which Livingstone was born is preservedas a memorial in his honour “The DavidLivingstone Centre” in Blantyre.

After routine posts in England, Manson joined theChinese Imperial Maritime Customs Service and, whileworking in Amoy (now Xiamen), demonstrated that thefilarial worm, Wuchereria bancrofti (see The Filariases,pages 18-19) was transmitted by mosquitoes and, indoing so, established the field of vector-borne diseases.

He also recorded the nocturnal periodicity of micofilariaeand postulated that infection with adult W. bancroftiwas the cause of the grotesque disease elephantiasis(see The Filariases, pages 18-19). Later, with GeorgeCarmichael Low, he elucidated the developmentalstages of W. bancrofti in mosquitoes.

While in Amoy, he discovered the disease-causing lungfluke, Paragonimus westermani, and suggested thatit had a snail intermediate host. Additionally, he identifiedthe first cases of human infection with larvae of thetapeworm Spirometra.

Moving to Hong Kong, he helped to establish the HongKong College of Medicine and became its Dean. Onreturning to England he made a number of importantcontributions to our understanding of schistosomessuggesting that there were two species of schistosome,Schistosoma haematobium and S. mansoni. He beganto suspect that schistosomes had been introduced toSouth America from Africa.

He also reckoned that the geographicaldistribution of these and other parasitesdepended on the presence or absence ofsuitable intermediate hosts.

His other discoveries included the recognitionof microfilariae of Loa loa (see TheFilariases, pages 18-19) and, with DouglasArgyll-Thompson, a description of themorphology of the adult worms. He madea preliminary report on Onchocercavolvulus and suggested that it might betransmitted by a blood-sucking insect. Healso described the filarial worms Filaria(now Mansonella) perstans and Filiaria(now Mansonella) ozzardi. Manson soonconfirmed the Russian naturalistFedchenko’s discovery that the Guineaworm, Dracunculus medinensis, developedin the t iny crustacean known as Cyclopsand this led to Rober t Leiper’s discoverythat Cyclops was indeed the intermediatehost of D. medinensis.

Apart from his ground-breaking discoveryof the mosquito transmission of filarialworms, his most important contribut ion toParasitology was persuading Ronald Rossto investigate the life-cycle of the malariaparasites and their transmission bymosquitoes, something he scrutinised everystep of the way continually encouragingand cajoling the younger scientist. Mansonwas largely responsible for the foundationof the London School of Tropical Medicineand was instrumental in recruiting thehelminthologist Robert Leiper to theSchool.

He was the first President of the Society ofTropical Medicine and Hygiene (now theRoyal Society of Tropical Medicine andHygiene). Many of the other parasitologistsshown in this exhibition, and others notshown here, were the protégés of Manson.

In the brain, tr ypanosomes cause a progressivebreakdown of neurological funct ion and changes insleep/wake patterns are common (hence sleepingsickness). The disease is always fatal without treatment.The end of the twentieth century witnessed a dramaticresurgence in sleeping sickness with up to half a millionpeople infected by the African trypanosome. Numbershave declined in the last couple of years due to aconcerted World Health Organisation-led campaign todeal with the disease.

Treating patients, separating people from the tsetse flyand destroying the fly can all act to help control thedisease.

Several drugs are registered to treat human Africantrypanosomiasis, however none is entirely satisfactory.For example, the most widely used drug once the nervoussystem is involved is called melarsoprol which is basedon arsenic! This drug kills one in twenty taking it (animprovement on the inevitable death f rom the disease,but clearly not ideal as a drug). The Bi ll and MelindaGates Foundation are presently funding developmentof a new, oral drug for the disease, and fortunately thedrug companies Sanofi-Aventis and Bayer currentlydonate ant i-sleeping sickness drugs free of charge tothe World Health Organisation to distribute in Africa.

A Geneva-based not-for-profit entity, TheDrugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative(DNDi), has development of new drugs fortrypanosomiasis as a major goal.Vaccination is not feasible as the parasitesare shrouded in a dense glycoprotein coat.They can periodically switch the nature ofthe coat, meaning that the immune systemis in a constant game of catch-up to identifythe ever-changing parasi tes.

Attempts to control the tsetse fly that transmitsthe disease depend on the use of traps thatcapture and kill the flies or else targetedspraying with insecticides. The possibilityof releasing sterile male tsetse flies that matewith females unproductively has been muchdebated. The approach was used, alongsidetsetse trapping and spraying, to eradicatetrypanosomiasis from the island of Zanzibarin the late 1990s. The logistics of pursuingsimilar campaigns on mainland Africa willbe more challenging.

A number of other trypanosome speciesinfect animals and make the import of high-productivity livestock breeds impossible inmany areas in Africa (however, some localcattle breeds are tolerant of the parasites).On the one hand trypanosomiasis is thoughtto deprive local communities of high proteinfood but, on the other hand, some considerthe tsetse to have been a guardian of Africain keeping domestic livestock at bay allowingindigenous cattle breeds and wild-life toflourish.

The turn of the century also saw serious human sleepingsickness epidemics break out across Africa. Sir WinstonChurchill, in 1906, reported that sleeping sicknesshad reduced the population of Uganda from 6.5 millionto 2.5 million.

David Bruce (1855-1931)David Bruce is credited with identifying trypanosomesas the cause of both nagana in cattle and human sleepingsickness. Bruce was born to Scottish parents in Melbourne,Australia, returning to Scot land (Stirling) aged five. Hewas educated at the University of Edinburgh, studyingZoology and then Medicine.

An Army Medical Service posting in Malta led to thediscovery of a bacterial cause of Malta fever (Brucellosis).In 1894 he was posted to South Africa to investigate anagana epidemic. He recognised flagellates, similar totrypanosomes (T. evansi) earlier found in horses sufferingfrom a disease called Surra in India by Griffith Evans.Bruce also incriminated the tsetse fly, Glossina morsitans,in transmission of the disease. Between 1901-1912 TheRoyal Society sent a series of Commissions to investigatesleeping sickness in Uganda. The first included AldoCastellani, an Italian doctor (later a physician toBenito Mussolini) who found trypanosomes prior tothe arrival of Bruce. However, it is Bruce who is creditedwith recognising their significance.

George Carmichael Low (1872-1952)George Carmichael Low was also part ofthe first sleeping sickness Commission toUganda. Low was born at Monifieth (nearDundee) and educated at the University ofEdinburgh where he graduated in Medicinebefore moving to London to work withPatrick Manson. He later becamesuperintendent of the London School ofTropical Medicine and played key roles inmany discoveries. He showed that avoidingmosquitoes allowed him to stay malaria-free in Italy. In addition, Low conclusivelydemonstrated the life cycle of the nematodeWuchereria bancrofti in mosquitoes. WithSir James Cantlie, Low co-founded theSociety of Tropical Medicine now the RoyalSociety of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene.

Muriel Robertson (1883-1973)Muriel Robertson made key discoveriesregarding the trypanosome’s life cycle. Shewas born in Glasgow in 1883. Whilststudying in the Ar ts at Glasgow Universityshe learned Zoology under ProfessorGraham Kerr. Protozoa in particularfascinated her. She moved to Ceylon (SriLanka) in 1907 to study trypanosomeinfections of reptiles and then in 1911 movedto Uganda.

She played a major role in unravelling thelife cycle of Trypanosoma brucei in bothmammals and in the tse tse fly. She notedthe undulating parasitaemia associated withtrypanosome infections and found that onlythe stumpy trypanosomes seen duringremission could infect tsetse flies.

The Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative(DNDi) and another not-for-profit entity TheInstitute of OneWorld Health (iOWH) areseeking new treatments for leishmaniasis.

The World Health Organisation SpecialProgramme for Research and Training forTropical Diseases (WHO/TDR) has longbeen involved in research into leishmaniasisand most of the diseases in this exhibition.The Neglected Tropical Diseases Departmentat WHO is involved in many operationalactivities against most of the diseasesdescribed in this exhibition.

Leishmania parasites thrive within cellsusually involved in displaying invadingmicrobes to the immune system. DifferentLeishmania species somehow target differentorgans in the body.

Although no registered vaccines exist, thereis hope that vaccines might be developedsince, certainly in the case of the cutaneousdisease, exposure appears to lead to lastingimmunity.

This fact has led to a process of“leishmanisation” in many parts of the world,where mothers apply sandflies to their infantsto induce a localised disease on the buttocksto ensure later exposure would not lead todevelopment of unsightly lesions on the face.

Old World leishmaniasis is an ancientdisease and the lesions associated with thiscondition were well known by a variety oflocal names including Balkh sore, Baghdadboil, Biskra but ton, Dehli boi l, Sart sore,Pendeh sore and Mal d’Aleppo, throughoutthe regions where leishmaniasis now occurs.

A par ticularly unpleasant type of leishmaniasis is themucocutaneous type which occurs in parts of LatinAmerica. A well known TV documentary about “TheBoy David” tells the story of how Dr Ian Jackson, aScottish surgeon, reconstructed the face of David Lopez,a young Peruvian boy af flicted by mucocutaneousleishmaniasis.

Around 1.5 million people contract cutaneous diseaseeach year and half a million or so get the visceraldisease. Over 90% of the world’s cases are in India,Bangladesh, Nepal, Sudan and Brazil. The disease hasalso emerged as a considerable problem in southernEurope associated with the HIV/AIDS epidemic.

The parasites are transmitted between mammals byblood sucking sandflies, so called because of their sandycolour. Mammals such as rodents and dogs act asreservoirs of the disease.

Drugs do exist to treat leishmaniasis. Antimony, in variousforms, has been a mainstay of treatment, although recentadvances have enabled a number of safer drugs toemerge, including some frequently used to treat fungaldiseases.

Although the organisms causing Old World leishmaniasishad been described by the Russian, Peter FokitschBorovsky, in 1898, this information was not avai lable tothose working in India.

