THE ROLE OF LEISURE ACTIVITIES IN SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR ...

THE ROLE OF LEISURE ACTIVITIES IN SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR

INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS

____________

A Thesis

Presented

to the Faculty of

California State University, Chico

____________

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

Master of Arts

in

Recreation Administration

____________

by

© Reiko Higa 2012

Fall 2012



A Thesis

by

Reiko Higa

Fall 2012

APPROVED BY THE DEAN OF GRADUATE STUDIES AND VICE PROVOST FOR RESEARCH:

_________________________________ Eun K. Park, Ph.D.

APPROVED BY THE GRADUATE ADVISORY COMMITTEE:

______________________________ _________________________________ Sarah L. Richardson, Ph.D. Michael J. Leitner, Ph.D., Chair Graduate Coordinator

_________________________________

Sarah L. Richardson, Ph.D.

_________________________________ Susan Avanzino, Ph.D.

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PUBLICATION RIGHTS

No portion of this thesis may be reprinted or reproduced in any manner

unacceptable to the usual copyright restrictions without the written permission of the

author.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

Publication Rights ...................................................................................................... iii List of Tables.............................................................................................................. vi Abstract....................................................................................................................... vii

CHAPTER I. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1

Purpose of the Project................................................................... 1 Need of the Study ......................................................................... 2 Research Questions ...................................................................... 4 Definitions of Terms..................................................................... 5 Limitation of the Study................................................................. 6

II. Literature Review ..................................................................................... 8

International Students................................................................... 8 Stress of International Students .................................................... 10 International Students and Social Support ................................... 13 Leisure Activities.......................................................................... 16

III. Methodology............................................................................................. 20

Population of the Study ................................................................ 21 Procedures of Recruitment ........................................................... 23 Data Collection............................................................................. 23 Organization of the Interview Questions...................................... 24 Data Analysis................................................................................ 25

IV. Findings .................................................................................................... 28

How International Students Came to the U.S............................... 28 International Students’ Life and Experiences in the U.S. ............ 31

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CHAPTER PAGE Findings for Research Question 1 ................................................ 38 Findings for Research Question 2 ................................................ 43 Findings for Research Question 3 ................................................ 45 Findings for Research Question 4 ................................................ 52 Findings for Research Question 5 ................................................ 58 Findings for Research Question 6 ................................................ 61 Findings for Research Question 7 ................................................ 64

V. Discussion and Conclusion....................................................................... 67

Discussion..................................................................................... 67 Implications of the Study.............................................................. 70 Recommendations for Future Research........................................ 73

References .................................................................................................................. 75

Appendices A. Interview Guide ........................................................................................ 82

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LIST OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE 1. International Students’ Leisure Activities ................................................ 44 2. International Students’ Leisure Activities to Reduce Stress..................... 63 3. International Students’ Leisure Activities to Gain Social Support........... 65

vii

ABSTRACT



by

© Reiko Higa 2012

Master of Arts in Recreation Administration

California State University, Chico

Fall 2012

The purpose of this study is to identify the components and role of perceived

leisure activities of international students on social support. Given the fact that hun-

dreds of thousands of international students come to the U.S. every year and their con-

tribution to the U.S. economy, American higher education institutions need to compre-

hend the severe issues which international students face, such as academic problems

and language barriers. This study examined what is perceived as social support by in-

ternational students from East Asia and what leisure activities are chosen by interna-

tional students, with a special focus on activities used to gain social support and reduce

stress. Qualitative interviews were employed in this study. The findings show that in-

ternational students talk to different kinds of people according to the kind of support

they look for. Various kinds of leisure activities emerge to gain social support and

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reduce stress. The implications of the findings and recommendations for future research

are provided as well.

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

This study was inspired by the researcher’s experience as an international

student. This the second phase of research which was previously done by the researcher.

The prior research aimed at identifying available social support by international students

in California State University, Chico. The most significant finding on perceived social

support by international students is that they talk to a certain kind of person depending on

what support they are looking for.

This study expanded the previous research on social support and international

students with the additional focus on leisure activities. This research particularly aimed at

gaining an insight into the scope of international students’ social support and leisure

activities.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to identify the components and role of social

support for international students which they gain through their perceived leisure

activities in the U.S. This study especially aims at identifying 1) the experiences which

international students have been through after coming to the U.S., 2) how social support

helps international students to reduce their stress, 3) what is considered as leisure

activities by international students, 4) why international students choose particular leisure

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activities in which to devote their time, 5) if leisure activities help international students

gain social support, and 6) if the leisure activities international students choose help them

reduce their stress in the U.S.

Need of the Study

The Institute of International Education (IIE) provides data about current

situations on international students in the U.S. The number of international students in the

U.S. was 764,495 at colleges and universities during the 2011-2012 academic year.

Although some countries increase while some countries decrease by the population

percentage, the total population of international students increased by 5.7% over the

previous academic year. Asia sends the most international students to the U.S. China was

the leading country in 2011-2012 (194,029) which occupied 25.4% of the total, followed

by India (100,270), South Korea (72,295), Taiwan (23,250), Japan (19,966), and Hong

Kong (8,032). The top hosting state in the U.S. was California where 102,789

international students went to colleges and universities during that period.

International students contribute financially to the universities in the United

States. According to the Economic Impact Statements by National Association of Foreign

Student Advisors (NAFSA) in 2011, the economic contribution by international students

was approximately $20 million for their tuition and living expenses. Also, international

students usually have to pay more for tuition than their American counterparts.

International students make a big contribution to American universities. Thus, much

attention should be paid to a warning that “[A]merican higher education institutions that

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take international students for granted, as ‘cash cows,’ do so at their peril” (Peterson,

Briggs, Dreasher, Horner, & Nelson, 1999, p.69).

This situation requires American universities to comprehend severe issues

which international students face. It is crucial to consider the situation of international

students in the U.S. to continue the benefits they bring to higher education in the U.S. In

addition, it can lead to a global implication in perceiving the adjustment of international

students (Andrade, 2006).

Although international students anticipate their future situation in a new place

beforehand, they are more likely to face transitional difficulties in American universities

compared to the local/in-state students (Kaczmarek, Matlock, Merta, Ames, & Ross,

1994). International students face difficulties in communication with Americans,

different academic systems, being under high pressure for academic success, and

financial concerns. In addition, a lot of international students experience culture shock

and acculturative stress. It may cause anxiety, confusion, misunderstanding, social

isolation, and even depression among international students (Lin & Yi, 1997; Wei,

Heppner, Mallen, Yu, Liao, & Wu 2007). Although most colleges and universities have

international student service centers and counseling systems, international students tend

to seek social support from members within their own cultural group rather than people

out of their own groups (Brison & Kottler, 1995). Feelings of shame are attached to the

usage of counseling centers among Asian international students. Therefore, it is important

to understand how international students’ experience and manage stress, so more

appropriate support systems can be identified.

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This study will contribute to the realm of leisure studies since international

students have not been paid much attention as a research subject in leisure studies. Also,

this study will make a contribution in the field of international studies in regard to the

current situation of globalization and the number of international students coming to the

U.S. As international students provide benefits for higher education in the U.S. in terms

of financial contribution, academic contribution, and cultural diversity, studies that can

improve the experience of international students are beneficial to both the students and

their host universities. Also, this study is helpful for current and prospective international

students to find social support and adjust more easily to a new environment. By exploring

what constitutes as social support for international students and its role for their lives in

the U.S., this paper aims at offering a basic understanding of concerns and situations

which international students tend to face during their stay in the U.S.

This study seeks to understand international students’ experiences in general,

as well as specifically in terms of leisure activities and development of social support in

relation to stress.

Research Questions

RQ1: How does social support help international students to reduce stress?

RQ2: What kind of leisure activities do international students devote their time to?

RQ3: Why do they choose the leisure activities to devote their time to?

RQ4: Do international students gain social support through their leisure activities?

If so, how?

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RQ5: Do leisure activities help international students to reduce their stress? If so,

how?

RQ6: What leisure activities help international students to relieve stress?

RQ7: What leisure activities help international students to gain social support?

Definitions of Terms

Asian Students

In this study, Asian students refer to international students from Japan, South

Korea, the People’s Republic of China, and Taiwan. Also, they are full-time students who

have been in academic programs for at least two semesters, excluding exchange students

and students of a language school.

Leisure Activities

Leisure activities refer to either 1) types of activities, 2) time in which people

can use freely, or 3) significant experiences which people find to be fun, gratifying, or

some other feelings. Also, the combination of the three components can be leisure

activities (Kleiber, Walker, & Mannel, 2011).

Social Support

Social support entails support which people can reach both in intimate or non-

intimate relationships (Winkelman, 1994). Depending on the kind of support needed,

people can obtain 1) emotional support, 2) network support, 3) esteem support, 4)

tangible support, and 5) informational support (Cutrona & Russell, 1990).

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Stress

In this particular study, it refers to stress experienced by international students

due to culture shock, homesickness, language barrier, and different academic systems.

Limitations of the Study

This study contains several factors which can be regarded as limitations or

constraints.

1) The participants were students only from California State University, Chico,

which is located in the northern part of California. Other regions/states might have their

own affective factors which are differentiated from California. Thus, the experiences of

the participants in this study do not necessarily represent the experiences of international

students in other schools and states.

2) Most of the participants in this study were undergraduate students. The

intensity of stress may differ between undergraduate and graduate students since graduate

students possess higher requirements in terms of academic expectations. Future study can

address differences between leisure activities of undergraduate and graduate students.

3) The participants in this study were all from Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and

People’s Republic of China. The data does not represent the population of international

students from other Asian countries such as India, which sends a number of students to

the U.S. Also, this study excludes international students from non-Asian countries. The

future studies can expand the population of samples from other Asian and non-Asian

countries.

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4) The participants in this study have stayed in the U.S. for at least two

semesters. There may be a difference between students who have stayed for a longer

period of time and their counterparts who have just arrived in the U.S. The researcher

assumed that participants could look back and compare their current experiences/feelings

with the ones in the past. This helped the researcher to explore their linear experiences in

the U.S. However, future research can address the components and roles of leisure

activities and social support of new international students, since it may be harder for them

to find social support and available leisure activities in a foreign country.

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CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

International Students

The latest data shows the number of international students in the U.S. was

764,495 at colleges and universities during the 2011-2012 academic year (International

Institute of Education, 2012, p. IIE). “Studying abroad is a common practice whether the

experience is short-term, typically a few months in another country to gain intercultural

understanding and/or study the language, or long-term, relocating to a different nation to

complete a degree” (Peterson, 2004, p.132).

People experience stress or anxiety when they are immersed in a new

environment, and college students are not an exception. After graduating from high

school, they are exposed to a completely new environment which is different from their

previous experiences in terms of academics and independence. All college students need

to get adjusted to their new environment both in academia and society (Ginter & Glauser,

1998). Adjustment is hard, especially for international students. One influential

contributor to their stress is language barriers. Language is an important factor for

adjustment (Lin & Yi, 1997; Yang & Clum, 1995). International students tend to feel that

they are not welcomed by local American people due to the language barriers. American

people are inpatient when listening to people who have different accents

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(Crawford, 2000). Even if they can appropriately employ English in classes, it might not

be easy for them to apply it in social interactions (Lacina, 2002).

The lack of English proficiency affects international students’ communication

styles, especially ones from collectivistic/ high-context cultures such as Asia (Japan,

People’s Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, India, and South Korea). In

individualistic cultures, for example U.S., the individual’s goal is his or her priority. On

the other hand, a group’s goal is emphasized in collectivistic cultures. Ingroups and

outgroups are usually mentioned when individualism and collectivism are addressed.

