The road to pure plant oil? The technical, environment-hygienic and cost-related aspects of pure plant oil as a transport fuel.

Report 2GAVEReport 2GAVEReport 2GAVEReport 2GAVE----05.0505.0505.0505.05

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AcknowledgementsAcknowledgementsAcknowledgementsAcknowledgements This publication has been produced by the GAVE programme. GAVE stands for Gaseous and Liquid Climate-Neutral Energy Carriers, and is a programme that aims to accelerate the development and introduction of climate-neutral fuels into the Dutch transport sector. SenterNovem executes the GAVE programme for the Dutch Ministry for Spatial Planning, Housing and the Environment, in close collaboration with the Ministry of Economic Affairs and the Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management. Further information is available from: Website: www.senternovem.nl/gave E-mail: gave@senternovem.nl Publications can be ordered by sending an e-mail to: publicatiecentrum@senternovem.nl including the title and publication reference number.

The project is carried out by: CE Oude Delft 180 2611 HH Delft telefoon: 015-2150150 telefax: 015-2150151 contacts: H.Croezen B. Kampman L.C. den Boer I. de Keizer

Date: June 2005

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ContentsContentsContentsContents Summary .............................................................................................................................................. 7 1 Background, objective and working method ........................................................................ 12

1.1 Background ........................................................................................................................ 12 1.2 Objective and scope........................................................................................................... 12 1.3 Use of sources .................................................................................................................... 13 1.4 Report format..................................................................................................................... 13

2 The chain, and brief description of the approach ................................................................. 15 2.1 The chain............................................................................................................................. 15

2.1.1 Rapeseed crop ............................................................................................................ 15 2.1.2 Growing and harvesting rapeseed.......................................................................... 15 2.1.3 Drying and logistics, from seed to processing....................................................... 16 2.1.4 Drying and logistics, from seed to processing....................................................... 16 2.1.5 Distribution from processing to end-user .............................................................. 16 2.1.6 Rapeseed oil applications ......................................................................................... 16

2.2 Working method ............................................................................................................... 16 2.2.1 Technological aspects................................................................................................ 17 2.2.2 Environmental aspects.............................................................................................. 17 2.2.3 Cost aspects ................................................................................................................ 17

3 Growing and harvesting rapeseed.......................................................................................... 18 3.1 Technology, growth and results...................................................................................... 18

3.1.1 Cultivation methods ................................................................................................. 18 3.1.2 Crop area and results ................................................................................................ 19 3.1.3 Oil results.................................................................................................................... 20 3.1.4 Best case and worst case ........................................................................................... 21

3.2 Environment-related aspects ........................................................................................... 21 3.2.1 Fertilisers and energy carriers ................................................................................. 21 3.2.2 Crop protection substances ...................................................................................... 22 3.2.3 Fertiliser-related emissions ...................................................................................... 22 3.2.4 Emissions relating to agricultural vehicles ............................................................ 22

3.3 Costs .................................................................................................................................... 23 4 Harvesting rapeseed ................................................................................................................. 24

4.1 Technology ......................................................................................................................... 24 4.2 Energy ................................................................................................................................. 24 4.3 Emissions............................................................................................................................ 25 4.4 Costs .................................................................................................................................... 25

5 Production: from rapeseed to oil............................................................................................. 26 5.1 Technology ......................................................................................................................... 26

5.1.1 Small-scale production ............................................................................................. 26 5.1.2 Large-scale production ............................................................................................. 27 5.1.3 Refining....................................................................................................................... 27

5.2 Energy usage...................................................................................................................... 28 5.3 Emissions............................................................................................................................ 28 5.4 Costs .................................................................................................................................... 29

6 Distribution, from processing to end-user............................................................................. 31 6.1 Technology ......................................................................................................................... 31

6.1.1 PPO refuelling and storage ...................................................................................... 31 6.1.2 One standard for fuel quality .................................................................................. 32

6.2 Energy usage...................................................................................................................... 33 6.3 The environment ............................................................................................................... 34 6.4 Costs .................................................................................................................................... 34

7 Using rapeseed oil in vehicles ................................................................................................. 35

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7.1 Technology ......................................................................................................................... 35 7.2 Advantages and disadvantages of running on PPO .................................................... 36 7.3 Energy ................................................................................................................................. 37 7.4 Vehicle emissions .............................................................................................................. 37

7.4.1 Emissions of Euro-4/5 vehicles: a preview............................................................ 40 7.5 Health aspects of running on PPO.................................................................................. 40 7.6 Odour .................................................................................................................................. 41 7.7 Costs of using PPO............................................................................................................ 41 7.8 Prospects for improvement and conclusions................................................................. 42

8 Side tracks, alternative oil sources and alternative applications ........................................ 43 8.1 Alternative sources............................................................................................................ 43 8.2 Alternative applications ................................................................................................... 44

9 Conclusions: aggregating information, a complete picture of the entire PPO chain ....... 46 9.1 Additional information..................................................................................................... 46 9.2 Results etc. .......................................................................................................................... 46 9.3 Using PPO in vehicles....................................................................................................... 47 9.4 Energy ................................................................................................................................. 47 9.5 Emissions............................................................................................................................ 48

9.5.1 Overview .................................................................................................................... 48 9.5.2 Comparison with diesel precombustion ................................................................ 50 9.5.3 An indicative well-to-wheel analysis...................................................................... 51

9.6 Costs .................................................................................................................................... 52 9.7 Improvement options and future prospects .................................................................. 53