William Boog Leishman (1865-1926)William Boog Leishman, after whom leishmaniasis wasnamed by Ronald Ross in 1903, was born in Glasgowand educated at the University of Glasgow. After graduatingin Medicine he joined the Army Medical Corps in whichhe served for the whole of his career in India and later atthe Army Medical School at Net ley in Hampshire.

In 1900, using a modification of Romanowsky’s stain, nowcalled Leishman’s stain, he discovered Leishmaniadonovani, the causative agent of kala azar, in a soliderwho had died of “Dum Dum fever”. Leishman noted thesimilarity between these parasites and trypanosomes. Beforepublishing his findings, however, Charles Donovan,serving in the Indian Medical Service, independently foundthe same parasite. Their two names are commemorated inthe common name for the parasites, Leishman-Donovan(LD) bodies.

David Douglas Cunningam(1843-1914)David Douglas Cunningham made the firstdrawings of Leishmania amastigotes isolatedfrom a Dehli boil. Cunningham was born inPrestonpans, East Lothian, and educated atthe University of Edinburgh. He becameProfessor of Medicine and Pathology at theCalcutta Medical College where he made anumber of contributions to Parasitologyincluding early accounts of Entamoeba coliand Trichomonas hominis.

Henry Edward Shortt (1887-1987)Henry Edward Shortt implicated the sandfly,Phlebotomus argentipes, in the transmissionof Leishmania donovani (bed bugs had beensuspected hosts). Shor tt was born of Scottishparents in Dhariwal, India. He returned toInverness as a child and was educated at theUniversity of Aberdeen where he graduatedin Medicine and then joined the Indian MedicalService. He made contributions toleishmaniasis, oriental sore, malaria, caninebabesiosis and hookworm disease. He wasalso instrumental in introducing pentavalentforms of antimony as first line treatment forleishmaniasis. On retirement from the IMS hewent to London to join Robert Leiper at theLondon School of Hygiene and TropicalMedicine.

There he began to study the exo-erythrocyticstages of the malaria parasites in birds,monkeys and finally in humans. With CyrilGarnham, he discovered the tissue stagesof the malaria parasites in the liver, somethingthat had eluded malariologists for half acentury.

ElephantiasisThe filarial worms Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugiamalayi and Brugia timori cause lymphatic filariasis.The disease is also known as elephantiasis in severecases due to the grotesque malformations which arecharacteristic of patients’ bodies. Mosquitoes carry thefilaria between people. Over 120 million individuals in80 countries throughout the tropics and sub-tropics areinfected with lymphatic filariasis today. Extraordinaryenlargement of the scrotum can mark advancedelephantiasis as can thickening of the skin and massiveswelling of legs and feet in particular.

Drugs are available to treat infections with the youngworms (microfilariae), but agents that kill adult wormshave been difficult to identify. The drug companies Merckand GlaxoSmithKline, respectively donate ivermectinand albendazole for use in global programmes aimedat eliminating the disease. Large scale drug treatmentprogrammes, targeting people living in areas where thedisease is endemic, are having an impact on theprevalence of the disease. Spraying of insecticides torestrict the distribution of carrier mosquitoes is alsoplaying a role in combating the disease.

OnchocerciasisOnchocerciasis, or r iver blindness,is a terrible disease caused by microfilarialnematodes called Onchocerca volvulus.Some 20 million people in Africa and SouthAmerica are infected. The parasites areseldom fatal but cause much suf fering toinfected individuals.

Around a million people in the world todayhave been blinded by the disease. O.volvulus is transmitted by blackflies of thegenus Simulium. These flies breed in well-oxygenated, fast flowing water, hence theassociation between the disease and rivers.Drugs can treat onchocerciasis but theblindness it causes is irreversible. In anextraordinary development, it was recentlyshown that the parasites rely upon bacterialsymbionts called Wolbachia, so much sothat the worms lose vitality and fertility whentheir bacterial partners are killed.Antibacterial agents are current ly beingtested as novel treatments for filariasis.An Onchocerciasis Control Programme inWest Africa, targeting the blackfly vector,restricted spread of the disease through the1970s and 1980s.

Programmes to eliminate the disease, usingdrugs as well as vector control, are ongoingin both Africa and Latin America.

LoiasisLoiasis is caused by filarial worms calledLoa loa. It is restricted in distribution toWest and Central Africa. The worms aretransmitted by Chrysops flies. Around 20million people are at risk of the disease.The adult worms migrate around the bodyand are frequently seen migrating justbeneath the skin, or even across theconjunctiva of the eye. More often loaisisis characterised by swellings on the forearm,or elsewhere, called Calabar swellings.Drugs including diethylcarbamazine (DEC)are effective against Loiasis.

Donald Breadalbane Blacklock(1879-1955)Donald Blacklock elucidated the life-cycleof Onchocerca in its blackfly vector.Blacklock was born in Oban and educatedat the University of Edinburgh where hegraduated in Medicine. After working inSouth Africa he trained in public health andtook the Diploma in Tropical Medicine atthe Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine.In Liverpool he was appointed first as aresearch assistant to work ontrypanosomiasis and then Lecturer andsubsequently Professor of Parasitology.

Robert Thompson Leiper (1881-1969)Leiper was born in Kilmarnock and educatedat the Universities of Birmingham andGlasgow where he graduated in Science,Medicine and Surgery. Manson invitedhim to found a Department of Helminthologyat the London School of Hygiene andTropical Medicine and made him promiseto spend his whole life on the subject ofHelminthology. For over 60 years Leiperwas among the most eminenthelminthologists in the world.

He made numerous contributions,particularly the incrimination of Chrysopsin the transmission of Loa loa, thedevelopment of schistosomes in snails andthe mode of infection by cercariae boringthrough the skin. With Manson, heelucidated the life cycle of the Guinea worm,Dracunculus medinensis, in its crustaceanhost, Cyclops. He was instrumental ininitiating schemes to control schistosomiasisand Guinea worm and advocated the needfor supplies of fresh water to prevent water-borne parasitic infections.

Larval stages (microfilariae) of Wuchereria were firstseen in the blood of humans in 1863 by Jean-NicholasDemarquay . Timothy Lewis, who trained inAberdeen, linked the worms with filariasis in 1872.

Manson’s own breakthrough came while working inAmoy. He fed mosquitoes on the blood of his gardener,who was harbouring the parasites. Sure enough larvalstages of the worms later appeared in the mosquitoes.The actual mode of transmission, through the mosquito’sbite, was only established when suggestions by theAustralian parasitologist, Thomas Bancroft, werefollowed up by Manson’s colleague GeorgeCarmichael Low.

Douglas Moray Cooper Lamb Argyll-Robertson(1837-1909)Douglas Argyll-Robertson made key observations inregard to the fi larial disease loaisis. He was born inEdinburgh and educated at the Universities of Edinburgh,St. Andrews and Berlin. After graduating in Medicine(St Andrews, 1857) he trained as an ophthalmic surgeonat the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary before becomingPresident of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh. In 1895 he described male and female adult Loa loaand recognised the connection between Calabar swellingand these worms. Argyll-Robertson also pioneeredsurgical removal of adult worms from the eye.

SchistosomiasisSchistosomiasis, or bilharzia, is caused by parasitictrematode worms of the genus Schistosoma andtransmitted by fresh-water snails including those of theBulinus and Biomphalaria groups. Some 200 millionpeople are infected by these worms in 76 tropical andsub-tropical countries with some 85% of cases on theAfrican continent. Larval forms released from the snailburrow through the skin of people in fresh water. In theblood they transform into adult forms.

Different species of schistosome cause different diseases.Much of the pathology associated with the disease isdue to the release of microscopic eggs by female worms.

The eggs possess spines and damage tissues in whichthey lodge. Male and adult female worms, reaching upto 30 mm in length, engage in a life long coupling. Thefemales release several hundred eggs each day andimmunological reactions to these can cause serious, lifethreatening damage to the liver, spleen, bladder, kidneys,lungs and other organs.

Schistosomiasis ranks second only to malaria as aparasitological disease in overall socio-economic andpublic health impact.

The drug praziquantel is effective againstschistosomiasis. It is relatively cheap andwidely available. No vaccine is availablealthough research is revealing more aboutthe immune response to the parasite. Inaddition to large-scale drug administration,control methods have focused on applicationof molluscicides to water in which the snailhosts are found. Avoiding snail infestedwater limits the risk of infection.

Liver and Lung flukesOver 100 species of flukes infect humanseither as adults or larvae. Hundreds ofmillions of people are infected with lungand liver flukes. They are usually acquiredwhen eating infected intermediate hostssuch as undercooked fish or shellfish. Sushieaters beware! The most impor tant humaninfectious flukes are Paragonimuswestermani, the lung fluke that causesparagonimiasis, and the liver flukesClonorchis (now Opisthorchis) sinensisand other Opisthorchis spp..

17 million people are infected with liverflukes which cause profound inflammationwithin the liver. Praziquantel is active againstthese parasites. Praziquantel is also activeagainst the lung flukes which can be avoidedby not eating uncooked shellfish orcrustaceans.

Patrick Manson (see Patrick Manson, pages 8-9)made numerous impor tant contributions to fluke research.In 1902 Manson suggested that S. haemotobium wasnot the only human infectious schistosome. This wasconfirmed in 1915 when Robert Leiper named the secondspecies S. mansoni.

Manson also suggested that snails may play a role inthe transmission of the lung fluke Paragonimus (firstdiscovered in the lungs of humans by Sidney Ringerin 1879). A number of Japanese investigators, between1916-1922, described the life cycles of liver and lungflukes including Clonorchis passage through snails andalso fish, and crustaceans including crayfish.

James Frederick Parry McConnell(1848-1895)James Frederick Parry McConnell fi rst recognisedClonorchis sinensis in 1875. McConnell was born ofScottish parents in Agra, India.

He was educated at the University of Aberdeen wherehe studied Medicine. After qualifying in Medicine andSurgery, he joined the Indian Medical Service and laterbecame Professor of Pathology at the Calcutta MedicalCollege. It was there that he recognised the first case ofinfection with the liver fluke Clonorchis (nowOpisthorchis) sinensis and realised that it was differentfrom other flukes known from the livers of humans.