Members in an ingroup share a common sense, value, and even fate while they don’t

share those with people in outgroups (Triandis, 1995). The cultural dimensions affect the

extent to which international students find difficulties in society.

Language and cultural barriers are not the only stressors for international

students. Different education systems are another cause affecting their academic

difficulties. Sovic (2008) introduces the term “academic shock,” referring to academic

issues of international students such as adaptation to foreign academic systems,

relationships with local teachers, participation in classes, and group work assignments.

Due to the different academic systems/styles, international students may not be able to

fully comprehend lectures or proactively join discussions during classes or group

meetings (Lin & Yi, 1997). International students must deal with other stressors such as

racial discrimination, the restriction of their dietary choices, and financial stress (Lin &

Yi, 1997). International students pay significantly more tuition than local students and

financial aid and scholarships are limited or unavailable for international students most of

the time (Lin & Yi, 1997). These students then pay a substantial amount of money to

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study abroad, which can bring even more pressure for academic success, in addition to

the different systems.

The feelings of anxiety, depression, and confusion can arise when people

enter a new environment (Lin & Yi, 1997). After international students are exposed to a

new environment and culture, they need to move through the process of adjustment.

During this process, international students may encounter negative experiences.

Hopelessness can emerge from those negative experiences, and it is possible that

depression occurs due to extreme levels of hopeless feelings (Mori, 2000). Coming to a

foreign country requires international students to move away from their family and

friends in their home countries, and this causes homesickness.

Hundreds of thousands of international students come to the U.S. every year.

International students experience a great deal of stress in their new environments due to

being away from their family and friends in home countries, language barriers, and

different academic systems. Understanding international students’ experiences is

necessary for American universities desiring their contribution in terms of finances,

academics, and cross-cultural perspectives.

Stressors of International Students

International students face a lot of stressors after coming to the U.S. Culture

shock is one of the significant contributors to international students’ stress. Culture shock

is inevitable when an individual enters a new cultural environment. Although the term

“culture shock” has been redefined again and again, the consensus of culture shock is

“the multiple demands for adjustment that individuals experience at the cognitive,

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behavioral, emotional, social, and physiological levels, when they relocate to another

culture” (Chapdelaine & Alexitch, 2004, p. 168). Culture shock is linear and leads to

acculturation.

Culture shock is comprised of four main stages (Winkelman, 1994). The first

stage is known as the honeymoon/tourist stage, in which everything is perceived as new

and great and people mainly gain positive feelings such as excitement. The second stage,

which is the crises/cultural shock stage, is at the opposite side of the honeymoon stage,

and people perceive different cultures and different environments in a negative way.

Normally, this stage occurs within a couple of weeks or a month after the exposure to a

new environment. In this stage, people start experiencing the negative feelings of

disappointment, isolation, depression, anger, and others. After this stage, people

experience the third stage of the adjustment, reorientation and gradual recovery. This

third stage is “concerned with learning how to adjust effectively to the new cultural

environment” (Winkelman, 1994, p.122). If an individual embraces immersion, they can

more effectively adjust and adapt. In this stage, an individual’s problem or concern is not

necessarily resolved. However, he/she starts to develop positive perspectives toward the

new environment. It is because “[t]he culture begins to make sense, and negative

reactions and responses to the culture are reduced as one recognizes that problems are

due to the inability to understand, accept, and adapt” (Winkelman, 1994, p. 122). At the

final stage, which is known as the adaptation, resolution, or acculturation stage,

adaptation in a new environment is achieved. People adapt to the new culture and become

capable of finding solutions to problems they face in their new environment.

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It is crucial to consider cultural adjustment, or acculturation, which Kim

(1988) defines as

the process of change over time that takes places within individuals who have completed . . . [a] socialization process in one culture and then come into continuous, prolonged, first-hand contact with a new and unfamiliar culture. (pp. 37-38)

Acculturation can affect the lives of international students in the United

States. Minimal knowledge in social rules in their host country has an impact on the

degree of difficulties in terms of international students’ adjustment (Chapdelaine &

Alexitch, 2004). Also, the degree of culture shock is affected by international students’

communication with local people in their host country. International students experience

stronger culture shock due to the insufficiency of communicative interactions with local

people (Chapdelaine & Alexitch, 2004). However, it is not very easy for international

students to interact with American students. Grey (2002) explains that international

students feel comfortable working with other international students with the same

ethnic/regional backgrounds and feel disquieted when communicating with American

students due to their previous negative experiences with American students. While

American students have positive images of international students in terms of studying,

their negative image toward international students is attached to their sociability

(Spencer-Rodgers, 2001). The positive image about studying includes “intelligent,”

“hard-working,” “adventurous,” and “determined.” On the other hand, the five most

common attributes related to negative images are “foreign/different,” “socially and

culturally maladjusted,” “do not speak English well,” “unsociable,” and “naïve”

(Spencer-Rodgers, 2001, p. 647).

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International students have lower levels of adjustment to society and

institutions as well as goal commitment although they possess high academic ambition

and solid academic skills (Kaczmarek et al., 1994). The main problems international

students face are: 1) autonomy, which is a problem to all college students including

international and American students, 2) problems caused in their lives by being away

from their home country, e.g., culture shock, and, 3) anomalous problems caused by the

status as international students, e.g., the difficulties of immigration (Leong, 1984).

Andrade (2006) clarifies the factors which affect international students’ adjustment and

academic achievement. Culture and language proficiency have an impact on their

adjustment while the factors for academic achievement are English proficiency, academic

skills, and educational background. Most international students suffer from acculturative

stress which is caused by their difficulty for adjusting to a new culture (Wei et al., 2007).

International students can have a difficult time adjusting to American culture.

Communication and interactions with American people are not an easy task for

international students due to different backgrounds and language barriers. Given the

situations international students encounter, it is crucial to comprehend international

students’ problems and difficulties and find solutions so they can make their lives in the

U.S. more meaningful and productive.

International Students and Social Support

Acculturative stress may cause serious situations for international students.

Stress has a huge impact on the mental and physical conditions of an individual.

International students may find it difficult to a new environment due to the lack of

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knowledge on social rules in their new culture (Chapdelaine & Alexitch, 2004). As a

consequence of difficulty in adjusting to a different cultural environment, international

students suffer from confusion, anxiety, loneliness, and depression (Lin & Yi, 1997; Wei

et al, 2007). Most international students come to the U.S. alone and live away from their

family in their home countries, so it is necessary for them to establish a new social

network (Lacina, 2002). Therefore, social support plays a very important role for

international students’ adjustment.

A lot of colleges and universities possess international students’ offices and

counseling centers. However, international students are less inclined to take advantage of

counseling systems compared to American students (Yoon & Jepson, 2008). Some even

feel ashamed to be involved in counseling and feel less open about it (Yoon & Jepson,

2008). For students who receive financial support from the government of their home

countries, there is a concern if a counselor will report to the government after they access

the counseling service (Lacina, 2002). Minority groups are more likely to seek support

within their own cultural group when they face a personal issue rather than finding

support out of their group (Brison & Kottler, 1995). Also, emotional self-control is highly

valued in Asian cultures and it is related to the reluctance in looking for help (Kim, Li, &

Ng, 2005), so Asian students are inclined to cope with difficulties by applying resources

attributed to their internal aspects (Wei et al., 2007). Although counseling is used for

their social assistance, international students might have difficulty talking to American

counselors who do not share the cultural/ethnic backgrounds with them. In the study by

Mau and Jepsen (1988), Chinese students show a preference for a counselor who is older

than them, is familiar to them, and shares a similar racial background.

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The most significant finding on perceived social support by international

students is that they talk to a certain kind of people depending on what support they are

looking for. It is relevant with five dimensions of support introduced by Cutrona and

Russell (1990); 1) emotional support, which provides security and comfort during

stressful time, 2) network support, which gives a feeling of attachment to a certain group

sharing common issues, 3) esteem support, which boosts competence/self-esteem of an

individual, 4) tangible support, which provides an instrumental support where resources

are available, and 5) informational support, which provides assistance to solve a problem.

Social support is essential for adaptation and support can be found in both

close and weak relationships (Winkelman, 1994). This means that people can reach

support from family members as well as those who have less intimacy such as friends.

Winkelman (1994) claims that an organization plays an important role for finding

support. In the study by Lin (2006), a Chinese student association is found to be a means

for new Chinese students to deal with culture shock. Also, it is helpful for new students’

intercultural adjustment to interact with members who share a same culture with them.

Current technology brings beneficial effects for international students’ acculturation. Less

acculturative stress was reported by Chinese students who gained informational support

from online ethnic groups (Ye, 2006).

For stress coming from studying, international students can lower their stress

“by increasing opportunities for social integration both inside and outside the classroom”

(Sovic, 2008, p. 156). However, in the study by Mortenson (2006), less association is

employed by Chinese students compared to American students when they face stress

coming from studying. The study shows that Chinese students are more likely to take an

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avoidant attitude which is regarded as the unhealthiest coping strategy, rather than trying

to find emotional support.

It is of great importance that social support can help international students to

alleviate their stress. As they leave their family members and friends behind and start

their new lives in the U.S., they need to build up their new networks and seek social

support. It is essential for American universities to help international students to gain

social support, especially because they feel reluctant to use the counseling systems

offered by school. Recognizing what constitutes social support for international students

can lead higher education institutions to develop assistance for international students to

gain social support.

Leisure Activities

According to Kleiber et al. (2011), leisure is mainly categorized in terms of 1)

types of activities such as playing some sport and watching movies, 2) time in which

people use freely, and 3) experience which people find significant or gratifying for them

including their feeling of fun, excitement, relaxation and so on. Also, combinations of

those three factors are considered as leisure.

People face a lot of stressful situation not only when they enter a new

environment but in their daily life. To address their stress, people take some coping

strategies and actions, and leisure is one of them. Leisure experiences provide people

with benefits in terms of physiological, psychological, social, relaxation, aesthetic, and

educational ways (Bammel & Burrus-Bammel, 1992). Leisure activities provide positive

feelings, well-being, positive identities, and self-esteem (Iwasaki, 2007).

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Studies on leisure and stress have focused on the effect of leisure to alleviate

stress. Stress can be reduced d by social support and self-determination gained through

leisure activities and health can be maintained (Coleman & Iso-Ahola, 1993). Those two

dimensions are the root of leisure’s role for alleviating stress. Coleman and Iso-Ahola

(1993) conceptualize social support as an individual’s perception that others care about

him/her.

Life stress is positively correlated to mental and physical health problems

(Iso-Ahola & Park, 1996). Iso-Ahola and Park (1996) also found that “leisure-generated

friendship and companionship interact with life stress in a manner consistent with their

being buffers against the adverse effects of life stress on physical and mental health” (pp.

182-183).

Leisure has two dimensions in its buffering system against stress. One is self-

determination, which is based on an individual’s belief that they have autonomy to make

a choice (Coleman & Iso-Ahola, 1993). Another is social support, which people can

establish through leisure activities. Leisure can contribute to constructing and developing

friendships due to its nature in which people are involved and socialized with others

(Coleman & Iso-Ahola, 1993). People can establish social and cultural relations through

leisure activities (Iwasaki, 2007). The concept of social support is the perception of an

individual about the care from others as well as if he/she can reach a resource to address

their problem when necessary.