10 Sensitivity analysis for environmental statistics ............................................................... 54 10.1 Comparing the results of other studies .......................................................................... 54

10.1.1 General comparison with other studies ................................................................. 54 10.1.2 Comparing N2O emissions ...................................................................................... 54

10.2 Global analysis of alternative construction of the PPO chain ..................................... 55 10.2.1 Evaluation of possible alternative farming systems ............................................. 55

A PPO network.............................................................................................................................. 64

A.1 The Netherlands ................................................................................................................ 64 A.1.1 Contact persons and addresses ............................................................................... 64 A.1.2 A few activities .......................................................................................................... 64

A.2 International ....................................................................................................................... 65 A.2.1 Contact persons and addresses ............................................................................... 65 A.2.2 A few activities .......................................................................................................... 66

B Background information .......................................................................................................... 67 C Calculations of environmental impact per ton PPO............................................................. 73

C.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 73 D Calculating fertiliser dosage and emissions from using fertilisers..................................... 81

D.1 Farming methods and timeframe for rapeseed and green manure............................ 81 D.2 Fertilising and soil processing for rapeseed .................................................................. 82 D.3 Fertilising and soil processing for wild radish .............................................................. 83 D.4 Calculating the nitrogen balance..................................................................................... 84

D.4.1 Rapeseed crops .......................................................................................................... 84 D.5 Wild radish......................................................................................................................... 85 D.6 Resulting balances ............................................................................................................. 85 D.7 N2O emissions ................................................................................................................... 86 D.8 Using animal manure ....................................................................................................... 87

E Modifications as a result of the peer review.......................................................................... 91 F Using rapeseed straw as an energy carrier ............................................................................ 93

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SummarySummarySummarySummary Introduction and backgroundIntroduction and backgroundIntroduction and backgroundIntroduction and background

There is increasing interest, at both regional and local levels, in using pure plant oil (PPO) as a fuel for road vehicles. This is confirmed by the various initiatives taken by various local authorities, provincial bodies and private individuals. PPO is a possible replacement for diesel, and is currently popular with both the general public and politicians, partly as a regionally implemented solution to climate change and other environmental problems. In practice, both the Netherlands and Germany concentrate on rapeseed oil, produced from rapeseed that is cultivated as a green fallow crop. Very little is known about the actual environmental advantages and costs relating to the implementation of PPO. It is also not clear which applications are most suitable for PPO use, which criteria these applications must meet (both vehicle and fuel) and which other technical aspects play a role, e.g. storing PPO. SenterNovem has commissioned this report in order to fill in the current gaps in this knowledge. This study covers the following aspects: • To what extent is PPO technically developed as a transport fuel? • To what extent do engines need to be modified in order to run on PPO? • Which costs are related to the use of PPO, and who will pay these costs? • Which environmental advantages (or disadvantages) are associated with the use of PPO

as a vehicle fuel? To a certain extent this study complements the ‘fact-finding study’ [Broek, 2003] implemented by Ecofys in 2003, in which these aspects, particularly biodiesel and bioethanol from agricultural crops, were researched.

MethodologyMethodologyMethodologyMethodology Where possible, the research team have based the study on practical data. The main sources of information include trade literature, reports on the practice of producing and using PPO as a transport fuel, plus verbal advice from experts in the field. This study primarily focuses on producing PPO from rapeseed, partly because this is by far the most-used crop for PPO initiatives in the Netherlands and Germany. The scope of this report covers the cultivation of rapeseed in the Netherlands and Germany, and the use of PPO for cars in the Netherlands. The timeframe chosen covers the period from 2005 to 2010. The study includes relevant statistics for costs and the environment, where these are representative for the current cultivation and processing of rapeseed. The results appear to be very sensitive, particularly with respect to cultivation aspects such as yield per hectare, N2O emissions during cultivation, and oil content of the rapeseed. The research team has therefore specifically chosen not to use average result figures. Instead, the team defined the outer limits between which the results could vary as a function of: • The rapeseed yield per hectare (3 – 5 ton/ha); • The oil content of the harvested rapeseed (40-45%); • The N2O emissions from fertiliser used during cultivation (a range, as stated in the IPCC

guideline); • The technology used to extract plant oil and the efficiency with which the oil is isolated:

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a) Large-scale: pressing and extracting with >98% return; b) Small-scale, pressing with ± 75% return.

These aspects are very important in determining the specific costs and environmental impact per unit of PPO. Uncertainties concerning fuel consumption of agricultural vehicles, due to differences in local soil conditions, machines, chauffeur driving styles etc., are not included here.

ResultsResultsResultsResults The most important results are listed below.

Technique Using PPO from rapeseed as a transport fuel is only possible if the vehicle’s engine is modified to run only on PPO. Driving unmodified vehicles, or using mixtures of diesel and PPO will damage the engine. There is currently no industrial standard for PPO fuel quality. The production method (warm/cold pressing, purifying, refining) varies per manufacturer. Regional differences in crops also result in oil quality differences that cannot be equalled out by mixing various batches. This means that fuel quality fluctuates all the time, so that modern engines will not operate at maximum performance. Opportunities for using PPO are currently limited to a section of the vehicle market – i.e. to vehicles with indirect-injected (IDI) engines, and vehicles with central injection pumps. Conversion packs are still being developed for other direct injection (DI) systems and for the most modern vehicles.