He subsequently found the fluke in a numberof Chinese patients and, based on the eatinghabits of these individuals, surmised thatthe infection might be due to the consumptionof uncooked fish but took this no fur ther.He also recorded for the first timeAmphistoma (now Gastrodiscoides )hominis and hookworm infections in Indiabut did not consider the latter to be asignificant cause of disease.

William St Clair Symmers(1863-1937)William St Clair Symmers implicated theeggs of schistosomes in the pathology ofthe disease. Symmers was born of Scottishparents in South Carolina, USA. TheAmerican Civil War left the South in disarray.Southerners were excluded from theNorthern medical schools. Symmers’ Scottishrelatives helped secure a place at AberdeenUniversity where he studied Medicine.During his studies he began to lose his sight.Undeterred he became a bacteriologist andworked with Pasteur in Paris and at theLister Institute before going to Egypt wherehe became Professor of Bacteriology andPathology at the Government Medical Schoolin Cairo.

While there he made a five-year study ofliver pathology and it was during this timethat he recognised the importance of theeggs in the pathology of schistosomiasis.He went on to become Professor of Pathologyat Queens College, Belfast.

Malaria parasites are transmitted by female mosquitoesof the genus Anopheles. Parasites, injected into theblood, rapidly enter cells in the liver. Here they transforminto new forms that invade red blood cells. Every 48,or 72 hours, depending on the species, the parasitescomplete a cycle of multiplication in red blood cells andthen burst out, inducing the profound periodic feversthat characterise the disease. The deadly falciparummalaria can, in around 1% of cases, lead to cerebralor other organ damage as parasi tised red cells blockthe blood vessels feeding the brain and other organs.

Malaria was eradicated from Western Europe and theUnited States through dramatic campaigns, drainingswamplands and other standing water, to depriveAnopheline mosquitoes of their breeding grounds.The introduction of DDT as an insecticide promised tofacilitate eradication of Anopheline mosquitoes on awider scale. But those efforts were thwarted by insecticideresistance and concerns that widespread insecticide usemay be of detriment to the environment. Since mosquitoesbite principally at night, the use of bednets or curtains,is an important way of preventing contact.

Moreover, insect icide impregnated bednetsoffer a means of targeting insecticide justto biting insects without adverse effects onthe wider insect fauna.

Drugs have been available to use againstmalaria for many years. Quinine, derivedfrom the bark of the South AmericanCinchona tree has been used for at least500 years. Synthetic derivatives likechloroquine were developed in the earlytwentieth century and used on a large scaleduring and since the second world war.Unfortunately parasite resistance tochloroquine is now wide-spread. New drugsbased on an old Chinese herbal remedy,artemisinin, have recently been introduced.

In spite of our understanding about malaria,the last part of the twentieth Centurywitnessed more human beings being infectedwith this disease than ever before. The RollBack Malaria (RBM) Global Par tnershipwas launched in 1998 by the World HealthOrganization, UNICEF, UNDP and theWorld Bank. In 1999 the Medicines forMalaria Venture (MMV), a Geneva basedpublic private partnership, was establishedattempting to bring new drugs to the marketplace and the Malaria Vaccine Initiative

(MVI) is also tapping into internationalexpertise in at tempts to develop vaccines.

The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation isproviding significant finance towards theseefforts. Other agencies, notably Britain’sWellcome Trust, The World HealthOrganisation and various governments andcharities are also contributing. It is estimatedthat many billions of US dollars will berequired to defeat malaria.

Malaria was even present in medieval Scotland. Theeponymous anti-hero of Shakespeare’s Scottish playwas hopeful that his enemies, besieging Dunsinanecastle in Perthshire, would succumb to The Ague. Aguewas the term used for malarial fevers at this time. It wasJohn McCulloch, born on Guernsey to a Scot tishfather, who first introduced the term malaria into theEnglish language (from the Italian mal-aria meaning“bad air” ; it was long believed that the disease wastransmitted by breathing miasmas emanating fromstagnant water).

Our scientific understanding of malaria did not beginuntil the end of the nineteenth centur y.

The parasites themselves were first seen in 1880 by aFrench army surgeon, Alphonse Laveran. Thediscovery that the mosquito acted as a vector was dueto the intuition of Patrick Manson who had alreadydemonstrated that mosquitoes transmitted lymphaticfilariasis. Manson persuaded Ronald Ross, an armysurgeon, to carry out work in India to prove the hypothesisthat mosquitoes carried malaria parasites. This Rossdid, although Italian malariologists made relateddiscoveries at the same t ime. In 1947, Henry Shortt(see The Scottish Encounter with Leishmaniasis, pages16-17) showed that, in humans, a phase of division inthe liver preceded the development of parasites in theblood.

He also introduced the concept of pre-erythrocytic and exo-erythrocytic formswhich had a significant effect on thedevelopment of antimalarial drugs andpossible vaccines.

Ronald Ross (1857-1932)Ronald Ross was born in India in 1857.Ross’s family had connections with Indiastretching back to his great-great grandfatherwho was a director in the East IndiaCompany. The family descended from theRosses of Balnagowan and Shandwick,Rossshire, Scotland. Ross moved from Indiato Southern England aged 10. His medicaleducation was at St Bartholomew's Hospitaland he joined the Indian Medical Servicein 1881. Ross’s outstanding achievementwas the discovery of the malaria parasitein Anopheles mosquitoes. In 1894, Mansonencouraged Ross to use his time in India toprove a connection between mosquitoesand malaria transmission. It was on 20August 1897 that Ross eventually made hisdiscovery. In 1898, he observed the wholeof the sporogonic life cycle of an avianmalaria parasite, Plasmodium relictum, inculicine mosquitoes.

For these discoveries Ross was the first Britishrecipient of a Nobel prize (in 1902) and isthe only British parasitologist to havereceived this honour. In addition to hisservices to medicine, Ross was also anaccomplished mathematician, novelist,playwright and poet. He went on to becomean advocate of mosquito control as a meansto curbing the transmission of malaria. Hewas a founding lecturer at the LiverpoolSchool of Tropical Medicine and a true giantin the field of Parasitology. He was notalways an easy man to get along with. Hisfeuds with Italian scient ists over priority forthe discovery of the mosquito-malaria linkwere but one of many spats with others inthe field.

Toxoplasma is capable of living in most animals, causinga wide spectrum of diseases. It can cause abor tion insheep and goats and is a major cause of death in seaotters and Australian marsupials.

In many people the infection is apparently asymptomatic,although it is a major problem in pregnancy as it cancross the placenta and infect the developing foetus. Thiscan lead to death or developmental problems in theunborn child including deafness, visual impairment andneurological disorders.

Generally our immune systems keep the parasites incheck. However, Toxoplasma can form cysts in variousorgans and enter a state of dormancy until an oppor tunityarises for them to proliferate. This is why toxoplasmosisis a major problem in immunocompromised individuals,such as patients on immunosuppressive therapy as oftenused in treatment of cancer, or in people whose immunesystems have been disrupted by HIV/AIDS. Irvine Welsh’scharacter “Tommy” dies from cerebral toxoplasmosis inthe iconic novel “Trainspotting” released as a film of thesame name in 1996. Tommy caught the disease froma pet kitten after contracting AIDS related to intravenousdrug abuse.

Making sure that meat is properly cookedand avoiding close contact with cat faecesboth represent good ways of avoidingToxoplasma.

The oocysts of the parasite remain in theenvironment for a long t ime. It is importantto wash hands after gardening and to cleanfruit and vegetables thoroughly beforeeating; pregnant women in par ticular areadvised to do so. Some drugs are availableto treat parasites during their proliferativephase, but these cannot kill the parasiteswithin the tissue cysts and thus cure is notpossible. Vaccines suitable for use in animals(e.g. Toxovax®) exist to help preventToxoplasma-induced abortion in sheepand goats. It is hoped that a human vaccinemight follow.

Extraordinary research has indicated thatToxoplasma might also have remarkableeffects on behaviour, possibly making victimsless risk averse. For example mice infectedwith Toxoplasma are less concerned aboutcats than are uninfected mice. The boldmice are then more likely to be eaten bycats and so pass the parasites back to theircat hosts. Other research is suggestive ofbehavioural changes in humans.

One study suggested that drivers involvedin car accidents were more likely than peoplein general to be infected with Toxoplasma.A possible link to schizophrenia has alsobeen proposed. These studies indicate thatinfection with Toxoplasma parasites mayrepresent a more significant public healthrisk than was previously thought.

T. gondii was initially discovered, largely by accident,in 1908, by Charles Nicolle, while searching for areservoir of Leishmania in a nor th African rodent. Atabout the same t ime, Alfonso Splendore, workingin Sao Paulo, discovered the same parasite in rabbits.Subsequently there were numerous reports from mammalsand birds, both in the wild and captivity, and it graduallybecame clear that T. gondii was also a ver y commonparasite in humans and domesticated animals in allparts of the world.

Hutchison first showed that T. gondii was passed in catfaeces in 1965.

Initially he thought that the parasite was transmitted withthe nematode worm Toxocara cati, as happens withthe flagellate Histomonas meleagridis and the nematodeHeterakis gallinarum, but subsequently, in 1969, heidentified the protozoan oocysts in the faeces as belongingto the group of parasi tes known as the coccidia.

At around the same time that Hutchison made hisobservations, Jack Frenkel, J. P. Dubey and HarleySheffield in the United States, Gerhard Piekarskiin Germany and other workers also identified the roleof the cat as the definitive host of the parasite.

Prior to this discovery it had been assumedthat the intestinal parasites of the coccidiangroup had only one host. The discovery ofthe T. gondii life-cycle initiated a searchfor similar stages in the life cycles of theother coccidian parasites.It became clear that many organisms foundin a variety of animals that had eludedidentification were, in fact, different lifecycle stages of coccidial parasites.In most cases the parasite's transmissiondepended on a predator-prey relat ionship.

