The School of · PDF file–Diuresis –Sweating –Third space losses ......
Transcript of The School of · PDF file–Diuresis –Sweating –Third space losses ......
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Shock
Vanessa Bowmaster
B.S. EMS, NREMT-P, CCP, FP-C
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Shock
“A rude unhinging of the machinery of life”
“A brief pause in the act of dying”
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Shock
Defined: Inadequate Tissue Perfusion
Inadequate peripheral perfusion leading to
failure of tissue oxygenation may lead to anaerobic metabolism
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Shock
• Homeostasis
– cellular state of balance
– perfusion of cells with oxygen is one of its
cornerstones
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Shock
• Adequate Cellular Oxygenation
– Red Cell Oxygenation
– Red Cell Delivery To Tissues
Fick Principle
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Fick Principle
Air’s gotta go in and out.
Blood’s gotta go round and round.
Any variation of the above is not a good thing!
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Shock
• Red Cell Oxygenation
– Oxygen delivery to alveoli
• Adequate FiO2
• Patent airways
• Adequate ventilation
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Shock
• Red Cell Oxygenation
– Oxygen exchange with blood • Adequate oxygen diffusion into blood
• Adequate RBC flow past alveoli
• Adequate RBC mass/Hgb levels
• Adequate RBC capacity to bind O2
– pH
– Temperature
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Shock
• Red Cell Delivery To Tissues
– Adequate perfusion • Blood volume
• Cardiac output
– Heart rate
– Stroke volume (pre-load, contractility, after-
load)
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Shock
Inadequate oxygenation or perfusion
causes:
Inadequate cellular oxygenation
Shift from aerobic to anaerobic metabolism
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AEROBIC METABOLISM
6 O2
GLUCOSE
METABOLISM
6 CO2
6 H2O
36 ATP
HEAT (417 kcal)
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ANAEROBIC METABOLISM
GLUCOSE METABOLISM
2 LACTIC ACID
2 ATP
HEAT (32 kcal)
Glycolysis: Break down of glycogen in the liver when the body
is in anaerobic metabolism. Inefficient source of energy
production; 2 ATP for every glucose; produces ketones and
acid
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Anaerobic Metabolism
• Occurs without oxygen
– glycolysis can occur without oxygen
– cellular death leads to tissue and organ death
– can occur even after return of perfusion
• organ or organism death
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Inadequate Cellular Oxygen Delivery
Anaerobic
Metabolism
Inadequate Energy
Production
Metabolic
Failure
Lactic
Acid
Production
Metabolic
Acidosis CELL
DEATH
Ultimate
Effects of
Anaerobic
Metabolism
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Maintaining perfusion requires:
• Volume
• Pump
• Vessels
– Failure of one or more of these causes
shock
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Shock
• Hypovolemic Shock = Low Volume
–Trauma
–Non-traumatic
blood loss GI
GU
Vaginal
–Burns
–Diarrhea
–Vomiting
–Diuresis
–Sweating
–Third space losses Pancreatitis
Peritonitis
ascites
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Shock
• Cardiogenic Shock = Pump Failure
–Acute MI
–CHF
–Bradyarrhythmias
–Tachyarrhythmias
–Mechanical obstruction Cardiac tamponade
Tension pneumothorax
Pulmonary embolism
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Shock
• Vasogenic (distributive) Shock = Low
Resistance
– Spinal cord trauma
• neurogenic shock
– Depressant drug toxicity
– Simple fainting
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Shock
• Mixed Shock
– Septic Shock • Overwhelming infection
• Inflammatory response occurs
• Blood vessels
– Dilate (loss of resistance)
– Leak (loss of volume)
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Shock
• Mixed Shock
– Septic Shock • Fever
– Increased O2 demand
– Increased anaerobic metabolism
• Bacterial toxins
– Impaired tissue metabolism
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Shock
• Mixed Shock
– Anaphylactic Shock • Severe allergic reaction
• Histamine is released
• Blood vessels
– Dilate (loss of resistance)
– Leak (loss of volume)
• Extravascular smooth muscle spasm
– Laryngospasm
– Bronchospasm
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Shock
• Progressive syndrome
• Three phases
– Compensated
– Decompensated
– Irreversible
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Shock
• Signs and symptoms due to:
– Hypoperfusion
– Compensatory responses
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Compensated Shock
• Baroreceptors detect fall in BP
– Usually 60-80 mm Hg (adult)
• Sympathetic nervous system activates
– What are the primary SNS
Neurotransmitters & their effects? • ACh
• Epi Norepi
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Compensated Shock
• Cardiac effects • Increased force of contractions
• Increased rate
• Increased cardiac output
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Compensated Shock
• Peripheral effects • Arteriolar constriction
• Pre-/post-capillary sphincter contraction
• Increased peripheral resistance
• Shunting of blood to core organs
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Compensated Shock
• Decreased renal blood flow
– Renin released from kidney arteriole
– Renin & Angiotensinogen combine
– Converts to Angiotensin I
– Angiotensin I converts to Angiotensin II
• Peripheral vasoconstriction
• Increased aldosterone release (adrenal cortex)
– promotes reabsorption of sodium & water
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Compensated Shock
• Decreased blood flow to hypothalamus
• Release of antidiuretic hormone (ADH
or Arginine Vasopressin) from
posterior pituitary
– Retention of salt, water
– Peripheral vasoconstriction
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Compensated Shock • Insulin
– secretion caused by epinephrine
– contributes to hyperglycemia
• Glucagon
– release caused by epinephrine
– promotes liver glycogenolysis & gluconeogenesis
• Body’s releasing glycogen stores to produce glucose.