Participation in leisure has a positive impact on stress coping (Lee, Wu, &

Lin, 2012). The research of Lee et al. shows that the benefits of leisure activities are

affected by the participation in leisure activities in a positive way during youth. Their

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research shows that benefits of leisure activities have a positive impact on stress

management. Also, social support is positively correlated to leisure attitude and

engagement (Cassidy, 2005).

Iwasaki and Mannel (2000) propose hierarchical dimensions of leisure, which

compose of three levels, in regard to coping stress. The first level consists of two

fundamental dimensions of the model, which are leisure coping strategies and leisure

coping beliefs. Leisure coping beliefs is based on an individual’s idea that leisure

activities are valuable in terms of buffering against stress, while leisure coping strategies

are “actual stress-coping situation-grounded behaviors or cognitions available through

involvements in leisure” (p. 167). In the perspective of leisure coping strategies, a coping

action is regarded as a process. The strategies function through three mechanisms, which

are at the second level: 1) leisure companionship, in which social support is shaped

through meaningful experiences in leisure activities, 2) leisure palliative coping, in which

people can escape from stress through engaging in leisure activities, and 3) leisure mood

enhancement, in which mood is enhanced or decreased by the involvement in a certain

leisure activity. Another dimension at the second level which belongs to leisure coping

beliefs consists of leisure autonomy and leisure friendships. Leisure autonomy is based

on an idea that people will be able to develop their own characteristics to buffer against

stress better. In leisure friendships, the main idea is that social support can be gained

through friendships which people establish in leisure activities. At the third level, several

dimensions are derived from leisure autonomy and leisure friendships. Leisure autonomy

evolves into 1) self-determination disposition, which is based on an idea that freedom of

choice is applied in leisure behavior so the behavior is under control of an individual, and

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2) empowerment, which “refers to the extent to which people believe that they are entitle

to leisure and that leisure provides them with the opportunity for self-expression”

(Iwasaki & Mannel, 2000, p. 168). Leisure friendship derives to 1) emotional support,

which are given by significant others, 2) esteem support, which is also provided by others

for achieving an individual’s self-esteem after a failure, 3) tangible aid, which is

additional help (e.g., tools) from others to conduct leisure activities, and 4) informational

aid, which refers to a helpful knowledge/information to deal with difficulties for

conducting a leisure behavior.

Leisure activities are helpful to gain social support and buffering against

stress. International students go through many kinds of hardships due to their unique

status in the U.S. Thus, it is beneficial for them to participate in leisure activities so they

can gain social support and develop their own stress coping strategies. It is essential for

the realm of leisure studies on social support and international education to recognize the

components of leisure activities in gaining social support.

In the next chapter, the components of research methods and analysis are

framed.

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CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

Previous chapters discussed the experience of international students in a

foreign country and the positive role of leisure activities to reduce stress. This chapter

presents the methodology used in this study to investigate the research questions in

chapter I. This chapter introduces 1) the population of the study, 2) the procedure to

recruit the interviewees, 3) data collection procedures, 4) the organization of the

interview questions, and 5) the data analysis procedures.

In this study, 22 international students of California State University, Chico

were interviewed. A qualitative interview is an appropriate tool for “understanding the

social actor’s experience, knowledge, and worldview” (Lindolf & Taylor, 2011, p. 173).

Also, through interactions with an interviewee in an interview, a researcher can “obtain

an immediate confirmation or discomfirmation of the interpretation of what the

interviewee is saying” (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2009, p. 30). In-depth interviews allowed

the researcher to look into experiences and perspectives of international students in the

U.S. and develop a deeper understanding of international students’ situations. Also, it was

beneficial for research on international students due to possible language barriers. The

actual interaction with participants gave the researcher an opportunity to dig into what the

participants were talking about. The research could listen to participants and follow up to

make clarification on what they actually mean through interviews.

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A protocol proposal for this study and an informed consent were submitted by the

researcher to IRB before the initiation of the study. After the IRB application was

approved, the researcher was authorized to conduct the research at the university.

The population and the sampling procedure of this study were drawn based on

the first phase of the study. In the first phase of the study by the researcher, East Asian

students (Japanese, Korean, and Chinese) were recruited. In addition to those three

nations, one Taiwanese student participated in this second phase of the study. Criterion

and purposive sampling was also applied to this current research. The first phase of the

study set up requirements for volunteer participants, and they should be: 1) from Japan,

Korea, or China, 2) in an academic program for at least two semesters, and 3) degree-

seeking students. These requirements were applied to this study as well. In the first phase

of the research, the researcher tried to recruit volunteer participants through email with

the help of the office of international education. However, the expected number of

participants was not reached, so the snowball sampling was conducted as an alternative

method. Regarding this, this current research employed the snowball sampling as well.

Population of the Study

Criterion and purposive sampling was applied in this study. As a basic

criterion, international students from Asian countries were expected since Asian students

have a more collectivistic/ high-context cultural background which is usually contrasted

with American culture based on individualistic/ low-context culture. Also, Asian students

were more suited for this study as acculturation is harder for international students who

share different cultures from the host country (Olaniran, 1996). Based on that, it was

22

assumed that Asian students would find American life significantly different from their

life back in home countries in comparison to their alternatives from European countries,

and they would find it stressful to some extent. Although most Asian countries are

collectivistic, this research focused on three countries in East Asia (People’s Republic of

China, Japan, and Republic of Korea) since they share the roots of cultures compared to

other Asian countries (e.g., India). Students who had been studying in the U.S. for at least

two semesters were recruited in this study. It was expected that all of the four stages of

culture shock had been experienced if an international student had stayed in the U.S. for

two semesters. Thus, a deeper understanding of their stress management through their

perceived social support could be studied. Exchange students were excluded in this study

due to their limited stay in the U.S. (usually one or two semesters).

Also, full-time students tend to feel more pressure since they need to maintain

a certain GPA at American schools, while exchange students do not have the constraint.

Although exchange students try their best to get good grades as the units may be

transferred to their home universities, the researcher expected that full-time students need

to commit to the school more and have their roots in the school unlike exchange students

who go back home after a while. Students in the language school attached to the

university were excluded in this study as well since the researcher expected that the goals

could be different between students in proper academic programs and their counterparts

in the language school (degree-seeking vs. entering academic programs/finishing the

language program).

23

Procedures of Recruitment

In the first phase of the study, the researcher was planning to recruit volunteer

participants through email with the help of the international student services center after

receiving IRB approval for human subject studies. However, only one student contacted

the researcher by this method, so snowball sampling was conducted as an alternative

method. A couple of international students were contacted by the researcher. At the end

of each interview, the participants were asked to refer other international students who

might be interested in participating in the research. It can be assumed that students

receive a lot of email everyday so they do not pay much attention as long as they do not

find the email critical for them. Also, it may be because international students feel

reluctant to actively join interviews.

In light of the lesson learned from the previous research, the researcher

adapted a snowball sampling for this research. As in the previous research, the researcher

asked a couple of her friends who are international students and each participant

introduced their friend to participate in an interview for this research.

Data Collection

Participants were informed of the purpose of the study and the confidentiality

by an informed consent prior to their interviews. A copy of the informed consent was

brought to each interview and they signed the form. Each interview lasted approximately

30 to 75 minutes. A location of the interviews was chosen by participants’ preference.

Face-to-face interviews were conducted with 22 international students of

California State University, Chico. Seven students were from People’s Republic of

24

China, seven were from Japan, seven were from Republic of Korea, and one was from

Taiwan. Eleven of the participants were male, while the other eleven were female. None

of them were married. The average age of the participants was 23.5 years old and the

average duration in the U.S. was approximately 33.6 months. Various academic majors

were represented by the participants with majors including animal science, applied math,

business (finance, accounting, MBA), communication design, computer science,

international relations, journalism, recreation, and psychology. Undergraduate students

were the majority in the study (20 students), and two graduate students also participated

in the study. All of the interviews were recorded by a digital device and restored in the

researcher’s computer. The data were only available to the researcher, and the contents of

the interviews were transcribed for coding.

Organization of the Interview Questions

Interview questions were constructed both in English and Japanese. The

Japanese version of questionnaires was used for Japanese participants. Both of the

Japanese and English questionnaires were transcribed by the researcher to ensure that the

interview questions were relevant to the interview questions. Other graduate level student

whose native language was Japanese transcribed both versions of the questionnaires to

certify that the meanings of each question were consistent.

The interview questions were constructed in four sections and all of the

questions are open-ended. The interview guide is in Appendix. In the first section,

general information was collected, including their gender, age, major, the duration of

their stay in the U.S., marital status, and reasons why they came to the U.S. The

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experiences of international students were addressed in the second section. The questions

aimed at perceiving their life in the U.S., what kinds of stress and problems they faced

since they arrived in the U.S., and the difference between their life in the U.S. and in their

own country. The third section consisted of questions that identified their coping

strategies toward stress and whom they talk to. In the fourth section, participants were

asked about their leisure activities. This section tapped into other four research questions.

As the meaning of a term, “leisure,” varies from person to person, the questions were

more generalized (e.g., what do you do when you have free time?). In this section, the

researcher aimed at identifying what activities international students do, why they choose

to do that, if their leisure activities help them to gain social support, if their leisure

activities help them to reduce their stress, what leisure activities help them they choose to

do to reduce stress, and what leisure activities they choose to gain social support.

All of the interviews were audio recorded with the permission of the

participants, and no notes were taken during the interviews. The interview location was

selected by each interviewee at their will, including their house, campus, and coffee

shops. Due to time constraints, transcripts were not provided to each participant.

However, the researcher followed up with each participant to ask if they were interested

in changing or adding dialog to their interview answers within a day. No one made

changes or additions to their original responses.

Data Analysis

Analysis was guided by grounded theory as a framework. Grounded theory is

helpful to investigate and organize the meanings of messages from participants since it

26

“articulates a compelling ‘logic of discovery,’ along with a set of formalized rules and

vocabulary, that bring a sense of order to the messy process of qualitative research”

(Lindlof & Taylor, 2011, p. 250). In this study, grounded theory functioned as a guide for

interpretation of answers as the interview questions explored what the research questions

specified.

Open coding was used in the analysis for this study. The purpose of open

coding was to identify 1) how international students perceive their life in the U.S., 2)

what causes their stress and problem in the U.S., 3) what they perceive as their support,

and 4) what leisure activities international students choose to do and why. The researcher

made a codebook since it is helpful “to catalogue the category definitions, the codes used

for identifying each category, examples of text… for each category, the number of

incidents coded, and the location of incidents in the data” (Lindlof & Taylor, 2011, p.

251).

The researcher transcribed the recorded audio data first. Due to the heavy

amount of raw data, the researcher only transcribed answers and anecdotes which were

related to the research questions. The total number of transcription is 72 pages with

double-spaced. The researcher translated the interviews in Japanese to English. During

transcribing, the researcher corrected grammatical mistakes which the interviewees made.

Also, specific words were added in brackets occasionally when the interviewees used

pronouns. Three steps were conducted in the coding process after transcribing. First, the

researcher read the transcripts of each interview and made a list of key words and phrases

and made codes. The researcher completed the procedure of coding manually. Then, the

codes were analyzed to make categories in which the codes were assorted according to

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the theme they share broadly. The categories were used as a broad theme and each code

was organized under the categories. Finally, the researcher checked the codes to

determine if any overwrapped.

All of the interviewees were asked by the same order of the questions so the

consistency of the interviews was guaranteed. The researcher was the only coder in this

study, however an approach was employed to cover the disadvantage. One Japanese

graduate level student read the transcripts and coding sheets of Japanese interviewees,

which the researcher made, and checked if the transcripts and codes were matched. With

the transcripts and coding sheets of the interviewees from other regions, the researcher

went back to the original data and checked if the transcripts and codes were consistent if

necessary.