Cryptosporidium parasites:There's something in the water!Cryptosporidium is another coccidianparasite. It is very common, occurring inScotland and other countries worldwide. Itcauses diarrhoea in people and young farmlivestock. I t can cause a persistent andpotentially fatal disease inimmunocompromised individuals.Cryptosporidium oocysts are resistant tochlorination, the principal means of watertreatment world-wide.

Several outbreaks have occurred recentlyin Scotland associated with contaminationof public water supplies, swimming pools,hospitals, childcare centres and recreationalfarm visits. Infect ion can be spread throughcontaminated water and through contactwith farm animals. Cr yptosporidiumspreads easily among people thereforehandwashing is very important after usingthe toilet or having contact with farm animalsand before handling food.

There is no effective treatment forcryptosporidiosis. The infection usually clearsup by itself in healthy people, but in veryyoung and elderly people and inimmunocompromised individuals, it causessevere disease. Public health authorities andwater companies are working together totry and prevent contamination of watersupplies.

A recent contamination of water in Glasgowresulted in 160,000 households being toldto boil their water prior to consumption toprotect them against the Cryptosporidiumparasite.

In one study, children living in Africa and infected withintestinal worms showed no signs of asthma. Followingdrug treatment to remove the worms, the children becametwice as likely to develop allergic responses leading toscientists proposing that it may be the worms themselvesthat were somehow protecting people against thedevelopment of allergies. The dramatic ri se ininflammatory bowel disease (Crohn’s disease) in manycountries world wide has also been linked to the absenceof intestinal worm infestations.

Why parasitic worms?People and parasitic worms have evolved alongsideeach other to limit host tissue damage and enable theparasite to maintain its habitat and complete its lifecycle. Basically the worms need us to survive as we are,in effect, their homes. As a result of this selective pressurethe worms have evolved to be able to regulate andmanipulate our immune defences. Indeed many peopleinfected with worms do not show any clinical symptoms.

The worms achieve this by inducing more“regulatory” immune cells that dampendown the inflammatory responses and thusprevent the “overactive” immune reactionsresponsible for the common symptoms ofasthma such as airway inflammation andwheezing or other allergic symptoms.

Can worms control our immunedefences?As worms have been in such close contactwith our immune defences throughoutevolution they know a lot more about howto manipulate our immune systems than wedo. Therefore scientists are interested to findout how the worms are able to fool ourbody’s defences and tr y and use thisknowledge to develop new treatments fora range of different diseases thought to becaused by an over-active immune systemsuch as asthma, diabetes and inflammatorybowel disease. The search is currently onto identify the molecules used by the wormsto regulate our immune systems.

New therapies for the future?Testing of parasitic worms as therapeuticagents is underway in several differentlaboratories worldwide in clinical trials fordifferent conditions.

For example, hookworm larvae are beingtested for their ability to relieve the symptomsof asthma and Crohn’s disease in the UKand worm eggs (Trichuris suis) are beingfed to patients to help relieve the symptomsof inflammatory bowel disease in the USA.

Perhaps we may be able to learn from theparasites how best to treat the many allergicdiseases that seem to plague us today.

Professor Michael P. Barrett:Mike Barrett is Professor in Parasitology at the University of Glasgow.His main research interests focus on the development of new drugsfor protozoan diseases including malaria and above all humanAfrican tr ypanosomiasis. He is a member of the Human AfricanTrypanosomiasis Network of the World Health Organisationand is involved in numerous collaborative ventures aimed atunderstanding how drugs work against parasites. He teacheson the University of Glasgow’s Parasitology degree and has a longstanding interest in the History of Parasitology, particularly froma Scottish perspective. The journeys of David Livingstone throughAfrica in particular ser ved as an inspiration for this exhibition andaccompanying booklet. ([email protected])

Dr Lee Innes:Lee Innes obtained a PhD in Tropical Veterinary Medicine from theUniversity of Edinburgh and spent several years working in Africabefore returning to Edinburgh where she currently works as PrincipalScientist a t the Moredun Research Institute. Her main researchinterests invo lve protozoan parasites and vaccine development.More recently she has become involved in communication of scienceand is Director of The Creative Science Company in Scotland.([email protected])

Professor Frank Cox:Frank Cox is a Senior Visiting Research Fellow at the London Schoolof Hygiene and Tropical Medicine where his interests are in theHistory of Parasitology and Tropical Medicine. He has written anumber of reviews in this area and edited the Wellcome Illustra tedHistory of Tropical Diseases. He was formerly Professor of ParasiteImmunology at King’s College London where he worked on immunityto malaria and leishmaniasis particularly non-specific killing.Frank has also been Editor of Parasitology and the Transactionsof the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene and haswritten severa l books including Modern Parasitology.([email protected])

39

The tradition in Parasitology established by those pioneeringScottish explorers, doctors and scientists described in thisbooklet, lives on in Scotland today. Although the world hasmoved on in many ways from the time of Dr Livingstone,the menace of infectious diseases is by no means diminished. Scotland’s fight against these diseases continues at theUniversity of Glasgow in the Wellcome Centre for MolecularParasitology, a leading institute studying parasites and aimingto control the diseases they cause.

2. WCMP Director: Dave Barry

3. L eishmania

4. Plasmodium

5. Trypanosome

Sir Henry Wellcome, whose will foundedthe Wellcome Trust, was himself pall bearerat the funeral of Sir Henry Mor ton Stanleyand his lifelong fascination with tropicaldisease was stimulated by his reading ofLivingstone’s explorations (see page6-7). Wellcome’s legacy has enabled thefunding of high quality biomedicalresearch throughout the twentieth andon into the twenty first centuries. The WellcomeCentre for Molecular Parasitology (WCMP)is one of nine biomedical centres created bythe Wellcome Trust, as centres of excellenceconducting work of major internationalsignificance within designated fields of study.The WCMP was founded as a WellcomeTrust Unit in 1987, with a remit to study basicfeatures of parasites, using genetic andmolecular technology allied with study ofparasites as whole organisms.

Since then, the WCMP has expanded throughrecruitment of � internationally renownedresearch leaders and since 2006 the centrehas been housed in the multidisciplinaryGlasgow Biomedical Research Centre, wherestrong interactions with Microbiologists,Immunologists and Structural Biologists ensureinterdisciplinary research of a type essentialfor major scientific breakthroughs today.

The activities of WCMP are divided intobasic research of parasite biology,and associated translational activities,such as disease intervention and molecularepidemiology.� Research focuses onvarious parasites, including those causingtrypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis, malaria,toxoplasmosis and trichomoniasis. Althoughthe parasites differ greatly from each other,there is focus on core processes, many ofwhich show common mechanisms in thedifferent parasites.�

The centre has a strong infrastructure thatencourages high-quality science, throughmultidisciplinary investigation and crossfertilisation in ideas and approaches.�Research is conducted across differentbiological scales, starting with the smallestmolecules from which parasites are built toan understanding of the broader ecologicalcontext in which the parasites findthemselves. The ultimate aim is to usethe knowledge gained from the study ofparasites to understand their strategies forsuccess and to develop new interventionsagainst the diseases they cause.

1. WCMP

Photo cr edits: .3. Elmarie Myburgh and Jeremy M ottram, 4 . Anubhav Srivastava, 5 . Fab ien Jourdan






6


7

2. Victorian Hero






1. Patrick Manson

8


9


3. Patrick M anson





1. Trypanosomes in blood

10


11

2. Tsetse fly

3. Trypanosomes


5. Tsetse trap



1. David Bruce

12


13


3. Muriel Robertson

4. David Bruce


leishmaniasis


1. Leishmania flagellated forms (green)

14


15







1. William Le ishman

16


17


3. David Cunningham

4. Henr y S hortt

5. William Leishman

the filariases


1. Wuchereri a bancro fti microfilaria

18


19


3. River bl indness


5. Loa loa in eye




20


21



4. Robert Leiper

5. Cyclops

parasitic flukes


1. Coupling adult schistosomes

22


23







1. Robert Leiper

24


25




5. Opisthorchis

malaria


1. Malaria parasites burs t out of a red blood cell

26


27



4. Bednet




1. Ronald Ross

28


29


3. The mosquito man


5. Henr y S hortt

toxoplasmosis


1. Toxoplasma tachyzoite

30


31




5. Trainspotting



1. William Hu tchison

32


33


3. Sheep





1. Heligmosomoides polygyrus; a worm that alleviates allergy in rodents

34



35


3. Hookw orm


5. Trichuris egg



36


Parasitology research in Scotland is stronger than everwith leading internationally recognized research groupsstudying parasites of importance in human and veterinarymedicine, food production and agriculture.




37

38

This exhibi tion was funded by the Wellcome Trust as part of theircontribution to an Engaging Science Award to the British Societyof Parasitology initiated by Dr Lee Innes (Moredun Research Institute).Dr Mike Barrett (University of Glasgow) conceived of and researchedmuch of the information for the exhibition. Professor Frank Cox(London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine) conducted mostof the research into the contribution of Scottish investigators to thehistory of Parasitology.

A number of individuals and organisations kindly provided pictures:including The Wellcome Trust Medical Photographic Library, WHO-TDR, Mosby International Publishers (from Tropical Medicine andParasitology 5th Edition, 2002, Wallace Peters and Geoffrey Pasvol,Eds.), Dr David Ferguson (University of Oxford), Dr Laurence Tetley(University of Glasgow), Maggie Reilly (Archivist, Hunterian Museum,Glasgow), Mrs Carol Parry (College Archivist, Royal College ofPhysicians and Surgeons of Glasgow), Victoria Killick, Archivist atthe London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, KarenCarruthers (Director of the David Livingstone Centre), Mhairi Stewart(University of Glasgow), Gerald Späth and Stephen Beverley(Washington University’ St. Louis, USA), The Wellcome Trust (F.E.G.Cox, The Illustrated History of Tropical Diseases – 1996),

Lisa Bluett and Professor David Molyneux (Liverpool School ofTropical Medicine), G P Matthews,(http://www.gpmatthews.nildram.co.uk), Korean Society ofParasitology, Ms Erica Peake (Archivist of the South CarolinaMedical Association), Drew Berry, The Walter and Eliza Hall Instituteof Medical Research, Amy Clarke (University of Glasgow),Stylorouge, London, Steve Wright (Moredun Research institute),Constance Finney (University of Edinburgh), Frank Jackson, (MoredunResearch institute).