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Compensated Shock
• Peripheral capillaries contain minimal blood
• Stagnation
• Aerobic metabolism changes to anaerobic
• Extracellular potassium shifts begin
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Compensated Shock
• Presentation
– Restlessness, anxiety • Earliest sign of shock
– Tachycardia • Bradycardia in cardiogenic, neurogenic
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Compensated Shock
• Presentation – Normal BP, narrow pulse pressure
– Falling BP = late sign of shock
– Mild orthostatic hypotension (15 to 25
mm Hg)
– “Possible” delay in capillary refill
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Compensated Shock
• Presentation
– Pale, cool skin
• Cardiogenic
• Hypovolemic
– Flushed skin
• Anaphylactic
• Septic
• Neurogenic
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Compensated Shock
• Presentation – Slight tachypnea – Respiratory compensation for metabolic
acidosis
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Compensated Shock
• Presentation
– Nausea, vomiting
– Thirst
– Decreased body temperature
– Feels cold
– Weakness
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Decompensated Shock
• Presentation
– Cardiac Effects
• Decreased RBC oxygenation
• Decreased coronary blood flow
• Myocardial ischemia
• Decreased force of contraction
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Decompensated Shock • Presentation
– Peripheral effects
• Relaxation of precapillary sphincters
• Continued contraction of postcapillary sphincters
• Peripheral pooling of blood
• Plasma leakage into interstitial spaces
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Decompensated Shock
• Presentation
– Peripheral effects
• Continued anaerobic metabolism
• Continued increase in extracellular
potassium
• Rouleaux formations of RBCs
– “pile up like coins”
• Cold, gray, “waxy” skin
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Decompensated Shock
• Presentation
– Listlessness, confusion, apathy, slow speech
– Tachycardia; weak, thready pulse
– Decreased blood pressure
– Moderate to severe orthostatic hypotension
– Decreased body temperature
– Tachypnea
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Irreversible Shock
• Post-capillary sphincter relaxation
• Loss of peripheral vascular
resistance
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Irreversible Shock
• Washout of accumulated products • Hydrogen ion
• Potassium
• Rouleaux formations
• Carbon dioxide
• Systemic metabolic acidosis occurs
• Cardiac Output decreases further
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Irreversible Shock
• Presentation – Confusion, slurred speech, unconscious
– Slow, irregular, thready pulse
– Falling BP; diastolic goes to zero
– Cold, clammy, cyanotic skin
– Slow, shallow, irregular respirations
– Dilated, sluggish pupils
– Severely decreased body temperature
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Irreversible Shock
• Irreversible shock leads to:
– Renal failure
– Hepatic failure
– Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC)
– Multiple organ systems failure
– Adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)
– Death
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Disseminated Intravascular
Coagulation (DIC)
• Decreased perfusion causes tissue
damage/necrosis
• Tissue necrosis triggers diffuse clotting
• Diffuse clotting consumes clotting factors
• Fibrinolysis begins
• Severe, uncontrolled systemic hemorrhage
occurs
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Adult Respiratory Distress Syndrome
(ARDS)
• AKA: “Shock Lung”
• Decreased perfusion damages alveolar and
capillary walls
• Surfactant production decreases
• Fluid leaks into interstitial spaces and alveoli
• Gas exchange impaired
• Work of breathing increases
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Key Issues In Shock
• Tissue ischemic sensitivity
– Heart, brain, lung: 4 to 6 minutes
– GI tract, liver, kidney: 45 to 60 minutes
– Muscle, skin: 2 to 3 hours
Resuscitate Critical Tissues First!