Greenhouse gas balance Greenhouse gas emissions are reduced by an average of 30% when replacing diesel with PPO. The reduction can vary depending on the rapeseed yield and production technique used, from –15% (i.e. an increase in greenhouse gas emissions) to 65% reduction. This is in line with the information concerning biodiesel found on the UBA (German federal environment office) website. The greenhouse gas emissions from the PPO chain – expressed with respect to the greenhouse gas emissions in the diesel chain 1 - are as follows: a) The average CO2 emissions from transport, agricultural activities, use of natural gas and

electricity for industrial processes during PPO production, result in a contribution of 20-35%.

b) N2O emissions during fertiliser production for rapeseed cultivation result in a contribution of 15-30%. The use of a calcium ammonium nitrate fertiliser (KAS) is assumed. The N2O emission depends on the nitric acid processed when producing the KAS.

c) The average N2O emissions at the field (from using fertiliser) provide a contribution of anywhere between 5% and 60%. This huge variation is partially due to the range of rapeseed yield per hectare, but particularly depends on the huge uncertainties concerning the extent to which nitrogen from fertiliser is converted into N2O. This uncertainty in the emissions factor, according to the IPCC methodology, amounts to 80%.

1 Greenhouse gas emissions in the diesel chain are set at 100%.

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Figure S.1: Relative breakdown of the contribution to climate change(total diesel-chain contribution = 100%)

As this figure clearly shows, the feasible reduction in greenhouse gas emissions from using PPO is extremely uncertain. In particular, the yield per hectare and the N2O emissions at the field are very uncertain factors. The specific greenhouse gas emissions per unit of PPO are relatively low (best case) when there is a high yield per hectare. The year 2004 was therefore a very good year for rapeseed, with a high yield of almost 5 ton/ha, but a warm and dry year (such as 2003) results in a low yield of only 3-4 ton/ha. N2O emissions at the field depend on this type of climatological and soil-related aspects. The N2O emissions are generally low when, for example, there is a low groundwater table, it does not rain during fertiliser distribution (whereby the fertiliser does not reach the crops) and when rapeseed is cultivated in clay soil.

Options for improving the greenhouse gas balance The research team found little opportunity for improving the greenhouse gas balance from PPO production alone. • Using PPO for PPO-related agricultural activities and transport leads to little reduction

of average greenhouse gas emissions because the reduction achieved is cancelled out by the lower net PPO yield. This falls within the uncertainty margins of the results;

• Replacing the fertiliser with animal manures probably results in higher greenhouse gas emissions for winter rapeseed, because animal manure is less efficient than fertiliser and results in N2O emissions that are twice those for fertiliser. Ammonia and nitrate emissions will also increase considerably;

• It is possible that another type of N-fertiliser (containing no nitric acid) could be used instead of the standard calcium ammonium nitrate (KAS). The fact that KAS is used is purely due to its characteristics, e.g. crops use the nitrogen in this fertiliser immediately. The question is whether other types of fertiliser might contain similar characteristics to those in KAS.

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In the long term, N2O emissions from nitric acid production will probably be reduced by 80-90% through additional gas cleaning. There is considerable pressure on the fertiliser industry to develop and apply such techniques. Replacing diesel with PPO would increase the feasible reduction in the contribution to climate change to around 50%.

Other emissions Production and use of PPO from rapeseed very probably leads to higher emissions of acidic and fertiliser substances (NOx, NH3, NO3) in comparison to that of low-sulphur diesel. Expressed in acidic equivalents, these emissions will increase by around 100%. Emissions of these air-polluting substances primarily depend on rapeseed cultivation. Production and use of PPO results in lower emissions of VOS, CH4 and fine substances than when using low-sulphur diesel. Reduction percentages over the entire chain are somewhere between 10-20%. Possible reductions of VOS and PM10 depend on the reduced emissions from running on PPO compared to diesel. Possible CH4 reductions depend on the fact that such emissions occur in the natural oil chain through venting and leakage of the associated gas. Emissions from vehicles running on PPO are not easy to estimate, as there are still too few emission measurements to allow specific evaluations. The aforementioned conclusions are therefore given for indicative purposes only.

Costs The costs of using PPO are significantly higher than for diesel. The production costs for PPO amount to € 0.50-0.90 per litre PPO, including regional distribution, but excluding vehicle conversion costs. The production costs for diesel amount to € 0.30 per litre. The fuel-related kilometre price is € 0.08 - € 0.15 when conversion and distribution of PPO are factored in. In comparison, the fuel-related kilometre price for conventional diesel (in 2003) averaged € 0.02 (both excluding duty and VAT). The details of the PPO kilometre price are shown in the following figure.

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Figure 2.1: Details of the kilometre price for driving on PPO

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Cost-effectiveness of using PPO as a climate measure The costs of using PPO as a way of reducing greenhouse gas emissions are very high. Based on the aforementioned costs and an average reduction in the contribution to climate change, the specific reduction costs for greenhouse gases amount to an average of € 950/ton CO2 equivalent, taking into account the saved costs for purchasing diesel (just the production costs). In comparison: energy saving policies allow maximum reduction costs of € 50/ton CO2 equivalent and the expected trade price for CO2 (up to 2010) is estimated at € 10/ton CO2.