A number of people provided information on various diseases,including Professor Stephen Phillips, Professor Paul Hagan, ProfessorJohn Kusel, Professor Ke ith Vickerman and Dr Lisa Ranford-Cartwright (University of Glasgow), Professor David Molyneux(Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine), and Dr Lee Innes (MoredunResearch Institute) all of whom also provided excellent editorialassistance and invaluable advice. The Aberdeen Leopard Magazinefound some archived material on Manson. Rachel Kidd andespecially Amy Clarke also made key contributions to editing andassembly of posters. The poster and booklet design was by theFBLS Graphic Support Unit at the University of Glasgow.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

2

WELCOME

1900

1903

1904

1905

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1912

1914

1915

1926

1948

1969












5


1768

1841

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1877

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McConnell describes the liver fluke Clonorchis sinensis .







10. William Hutchison9. Henry Shortt8. Muriel Rober tson7. David Bruce6. William Leishman5. George Carmichael Low4. Ronald Ross3. Douglas Argyll-Robertson2. Patrick Manson1. David Livingstone

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2-34-56-78-910-1112-1314-1516-1718-1920-2122-2324-2526-2728-2930-3132-3334-3536-3738

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Photo credits: 1. WHO/TDR/Stammers, 2, 4, 5 Mosby International from Peters, W. & Pasvol, G. Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 5th Edition, 3. Mhairi Stewart(University of Glasgow)

Photo credits: 1, 3 Wellcome Trust Library, London, 2, 4 London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, 5. Kevin Plunkett

Photo credits: 1, 2, 5 David Livingstone Centre, 3-4 Wellcome Trust Library, London

Photo credits: 1. David Livingstone Centre, 2-7 and 9. We llcome Trust Library, London, 8. Hunterian Museum, Glasgow, 10. David Ferguson, Oxford

Photo credits: 1, 2, 4, 5 We llcome Trust Library, London, 3. Hunterian Museum, Glasgow

Photo credits: 1. Gerald Späth and Stephen Be verley (Washington University’ St. Louis, USA), 2, 4, 5 Mosby International from Peters, W. & Pasvol, G. Tropical Medicineand Parasitology 5th Edition, 3. WHO/TDR

Photo credits: 1, 3, 4, 5 We llcome Trust Library, London, 2. The Wellcome Trust (F.E.G. Cox, The Illustrated History of Tropical Disease s – 1996; from Scientific Memoirs byMedical officers of the Army of India Vol. 1, 1885)

Photo credits: 1. WHO/TDR/STAMMERS, 2, 4, 5 Mosby International from Peters, W. & Pasvol, G. Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 5th Edition, 3. Lisa Bluett andDavid Molyneux, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine

Photo credits: 1-3 Wellcome Trust Library, London, 4. London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, 5. G P Matthews, (http://www. gpmatthews.nildram.co.uk)

Photo credits: 1. The Wellcome Trust (F.E.G. Cox, The Illustrated History of Tropical Disease s - 1996), 2. WHO /TDR/STAMMERS, 3-5 Mosby International from Peters, W.& Pasvol, G. Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 5th Edition

Photo credits: 1. London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, 2. Wellcome Trust Library, London, 3. The Wellcome Trust (F.E.G. Cox, The Illustrated History of TropicalDiseases – 1996; China Imperial Maritime Customs (1881), 4. From Donald, A. (1997) Journal of the South Carolina Medical Association, (Courtesy of Ms Erica Peak e),5. Web Atlas of Medical Parasitology, Korean Society of Parasitology, Tai Soon Yong

Photo credits: 1. Drew Be rry, The Walter and El iza Hall Insti tute of Medical Research, 2-5 Mosby International from Peters, W. & Pasvol, G. Tropical Medicine andParasitology 5th Edition

Photo credits: 1, 4, 5 Wellcome Trust Library, London, 2-3 London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine

Photo credits: 1-3 David Ferguson (Univers ity of Oxford), 4. Mosby International from Peters, W. & Pasvol, G. Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 5th Edition, 5. Usedwith perm ission of Sty lorouge, London

Photo credits: 1. David Ferguson (University of Oxford), 2. Mosby International from Peters, W. & Pasvol, G. Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 5th Edition, 3. GeoffreyA Stemp, 4-5 Steve Wright (Moredun Research insti tute )

Photo credits: 1. Constance Finney, University of Edinburgh, 2. Wellcome Trust Library, London, 3, 5 Mosby International from Peters, W. & Pasvol, G. Tropical Medicineand Parasitology 5th Edition, 4. Frank Jackson, (Moredun Research insti tute)

Many of those diseases specifically associated with thetropics are caused by parasites. Parasites can be single-celled (protozoa) or else multi-cellular (worms, alsoknown as helminths and arthropods including insectsand mites) and live within or on other organisms.Parasites exert an appalling toll on human health,causing diseases like malaria, sleeping sickness,elephantiasis and schistosomiasis to name but a few.

The period between 1870 and 1920 has been describedas “the golden age of Parasitology”. The causativeagents of many important parasitic diseases weredescribed in this time; many by Scottish investigators.This exhibition aims to celebrate these discoveries.


Britain itself was, and remains, a conglomerate ofdifferent nation states. Scotland tied with England formallyafter the Acts of Union in 1707 but aspects of Scottishlife, above all education, remained distinct.

Great Scottish philosophers like David Hume (1711-1776) and Adam Smith (1723-1790) drove the so-called “Enlightenment”. Industrialisation and technologicaladvancement flooded out of Scotland. Joseph Black(1728-1799) led a revolution in chemistry and his formerGlasgow University pupil James Watt (1736-1819)invented the steam engine.


The educated and enlightened Scots who emerged fromthis system could not rely on inherited wealth to paytheir way. They needed to work. And yet much of theBritish industrial system was dominated by an eliteEnglish establishment. Scots frequently needed to lookelsewhere. Two of the most influential early Europeanexplorers of Africa were James Bruce (1730-1794),who discovered the source of the Blue Nile, and MungoPark (1771-1806) who navigated the river Niger. Bothwere Scots. These pioneers preceded Dr DavidLivingstone (1813-1873) whose success as an explorerin Africa can be linked to his diligence as a physicianso we root our discussions on the Scottish encounterwith tropical disease with him (see David Livingstone,pages 6-7).




“Beware the Bight of Benin, for there’s one thatcomes out for ten that goes in” went an old seashanty. Parts of Africa had rightly picked up the reputationas “The white man’s grave”. It was Doctor Livingstone’sdiligence as a physician that allowed him to succeedwhere others failed. He suffered from repeated bouts ofmalaria, but found that quinine (an ancient remedymade from the bark of Peruvian Cinchona trees) couldkeep the disease at bay. Another Scottish explorerWilliam Balfour Baikie (1824-1864) had promotedthe use of quinine after navigating the Niger in 1854.Burroughs-Wellcome later marketed a quinine-basedmedication called Livingstone’s rousers.






After routine posts in England, Manson joined theChinese Imperial Maritime Customs Serv ice and, whileworking in Amoy (now Xiamen), demonstrated that thefilarial worm, Wuchereria bancrofti (see The Filariases,pages 18-19) was transmitted by mosquitoes and, indoing so, established the field of vector-borne diseases.

He also recorded the nocturnal periodicity of micofilariaeand postulated that infection with adult W. bancroft iwas the cause of the grotesque disease elephantiasis(see The Filariases, pages 18-19). Later, with GeorgeCarmichael Low, he elucidated the developmentalstages of W. bancrofti in mosquitoes.







In the brain, trypanosomes cause a progressivebreakdown of neurological function and changes insleep/wake patterns are common (hence sleepingsickness). The disease is always fatal without treatment.The end of the twentieth century witnessed a dramaticresurgence in sleeping sickness with up to half a millionpeople infected by the African trypanosome. Numbershave declined in the last couple of years due to aconcerted World Health Organisation-led campaign todeal with the disease.


Several drugs are registered to treat human Africantrypanosomiasis, however none is entirely satisfactory.For example, the most widely used drug once the nervoussystem is involved is called melarsoprol which is basedon arsenic! This drug kil ls one in twenty taking it (animprovement on the inevitable death from the disease,but clearly not ideal as a drug). The Bil l and MelindaGates Foundation are presently funding developmentof a new, oral drug for the disease, and fortunately thedrug companies Sanofi-Aventis and Bayer currentlydonate anti-sleeping sickness drugs free of charge tothe World Health Organisation to distribute in Africa.





David Bruce (1855-1931)David Bruce is credited with identifying trypanosomesas the cause of both nagana in cattle and human sleepingsickness. Bruce was born to Scottish parents in Melbourne,Australia, return ing to Scotland (Stirling) aged five. Hewas educated at the University of Edinburgh, studyingZoology and then Medicine.











A particularly unpleasant type of leishmaniasis is themucocutaneous type which occurs in parts of LatinAmerica. A well known TV documentary about “TheBoy David” tells the story of how Dr Ian Jackson, aScottish surgeon, reconstructed the face of David Lopez,a young Peruvian boy afflicted by mucocutaneousleishmaniasis.




Although the organisms causing Old World leishmaniasishad been described by the Russian, Peter FokitschBorovsky, in 1898, this information was not available tothose working in India.

William Boog Leishman (1865-1926)William Boog Leishman, after whom leishmaniasis wasnamed by Ronald Ross in 1903, was born in Glasgowand educated at the University of Glasgow. After graduatingin Medicine he joined the Army Medical Corps in whichhe serv ed for the whole of his career in India and later atthe Army Medical School at Netley in Hampshire.