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Key Issues In Shock
• Recognize & Treat during compensatory
phase
Best indicator of resuscitation effectiveness =
Level of Consciousness
Restlessness, anxiety, combativeness =
Earliest signs of shock
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Key Issues In Shock
• Falling BP = LATE sign of shock
• BP is NOT same thing as perfusion
• Pallor, tachycardia, slow capillary refill =
Shock, until proven otherwise
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General Shock Management
• Airway
– Open, Clear, Maintained
– Consider Intubation
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General Shock Management
• High concentration oxygen
– Oxygen = Most Important Drug in Shock
• Assist ventilation as needed
– When in Doubt, Ventilate
• BVM
• Decompress Tension Pneumothorax
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General Shock Management
• Establish venous access
– Replace fluid
– Give drugs, as appropriate
– Don’t delay definitive therapy
• Maintain body temperature
– Cover patient with blanket if needed
– Avoid cold IV fluids
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General Shock Management
• Monitor
– Mental Status
– Pulse
– Respirations
– Blood Pressure
– ECG
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Hypovolemic Shock
• Control severe external bleeding
• Elevate lower extremities
• Avoid Trendelenburg
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Hypovolemic Shock
• Fluid Resuscitation aimed at
permissive hypotension
• 2 Large Bore IV’s of NS or LR
• Maintain BP of 90 mmHg
• Some EMS Systems still aim for BP of
100 systolic for fluid resuscitation
– Not current ACS recommendation
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Permissive Hypotension Physiology
• Body has several protective measures with BP at this level
• Increasing BP causes more rapid blood loss
• Increasing BP may cause clot to dislodge increasing more bleeding
– Especially if bleeding has stopped
• Still being researched
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Hypovolemic Shock
• Do NOT delay transport
• Start IVs enroute to hospital
Where does stabilization of critical trauma occur?
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Cardiogenic Shock
• Supine, or head and shoulders slightly
elevated
• Do NOT elevate lower extremities
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Cardiogenic Shock
• Keep open line, micro-drip set
• Fluid challenge based on cardiovascular
mechanism and history
– Titrate to BP ~ 90 mm Hg
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Cardiogenic Shock
• Treat the underlying cause if possible
• Treat rate, then rhythm, then BP
Correct bradycardia or tachycardia
Correct irregular rhythms
Treat BP
• Cardiac contractility
– Dobutamine, Dopamine
• Peripheral resistance
– Dopamine, Norepinephrine
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Obstructive Shock
-Treat the underlying cause • Tension Pneumothorax
• Pericardial Tamponade
– Isotonic fluids titrated to BP w/o
pulmonary edema
– Control airway • Intubation
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Shock Management
Avoid vasopressors until
hypovolemia ruled out, or
corrected
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Shock Management
Squeezing partially empty tank can cause ischemia,
necrosis of kidney and bowel
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Vasogenic Shock
• Consider need to assist ventilations
• Patient supine; lower extremities
elevated
• Avoid Trendelenburg
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Vasogenic Shock
• Infuse isotonic crystalloid
– “Top off tank”
• Consider possible hypovolemia
• Consider vasopressors – Dopamine
– Levophed preferred for septic shock • or Phenylephrine (Neo-synephrine)
• Rarely Epi drips
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Vasogenic Shock
• Maintain body temperature
• Hypothermia may occur
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Vasogenic Shock • Anaphylaxis
– Suppress inflammatory response
• Antihistamines
• Corticosteroids
– Oppose histamine response
• Epinephrine
– bronchospasm & vasodilation
– Replace intravascular fluid
• Isotonic fluid titrated to BP ~ 90 mm
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Shock in Children
• Small blood volume
– Increased hypovolemia risk
• Very efficient compensatory
mechanisms
– Failure may cause “sudden” shock
• Pallor, altered LOC, cool skin = shock
UPO
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Shock in Children
• Avoid massive fluid infusion
– Use 20 cc/kg boluses
• High surface to volume ratio
– Increased hypothermia risk
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Shock in the Elderly
• Poor cardiovascular condition
– Rapid decompensation
• Sepsis more likely
• Hypoperfusion can cause:
– CVA
– AMI
– Seizures
– Bowel Infarctions
– Renal failure
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Shock in the Elderly
• Assessment more difficult
– Peripheral vascular disease
– Weak pulses
– Altered sensorium
– Hypertension masking hypoperfusion
– Beta-blockers masking hypoperfusion
• Fluid infusion may produce volume overload/CHF
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Shock in OB Patients
• Pulse increases 10 to 15 bpm
• BP lower than in non-pregnant patient
• Blood volume increased by 45%
– Slower onset of shock signs/
symptoms
• Fluid resuscitation requires greater
volume
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Shock in OB Patients
• Oxygen requirement increased 10 to 20%
• Pregnant uterus may compress vena cava, decreasing venous return to heart
– Place women in late-term pregnancy on left-side
• Fetus can be in trouble even though mother looks well-perfused
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Transport Considerations
• Indications for Rapid Transport
• Indications for Trauma Center Transport
• Considerations for Air Medical
Transport
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• Questions?