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1111 Background, objective and Background, objective and Background, objective and Background, objective and working methodworking methodworking methodworking method

1.11.11.11.1 BackgroundBackgroundBackgroundBackground The use of pure plant oils (PPO) is nothing new. Rudolf Diesel tested his first engines with plant oil and declared that: ‘The engine can be fed with vegetable oils’. However, even today this remains a subject of policy discussions – just as biomass transition – and therefore studies continue to be implemented concerning the use of PPO as a transport fuel, or as a fuel in stationary engines, in order to provide further information. In everyday practice more and more interest is being shown in using this fuel, as shown by the initiatives of various local authorities, provinces and private individuals. This increased interest creates the need for even more information by those initiating such projects, the government and other stakeholders. The policies that are currently being prepared under the framework of implementing the EU’s biofuel guideline also demand more knowledge of this option. This is why SenterNovem has commissioned the CE consultancy to carry out a study into the environmental aspects, costs and technological aspects of using pure plant oil. This commission was supervised and funded by the GAVE programme (gaseous and liquid climate-neutral energy carriers), which SenterNovem implements for the Dutch Ministries of VROM (Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment), EZ (Economic Affairs) and V&W (Transport, Public Works and Water Management).

1.21.21.21.2 Objective and scopeObjective and scopeObjective and scopeObjective and scope The main objective of this report is to provide a detailed overview of the environmental aspects, costs and technical opportunities of using pure plant oil (PPO) in the Netherlands, plus activities outside the Netherlands, so that stakeholders are better able to relate PPO to other biofuels. Since PPO can be produced using a variety of raw materials, this analysis is limited to rapeseed oil (made from rapeseed grown in the Netherlands), partly because this is the most-used raw material for the various Dutch initiatives. Also in other European Member States, rapeseed is by far the most important ingredient for PPO and biodiesel. See also [Broek, 2003]. Other possibilities include, for example, producing oil/vehicle fuel from frying fat or animal fats. But the amount of fatty residues is too small to make a significant contribution to the implementation of the EU’s biofuel guideline. The objective is to sketch the farming of rapeseed and PPO production in the Netherlands during the period 2005-2010, for a situation in which rapeseed is an accepted agricultural crop, and PPO is commercially promoted as an acceptable alternative to diesel. The Netherlands has very little experience in cultivating rapeseed and producing PPO. This is why information has primarily been taken from rapeseed cultivation in Germany and PPO production from rapeseed as currently occurring in Germany. The information generated is therefore not specific to the Dutch situation, but provides a sketch of rapeseed cultivation and PPO production for all of northwest Europe.

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1.31.31.31.3 Use of sourcesUse of sourcesUse of sourcesUse of sources In order to create the desired overview concerning PPO, the research team made full use of trade literature, reports on the practical side of PPO production and its use as a vehicle fuel, plus the verbal advice given by experts in the field. With respect to cultivating rapeseed, the research team used the most recent standard publications available in the Netherlands, farming recommendations and other publications by PPO Lelystad2 and LEI DLO3 . Additional information was received by telephone from Gerard Borm and Marco de Wolf of PPO Lelystad, and Marieke Meeusen of LEI DLO, concerning the publications used. Cultivation in other countries was also given some consideration; see [Parkhomenko, 2004]. Farmers need to use fertiliser in order to grow anything. Unfortunately, this also has an environmental impact, in the form of greenhouse gas emissions as well as acidic and fertilised substances. In order to gain the required insight into these matters and their link to rapeseed farming, researchers used study reports and descriptions of the calculation methods used in government policies. The Louis Bolk Institute provided this expertise via a number of model calculations, and Filip Ehlerd (Alterra) and Maya Boer (CLM) provided additional verbal information. Information concerning the production of rapeseed oil has primarily been taken from the literature, i.e. reports and articles written by authors such as Remmeler and Widmann, or reports from the Folkecenter in Denmark; all of which are strong supporters of using PPO as a vehicle fuel. In addition, the authors also consulted various reports and reference works from other comparable research institutes, e.g. the University of Sheffield, IFEU (institute for energy and environmental research, Heidelburg) and the Forschungsstelle für Energiewirtschaft. Information from manufacturers of large-scale production equipment was also used, particularly from Lurgi Life Science and De Smet. For insight into using PPO as a transport fuel, the research team also had considerable contact with practical experts, such as Harold Pauwels and Mr Costenoble (of NNI, the Dutch standards institute) and Nr Noack (of Elsbett). Their information provided a valuable addition to the limited publications on practical experience of using PPO as a transport fuel. Of these, the publications produced under the framework of the ‘100 Tractors Programme’ in Germany were particularly useful4 .

In consultation with SenterNovem, a peer review of the draft report was carried out by Ecofys and CLM, to evaluate the depth of the analysis, accuracy of the sources and the correctness of the assumptions, starting points and methodology used. As a result of this review, several changes were made to the calculations and starting points. The peer review aimed to better guarantee the reliability of the results to the general public.

1.41.41.41.4 Report format Report format Report format Report format This report consists of the following sections. First a global description is given of the PPO chain (Chapter 2). Chapters 3-7 describe the various parts of this chain and provide answers to questions such as: • Which technical advantages and disadvantages are related to the production and

application of PPO as a vehicle fuel? • Which environmental aspects play a role? • What is the ratio between costs and benefits?

2 See [Moens, 2003], [Dekker, 2002], [Van der Mheen, 2003]. 3 See [Janssen, 2004]. 4 See [Hassel, 2004].

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Chapter 8 discusses a number of alternatives. Chapter 9 sets the scores for the technical, environmental and economic aspects against those of diesel and biodiesel, thus allowing the various options to be compared. Attention is also paid to the potential for using PPO in the Netherlands, and any relevant prospects for improvement throughout the chain. Finally, Appendix A includes a brief inventory of relevant initiatives, activities and developments, both within the Netherlands and abroad. Appendices B-F provide more detailed information on the calculations used etc.