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CHAPTER IV

FINDINGS AND RESULTS

This chapter provides findings by the current research with several sections. In

the first section, the researcher introduces the reasons why international students came to

the U.S. and their life experiences.

How International Students Came to the U.S.

At the beginning of the interview, every interviewee was asked questions

about reasons why they came to the U.S., and their life in the U.S. Although those

questions do not directly tap into the research questions, they provide a basic

understanding of international students’ experiences and situations in the U.S.

The interviewees were asked “why did you decide to come to the U.S.?” and

several reasons emerged.

Benefits of Being in the U.S.

Three kinds of benefits were found in this category, and those are 1) the

improvement of English, 2) beneficial experience for future career, and 3) being able to

experience new/different things. Most of the interviewees mentioned that they wanted to

improve their English proficiency, and they also expected that their English proficiency

would contribute to finding a good job after going back to their own countries. Some of

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the interviewees reported that they hoped to experience new or different things which

they would not be able to if they had stayed in their home countries.

The Quality/Systems of Education in the U.S.

Most of students also mentioned the “good education” in the U.S. was one of

their reasons why they came to the U.S. Some students reported that the education in the

U.S. was the best in the world so they hoped to learn a lot through their college life.

Several students found the systems of American higher education institutions favorable.

They explained that the systems were different from the ones in their home countries, for

example, students do not need to decide what to major in when entering a college, it is

easy to change a major, and double major is available. A few students had gone to college

in their home countries but quit school there since they found out that it would not be

beneficial for them, because they did not feel they were learning something practical.

Then, they decided to leave school and go to the U.S. for their education. Also, some of

the interviewees mentioned that students do not study hard after entering a college so

they thought it would be more beneficial for them to study in the U.S.

Influence from Others

The interviewees’ parents and friends can be motivational for their decision to

study abroad as well. Some students reported that their family members suggested going

to the U.S. for higher education. Some were also influenced by their family members or

friends who studied in the U.S. and got information about life in the U.S.; it became one

of the factors which affected their decision to study abroad.

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Looking for a New Frontier or Opportunity

Some of the interviewees noted that studying in the U.S. would be a good

chance for them to find their own personal goals which they could not do while they were

back in their home countries. A few interviewees noted that they did not find what they

wanted to do after graduating from high school. Also, a Japanese student said that he was

tired of the environment and just wanted to get out of his own country and he was hoping

to find himself in the U.S. A college entrance exam was referred as well. Most of the

colleges in Japan, Korea, Taiwan, and the Republic of China require an entrance exam

and students study very hard in their high school. A few interviewees claimed that they

did not do well on their entrance exam so they started to think about studying abroad as

another option.

Fulfilling Long-Term Dreams

Some of the interviewees reported that it was their dream to come to the U.S.

They held positive ideas about American life due to the impressions they had received

through American movies and TV shows since they were younger. As a Japanese student

explained,

I decided to live in the U.S. when I was an elementary school student. I think it’s because of my positive idea about this country due to Hollywood movies. I was thinking that it would be great if I could live in the U.S.

International students come to the U.S. for various reasons. No matter what

reasons they possess, international students hope to fulfill their goals and dreams, and

strive for their success after graduation.

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International Students’ Life and Experiences in the U.S.

In this section, international students’ life and their impressions about living in

the U.S. are addressed. Each interviewee was asked several questions starting with “how

do you like your life in the U.S.?” and they answered with their likes and dislikes

followed by their reasons why they like or dislike specific aspects. Differences,

problematic aspects, and stressful aspects followed.

Different Life from Home Countries

International students experience lots of differences from their life in their

home countries. In the first phase of the research, four aspects were found, and those are

1) environmental difference, 2) separation from their family and friends, 3) different life

styles, and 4) inconvenience. Those four aspects were identical in this study as well.

Also, in this second phase of the research, a personal transformation was recognized as a

new aspect.

The environmental aspects were mostly mentioned by the interviewees by

mentioning “people are friendly here” or “the environment is beautiful.” Some

interviewees mentioned that the natural environment was cleaner in the U.S. in

comparison to their home countries. They shared positive ideas about the environment in

the U.S., although they mentioned that it was not the same in big cities in the U.S. Some

interviewees noted that the environmental difference made them feel homesick. For

example, one Japanese student lived near the beach back in Japan, but the distance to the

beach here makes him miss home.

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As in the first phase of the research, most of the interviewees referred to the

separation their family and friends in home countries as a difference from their life back

at home. Like the environmental difference mentioned above, the absence of their family

and old friends is related to the feeling of homesick. For example, one Chinese student

reported:

I like living in China, because I have my family and a lot of friends there. I miss them so much. Although I can talk to them online, or by phone calls, I believe it will be much better if I can actually see them and spend fun time together as we used to.

They mentioned that they needed more self-discipline and more independence due to the

separation from their family, as one Korean student said:

I have to do everything by myself, such as cooking, washing clothes, and cleaning my room. So I need to care about those things more, compared to when I was in Korea. For the first three months, I felt annoyed and tired to do them because I needed to find a way to juggle that stuff and studying.

This sentiment was shared by several interviewees. They reported that they

felt free due to the absence of their parents so they could do anything they wanted. At the

same time, more responsibility was attached to them since they chose what to do at their

own will.

Also, in this second phase of the research, another aspect was found. Several

interviewees reported that they realized the importance of their family, especially parents.

All of the interviewees lived with their family before coming to the U.S. and their parents

took care of them. Being away from their parents made them feel more thankful for their

support.

A different life style was referred to by several interviewees. They mentioned

that they spent more time with friends in the U.S. in comparison to the time in their home

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countries. Some of them noted that friends in the U.S. were not only their friends but

their family since they did not live with their family members in the U.S. Some

interviewees mentioned that there was less entertainment in their life in the U.S. and their

life was about going to school and coming back to their apartments. Food was referred to

by some interviewees as a stressor for them as well. Interviewees reported that they

missed traditional food. Some of them told that they could not get used to American food.

The inconvenience of living in the U.S. was shared by several interviewees.

Most of them referred to the custom of customer service by saying “it is very slow” and

“it is slow and annoying.” An interviewee referred to the public transportation, which she

found “limited” and “not useful.”

A new aspect found in this study is a personal transformation. Some

interviewees experienced their personal change. One interviewee mentioned that she felt

more motivated to study compared to when she went to a college in her home country.

Another interviewee noted that he became more socialized and friendly.

To sum up, living in a foreign country has a huge impact on international

students. International students recognized both positive and negative aspects caused by

the separation from family and friends, different customs, and environment.

Difficulties as an International Student

In the first phase of the research, five kinds of difficulties were found in this

category: 1) language barriers, 2) negative assumptions about discrimination, 3) different

academic systems/styles, 4) cultural differences, and 5) being under pressure to be

academically successful. Those aspects were identical in this second phase. However, this

34

study found two other aspects, which are the relationships with people and hurdles at

their transitional period after graduation.

Language barriers were their primary problem right after coming to the U.S.

All of the interviewees referred to language barriers as a problematic aspect. A Chinese

student shared his experience:

The first problem was language, definitely. Every international student will have this problem. When I first studied English, I was 10-years-old. When I came here, I was 23, so I studied English for 13 years. I studied in China, so I knew lots of words. But when American people put those words in a sentence, I couldn’t understand. Maybe I just understood 30% of what people were saying in English, that was the biggest problem.

Language barriers caused difficulty in their academic life as well. For

example, a Korean student reported:

American students use their own language, so they don’t need to study as much as we need to. English is a foreign language for me, so. . .. When I studied with American classmates, only my score (of a quiz) was bad. I studied more than them, but their scores were better.

Language barriers make international students cautious in their

communication as well. A Chinese student reported:

With friends in China, we use Chinese to communicate of course, so it’s much easier to understand each other. Friends here, they come from different places, like from Asia, I mean Japan and Korea, and some of my friends are American. Sometimes I have to express myself more to let them know what I am talking about. Sometimes I feel a little bit worried, because sometimes I say something, and it can be misleading. I didn’t mean that way. Someone might find it uncomfortable by the way I said. I don’t want others to misunderstand me. So I have to speak really carefully.

In relation to language barrier, some of the participants reported their negative

assumptions about discrimination by American people. For example, a Chinese student

said:

35

If I talk with Americans, maybe they will think I’m stupid. In this semester, I have lots of group work. When we study in a group, they (American students) don’t talk to me. When we divided several parts for each person before, they kept asking me, ‘do you know how to use APA style?,’ ‘do you know what you need to do?’ They didn’t trust me. I know the concept, and I know how to work on the assignment. I’m just not good at oral communication. So, I feel nervous to talk to American people sometimes.

Negative assumptions seemed to be attached due to their English proficiency, and they

assumed that their quality as a student was judged only by their language skill.

Different academic systems/styles were a significant factor for Asian

international students in their college life. The main differences they found in American

higher education systems were course requirements and the environment of a classroom.

As a Korean student said, “there are too many quizzes and exams here. In Korea, we

have only two, mid-term and final in college. Now I got used to it, but I was so stressed

out before.” A Chinese student made a similar comment about the different styles how

classes are organized:

When I was in college in China, professors just gave us a lecture, and we needed to take notes. People don’t talk during a class. But, here, professors don’t say much, they let students talk. They like to talk to each other, they like to share their ideas.

Cultural differences were reported by all of the participants, including

different values, lack of American cultural background, different life styles, and different

communication styles. A Chinese student shared his experience:

At first, I felt that I couldn’t join American people because of my English. But, as time goes by, I realize it’s because of culture, not language. They talk about something which I am not familiar to, such as American football or baseball. I completely have no idea about what they are talking about.

The cultural difference made it difficult for international students to make

American friends. Another Chinese student reported:

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They (Americans) treat me friendly, but it’s really hard to make real friends among American people. They say ‘hey,’ or ‘what’s up, man,’ but we don’t sit and talk about serious things, you know. So I sometimes feel it’s cold, I mean, the relationships among people here. American people are good at talking about easy topics on the surface.

Some of the participants made similar comments, and mentioned that it was easier for

them to get closer to students from their own countries and same region.

Although some interviewees found cultural differences as their stressor or

problem, other interviewees shared a positive idea about different cultures in the U.S. by

saying “uniqueness is accepted here” and “people are more open and I like it.”

Some of the interviewees reported that they were constantly under pressure to

be academically successful. It is due to the fact that international students needed to pay a

lot more tuition in comparison to American students, and they did not want to let their

parents down since they offered financial support.

One of the new aspects found in this study is the relationships with people in

the U.S. This refers to the relationships with American people and other international

students. Some interviewees noted that it was not easy to expand their network and make

new friends after they made some friends with whom they always hang out. Living with

roommates was mentioned by some interviewees too. Most of the interviewees lived with

their family before coming to the U.S. so some of them found it difficult to deal with

living with others. Romantic relationships were referred to as well. For example, one

Korean student noted that it was hard for her sometimes to understand why her partner

did particular things which were based on American culture.

Another new aspect is hurdles at their transitional period after graduation.

Different from the first phase of the research, some interviewees were at their transitional

37

period when the interviews were conducted. Some students were in the height of job

hunting, which they found stressful since it is not easy for international students to find a

job in the U.S. Due to their status as a foreigner, they need to find a sponsorship for their

working visa and it is not an easy task for them. Also, some of the interviewees stated

that they were preparing for applying for a graduate school. They shared the stressful

feelings caused by time management between their schoolwork and studying for

GRE/GMAT (standardized tests required for application for graduate schools and

business schools in the U.S.) and TOEFL (a standardized test on English proficiency

which is required for prospective foreign students’ application for universities in the

U.S.). They also mentioned that their language barrier caused some inconvenience to

study for those tests.