ElephantiasisThe filarial worms Wuchereria bancroft i, Brugiamalayi and Brugia timor i cause lymphatic filariasis.The disease is also known as elephantiasis in severecases due to the grotesque malformations which arecharacteristic of patients’ bodies. Mosquitoes carry thefilaria between people. Over 120 million individuals in80 countries throughout the tropics and sub-tropics areinfected with lymphatic filariasis today. Extraordinaryenlargement of the scrotum can mark advancedelephantiasis as can thickening of the skin and massiveswelling of legs and feet in particular.









Larval stages (microfilariae) of Wuchereria were firstseen in the blood of humans in 1863 by Jean-NicholasDemarquay. Timothy Lewis, who trained inAberdeen, linked the worms with filariasis in 1872.


Douglas Moray Cooper Lamb Argyll-Robertson(1837-1909)Douglas Argyll-Robertson made key observ ations inregard to the filarial disease loaisis. He was born inEdinburgh and educated at the Universities of Edinburgh,St. Andrews and Berlin. After graduating in Medicine(St Andrews, 1857) he trained as an ophthalmic surgeonat the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary before becomingPresident of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh. In 1895 he described male and female adult Loa loaand recognised the connection between Calabar swellingand these worms. Argyll-Robertson also pioneeredsurgical removal of adult worms from the eye.








Patrick Manson (see Patrick Manson, pages 8-9)made numerous important contributions to fluke research.In 1902 Manson suggested that S. haemotobium wasnot the only human infectious schistosome. This wasconfirmed in 1915 when Robert Leiper named the secondspecies S. mansoni.

Manson also suggested that snails may play a ro le inthe transmission of the lung fluke Paragonimus (firstdiscovered in the lungs of humans by Sidney Ringerin 1879). A number of Japanese investigators, between1916-1922, described the life cycles of liver and lungflukes including Clonorchis passage through snails andalso fish, and crustaceans including crayfish.

James Frederick Parry McConnell(1848-1895)James Frederick Parry McConnell first recognisedClonorchis sinensis in 1875. McConnell was born ofScottish parents in Agra, India.





Malaria parasites are transmitted by female mosquitoesof the genus Anopheles. Parasites, injected into theblood, rapidly enter cells in the liver. Here they transforminto new forms that invade red blood cells. Every 48,or 72 hours, depending on the species, the parasitescomplete a cycle of multiplication in red blood cells andthen burst out, inducing the profound periodic feversthat characterise the disease. The deadly falciparummalaria can, in around 1% of cases, lead to cerebralor other organ damage as parasitised red cells blockthe blood vessels feeding the brain and other organs.







Malaria was even present in medieval Scotland. Theeponymous anti-hero of Shakespeare’s Scottish playwas hopefu l that his enemies, besieging Dunsinanecastle in Perthshire, would succumb to The Ague. Aguewas the term used for malarial fevers at this time. It wasJohn McCulloch, born on Guernsey to a Scottishfather, who first introduced the term malaria into theEnglish language (from the Italian mal-aria meaning“bad air” ; it was long believed that the disease wastransmitted by breathing miasmas emanating fromstagnant water).

Our scientific understanding of malaria did not beginuntil the end of the nineteenth century.

The parasites themselves were first seen in 1880 by aFrench army surgeon, Alphonse Laveran. Thediscovery that the mosquito acted as a vector was dueto the intuition of Patrick Manson who had alreadydemonstrated that mosquitoes transmitted lymphaticfilariasis. Manson persuaded Ronald Ross, an armysurgeon, to carry out work in India to prove the hypothesisthat mosquitoes carried malaria parasites. This Rossdid, although Italian malariologists made relateddiscoveries at the same time. In 1947, Henry Shortt(see The Scottish Encounter with Leishmaniasis, pages16-17) showed that, in humans, a phase of division inthe liver preceded the development of parasites in theblood.




Toxoplasma is capable of living in most animals, causinga wide spectrum of diseases. It can cause abortion insheep and goats and is a major cause of death in seaotters and Australian marsupials.


Generally our immune systems keep the parasites incheck. However, Toxoplasma can form cysts in variousorgans and enter a state of dormancy until an opportunityarises for them to proliferate. This is why toxoplasmosisis a major problem in immunocompromised individuals,such as patients on immunosuppressive therapy as oftenused in treatment of cancer, or in people whose immunesystems have been disrupted by HIV/AIDS. Irvine Welsh’scharacter “Tommy” dies from cerebral toxoplasmosis inthe iconic novel “Trainspotting” released as a film of thesame name in 1996. Tommy caught the disease froma pet kitten after contracting AIDS related to intravenousdrug abuse.





T. gondii was initially discovered, largely by accident,in 1908, by Charles Nicolle, while searching for areservoir of Leishmania in a north African rodent. Atabout the same time, Alfonso Splendore, workingin Sao Paulo, discovered the same parasite in rabbits.Subsequently there were numerous reports from mammalsand birds, both in the wild and captivity, and it graduallybecame clear that T. gondii was also a very commonparasite in humans and domesticated animals in allparts of the world.


Initially he thought that the parasite was transmitted withthe nematode worm Toxocara cati, as happens withthe flagellate Histomonas meleagridis and the nematodeHeterakis gallinarum, but subsequently, in 1969, heidentified the protozoan oocysts in the faeces as belongingto the group of parasites known as the coccidia.







In one study, children living in Africa and infected withintestinal worms showed no signs of asthma. Followingdrug treatment to remove the worms, the children becametwice as likely to develop allergic responses leading toscientists proposing that it may be the worms themselvesthat were somehow protecting people against thedevelopment of allergies. The dramatic rise ininflammatory bowel disease (Crohn’s disease) in manycountries world wide has also been linked to the absenceof intestinal worm infestations.










39



3. L eishmania

4. Plasmodium

5. Trypanosome





1. WCMP

Photo credits: .3. Elmarie Myburgh and Jeremy Mottram, 4. Anubhav Srivastava, 5. Fabien Jourdan






6


7

2. Victorian Hero






1. Patrick M anson

8


9


3. Patrick M anson





1. Trypanosomes in b lood

10


11

2. Tsetse fly

3. Trypanosomes


5. Tsetse trap



1. David Bruce

12


13


3. Muriel Robertson

4. David Bruce


leishmaniasis


1. Leishmania flagellated fo rms (green)

14


15







1. William Leishman

16


17


3. David Cunningham

4. Henr y S hortt

5. William Leishman

the filariases


1. Wuchereria bancrofti microfila ria

18


19


3. River bl indness


5. Loa loa in eye




20


21



4. Robert Leiper

5. Cyclops

parasitic flukes


1. Coupling adult schis tosomes

22


23







1. Robert Leiper

24


25




5. Opisthorchis

malaria


1. Malaria parasites burst out of a red b lood cell

26


27



4. Bednet




1. Ronald Ross

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29


3. The mosquito man


5. Henr y S hortt

toxoplasmosis


1. Toxoplasma ta chyzoite

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31




5. Trainspotting



1. William H utchison

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33


3. Sheep





1. Heligmosomoides polygyr us; a worm that a lleviates a llergy in rodents

34



35


3. Hookw orm


5. Trichuris egg



36


Parasitology research in Scotland is stronger than everwith leading internationally recognized research groupsstudying parasites of impor tance in human and veterinarymedicine, food production and agriculture.




37

38

This exhib ition was funded by the Wellcome Trust as part of theircontribution to an Engaging Science Award to the British Societyof Parasitology initiated by Dr Lee Innes (Moredun Research Institute).Dr Mike Barrett (University of Glasgow) conceived of and researchedmuch of the information for the exhib ition. Professor Frank Cox(London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine) conducted mostof the research into the contribution of Scottish investigators to thehistory of Parasitology.

A number of individuals and organisations kind ly provided pictures:including The Wellcome Trust Medical Photographic Library, WHO-TDR, Mosby International Publishers (from Tropical Medicine andParasitology 5th Edition, 2002, Wallace Peters and Geoffrey Pasvol,Eds.), Dr David Ferguson (University of Oxford), Dr Laurence Tetley(University of Glasgow), Maggie Reilly (Archivist, Hunterian Museum,Glasgow), Mrs Caro l Parry (College Archivist, Royal College ofPhysicians and Surgeons of Glasgow), Victoria Killick, Archivist atthe London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, KarenCarruthers (Director of the David Livingstone Centre), Mhairi Stewart(University of Glasgow), Gerald Späth and Stephen Beverley(Washington University’ St. Louis, USA), The Wellcome Trust (F.E.G.Cox, The Illustra ted History of Tropical Diseases – 1996),

Lisa Bluett and Professor Dav id Molyneux (Liverpool School ofTropical Medicine), G P Matthews,(http://www.gpmatthews.nildram.co.uk), Korean Society ofParasitology, Ms Erica Peake (Archivist of the South CarolinaMedical Association), Drew Berry, The Walter and Eliza Hall Instituteof Medical Research, Amy Clarke (University of Glasgow) ,Stylorouge, London, Steve Wright (Moredun Research institute),Constance Finney (University of Edinburgh), Frank Jackson, (MoredunResearch institute).