Due to the uncertainties, primarily the farming-related environmental tax, this analysis uses the ‘ranges’ that can be achieved. In order to provide an overview of the boundaries within which matters such as environment taxes and costs can vary, a worst-case scenario and a best-case scenario have been defined (see Chapter 3). The changes carried out as a result of the peer review are described in Appendix E.

Terms

Since there are various terms used in relation to plant oil, a brief description of these terms is given here.

Biofuel - Liquid or gaseous transport fuel that is derived from biomass (EU definition).

Bio-oil - Popular term for biofuel (or bio-fuel).

Plant oil (also known as: Pure Plant Oil) – Pressing, extraction or similar procedures produce oil from oil-

retaining plants. This can be natural or refined, but not chemically changed, and meets the engine types

and emission regulations (EU definition of ‘pure plant oil’).

Biodiesel – For use as a biofuel, as methyl ester from plant or animal oils, of diesel quality (EU definition).

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2222 The chain, and brief description The chain, and brief description The chain, and brief description The chain, and brief description of the approachof the approachof the approachof the approach This chapter briefly sketches the production chain necessary to produce PPO from rapeseed, i.e. how the crop is cultivated, processed and how it can be applied. The various ‘links in the chain’ are then detailed further in the following chapters.

2.12.12.12.1 The chain The chain The chain The chain

2.1.12.1.12.1.12.1.1 Rapeseed cropRapeseed cropRapeseed cropRapeseed crop Alongside coleseed, rapeseed belongs with crops such as mustard, radish and cress in the cross-flowering category. In general, when people in Western Europe speak of rapeseed they mean winter rapeseed. The other variety (spring rapeseed) is only used in areas with very cold winters (e.g. Canada and Scandinavia) or when it is possible to sow seeds very early in the year [Van der Mheen, 2003]. Examples include southern Germany, France and parts of the UK. Finally, summer rapeseed is grown as an ‘emergency crop’, e.g. when winter rapeseed does not grow properly [Van der Mheen, 2003].

2.1.22.1.22.1.22.1.2 Growing and harvesting rapeseedGrowing and harvesting rapeseedGrowing and harvesting rapeseedGrowing and harvesting rapeseed Winter rapeseed can be grown on rich soils with a good structure and a good water system [Bernelot Moens, 2003]. Sandy soils and those with stagnating water are not suitable for growing rapeseed. The pre-crop, for example, can also influence the crop size. Due to the early sowing time and the considerable need for nitrogen, peas and grains are also suitable as pre-crop. The plant, as an early crop, leaves behind a rich soil of mineralised nitrogen, and is therefore also a good pre-crop, for example for grains. This means that the crop fits well into existing commercial crop rotation schemes. The plant produces seed boxes containing oil-rich seeds. These seeds are harvested as the main product – the rest of the plant is used as straw or is ploughed back into the ground, or used to cover the floors in stables.

Figure 2.1: Fields of rapeseed [Solaroilsystems]

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2.1.32.1.32.1.32.1.3 Drying and logistics, from seed to processingDrying and logistics, from seed to processingDrying and logistics, from seed to processingDrying and logistics, from seed to processing When the seeds are harvested, these are transported to a processor: either a small-scale oil press or a large-scale industrial plant. The seeds are also dried, either before or after this transport. In practice, the seeds are generally dried on the farmer’s land or in a storage facility at the processing plant.

2.1.42.1.42.1.42.1.4 Drying aDrying aDrying aDrying and logistics, from seed to processingnd logistics, from seed to processingnd logistics, from seed to processingnd logistics, from seed to processing The seeds are processed into oil and a pulp, or scrap. Small-scale processing takes place via cold presses, in screw-shaped wringers. This allows around 75% of the oil in the seeds to be separated, and the rest is left as a pulp residue. However, when processing on an industrial scale, the seeds are first pressed lightly and then all the remaining oil is extracted from the pulp by means of a solvent. Both the residue from cold pressing (rough flakes) and the industrial extract (scrap) are processed in animal feeds. The flakes have the advantage that they contain the rest of the oil, which is an energy-rich additive, although the scrap has a higher protein content (35%).

2.1.52.1.52.1.52.1.5 Distribution from processing to endDistribution from processing to endDistribution from processing to endDistribution from processing to end----useruseruseruser The rapeseed oil produced is then distributed to (potential) end-users. With small-scale production this means transporting it from the farm where the oil is pressed to the customer. With large-scale production transport starts from the industrial plant.

2.1.62.1.62.1.62.1.6 Rapeseed oiRapeseed oiRapeseed oiRapeseed oil applicationsl applicationsl applicationsl applications Rapeseed oil is a so-called triglycerine, i.e. compounds of glycerol with higher fatty acids such as palmitic acid, stearic acid and oleic acid. Rapeseed oil is a strong unsaturated oil with a high iodine number (the same as olive oil). Rapeseed oil is traditionally used for industrial applications, including coatings, lubrications and washing powders. The oil can also be processed into fats and chemicals. The main sales area is currently the foodstuff industry. Through the development in the 1970s of so-called ‘double 00 types’ – with a low eruca acid content (≤2%) in the oil and a low glucose content (maximum of 30 µmol/g) in the oil-free scrap – rapeseed oil has been used for wider applications in human foodstuffs (e.g. margarine, cooking oil. The low glucose level in the scrap means that more rapeseed scrap could be mixed with the animal fodder without damaging the health of the cattle. In practice, rapeseed oil as a fuel undergoes a limited pre-processing that really only consists of removing the solid sections using filtration, centrifuge or sedimentation. Other applications require a more complex process in the form of decongestion, centrifuging out the lecithine (proteins), bleaching and neutralising/deodorising (removing free fatty acids)5 .