Being a foreigner/international student causes some difficulties for

international students. International students feel that they need or want to be

academically successful due to their parents’ expectation and an expensive tuition they

pay for school. However, they are confronted with language barriers and discrimination

which they find problematic or stressful.

Regarding all of the international students’ experiences in the U.S., two

phases can be found. First, for a certain period of time, they experienced hard time due to

several factors, such as their lack of English proficiency and the separation from their

family. Secondly, they got used to their new life in the U.S. as a Japanese student

mentioned:

In the first year, it was really hard for me. I came here alone, so I didn’t have any friends, didn’t know where to go. I couldn’t speak English and missed my family so

38

much. But now, I don’t feel that way. The biggest thing is that I got a lot of friends here.

International students encounter both positive and negative experiences in the

U.S. The new environment in the U.S. is found favorable as international students feel

that American people are friendly and open so they do not need to be as self-conscious as

they are in their home countries. However, many obstacles emerge including language

barriers, cultural adjustment, pressure to be academically successful, and so on. Although

international students stay in the U.S. for a long period of time, their concerns will not

vanish regarding their life after their graduation.

Findings for Research Question 1

The first research question was designed to identify how social support helped

international students to reduce the stress caused by living in the U.S. Also, this section

tapped into what constituted social support for international students. As in the first phase

of the research, two thematic categories were recognized as their support: 1)

informational support as a student and, 2) emotional support as a human. In addition, they

talked to different kinds of people according to the kind of support they looked for.

Who International Students Talk To

The interviewees mentioned several entities whom they talk to when they feel

stressed out. In the first phase of the research, the interviewees referred to family and

friends in their home countries, friends who are also international students in the U.S.,

American friends, professors, and staff in the international office, and those were

mentioned in this second phase of the research as well. Through the interviews for this

research, new entities were mentioned. Those are roommates, romantic partners,

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academic advisors, staff in the career center, and people who share backgrounds other

than friends who are also international students.

Seeking Informational Support as a Student

As in the first phase of the research, it was revealed that the participants talked

to professors, staff of the international office or career center, and academic advisors

when they wanted to obtain informational support. Informational support consisted of

questions about academic issues and issues related to their status as an international

student (e.g., visa, units to fulfill as an international student, etc.). The interviewees noted

that they felt relieved and less stressed to get solutions for their concerns. However, the

participants showed hesitance to talk to professors, the international office’s staff or

career center, academic advisors, counselors, or doctors for their emotional support. As a

Korean student said:

I talk to my professors sometimes, but just for academic stuff. Usually, I don’t like talking about private things, so it’s hard for me to talk to them. And, I feel like, they listen to me, but I’m not sure if they can help me or not.

In summation, although international students’ stress is reduced to some

extent by talking to professors and university staff by gaining possible solutions for their

concerns, they do not share their personal concerns with them.

Seeking Emotional Support as a Human

As in the first phase of the research, it was found that the participants did not

look for emotional support from faculty members and staff at the international office, but

from their family members and friends. The people they talked to consisted of American

friends in the U.S., friends who were also international students, and their family and

friends in their home countries. Positive feelings were attached to the participants’

40

interactions with all of them. The interviewees stated that talking to them contributed to

reducing stress. However, different kinds of emotional support were achieved, depending

on to whom they talked.

The significant feeling obtained from the communication with American

friends was confidence in terms of the participants’ English proficiency. Some of the

participants reported that they felt confident through communicating with American

friends, and it was a good opportunity for them to employ their English, not just for

classes, but for their daily life. At the same time, most of the interviewees who referred to

their American friends mentioned that they did not share personal concerns a lot since

they assumed that American people did not understand or could not understand their

situation as international students and foreigners in the U.S.

On the other hand, sympathy was recognized by communicating with friends,

who were also international students in the U.S. Since many international students

expressed that they faced severe issues including language barriers, culture shock, and

confusion caused by different educational systems, sharing the experience with other

international students gave them the feeling of relief. The most significant statements,

which were delivered from the participants, were “I am not alone,” and “I am not the only

one experiencing this.” The interviewees recognized that they were experiencing the

same struggles as other international students.

Most of the interviewees referred to their family members as people they

talked to when stressed out. They noted that their family members could not solve their

problems due to the lack of concepts about international students’ experiences and

American academic systems, however, they felt comforted and better to some extent by

41

talking to them. Most of them mentioned that their family members were supportive.

However, frustration was reported by several interviewees when they talked to their

family, especially parents. Although they could share lots of topics and they enjoyed

talking to the family members, they experienced some frustration when they talked to

parents about their schoolwork. Some interviewees felt that their situation was not fully

understood by their parents, so they felt reluctant to talk about academic issues. As a

Korean student said:

I never talk about my studying with my family, because it gets more stressful sometimes, like, they nag at me. They cannot understand my situation, they don’t know how hard it is to study in English

Also, the interviewees mentioned that they enjoyed talking to their friends back at

home; however, they assumed that they did not or could not understand international

students’ stress in the U.S. In this second phase of the study, some interviewees also

reported that they did not talk to their parents about their stress coming from studying

or their status as an international student, because they did not want to make their

parents worried.

This second phase of the research revealed a new aspect. Some of the

interviewees referred to their romantic partners as people whom they talked to when they

were stressed out. They reported the feeling of comfort, and they also mentioned that

their romantic partners were more like their family. Since they did not have their actual

family members in the U.S., their romantic partners were the most reliable for them.

Also, some of the interviewees noted that they talked to people who shared backgrounds

with them other than their friends who were also international students. Those people

were the first generation of Asian immigrants in the U.S. and faculty members who used

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to be international students. An interviewee who referred to her foreign professor

reported:

One of my professors is a foreigner. So I sometimes talk to her about what I have been through. She totally understands my situation because she was an international student when she went to school here. She is a teacher, but she was on the same page with me when she was a student. So I feel that I am not the only one who is suffering all the stuff as an international student in here. So, talking to her helps me a lot.

Due to unique experiences and situation of international students, international

students talk to people with whom they can share their feelings. In summation,

international students share topics and gain identical and/or different feelings, according

to people they talk to.

Reasons Not Seeking Support from People Other Than Family and Friends

In this second phase of the research as well as the first phase one, three

aspects were apparent in this category; 1) the feeling of shame, 2) “they do not

understand me,” and 3) “they cannot understand me.” A Chinese student reported that he

would feel ashamed if he went to counseling center for emotional support since it was

mandatory to share personal issues. Some interviewees mentioned that they felt shy or

awkward to share their personal concerns with counselors or doctors because they did not

know them. Also, the majority of the interviewees felt that they did not have a close

relationship with faculty members and staff of the school. Most interviewees reported

that they felt they were not seen as human, but only as a student by faculty and staff, thus,

they felt reluctant to share personal issues related to stress in their lives. Another aspect

was their situational difference. Because of the unique status as an international student in

the U.S., they felt that other people who were native speakers of English and the racial

43

majority could not understand their struggles, such as language barriers and difficulties

adjusting to American culture.

It revealed several reasons why international students do not share their

personal concerns with particular people such as school staff and counselors. As

international students possess their status as a foreigner or racial minority, they tend to

recognize that people who do not share their background do not or cannot understand

them.

International students talk to a specific kind of person according to what

support they look for. Sharing backgrounds is a significant factor for international

students to seek support from others. As international students recognize that they are not

the “main stream” in the U.S. so they are inclined to assume that their situations cannot

be understood by those who have not been in the same environment.


The second question was designed to identify what international students

considered as their leisure activities. Each interviewee was asked to identify what

activities they did. Interviewees were allowed to name as many activities as they wanted.

Through the interviews, the most frequently referred leisure activities were hanging out

with friends, and playing sports with others, followed by partying/drinking with friends,

exercising alone, watching shows/movies on TV/the Internet, going to movie theaters,

shopping, and other activities. Table 1 shows the kinds of leisure activities mentioned by

the interviewees and the total number of responses.

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Table 1

International Students’ Leisure Activities

Leisure Activities The Number of Responses

Hanging out with friends 12

Playing sports with others 12

Partying/drinking with friends 11

Exercising alone 7

Watching movies/shows on TV/the Internet at home 6

Going to movie theaters 6

Shopping 6

Traveling 4

Playing video/computer games 4

Eating with friends

Hiking/camping

4

3

Internet surfing 3

Listening to music

Dating with a romantic partner

Sleeping

Participating in school events

Taking a walk

Reading

Going to amusement parks

2

2

2

2

1

1

1

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A lot of leisure activities emerged through the interviews. Hanging out with

friends and playing sports with others were the most frequently referred activities. Some

activities mentioned above are done alone or with friends, for example, the interviewees,

who referred to watching shows/movies on TV or the Internet at home, noted that they

watched a show or a movie just by themselves as well as with their friends either at their

own house or their friends’ place.


The third research question intended to explore the reasons why international

students decided to devote their time to specific leisure activities. Interviewees were

asked to indicate why they did the leisure activities they mentioned earlier. In this

research question, eight categories emerged: 1) health concerns, 2) fun, 3) stress

reduction, 4) opportunities to mingle with people, 5) opportunities for new

experiences/learning, 6) achieving a life balance, 7) separation from others, and 8) the

easiest entertainment.

Health Concerns

Interviewees, who referred to playing sports with others or exercising alone,

noted that they did so because they cared about their health. Some of the interviewees

referred to sports they played with other people such as basketball, soccer, and tennis.

Some other interviewees mentioned that exercises they did alone, including running,

yoga, working-out, and tai chi. One Japanese student said, “I want to be healthy. To be

healthy, I need to care about my food and exercise, so I need to do some exercise

sometimes.”

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Some of the interviewees claimed that they gained weight after coming to the

U.S. so they tried to be in shape. International students are health concerned and try to

maintain or improve their health by doing some exercise or sport.

Fun

Positive feelings were expressed by some interviewees by mentioning “I have

fun” and “I feel happy.” This sentiment was significant in the activities they participated

with their friends. The feeling of fun is an important factor for international students to

devote their time to leisure activities. A Chinese student said, “I play badminton or ping

pong with my friends sometimes, just because it’s fun. I can just play with my friends, we

laugh together. It’s just simply fun.” Also, a Korean student noted:

I watch TV with my friends. When I do those things alone, I can choose what I want to do. But with friends, for example, if we watch a TV show, we have to decide what we are going to watch, so we have to discuss. I think it’s more fun to be with friends so I prefer to do that. When I watch TV shows by myself, I just watch. But with friends, we can talk about the shows while watching. It’s not just watching, but also talking. So it’s fun.

Some leisure activities provide international students an enjoyable

environment in which they can communicate with others. Going to a party/drinking with

friends was a significant environment which some interviewees referred to. Partying or

drinking with friends was regarded as a socializing circumstance by some interviewees,

as a Korean student said, “I go to a party or bar with my friends. But drinking is not my

main purpose I think. I like the merry atmosphere. It’s just fun to be in such an

atmosphere with people.”

The feelings of fun and happiness have an impact of international students’

choice to devote their time to particular leisure activities. It seems that those feelings are

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shared when international students participate in some activity with others, particularly

their friends.

