The Science of PsychologyChapter 1

What is Psychology?• Psychology - scientific study of

behavior and mental processes.

• Behavior - outward or overt actions and reactions.

• Mental processes - internal, covert activity of our minds.

• Psychology is a science

LO 1.1 Definition and goals of psychology

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Psychology’s Four Goalshttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_OBlgSz8sSM

1. Description• What is happening?

2. Explanation (theory) • Why is it happening?

3. Prediction• Will it happen again?

4. Control• How can it be changed?

LO 1.1 Definition and goals of psychology

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In the Beginning • Relatively new field approximately 125 years old

• Influenced by:

• Philosophers- interested in understanding the human mind and its connection to physical body

• Medical doctors and physiologists- interested in the physical connection between body and brain

The Philosophers• Aristotle- Believed the soul and body were aspects

of same structure

• Plato- Believed soul could exist separately of body

• Rene Descartes- Agreed with Plato and believed pineal gland was the seat of the soul

Structuralism

• Structuralism - focused on structure or basic elements of the mind.

• Wilhelm Wundt’s psychology laboratory

• Germany in 1879• Developed the technique of objective

introspection

• Edward Titchener• Wundt’s student; brought structuralism to America.

LO 1.2 Structuralism and functionalism

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Functionalism

• Functionalism - how the mind allows people to adapt, live, work, and play.

• Proposed by William James.

• Interested in the importance of consciousness to everyday life rather than analysis of it

LO 1.2 Structuralism and functionalism

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Gestalt Psychology• Gestalt – “An organized Whole”

psychology.

• Started with Wertheimer, who studied sensation and perception.

• Believed that psychological events (i.e., perceiving and sensing) could not be broken down into any smaller elements and still be understood

LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism

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Gestalt Psychology

Psychoanalysis

• Freud- Neurologist (specialized in disorders of the nervous system)

• Proposed there was an unconscious mind for which we push, or repress, all of our threatening urges and desires

• The repressed urges, in trying to surface, created the nervous disorders in patients

LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism

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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sj2JFI4BsRQ&feature=related

Behaviorism• Behaviorism - the science of behavior that focuses

on observable behavior only.

• Proposed by John B. Watson.• Based much from work of Ivan Pavlov who

demonstrated that a reflex could be conditioned (learned).

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CpoLxEN54ho&feature=related

• Watson believed that phobias were learned.• Case of “Little Albert” – taught to fear a white

rat.• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xt0ucxOrPQE

LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism

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Modern Perspectives

1. Psychodynamic perspective – • Unconscious mind influences behaviors• Development of sense of self and

discovery of motivations

2. Behavioral perspective – • All behavior is learned• Operant conditioning • Reinforcement

LO 1.4 Modern perspectives Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers

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Modern Perspectives

3. Humanistic perspective

• Free will- freedom to chose destiny

• Early founders:• Abraham Maslow • Carl Rogers

• Self-actualization - achieving one’s full potential or actual self.

LO 1.4 Modern perspectives Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers

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Modern Perspectives4. Cognitive perspective –

• Focuses on memory, intelligence, perception, problem solving, and learning.

LO 1.4 Modern perspectives Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers

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Modern Perspectives4. Sociocultural perspective –http://www.betterdaystv.net/play.php?vid=19442

• Focuses on the relationship between social behavior and culture.

Modern Perspectives6. Biopsychological perspective – http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hKk96kOAnLg

• Behavior attributed to genetic influences, hormones, and the activity of the nervous system.

7. Evolutionary perspective –

• focuses on the biological bases of universal mental characteristics

• Behavior seen as having an adaptive or survival value.

LO 1.4 Modern perspectives Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers

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Psychology and the Scientific Method

• Scientific method - system of gathering data so that bias and error in measurement are reduced.