2.22.22.22.2 Working methodWorking methodWorking methodWorking method Three aspects are considered for every link in the chain: • Technological aspects • Environmental aspects • Cost aspects. In addition to these general aspects, attention is also paid to health and odour aspects for the last link, i.e. using PPO in vehicles.

5 www.duurzame-energie.nl/downloads/factsheets/brandstof.pdf, www.mvo.nl, www.opek.nl.

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2.2.12.2.12.2.12.2.1 Technological aspectsTechnological aspectsTechnological aspectsTechnological aspects Technology plays a role in the various links in the chain: during actual cultivation, for the various transport and distribution movements, during conversion from seed to oil and, finally, when refuelling the vehicle. These various aspects are discussed in the heading ‘technology’ in each of the following chapters. The information has been obtained from the literature currently available on this subject. The knowledge available within CE, plus that of various experts in the field, has also been included.

2.2.22.2.22.2.22.2.2 Environmental aspectsEnvironmental aspectsEnvironmental aspectsEnvironmental aspects Each link in the chain causes a certain environmental impact (see Figure 2.2).

Figure 2.2: Overview of the environmental impact in the chain, from cultivating rapeseed through to using PPO as a transport fuel

Based on the available literature, the environmental impact has been studied for each step of the process, and differentiates between ‘energy’ and ‘emissions’. If there were insufficient details available, then estimates have been made of the environmental impact. This is expressly stated, where appropriate.

2.2.32.2.32.2.32.2.3 Cost aspectsCost aspectsCost aspectsCost aspects The cost aspects have also been studied for each link in the PPO chain, also using available literature. In particular, the study by [Janssens, 2004], which was concluded only recently, formed an important basis for the cultivation costs. Various sources were used for the logistical and transport costs, including the in-house knowledge at CE and that of other experts.

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3333 Growing and harvesting Growing and harvesting Growing and harvesting Growing and harvesting rapeseedrapeseedrapeseedrapeseed This chapter briefly describes the technical, economic and environment-related aspects of cultivating rapeseed. Detailed background information can be found in Appendix D. Rapeseed farming provides a considerable contribution to the total environmental impact in the well-to-wheel (WTW) chain of PPO, with its greenhouse gas emissions, acidification and fertilised substances in the form of using fertiliser and diesel (for agricultural vehicles). At the same time, there is also considerable uncertainty of the farming-related environmental impact per unit of rapeseed. This uncertainty is mainly related to the harvest per hectare of rapeseed, but there are also other – often difficult to quantify – uncertainties. The fuel consumption of agricultural machinery often varies between fields, due to aspects such as differences in soil condition and structure. For example, if one farmer ploughs his fields just after it has rained, or another farmer ploughs in a dry period. This means that it is not possible to give more than an indication or a range of aspects such as environmental impact and costs. The following chapter therefore contains a best-case scenario and a worst-case scenario, to indicate how the environmental impact boundaries relating to rapeseed farming can vary. These scenarios are used throughout this report. This chapter also looks at the reference situation: the farmer’s cultivation schedule if he/she did not cultivate rapeseed.

3.13.13.13.1 Technology, growth and resultsTechnology, growth and resultsTechnology, growth and resultsTechnology, growth and results

3.1.13.1.13.1.13.1.1 Cultivation methodsCultivation methodsCultivation methodsCultivation methods Rapeseed This study assumes the cultivation of winter rapeseed. Firstly because this forms the raw material for the initiatives in Oltamt and De Peel. Secondly, because it is the most popular crop for producing PPO and most of the biodiesel in Germany and France. See also [Broek, 2003]. In other words, it seems to be the most representative crop. Winter rapeseed also produces a greater harvest of seed and oil per hectare, and the farmer can generate a higher income than with summer rapeseed. Winter rapeseed is a crop that is typically used in crop rotation schemes in combination with grains, primarily winter wheat and winter barley. See, for example [Moens, 2003], [Brouwer, 2004]. Winter rapeseed is sown at the end of August and germinates in the autumn. The crop remains in the ground during the winter, grows further from February onwards, and is harvested around July. The grains that are grown in the same rotation are sown in the autumn or winter and harvested at the end of July or August. Rapeseed is therefore sown almost immediately after the grain harvest. The straw, stubbles and underground crop residues that remain after the rapeseed harvesting (around July) are generally ploughed back into the soil. Straw is rarely sold, see also [Velthof, 2000] and [Jansen, 2004]. In theory it is possible to use the straw in horse stables, but this rarely happens in practice. The material has good characteristics for this