Stress Reduction

Most of the interviewees mentioned that they participated in some leisure

activities because they felt their stress level was reduced while doing those leisure

activities. Leisure activities which help them reduce stress vary from sports they played

with others to activities they did alone such as reading and listening to music. Some

reported that they could forget about their stressors such as schoolwork. Also, some

interviewees shared common statements such as “relaxing” and “refreshing.” They

mentioned that they felt less stressed since they got relaxed or refreshed. For example, a

Japanese student noted:

In Chico, it’s sunny most of the time. I feel relaxed when I take a walk and enjoy the views. I just focus on enjoying the natural scenery. It makes my mind blank so I feel I don’t need to think about anything, especially things which bother me such as studying.

A Korean student shared the sentiment by saying, “when I play soccer, the

moment is so exciting and enjoyable. I can only focus on playing soccer, so I feel other

things disappear.” As noted in the section about international students’ experiences in the

U.S., international students possess various stress factors such as language barriers,

discrimination, huge amounts of assignments and so on. International students seek

environments or opportunities in which they can gain relaxation and refreshment so they

can feel less stressed.

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Opportunity to Mingle with People

Leisure activities provide some of the interviewees an opportunity to interact

with people. They referred to activities in which they participated with other people such

as hanging out with friends, partying/drinking with friends, and playing sports. One

Japanese student shared his opinion:

I like to play sports, especially soccer and tennis. Through those sports, I can communicate with my friends who play with me together. Also, I can make new friends through sports. When we play soccer, some of my friends bring their friends who I don’t know. Then I can get to know them, like I said, by communicating while we play together and share fun time.

Their leisure activities work as an opportunity to share their sentiment with

their friends and get to know more about their friends. As a Korean student said:

When I hang out with my friends, I can share feelings with them. I can tell my things (concerns/problems), and they share theirs. I really like to communicate with my close friends.

Most of the interviewees reported that it was not easy for them to make

American friends. Leisure activities can be a resource in which they can interact or be

friends with American people. Another Korean student said:

When I play soccer, I can make American friends. It’s not easy to be friends with American people if I just go to school, go back home, and stay at home. Soccer can be our common interest and I don’t feel worried that much about my English when we communicate during playing soccer.

Leisure activities in which international students can participate with other

people provide them a circumstance where they can communicate with others.

International students make their networks wider and deeper through leisure activities.

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Opportunity for New Experiences/Learning

Some leisure activities help international students broaden their new horizons

by providing them new experiences. For instance, one Chinese student, who liked to go

traveling, noted:

For traveling . . . sometimes I feel bored or tired in my daily life, you know. Then I want to go out. I don’t want to stay in a small place forever. I want to experience different things, I want to explore. There are so many beautiful things out there. There are so many different things you still don’t know. I want to see those things.

Leisure activities work as a resource for learning new things for international

students as well. Watching movies is an example of this. A Chinese student shared his

idea:

I like watching movies itself. I enjoy stories. It can also help me to practice my English. I found out that it’s a really good way to improve my English, I mean, through watching movies. When you watch movies more and more, you probably learn some new vocabs in them, right. Then I can use those words in real life.

Some international students try to take advantage of staying in the U.S. as

much as possible. Due to their benefit of being in the large country and melting pot of

different cultures, several interviewees reported that they wanted to explore new horizons

and learn. Leisure activities can guide them to new experiences or help them to learn

something new.

Achieving a Life Balance

Some interviewees noted that their leisure activities could help them maintain

their life balance between schoolwork and leisure time by describing their leisure

activities as “motivational” and “energizing.” One Chinese student reported:

I like to go to dance classes offered at the gym. I go there sometimes, mostly by myself, but sometimes with my friend. It is really energizing you know, to dance in a

50

loud music. I get really sweaty. Physically, I feel tired, but mentally, I feel good. I can focus on studying later on.

A Korean student shared that leisure activities could be his motivation for his

school work as he said:

I think I can be more efficient at time management with some of the activities I mentioned. I cannot just study, study, and study, you know. I mean, with some of the enjoyment, I can motivate myself. If there’s some plan over the weekend, I feel motivated to finish my homework before that.

College students are busy with school and other obligations. Although school

is their priority, international students acknowledge that they can be stressed out if their

life is occupied by school. Thus, they try to achieve a well-balanced life style with the

motivational aspect of leisure activities.

Separation from Others

While the interviewees enjoyed spending time with their friends or meeting

new people through leisure activities such as playing sports together or going to a party,

some of the interviewees reported that they tried to make their own quality time alone by

leisure activities such as watching a show alone, or doing a stretch at home. One Japanese

student said, “when I stay in my room alone, watching a show on my computer or internet

surfing, I feel easygoing. I don’t need to care about anything and anybody.” Another

Japanese student shared the sentiment by saying:

Within a week, if I meet people on most of the days, I want some time to be alone. I just stay in my space and don’t interact with anyone. When I do stretching or sometimes tai-chi by myself, I can reset my mind. Of course it’s fun to be with friends, but if I am with people all the time, I feel exhausted.

Although some of the interviewees acknowledged that they enjoyed their time

with friends, they referred to the importance of doing something just by themselves.

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Leisure activities can provide international students opportunities to be just by

themselves and contribute to their refreshment.

The Easiest Entertainment

Some of the interviewees stated that they participated in particular leisure

activities because the activities were the easiest choice to reach. For example, a Japanese

student said, “I like to hang out with my friends, because it’s easy. I just call them, meet

up, and just chat. It doesn’t cost anything.”

Friends can be a reason why international students choose to do particular

leisure activities. A Korean student told the researcher that she participated in going to a

party because her friends did so. She said, “I go to a party and drink, just because my

friends do that.”

A few of the interviewees referred to the limited entertainment in their life in

the U.S. They found that only some activities were available choices for them in a limited

circumstance. For example, a Chinese student said:

What else should I do? Things I can do here are kind of limited, I mean, compared to big cities. That’s one of the reasons why I always hang out with friends or other things. If I were in a big city, there must be more choices to entertain myself.

This aspect seems attributed to the environment of the location or the school

international students go to. International students possess various kinds of leisure

activities to entertain them, and a prompt availability can be a reason for them to

participate in leisure activities as well.

Most of the interviewees referred to several reasons why they participated in

their leisure activities such as fun and contributing to stress reduction. The third research

question revealed the motivation of international students to participate in their leisure

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activities. Reasons why international students choose to devote their time to particular

leisure activities vary. It is of significance that international students maintain their life

healthy mentally and physically with leisure activities. Given the interviewees’

collectivistic cultural backgrounds, it is interesting to note that leisure activities they

engage in alone possesses a great meaning for international students to separate

themselves from others as they need to care about the harmony of the atmosphere in a

group.


The fourth research question intended to identify if leisure activities would

help international students gain social support, and if so, how. All of the interviewees

reported that their leisure activities contributed to making new friends or making their

relationships better. It seems that leisure activities serve as a resource for international

students to gain social support. Also, international students find a resource which

possibly provides them social support through their leisure activities. The leisure

activities they mentioned for this question were mostly activities they did with other

people such as playing sports together and hanging out with friends. Seven thematic

categories of social support through leisure activities emerged: 1) better relationships, 2)

sharing, 3) security, 4) gaining self-esteem, 5) expanding networks, 6) comfortable

atmosphere, and 7) indirect effects. The first four categories tap into the aspect of “leisure

activities as a resource,” while the latter three categories tap into the aspect of “leisure

activities, which provide potential resource.”

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Better Relationships

Most of the interviewees reported that their current relationships got better

through their leisure activities. A lot of the interviewees referred to hanging out with

friends as their leisure activities, and this is the leisure activity which they referred to the

most often as a positive contribution to their relationships. They felt that they gained

emotional support through their interactions with others. One Japanese student reported:

I think the pattern in which I make close friends is that I meet people first, and we make a promise to hang out sometime. Then, we hang out and get closer. The more time I spend, the more I get to know them.

Leisure activities build trust between the interviewees and their friends as

well. Some of the interviewees reported so by saying “I trust them” or “I can rely on

them.” A Korean student noted:

If I have a problem and I cannot solve it by myself, I can ask my friends to help me when we hang out. When we hang out, we talk about funny things and sometimes serious things. I feel, we trust each other when we spend time together.

Stronger attachments were reported by a few interviewees. They also referred

to communication with their family members, although they did not name the activity

when they were asked what they did for fun when they had free time. One Korean student

reported:

I talk to my mom and my younger brother. We send messages to each other, like “oh, how are you doing.” I always enjoy talking to them. I feel like, we send messages to each other, and their responses come quickly. So, I don’t feel we are living apart. I feel more attached to them.

Spending or devoting their time to some activity together makes international

students feel stronger connections with the people they are with. Communication is

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involved in some leisure activities, so international students can get to know more about

people or establish deeper relationships.

Sharing

Through leisure activities, an experience is shared by the people involved in

them. A Chinese student said, “I go out with my girlfriend. We do a lot of things together,

I mean, for fun. We share experiences, and we share memories. So, I feel happy.”

Also, playing sports with other people made some of the interviewees feel that

they shared a same goal with people in the sport. For example, a Japanese student noted,

“When I play soccer with other people, we have a same goal, right. We play together as a

team, and share a kind of spirit. We try our best to win. So, I feel a sense of unity.”

Some interviewees mentioned that a process in some leisure activity brought

them a sharing experience. A Chinese student, for instance, reported:

If we go to some place, like traveling, we have to talk to each other, I mean, we have to plan out together, right. We just want to have fun, you know. Even when we plan out for a trip, I feel fun. Although we are not on the trip, we talk about it, and think about it.

When people participate in some leisure activities with others, communication

or interaction emerges. International students experience sharing moments and goals in

their leisure activities.

Security

The feeling of security was reported by some interviewees as one Japanese

student stated:

Knowing the presence of my close friends here gives me a feeling of security. In here, I don’t have my family or friends who I have grown up with. I feel relieved thanks to my friends in the U.S., especially friends who are international students

55

like me. They are in the same situation with me, and I can share problems and concerns with them when we hang out.

Also, the feeling of isolation was attached to a few of the interviewees when they were

alone so they preferred to getting involved in some leisure activities with their friends.

Leisure activities can give people a chance to spend time together with their

intimate friends. International students stay in the U.S. away from their family and old

friends, and it may cause them homesickness. The involvement in leisure activities with

their friends in the U.S. provides them the sense of security in which they feel

comfortable and they have someone to talk to when needed.

Gaining Self-Esteem

Leisure activities provide self-esteem for some interviewees. This aspect was

significant in playing sports with others. One Chinese student reported:

I can gain more confidence if I play well on the day. Then, everybody comes here and says “oh hey, you did a good job” and then I feel like I can do other things, not just basketball. You know, it’s just like . . . it intrigues, it builds up my confidence. Through playing basketball, I gain confidence and feel I’m admitted by others.

This sentiment was shared by some other interviewees with mentioning “I

gain self-esteem,” and “I feel better about myself.” Leisure activities can be a resource to

provide the sense of self-esteem. Through interacting with others in leisure activities,

international students can gain more self-esteem and confidence in themselves.

Expanding Networks

Some of the leisure activities contribute to making new friends. A lot of the

interviewees shared their experiences in which they made new friends through leisure

activities. This allowed them to interact with others, such as hanging out with friends and

partying/binge drinking. Through leisure activities, international students can find a

56

possible resource which provides them support. For example, one Taiwanese student

reported:

When I hang out with my friends or go to a bar together, they may bring their friends I don’t know. Then I can make new friends. Possibly, we will get closer and I can share everything, maybe when I have an issue or a problem, right.