• Steps in the Scientific Method:1. Perceive the question2. Form a hypothesis 3. Test hypothesis 4. Draw conclusions5. Report your results so that others can try to

replicate it

LO 1.6 Psychology is a science; steps in scientific method

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Descriptive Methods• Naturalistic observation

• Advantage:• Realistic picture of behavior

• Disadvantages:• Observer effect – tendency of observer to

influence behavior• Observer bias - tendency of observers to see

what they expect to see• Each naturalistic setting is unique and

observations may not hold true.

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eIG6EMVy6zs&feature=related

LO 1.7 Naturalistic and laboratory settings

Descriptive Methods• Laboratory observation – observing

behavior in a laboratory setting.

• Advantages:• Control, allows use of specialized equipment.

• Disadvantage:• Artificial situation that may result in

artificial behavior.

LO 1.7 Naturalistic and laboratory settings

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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6EjJsPylEOY&feature=related

Descriptive Methods• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kc213mMSsjY&feature=related

• Case study - study of one individual in great detail.

• Advantage: tremendous amount of detail.• Disadvantage: cannot apply to others.

• Famous case study: Phineas Gage.

LO 1.8 Case studies and surveys

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Descriptive Methods• Surveys – method involving a series of questions

• Representative sample - randomly selected from a larger population of subjects.

• Population - the entire group

• Advantages:• Data from large numbers of people.• Study covert behaviors.

• Disadvantages:• Have to ensure representative sample• People are not always accurate (courtesy bias).

LO 1.8 Case studies and surveys

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Descriptive Methods• Have you ever stolen a street sign

before?• Would you rather be attacked by a

big bear or a swarm of bees?• What is your biggest pet peeve?• Do you chew your pens and

pencils?• What is your Song of the week?• Is it okay for guys to wear pink?• Do you still watch cartoons?• Whats your least favorite movie?• What movies could you watch over

and over and still love?• Ever gotten a speeding ticket?• Ran out of gas?

• When you were a kid, what did you dress up as for Halloween?

• How many languages can you speak?

• Afraid of heights?• Sing in the car?• Dance in the car?• Occupations you wanted to be when

you were a kid?• Ever have a Deja-vu feeling?• First concert?• Can you curl your tongue?• Own any record albums?• Own a record player?• What was the last concert you saw?

Random Sampling from Population

POPULATION

SAMPLE

INFERENCE

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Finding Relationships• Correlation - a measure of the relationship between

two variables • Variable- anything that can change or vary.

• Correlation coefficient (r) represents two things: • direction of the relationship.• strength of the relationship.

LO 1.9 Correlational technique

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Finding Relationships• Positive correlation – variables are related in the same

direction.• As one increases, the other increases; as one

decreases, the other decreases.

• Negative correlation – variables are related in opposite direction.• As one increases, the other decreases.

• CORRELATION DOES NOT PROVE CAUSATION• http://www.southparkstudios.com/clips/155004/?tab=playlist • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8dbDJzDV1CM&feature=related

LO 1.9 Correlational technique

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The Experiment• Experiment- manipulation of a variable to

see the effects of another variable

• Shows cause-and-effect relationships.

• Operational definition – objective definition of a variable (enables it to be directly measured).

• Independent variable (IV) – manipulated variable

• Dependent variable (DV) – effected variable

LO 1.10 Experimental approach and terms

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• Experimental group – Group subjected to independent variable.

• Control group – group not subjected to independent variable (controls for confounding variables).

• Random assignment - process of assigning to group randomly, equal chance of being in either group.• Controls for confounding (extraneous, interfering)

variables.

LO 1.10 Experimental approach and terms

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Experiment

Random Assignment

SAMPLE

Control Group

Experimental Group

Test for Differences

LO 1.10 Experimental approach and terms

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The Experiment• Placebo effect – participants’ expectations influence

how they behave.

• Single-blind study- subjects do not know what group they are in.

• Experimenter effect- experimenter influences the results of the study.

• Double-blind study - neither the experimenter nor the subjects know the subjects’ group

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LO 1.11 Placebo and the experimenter effects

Example of a Real Experiment

• Hypothesis

• Independent variable

• Dependent variable

• Experimental group

• Control group

LO 1.12 Conducting a real experiment

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