- 19 -

application, because it is not eaten by the horses and has high moisture absorbing capacities. However, wheat straw is generally preferred because, in contrast to rapeseed straw, it is very flexible and soft, and after use it can be sold as fertiliser to mushroom farmers. Rapeseed straw is also more expensive than wheat straw. Ploughing back the crop residue means that the nutrients absorbed by the crops are returned to the soil. Nitrogen is the only exception here. As the crops disintegrate , the nitrogen present in the crop residue is released as nitrate and is largely rinsed away or converted into molecular, gaseous nitrogen. Only the nitrate that is released during the growing season of the next crop is effectively used. This then contributes to a higher mineral nitrogen content in the soil, and makes it possible to limit the use of fertiliser for the next crop. Since the residue of the harvested rapeseed crop is in the ground or ploughed back into the soil from August, and wheat or barley do not germinate (and thus absorb nitrogen) until the following February, a large part of the nitrogen in the rapeseed residue is lost. Green manure In accordance with various studies, and the general practice in Germany, this study assumes that cultivating rapeseed is an alternative for having fallow fields. In the Netherlands fallow fields generally mean green fields, or cultivating a so-called ‘green manure’. This has several uses, e.g. • Reducing the spreading and stiffening of the soil top layer; • Reducing the growth of weeds by covering the soil; • Capturing mineral nitrogen in the soil after harvesting the main crop, to prevent nitrate

being rinsed away during the winter and spring months; • Maintaining the humus level in the soil. With green fallowing the plants are sown in the spring (before 31 May) and the crop may not be harvested before 31 August. Even making hay and storage in silos (for further application as animal fodder) are not allowed until this date. The crop is either killed by spraying in the autumn and then ploughed back into the soil, or remains in the fields during the winter and is killed by spraying and ploughed back during the spring. Since this study assumes that crops are rotated with grains – that are sown in autumn or winter – ploughing back in the autumn is the only part that is relevant to this study. The most popular green fallow crops are wild radish, yellow mustard and Italian hemp-nettle grass. There are few real differences between these crops as far as harvesting and nitrogen absorption are concerned. Due to the subsidy deadline set for sowing green fallow, this study assumes that wild radish is used, which can be sown in May. Italian hemp-nettle grass and yellow mustard need to be sown later in the year.

3.1.23.1.23.1.23.1.2 Crop area and resultsCrop area and resultsCrop area and resultsCrop area and results The rapeseed yield in the Netherlands over the past few years has totalled around 3.5 ton/ha per ± 0.5 ton/ha of fresh seed. This was limited to several hundreds of thousand hectare, primarily located in Groningen (Oltamt). See also Figure 3.1.

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0

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1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004jaar (-)

Op

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ha)

of

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kg)

Geoogste oppervlakte (ha)

Opbrengst per ha (kg)

Totale bruto opbrengst(1.000 kg)

Source: [Janssens et al., 2004; CBS, 2004]

Figure 3.1: Results for rapeseed areas in the Netherlands

France and Germany grow considerably more rapeseed: each of these countries has a rapeseed crop area of around 1.2 million hectare. Cultivating rapeseed here generally focuses on selling to the foodstuff industry. Of this total area, Germany uses around 310,000 ha (around 30%) for the biodiesel industry. Both countries use very little of the crop for PPO production. Germany currently achieves regular harvests of 4 - 4.5 ton/ha. Only in the good years, such as this past year, are farmers able to achieve results of 5 ton/ha or more. These higher results are primarily due to applying newer, so-called hybrid types (see, for example, the UFOP website : www.ufop.de, and the DSV website: www.dsv-saaten.de). However, the results can vary per farmer. Recent experience has shown that the results in the same year and in the same region can vary from 3.7 ton/ha to 5 ton/ha6 .

3.1.33.1.33.1.33.1.3 Oil resultsOil resultsOil resultsOil results The seeds obtained from rapeseed can contain 40-45% oil [Bernelot Moens, 2003], [Van der Mheen, 2003]. The literature provides little information about influences on harvesting measures with respect to the oil content. [Van der Mheen, 2003] includes a brief overview of information taken from a number of practical tests, and this is shown in Table 3.1 Harvesting measure Effect on oil content In specific figures Sowing later (up to 15 September) Increase From 98 to 102 More nitrogen (from 0 to 200) Decrease From 50.1 to 47.1 Harvesting10 days later (zwadmaaien)

Increase From 48.0 to 48.6

Chemically preventing mould Increase From 43.3 to 44.9

Table 3.1: Harvesting measures and their effects on oil content

6 www.agriholland.nl/nieuws/artikel.html?id=46615

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In order to obtain the final oil results, the oil contents need to be coupled to the seed results. It now appears that a high oil content is usually negatively correlated to a high seed result [Van der Mheen, 2003].

3.1.43.1.43.1.43.1.4 Best case and worst caseBest case and worst caseBest case and worst caseBest case and worst case Due to the wide range of results per hectare found in practice, this study chose to define a worst case and a best case, thus showing the effect of the results on the total environmental impact and costs. The following assumptions are made per case: Variant Rapeseed results

(ton/ha) Oil content of rapeseed

Moisture content

Best case 5 45% 14%Average 4 43% 16%Worst case 3 40% 18%

Table 3.2: Parameters for best case, worst case and the average

The worst case can be seen as respresentative for rapeseed harvests such as those produced, until recently, in the Netherlands and for bad rapeseed years. The best case is representative of above-average high yields. The average of 4 ton rapeseed per hectare is equal to the agricultural practice in Germany (see footnotes in previous subsections).

3.23.23.23.2 EnvironmentEnvironmentEnvironmentEnvironment----related aspectsrelated aspectsrelated aspectsrelated aspects

3.2.13.2.13.2.13.2.1 Fertilisers and energy carriersFertilisers and energy carriersFertilisers and energy carriersFertilisers and energy carriers Table 3.3 shows the fertilisers used for the various crop types and the diesel used for agricultural vehicles. As far as can be seen from the various sources consulted, animal manure s are generally not used for rapeseed crops. As a comparison, the figures for wild radish are also given. For both crops, the amount of nitrogen has a clear effect on harvests where the pre-crop was grain. This means that the amount of mineral nitrogen in the soil is limited, whereby relatively little nitrogen needs to be added. For phosphor, potassium and calcium it is assumed that balanced fertilisation is used: an amount is added that is equal to the amount removed by the rapeseed crop. Since wild radish is assumed to be ploughed back into the field, there is no need to add phosphor, potassium or calcium for this crop. For further details and explanation, see Appendix D.