Some interviewees reported that some of their leisure activities did not help

them to make new friends, although they participated in the activities with others, since

they usually hung out with a same group of people. A few interviewees reported that they

could meet new people, but that did not mean they could be “real friends.” One student

said, “although I meet American people, it’s hard to be best friends with them, like

sharing everything.”

Those leisure activities can be international students’ means to reach

individuals who they can gain support from. However, it may not be easy for some

international students to deepen their relationships if they do not possess a chance to talk

to the new people intimately, not just at a party. Expanding a network has a possibility for

international students to gain social support, however enduring relationships are not

necessarily guaranteed although they get to know new people.

Comfortable Atmosphere

Leisure activities may produce a comfortable atmosphere in which people feel

at ease enough to talk or share their personal matter. This aspect was significant in leisure

activities involving drinking alcohol. One Japanese student said:

When I hang out with friends or new people, sometimes I drink, or when I go to a party. I enjoy talking to them with drinking. I feel that a wall between me and others disappear at that moment. It’s easier for me to talk and I can be funnier. Then maybe I will get along with some people, who can be my good friends there.

57

As they are devoted to having fun while participating in leisure activities,

people put themselves in an atmosphere in which they feel comfortable to interact with

others, even if they do not know them. Leisure activities can produce a comfortable

atmosphere, so it may be possible to get intimate with people who can be a resource to

provide emotional support for international students.

Indirect Effects

Most of the interviewees referred to the leisure activities in which they

participated with other people, however a few interviewees mentioned that some

activities they did only by themselves brought an indirect effect to make their

relationships better. For example, a Korean student reported:

Reading and computer games . . . of course those are not helpful to make friends or make my friendship better directly. But, reading gives me creative thinking, and of course I enjoy the story itself. So, I can talk about the stories, or games, or making jokes through that. Reading makes me think deeply too, so I guess I can understand others more, because of thoughts I gained through reading.

One Chinese student made the same kind of report by saying, “I like watching movies,

and I can share the topic with people. It can serve as a lubricant for communicating with

people, you know.”

Leisure activities which do not require interacting with others can have an

indirect impact on communication of international students with people. Although they

devote their time to some leisure activities alone, this moment gives them a chance to

think or provides a trigger to communicate with people.

In summation, leisure activities work as a direct resource in which

international students gain social support by strengthening their current relationships,

sharing with their friends or partners, achieving a sense of security, and building their

58

self-esteem. Also, leisure activities can be a means in which international students find

potential resources, which may provide them social support by expanding their networks,

achieving a comfortable atmosphere, and having indirect effects from leisure activities

they do alone.

Leisure activities are essential for international students to gain social support

in their host countries. International students leave their family and friends in their home

countries so they need to develop their networks after coming to the U.S. Leisure

activities functions as their means to gain social support by strengthening their current

relationships and find potential resources of social support.


The fifth research question aimed at identifying if leisure activities would help

international students reduce their stress and, if so, how. The interviewees were asked the

question, “do you think they help to reduce your stress?” In this section, four thematic

categories emerged: 1) gaining positive effects regarding school work, 2) catharsis, 3)

forgetting about obligation, and 4) the feeling of not being alone.

Gaining Positive Effects regarding School Work

Some of the interviewees reported that they gained encouragement and

motivation through leisure activities by noting “I feel motivated” and “I feel more

energetic.” The positive energy helps them reduce stress. This aspect taps into the

proactive role of leisure activities since the interviewees reported that they felt positive

and more motivated in their schoolwork after their leisure activities. For example, one

Korean student reported:

59

When I work out, I feel motivated. If I just go back home because I feel tired, I just go to sleep and do nothing. But if I work out, somehow I feel more motivated and focus on studying later. My biggest stress is coming from assignments, so, working out really helps me a lot to reduce stress in terms of that.

Some other interviewees referred to their efficiency. They stated that they

would be able to be more efficient after they engaged in their leisure activities. One

Chinese student shared his experience:

I had a paper that I needed to work on. It was a really important paper, like, if I failed the paper, I would fail the class. But it was so hard for me to write. I was always thinking about the paper, but I couldn’t write. Then I just decided to take a rest and went to a basketball court. I met up with my American friends and played together for a while… after I went back home, and took a shower. Then I turned on my laptop. I felt so efficient, my mind was totally efficient. That paper was stressing me out, but I could smash it, you know.

Leisure activities provide international students encouragement, motivation,

and efficiency to address their stressors. International students will be able to encourage

themselves and focus on schoolwork, which a lot of the interviewees referred to as one of

their stressors.

Catharsis

Leisure activities can be an opportunity for international students to breathe

out their stress. This aspect was especially significant in “hanging out with friends,” and

most of the interviewees, who referred to this leisure activity, talked to their friends while

they were hanging out. One Japanese student said, “When I hang out with my friends, we

always talk about anything. I can let out my feelings or stress while chatting with them.”

Although leisure activities are not composed of intimate interaction with

others, such as sitting and talking to friends, some interviewees stated that they could

60

relieve their stress by letting out their energy while devoting time to their leisure

activities. For example, one Korean student reported:

When I play soccer with my friends, I can relieve my stress because I can vent my energy. Sometimes, I feel frustrated by thinking about my concerns. And then I go out and play soccer, I can throw my energy at it, you know.

Leisure activities provide an opportunity for international students to reduce

their stress through letting out their feelings and energy. They can breathe out their stress

or frustration while devoting their time to their leisure activities.

Forgetting About Obligation

A lot of the interviewees reported that their leisure activities could help them

forget about their obligations, especially schoolwork. A Taiwanese student stated:

I can forget about anything stressing me out, you know. It’s a good chance for me to be away from my school work. I can put them aside. When I have fun, I don’t think about them.

This sentiment was shared by other interviewees as well. Although they can

put their stress factors aside, they recognize that the problem itself is not solved since it is

simply an opportunity for them to forget about it for a while. For example, a Japanese

student reported:

I think the things I do for fun help me reduce stress, but just at the time. I can forget about my problems. However, I need to face it later anyways. Although it’s just like escaping from reality, I feel better after taking a walk or hanging out with friends.

When devoting their time to leisure activities, international students can put

aside their concerns. Leisure activities provide international students an opportunity to

separate their mind from their stressors momentarily, although they still need to confront

their problems or concerns later on.

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The Feeling of Not Being Alone

Some interviewees reported that their stress was relieved because they felt that

they were not alone. One Korean student, for instance, reported:

When I talk to my friends when we are hanging out, we can share anything and maybe I can get a solution about my problem. I feel that I am not the only one who has this kind of problem, you know. I feel that I’m not alone.

This was also expressed by some other interviewees. International students get an

opportunity to talk to their friends who they can share their concerns, problems, or

anxiety with when they are engaged in their leisure activities. As international students

have concerns or problems due to their unique status/situation, they can share their

experiences with other people. They are especially inclined to gain the feeling of being

not alone when they talk to their friends who are also international students.

Leisure activities are helpful for international students to reduce stress. As

international students have difficulties in the U.S., such as language barriers,

understanding lectures, and communication with American people, international students

can alleviate stress by letting it out, sharing it with others, or even forgetting about it. The

involvement in leisure activities provides an opportunity for international students to find

a solution to address their stressors. Even though leisure activities only helps

international students put aside their stress factors for a while, they are able to take a

positive attitude to deal with their stressors (e.g., assignments) after leisure activities.


The sixth research question was designed to identify what leisure activities

were considered helpful to reduce their stress. The previous section intended to find if

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their leisure activities, which they referred to as activities they did during their leisure

time, would help them reduce their stress. This research question was expanded upon by

further asking what leisure activities were employed specifically to reduce their stress.

Through this research question, interviewees could mull over and name leisure activities

they were engaged in, especially when they were stressed out.

Interviewees were allowed to name as many leisure activities as they wanted

as long as the leisure activities were conducted in order to reduce their stress. Various

kinds of leisure activities were referred to. Through the interviews, the top leisure activity

aiming at reducing stress was playing sports with others, followed by talking to friends,

hanging out with friends, talking to family, playing with pets, and other activities. Table 2

shows the kinds of leisure activities mentioned by the interviewees and the total number

of responses.

Many kinds of leisure activities emerged through the interviews. The top five

leisure activities aiming at reducing stress were playing sports with others, talking to

friends, hanging out with friends, talking to family, and playing with pets. It is significant

that the top five leisure activities involve interactions with others. Most of the

interviewees stated that playing sports with others was helpful to reduce their stress due

to the combination of physical activity and communication with people who they played

with. The interviewees referred to soccer, basketball, and tennis. A few referred to ping-

pong and bowling.

Some leisure activities mentioned here (talking to friends, talking to family,

and playing with pets) were not referred when they were simply asked what their leisure

activities were. Talking to people who international students trust and rely on is found to

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Table 2

International Students’ Leisure Activities to Reduce Stress

Leisure Activities Number of Responses

Playing sports with others 11

Talking to friends 9


Talking to family 4

Playing with pets 4

Exercising alone 3

Listening to music

Partying/binge drinking

Traveling

Watching movies

Watching shows on TV/computer

Playing video/computer games

Eating

Taking a walk

Hiking

Dating with a romantic partner

Reading

Dancing

Sleeping

Shopping

3

3

3

3

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

64

be helpful to reduce their stress. The four interviewees who kept pets in the U.S. stated

that they perceived their pet as a family member so interaction with them contributed to

stress reduction.


The last research question intended to find what leisure activities were

considered helpful to gain social support, especially emotional support by international

students. The fourth research question intended to investigate if leisure activities were

helpful for international students to gain social support. This last research question was

expanded upon by further asking what leisure activities international students were

engaged in to gain social support. Through considering this research question,

interviewees could contemplate leisure activities they were engaged in to gain social

support.

Interviewees could name as many leisure activities as they wanted if the

leisure activities were conducted in order to gain social support. Although the total

number of leisure activities here was fewer than the leisure activities aiming at stress

reduction, interviewees referred to various kinds of activities. According to the

interviews, the top leisure activity that was employed to gain social support, was talking

to friends, followed by playing sports with others, talking to family, hanging out with

friends, and hanging out with a romantic partner. Table 3 shows the kinds of leisure

activities mentioned by the interviewees and the total number of responses.

The top five leisure activities aiming at gaining social support were talking to

friends, playing sports with others, talking to family, hanging out with friends, and

65

Table 3

International Students’ Leisure Activities to Gain Social Support

Leisure Activities Number of Responses

Talking to friends 9

Playing sports with others

Talking to family

5

5


Hanging out with a romantic partner

Talking to a romantic partner

Hiking

Cooking with friends

Joining school events

Partying/binge drinking

Traveling

3

2

2

1

1

1

1

hanging out with a romantic partner. As in the leisure activities to reduce stress, it is

significant that the top five leisure activities involve interactions with others. Also, some

leisure activities mentioned here (talking to friends, talking to family, and talking to a

romantic partner) were not referred to when they were simply asked what their leisure

activities were. It is significant that “the friends” the interviewees mentioned in “talking

to friends” mostly referred to friends who were also international students. A Korean

student said:

66

Of course I talk to my friends in Korea when I get stressed out. But…we just talk about something fun, like a relationship thing, you know. I feel like they don’t totally understand my situation, living in the U.S. as an international student. So when I talk to my friends here, I mean, they are also international students, I feel I’m not the only one. I feel there’s people who understand me.

The interviewees, who referred to the leisure activities with their romantic

partner, mentioned that their romantic partners were also international students. Thus,

their romantic partners were recognized not only as like a family member, but also as a

companion with who they could share their experiences as an international student in the

U.S.