A number of people provided information on various diseases,including Professor Stephen Phillips, Professor Paul Hagan, ProfessorJohn Kusel, Professor Keith Vickerman and Dr Lisa Ranford-Cartwright (University of Glasgow), Professor David Molyneux(Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine), and Dr Lee Innes (MoredunResearch Institute) all of whom also provided excellent ed itorialassistance and invaluable advice. The Aberdeen Leopard Magazinefound some archived material on Manson. Rachel Kidd andespecia lly Amy Clarke also made key contributions to editing andassembly of posters. The poster and booklet design was by theFBLS Graphic Support Unit at the University of Glasgow.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

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WELCOME

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10. William Hutchison9. Henry Shortt8. Muriel Rober tson7. David Bruce6. William Leishman5. George Carmichael Low4. Ronald Ross3. Douglas Argyll-Robertson2. Patrick M anson1. David Livingstone

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Photo cr edits: 1. WHO/TDR/Stammers , 2 , 4 , 5 Mosby International from Peters, W. & Pasvol, G. Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 5th Edit ion, 3. Mha iri S tewart(University of Glasgow)

Photo cr edits: 1, 3 Wellcome Trust Library, London, 2, 4 London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, 5. Kevin Plunkett

Photo cr edits: 1, 2, 5 David Livingstone Centre, 3-4 Wellcome Trust Library, London

Photo cr edits: 1. David Livingstone Centre, 2-7 and 9. Wellcome Trust Library, London, 8. Hun terian Museum, Glasgow, 10. David Ferguson, Oxfo rd

Photo cr edits: 1, 2, 4, 5 Wellcome Trust Library, London, 3. Hun terian Museum, Glasgow

Photo cr edits: 1. Gerald Späth and Stephen Beverley (Washington University’ St. Louis, USA), 2, 4, 5 Mosby International from Peters, W. & Pasvol, G. Tropical Medicineand Parasitology 5th Edit ion, 3. WHO/TDR

Photo cr edits: 1, 3, 4, 5 Wellcome Trust Library, London, 2. The Wellcome Trust (F.E.G. Cox, The Il lustrated History of Tropical Diseases – 1996; from Scientific Memoirs byMedical officers of the Army of India Vol. 1 , 1885)

Photo cr edits: 1. WHO/TDR/STAMMERS, 2, 4, 5 Mosby I nternational from Peters, W. & Pasvol, G. Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 5th Edit ion, 3. Lisa Bluett andDavid Molyneux, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine

Photo cr edits: 1-3 Wellcome Trust Library, London, 4. London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, 5. G P Mat thews, (ht tp://www.gpmatthews.nildram.co .uk)

Photo cr edits: 1. The Well come Trust (F.E.G. Cox, The Il lustrated History of Tropical Diseases - 1996), 2. WHO/TDR/STAMMERS, 3-5 Mosby International from Peters, W.& Pasvol, G. Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 5th Edit ion

Photo cr edits: 1. London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, 2. Well come Trust Library, London, 3. The Well come Trust (F.E.G. Cox, The Il lustrated History of TropicalDiseases – 1996; Ch ina Imper ial Maritime Customs (1881), 4. From Donald, A. (1997) J ournal of t he South Carolina Medica l Association, (Cour tesy o f Ms Erica Peake),5. Web Atlas o f Medical Parasitology, Korean Society of Para sitology, Tai Soon Yong

Photo cr edits: 1. Dr ew Berry, The Wal ter and E liza Hall Institute of Medical Research, 2-5 Mosby International from Peters, W. & Pasvol, G. Tropical Medicine andParasitology 5th Edition

Photo cr edits: 1, 4, 5 Wellcome Trust Library, London, 2-3 London School of Hyg iene and Tropical Medicine

Photo cr edits: 1-3 David Ferguson (Univer sity o f Oxford), 4. M osby International from Peters, W. & Pasvol, G. Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 5th Edit ion, 5. Usedwith permission o f Stylorouge, London

Photo cr edits: 1. David Ferguson (Un iversity of Oxford ), 2. Mosby International from Peters, W. & Pasvol, G. Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 5th Edit ion, 3. GeoffreyA Stemp, 4-5 Steve Wright (Moredun Research institute)

Photo cr edits: 1. Constance Finney, Un iversity of Edinburgh, 2. Wellcome Trust Library, London, 3, 5 M osby International from Peters, W. & Pasvol, G. Tropical Medicineand Parasitology 5th Edit ion, 4. Frank Jackson, (Moredun Research institute)

Many of those diseases specifically associated with thetropics are caused by parasites. Parasites can be single-celled (protozoa) or else multi-cellular (worms, alsoknown as helminths and arthropods including insectsand mites) and live within or on other organisms.Parasites exert an appalling toll on human health,causing diseases like malaria, sleeping sickness,elephantiasis and schis tosomiasis to name but a few.

The period between 1870 and 1920 has been describedas “the golden age of Parasitology”. The causativeagents of many impor tant parasitic diseases weredescribed in this time; many by Scottish investigators.This exhibition aims to celebrate these discoveries.


Britain itself was, and remains, a conglomerate ofdifferent nation states. Scotland tied with England formallyafter the Acts of Union in 1707 but aspects of Scott ishlife, above all education, remained distinct.

Great Scottish philosophers like David Hume (1711-1776) and A dam Smith (1723-1790) drove the so-called “Enlightenment”. Industrialisation and technologicaladvancement flooded out of Scotland. Joseph Black(1728-1799) led a revolution in chemistry and his formerGlasgow University pupil James Watt (1736-1819)invented the steam engine.


The educated and enlightened Scots who emerged fromthis system could not rely on inherited wealth to paytheir way. They needed to work. And yet much of theBritish indus trial system was dominated by an eliteEnglish establishment. Scots frequently needed to lookelsewhere. Two of the most influential early Europeanexplorers of Africa were James Bruce (1730-1794),who discovered the source of the Blue Nile, and MungoPark (1771-1806) who navigated the river Niger. Bothwere Scots. These pioneers preceded Dr DavidLivingstone (1813-1873) whose success as an explorerin Africa can be linked to his diligence as a physicianso we root our discussions on the Scottish encounterwith tropical disease with him (see David Livingstone,pages 6-7).




“Beware the Bight of Benin, for there’s one thatcomes out for ten that goes in” went an old seashanty. Parts of Africa had rightly picked up the reputationas “The white man’s grave”. I t was Doctor Livingstone’sdiligence as a physician that allowed him to succeedwhere others failed. He suffered from repeated bouts ofmalaria, but found that quinine (an ancient remedymade from the bark of Peruvian Cinchona trees) couldkeep the disease at bay. Another Scottish explorerWilliam Balfour Baikie (1824-1864) had promotedthe use of quinine after navigating the Niger in 1854.Burroughs-Wellcome later marketed a quinine-basedmedication called Livingstone’s rousers.






After routine posts in England, Manson joined theChinese Imperial Maritime Customs Service and, whileworking in Amoy (now Xiamen), demonstrated that thefilarial worm, Wuchereria bancrofti (see The Filariases,pages 18-19) was transmitted by mosquitoes and, indoing so, established the field of vector-borne diseases.

He also recorded the nocturnal periodicity of micofilariaeand postulated that infection with adult W. bancroftiwas the cause of the grotesque disease elephantiasis(see The Filariases, pages 18-19). Later, with GeorgeCarmichael Low, he elucidated the developmentalstages of W. bancrofti in mosquitoes.







In the brain, tr ypanosomes cause a progressivebreakdown of neurological funct ion and changes insleep/wake patterns are common (hence sleepingsickness). The disease is always fatal without treatment.The end of the twentieth century witnessed a dramaticresurgence in sleeping sickness with up to half a millionpeople infected by the African trypanosome. Numbershave declined in the last couple of years due to aconcerted World Health Organisation-led campaign todeal with the disease.


Several drugs are registered to treat human Africantrypanosomiasis, however none is entirely satisfactory.For example, the most widely used drug once the nervoussystem is involved is called melarsoprol which is basedon arsenic! This drug kills one in twenty taking it (animprovement on the inevitable death f rom the disease,but clearly not ideal as a drug). The Bi ll and MelindaGates Foundation are presently funding developmentof a new, oral drug for the disease, and fortunately thedrug companies Sanofi-Aventis and Bayer currentlydonate ant i-sleeping sickness drugs free of charge tothe World Health Organisation to distribute in Africa.





David Bruce (1855-1931)David Bruce is credited with identifying trypanosomesas the cause of both nagana in cattle and human sleepingsickness. Bruce was born to Scottish parents in Melbourne,Australia, returning to Scot land (Stirling) aged five. Hewas educated at the University of Edinburgh, studyingZoology and then Medicine.











A par ticularly unpleasant type of leishmaniasis is themucocutaneous type which occurs in parts of LatinAmerica. A well known TV documentary about “TheBoy David” tells the story of how Dr Ian Jackson, aScottish surgeon, reconstructed the face of David Lopez,a young Peruvian boy af flicted by mucocutaneousleishmaniasis.




Although the organisms causing Old World leishmaniasishad been described by the Russian, Peter FokitschBorovsky, in 1898, this information was not avai lable tothose working in India.

William Boog Leishman (1865-1926)William Boog Leishman, after whom leishmaniasis wasnamed by Ronald Ross in 1903, was born in Glasgowand educated at the University of Glasgow. After graduatingin Medicine he joined the Army Medical Corps in whichhe served for the whole of his career in India and later atthe Army Medical School at Net ley in Hampshire.





ElephantiasisThe filarial worms Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugiamalayi and Brugia timori cause lymphatic filariasis.The disease is also known as elephantiasis in severecases due to the grotesque malformations which arecharacteristic of patients’ bodies. Mosquitoes carry thefilaria between people. Over 120 million individuals in80 countries throughout the tropics and sub-tropics areinfected with lymphatic filariasis today. Extraordinaryenlargement of the scrotum can mark advancedelephantiasis as can thickening of the skin and massiveswelling of legs and feet in particular.









Larval stages (microfilariae) of Wuchereria were firstseen in the blood of humans in 1863 by Jean-NicholasDemarquay . Timothy Lewis, who trained inAberdeen, linked the worms with filariasis in 1872.


Douglas Moray Cooper Lamb Argyll-Robertson(1837-1909)Douglas Argyll-Robertson made key observations inregard to the fi larial disease loaisis. He was born inEdinburgh and educated at the Universities of Edinburgh,St. Andrews and Berlin. After graduating in Medicine(St Andrews, 1857) he trained as an ophthalmic surgeonat the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary before becomingPresident of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh. In 1895 he described male and female adult Loa loaand recognised the connection between Calabar swellingand these worms. Argyll-Robertson also pioneeredsurgical removal of adult worms from the eye.








Patrick Manson (see Patrick Manson, pages 8-9)made numerous impor tant contributions to fluke research.In 1902 Manson suggested that S. haemotobium wasnot the only human infectious schistosome. This wasconfirmed in 1915 when Robert Leiper named the secondspecies S. mansoni.