It is meaningful to refer to the importance of others that international students

feel close to in the U.S., including their friends, romantic partners, and pets. Recognizing

the presence of those who they can rely on and take care of provides them the feeling of

attachment through engaging in leisure activities together. Interactions with those

significant others in their leisure activities can bring international students the feeling of

attachment, so gaining social support is possible.

67

CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

This chapter provides discussion and formulates a conclusion, based on the

findings in the previous chapter. This chapter is composed of three sections: 1)

discussion, in which the findings are examined, 2) implications, which discusses

suggested applications of the research findings to how higher education institutions can

improve the programs and services they offer to international students, and 3)

recommendations, in which this current research presents suggestions for future research.

Discussion

Based on the findings of this study, some observations are possible. The

findings about international students’ experience are identical with previous studies in

terms of their language barriers, cultural difference, and the different educational systems

in the U.S. (Lin & Yi, 1997; Sovic, 2008; Yang & Clum, 1995). Also, status as an

international student causes difficulties finding jobs if they want to remain in the U.S.

after graduation, due to the necessity of obtaining sponsorship for working visas. This

study shows reasons why international students decide to come to the U.S. for achieving

their college degree. No matter what their motivation is, they share a purpose to be

successful through prospective advantages such as English proficiency.

68

The most significant finding of the first phase of the research regarding

perceived social support by international students is that they talk to a particular kind of

people depending on what support they are looking for. It is relevant to the five

dimensions of support introduced by Cutrona and Russell (1990): 1) emotional support,

which provides security and comfort during stressful time, 2) network support, which

gives a feeling of attachment to a certain group sharing common issues, 3) esteem

support, which boosts the competence and self-esteem of an individual, 4) tangible

support, which provides instrumental support where resources are available, and 5)

informational support, which provides assistance to solve a problem. According to these

dimensions, faculty members and staff play a role as informational support, other

international students contribute to emotional and network support, American friends

function as network and esteem support, and family/friends in home countries serve as

emotional support. The result indicates racial minority groups are more likely to seek

support from their own cultural group (Brison & Kottler, 1995).

Some of these dimensions are apparent in this study and have not been

touched upon in previous studies. For example, even if international students talk to

family and friends in their home country, who share the cultural background with them, it

is salient that international students cannot gain sympathy from them. However,

international students can find this from other international students who have been

through the same kind of experiences with them. It is significant that they cannot share

their emotional issues with American friends, although they enjoy and feel confident

when communicating with Americans. Although a few of the interviewees mentioned

that they could share their emotional issues with people who have been through the same

69

kind of experiences, including professors and friends’ parents, it is more apparent that

international students are likely to achieve social support from other international

students. It may be because international students are the easiest resource to reach.

The findings indicate that international students can gain social support

through their leisure activities. This is consistent with previous studies (Iso-Ahola &

Park, 1996; Iwasaki, 2007). Interaction with other people is inevitable in some leisure

activities. This dimension of leisure activities contributes to the construction of

relationships and the acquirement of social support. Networks can be broadened by

opportunities to mingle with people, such as participating in a sport. Leisure activities are

beneficial to deepen the current relationships of international students as well. Spending

time together and sharing their concerns with friends or family can help them feel that

they are not alone and they gain comfort and emotional support. This study taps into the

function of the leisure activities in which international students are engaged in alone. As

some of the interviewees stated, it is beneficial for them to devote their time to some

leisure activities alone in terms of the effect on their current relationships. This can be

attributed to the cultural background of international students from collectivistic cultures.

Cooperativeness is important in collectivistic cultures so people tend to care about others.

Such a cultural phenomenon can be stressful to some extent, so it is necessary to obtain

quality time by oneself. Time alone can be essential for them to maintain intimate

relationships with others.

Additionally, stress of international students is alleviated through leisure

activities. Leisure activities function as an outlet through which international students

relieve their stress. As shown in previous studies, most of the interviewees in this study

70

referred to language barriers as their stressor. Because of language barriers, international

students find it difficult to manage their assignments, understand lectures, participate in

group discussions/group work, and make American friends. In some leisure activities,

international students do not need to be concerned about their language barriers. The

interviewees, especially those who referred to playing sports with others, stated that they

did not need to worry much about their English much while playing together with their

friends including Americans. They can simply have fun together through the sport and

feel that they are getting closer.

However, in terms of gaining social support and emotional support in

particular, many interviewees referred to talking to people who were already close to

them. Especially, it is significant that they feel they are understood when they talk to

other international students. Apparently, language barriers are the most serious concern

for international students. Also, cultural differences stand as another obstacle for them.

Due to these two main factors, it is challenging for international students to construct

deep friendships with American people. Talking is the key in some of their leisure

activities in terms of gaining social support, however due to their unique status as an

international student, the interviewees reported that their situation and feelings would not

be understood by others except for those who have the same experience as international

students.

Implications of the Study

Various implications can be derived from the findings and discussion of the

study. International students are mostly full-time students and a great amount of their

71

time in the U.S. is dedicated to studying. It seems that they have sufficient time to work

on their assignments, however many international students struggle with it due to their

language barriers. In addition, other stress factors burden them, such as cultural

differences, homesickness, pressure to be academically successful, and so on. Regarding

the hardships which international students confront, helpful resources can be attained

with the involvement of university offices, the international office in particular, faculty

members, and local students.

It is of primary importance for American higher education institutions to

comprehend international students’ experiences and situations in which they feel that the

resources that offer social support are limited. As some of the interviewees in this study

reported, international students do not use the counseling service offered by school even

though they are under stress. A feeling of shame is even attached to them for the

involvement in counseling systems (Yoon & Jepson, 2008). Some interviewees reported

that they would not be understood by university staff, including counselors, since they do

not know each other and cultural backgrounds are not shared. It is crucial to work with

counselors on campus and improve the understandings of international students’

experiences. At the same time, universities can make international students aware of the

presence of counseling systems and try to make them feel more comfortable to be

involved in it.

As previous studies explain that leisure activities are advantageous for stress

reduction and gaining social support (Coleman & Iso-Ahola, 1993; Iso-Ahola & Park,

1996; Lee et al., 2012), universities can plan out the sequences of leisure activities which

international students have mentioned in this study. Plenty of the interviewees claimed

72

that it was hard for them to make American friends. Also, they felt that it was difficult to

cultivate friendship with Americans although they got to know each other. For example,

universities can provide a soccer game event on a regular basis. Continual events may

provide opportunities for international students to establish close friendships with

American students who are also involved in events and share common interest. It can be

expected that international students may obtain as much emotional support from

American students as they gain from other international students. At the same time,

American students possess opportunities to learn other cultures through interactions with

international students. For instance, Michigan State University offers an event named

“weekly coffee hour” in the international center every Friday at 4 p.m. to 6 p.m., and

anyone can join this event. With free coffee, students, staff, or faculty members can join

the event and enjoy communication with others.

Current international students can play a role in helping newly-enrolled

international students as well. As Brison and Kottler (1995) show, minority groups tend

to seek support within their own cultural group when a personal issue emerges rather than

finding support outside their group. It is expected that newly enrolled international

students look for help and support from current students of their cultural group first.

Possible leisure activities can be introduced to new students from current students and

new students can expand their network and possibly find resources through which they

can gain social support.

The findings of this study show the importance of pets international students

have in the U.S. Some students may not be able to have a pet in the U.S., so universities

can offer events in which international students can interact with animals and it may

73

contribute to stress reduction. For example, University of California, San Diego provides

an event in which students can interact with trained therapy dogs on campus during the

final week. It is important to notice students’ stress and ensure their well-being.

Leisure counseling can be helpful for international students as well. Through

leisure counseling, international students may be able to find appropriate leisure activities

according to their purpose, such as making new friends, health concerns, or learning

American cultures. Probably some leisure activities in the U.S. are not available in their

home countries so leisure counseling can be an eye-opening experience for them. This

experience may contribute to their stress reduction, acculturation, and other stressors

international students face after coming to the U.S. The departments related to recreation

and leisure studies can work with the office of international education of universities, and

develop events and leisure counseling systems.

Recommendations for Future Research

Based on the findings and this discussion, some recommendations can be

drawn from this study for future research. This study employs a criterion and purposive

sampling and recruited degree-seeking students from East Asia, and all of the participants

had been in academic programs for at least two semesters. It was expected that those

qualified students had been through all stages of culture shock so they could reflect on

their experiences and figure out their own ways to deal with their life in the U.S. Future

research can tap into the experiences of newly enrolled international students who are in

the midst of culture shock. It is meaningful to identify how newly enrolled international

students obtain social support, what leisure activities they are engaged in, and what kind

74

of roles those leisure activities play for them. Also, it remains a matter of research on

international students from other Asian countries such as India. Future research can

address identifying if the same or different results emerge.

One might conduct research on the recruitment of international students from

the point of view of a university. In the first phase of the study, the researcher could not

collect the expected number of international students although there was help from the

international office. It can be assumed that international students feel reluctant to get

involved in some activities offered by school. Future research can tap into what kind of

events international students participate in, how schools promote events to international

students, and if international students are active to participate in school events, and why

or why not.

This research explored the roles of leisure activities for international students

to gain social support and reduce stress. Although there are several limitations in this

study, the contributions were made in terms of providing international students’

experiences in the U.S. and how leisure activities were helpful for international students

in social support and stress reduction. Social support can contribute to making

international students’ lives in the U.S. meaningful and productive and leisure activities

are helpful for gaining social support. As American higher education institutions desire to

attract international students, it is of great importance to recognize the

situations/experiences of international students and the roles of leisure activities in

gaining social support.

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APPENDIX A

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INTERVIEW GUIDE

1) To begin the interview, I would like to ask you some questions for your basic information.

a) What is your gender, age, and major? What year are you in? Are you married or not? If you do not want to mention your age and marital status, you do not need to.

b) When did you come to the U.S.? c) Why did you decide to go to school in the U.S.?

2) I would like to ask you about your life in the U.S.

a) How do you like your life in the U.S.? b) What is different from your life in your home country? c) Did you have any problems after moving to the U.S.? If you have any, please

explain. d) Did you experience any stress after moving to the U.S.? If so, please explain. e) When and what kind of situation contribute to your stress?

3) I would like to ask you about how you managed the problems or stress you just spoke of. RQ1: How does social support help international students to reduce stress?

a) How do you deal with the stress? Do you talk to someone? b) Do you feel better after you deal with the stress by your strategy? How do

you feel? c) Besides friends and family, is there any other particular person when stressed

such as a counselor, a doctor, or a teacher? If so, who do you talk to? If not, why not?

4) I would like to ask you about what you do when you have time to spend freely.

a) What do you do when you have time to spend for fun? RQ2: What kind of leisure activities do international students devote their time

to?

b) Why do you choose to do the activity/ activities? RQ3: Why do they choose the leisure activities to devote their time to?

c) How do you feel when you are devoted to that? d) Do you think those activities help you to find new friends or make your

relationships with friends or family better? If so, how?

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RQ4: Do international students gain social support through their leisure activities? If so, how? e) Do you think they help to reduce your stress? If so, how?

RQ5: Do leisure activities help international students to reduce their stress? If so,

how?

f) What activities that you spare time except for studying help you to reduce

stress?

RQ6: What leisure activities help international students to relieve stress?

g) What activities that you spare time except for studying help you to gain

comfort?

RQ7: What leisure activities help international students to gain social support?

h) Are there any other aspects or experiences about your life in the U.S. as an international student, and particularly in relation to stress, you can share with me that I have not asked you about?

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