Manson also suggested that snails may play a role inthe transmission of the lung fluke Paragonimus (firstdiscovered in the lungs of humans by Sidney Ringerin 1879). A number of Japanese investigators, between1916-1922, described the life cycles of liver and lungflukes including Clonorchis passage through snails andalso fish, and crustaceans including crayfish.

James Frederick Parry McConnell(1848-1895)James Frederick Parry McConnell fi rst recognisedClonorchis sinensis in 1875. McConnell was born ofScottish parents in Agra, India.





Malaria parasites are transmitted by female mosquitoesof the genus Anopheles. Parasites, injected into theblood, rapidly enter cells in the liver. Here they transforminto new forms that invade red blood cells. Every 48,or 72 hours, depending on the species, the parasitescomplete a cycle of multiplication in red blood cells andthen burst out, inducing the profound periodic feversthat characterise the disease. The deadly falciparummalaria can, in around 1% of cases, lead to cerebralor other organ damage as parasi tised red cells blockthe blood vessels feeding the brain and other organs.







Malaria was even present in medieval Scotland. Theeponymous anti-hero of Shakespeare’s Scottish playwas hopeful that his enemies, besieging Dunsinanecastle in Perthshire, would succumb to The Ague. Aguewas the term used for malarial fevers at this time. It wasJohn McCulloch, born on Guernsey to a Scot tishfather, who first introduced the term malaria into theEnglish language (from the Italian mal-aria meaning“bad air” ; it was long believed that the disease wastransmitted by breathing miasmas emanating fromstagnant water).

Our scientific understanding of malaria did not beginuntil the end of the nineteenth centur y.

The parasites themselves were first seen in 1880 by aFrench army surgeon, Alphonse Laveran. Thediscovery that the mosquito acted as a vector was dueto the intuition of Patrick Manson who had alreadydemonstrated that mosquitoes transmitted lymphaticfilariasis. Manson persuaded Ronald Ross, an armysurgeon, to carry out work in India to prove the hypothesisthat mosquitoes carried malaria parasites. This Rossdid, although Italian malariologists made relateddiscoveries at the same t ime. In 1947, Henry Shortt(see The Scottish Encounter with Leishmaniasis, pages16-17) showed that, in humans, a phase of division inthe liver preceded the development of parasites in theblood.




Toxoplasma is capable of living in most animals, causinga wide spectrum of diseases. It can cause abor tion insheep and goats and is a major cause of death in seaotters and Australian marsupials.


Generally our immune systems keep the parasites incheck. However, Toxoplasma can form cysts in variousorgans and enter a state of dormancy until an oppor tunityarises for them to proliferate. This is why toxoplasmosisis a major problem in immunocompromised individuals,such as patients on immunosuppressive therapy as oftenused in treatment of cancer, or in people whose immunesystems have been disrupted by HIV/AIDS. Irvine Welsh’scharacter “Tommy” dies from cerebral toxoplasmosis inthe iconic novel “Trainspotting” released as a film of thesame name in 1996. Tommy caught the disease froma pet kitten after contracting AIDS related to intravenousdrug abuse.





T. gondii was initially discovered, largely by accident,in 1908, by Charles Nicolle, while searching for areservoir of Leishmania in a nor th African rodent. Atabout the same t ime, Alfonso Splendore, workingin Sao Paulo, discovered the same parasite in rabbits.Subsequently there were numerous reports from mammalsand birds, both in the wild and captivity, and it graduallybecame clear that T. gondii was also a ver y commonparasite in humans and domesticated animals in allparts of the world.


Initially he thought that the parasite was transmitted withthe nematode worm Toxocara cati, as happens withthe flagellate Histomonas meleagridis and the nematodeHeterakis gallinarum, but subsequently, in 1969, heidentified the protozoan oocysts in the faeces as belongingto the group of parasi tes known as the coccidia.







In one study, children living in Africa and infected withintestinal worms showed no signs of asthma. Followingdrug treatment to remove the worms, the children becametwice as likely to develop allergic responses leading toscientists proposing that it may be the worms themselvesthat were somehow protecting people against thedevelopment of allergies. The dramatic ri se ininflammatory bowel disease (Crohn’s disease) in manycountries world wide has also been linked to the absenceof intestinal worm infestations.










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3. L eishmania

4. Plasmodium

5. Trypanosome





1. WCMP

Photo cr edits: .3. Elmarie Myburgh and Jeremy M ottram, 4 . Anubhav Srivastava, 5 . Fab ien Jourdan


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3. Leishmania

4. Plasmodium

5. Trypanosome

Sir Henry Wellcome, whose will founded the Wellcome Trust, was himself pall bearer at the funeral of Sir Henry Morton Stanley and his lifelong fascination with tropical disease was stimulated by his reading of Livingstone’s explorations (see page 6-7). Wellcome’s legacy has enabled the funding of high quality biomedical research throughout the twentieth and on into the twenty first centuries. The Wellcome Centre for Molecular Parasitology (WCMP) is one of nine biomedical centres created by the Wellcome Trust, as centres of excellence conducting work of major international significance within designated fields of study. The WCMP was founded as a Wellcome Trust Unit in 1987, with a remit to study basic features of parasites, using genetic and molecular technology allied with study of parasites as whole organisms.

Since then, the WCMP has expanded through recruitment of internationally renowned research leaders and since 2006 the centre has been housed in the multidisciplinary Glasgow Biomedical Research Centre, where strong interactions with Microbiologists, Immunologists and Structural Biologists ensure interdisciplinary research of a type essential for major scientific breakthroughs today.

The activities of WCMP are divided into basic research of parasite biology, and associated translational activities, such as disease intervention and molecular epidemiology. Research focuses on various parasites, including those causing trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis, malaria, toxoplasmosis and trichomoniasis. Although the parasites differ greatly from each other, there is focus on core processes, many of which show common mechanisms in the different parasites.

The centre has a strong infrastructure that encourages high-quality science, through multidisciplinary investigation and cross fertilisation in ideas and approaches. Research is conducted across different biological scales, starting with the smallest molecules from which parasites are built to an understanding of the broader ecological context in which the parasites find themselves. The ultimate aim is to use the knowledge gained from the study of parasites to understand their strategies for success and to develop new interventions against the diseases they cause.

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This exhibition was funded by the Wellcome Trust as part of their contribution to an Engaging Science Award to the British Society of Parasitology initiated by Dr Lee Innes (Moredun Research Institute). Dr Mike Barrett (University of Glasgow) conceived of and researched much of the information for the exhibition. Professor Frank Cox (London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine) conducted most of the research into the contribution of Scottish investigators to the history of Parasitology.

A number of individuals and organisations kindly provided pictures: including The Wellcome Trust Medical Photographic Library, WHO-TDR, Mosby International Publishers (from Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 5th Edition, 2002, Wallace Peters and Geoffrey Pasvol, Eds.), Dr David Ferguson (University of Oxford), Dr Laurence Tetley (University of Glasgow), Maggie Reilly (Archivist, Hunterian Museum, Glasgow), Mrs Carol Parry (College Archivist, Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow), Victoria Killick, Archivist at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Karen Carruthers (Director of the David Livingstone Centre), Mhairi Stewart (University of Glasgow), Gerald Späth and Stephen Beverley (Washington University’ St. Louis, USA), The Wellcome Trust (F.E.G. Cox, The Illustrated History of Tropical Diseases – 1996),

Lisa Bluett and Professor David Molyneux (Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine), G P Matthews, (http://www.gpmatthews.nildram.co.uk), Korean Society of Parasitology, Ms Erica Peake (Archivist of the South Carolina Medical Association), Drew Berry, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Amy Clarke (University of Glasgow), Stylorouge, London, Steve Wright (Moredun Research institute), Constance Finney (University of Edinburgh), Frank Jackson, (Moredun Research institute).

A number of people provided information on various diseases, including Professor Stephen Phillips, Professor Paul Hagan, Professor John Kusel, Professor Keith Vickerman and Dr Lisa Ranford-Cartwright (University of Glasgow), Professor David Molyneux (Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine), and Dr Lee Innes (Moredun Research Institute) all of whom also provided excellent editorial assistance and invaluable advice. The Aberdeen Leopard Magazine found some archived material on Manson. Rachel Kidd and especially Amy Clarke also made key contributions to editing and assembly of posters. The poster and booklet design was by the FBLS Graphic Support Unit at the University of Glasgow.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Professor Michael P. Barrett:Mike Barrett is Professor in Parasitology at the University of Glasgow. His main research interests focus on the development of new drugs for protozoan diseases including malaria and above all human African trypanosomiasis. He is a member of the Human African Trypanosomiasis Network of the World Health Organisation and is involved in numerous collaborative ventures aimed at understanding how drugs work against parasites. He teaches on the University of Glasgow’s Parasitology degree and has a long standing interest in the History of Parasitology, particularly from a Scottish perspective. The journeys of David Livingstone through Africa in particular served as an inspiration for this exhibition and accompanying booklet. ([email protected])

Dr Lee Innes:Lee Innes obtained a PhD in Tropical Veterinary Medicine from the University of Edinburgh and spent several years working in Africa before returning to Edinburgh where she currently works as Principal Scientist at the Moredun Research Institute. Her main research interests involve protozoan parasites and vaccine development. More recently she has become involved in communication of science and is Director of The Creative Science Company in Scotland. ([email protected])

Professor Frank Cox:Frank Cox is a Senior Visiting Research Fellow at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine where his interests are in the History of Parasitology and Tropical Medicine. He has written a number of reviews in this area and edited the Wellcome Illustrated History of Tropical Diseases. He was formerly Professor of Parasite Immunology at King’s College London where he worked on immunity to malaria and leishmaniasis particularly non-specific killing. Frank has also been Editor of Parasitology and the Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene and has written several books including Modern Parasitology. ([email protected])

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The Scottish Encounter with Tropical Disease

Documents

Transcript of The Scottish Encounter with Tropical Disease