Rapeseed results Wild radish(per ton of fresh seed/ha)

3 4 5Fertiliser: - KAN 27%, as kg N (kg)

a) dosage 195 195 225 30 b) available from crop residue -19 -25 -31 -30 c) net result 176 170 194 0

- TSP 48% P2O5, as kg P2O5 (kg) 45 60 75 - K2O 60%, as kg K2O (kg) 30 40 50 - CaO 165 220 275 Diesel (litre) 150 150 150 85

Table 3.3: Usage per hectare per year for rapeseed and wild radish

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3.2.23.2.23.2.23.2.2 Crop protection substances Crop protection substances Crop protection substances Crop protection substances The seed obtained from rapeseed is generally contaminated with parasitic mould, so decontamination is necessary. The plant itself can be be attacked by insects such as beetles and fleas. Rapeseed is also sensitive to tuber rot [Bernelot Moens, 2003]. [Moens, 2003] recommends using a total of around 7 litres of pesticide per hectare, to fight against plague, sickness and weeds.

3.2.33.2.33.2.33.2.3 FertiliserFertiliserFertiliserFertiliser----related emissionsrelated emissionsrelated emissionsrelated emissions Table 3.5 shows the amount of emissions from evaporation of NH3, rinsing of NO3 and formation of N2O during nitrification/denitrification. Emissions from N2O are discounted because the amount of nitrogen available from crop residues during harvesting of mature crops means that less fertiliser needs to be used. N2O emissions also include emissions from crop residues and indirect emissions relating to the NO3 that is rinsed out and the NH3 that is emitted into the air. NO3 emissions also include the rinsing of nitrogen from decayed crop residues and emissions. Appendix D shows how these emissions are estimated.

Rapeseed results Wild radish(per ton fresh seed/ha)

195 195 225 Emission (kg/ha·year) - NH3 (air) 3.9 3.9 4.5 - N2O (air) 3.2 3.3 3.9 1.0- NO3 (soil) 45.5 33.9 30.6 26.6

Table 3.4: Emissions relating to fertiliser use

3.2.43.2.43.2.43.2.4 Emissions relating to agricultural vehiclesEmissions relating to agricultural vehiclesEmissions relating to agricultural vehiclesEmissions relating to agricultural vehicles The emission factors from [MV5, 2000] were used when estimating the emissions into the air from agricultural vehicles during harvesting. Table 3.5 shows these emissions per year, per hectare of rapeseed, with respect to agricultural vehicles. The environmental impact concerning the precombustion7 phase of the diesel is not yet factored into the emission factors used.

7 The precombustion phase refers to all steps in the diesel chain, from extraction through to actually using the diesel. This therefore includes extraction, generation, transport and refining of natural oil and distribution of diesel

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Agricultural vehicles in general

(1 hour function)

Agricultural vehicles on rapeseed fields

Emissions in g Emissions in kg Emissions to air (kg) CO2 21,600 390CO 207 3.7VOS 64.9 1.2SO2 23.6 0.43NOx 345 6.2PM10 34.5 0.62

Table 3.5: Emissions per year, per hectare, of rapeseed, related to the harvesting of rapeseed by agricultural vehicles8

3.33.33.33.3 CostsCostsCostsCosts With respect to costs, the market price of rapeseed is particularly important to the PPO chain. Various publications, e.g. [Janssens, 2004], [Bernelot Moens, 2003] and [Van der Mheen, 2003] mention an amount of € 230 ± € 30 per ton (at the field). When calculating the environmental impact, the market price for straw is generally also relevant. According to [Janssens, 2004], the results for straw are around 2.5 ton/ha. This same source mentions that rapeseed straw is, in practice, primarily chopped up, because there is little demand for this product, as compared to grain straw. Rapeseed straw is only sporadically used for horses and rabbits, but is also sold for use in cattle stables. There is also some interest from the pig-farming industry. The study by [Janssens et al., 2004] calculates results from straw at € 0.035 per kg (if sold by the farmer). Due to the limited sales to date, the research team has not included the environmental impact of straw. However, if this were to be included, the effects on the size of the oil to be included in the environmental impact would be marginal, due to the high market value of rapeseed oil (see Chapter 5).

8 The figures in the right-hand column have been calculated as follows: an agricultural machine uses

(according to [MV5, 2000]) 300 MJ of fuel per hour. Consumption of 130 litres of diesel per ha rapeseed is equal to 4,660 MJ – heating value of diesel = 35.9 MJ/l. The figures in the right-hand column are calculated from those in the central column, by multiplying them by a factor (4.66 ÷ 300).

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4444 Harvesting rapeseedHarvesting rapeseedHarvesting rapeseedHarvesting rapeseed 4.14.14.14.1 TechnologyTechnologyTechnologyTechnology

The link between the field and the processor (or processing) includes the following activities: • Transporting the seed from the field to the drying plant; • Drying up to a moisture content whereby the seed can be kept for a long period; • Storing the dried seed; • Eventual transport from the storage facility to the processor/oil press. Drying is required in order to prevent degradation and conversion of the oil in the seed caused by damp. In the Netherlands, after threshing the rapeseed has a moisture content of between 10% and 23% (usually between 14% and 18%) [Bernelot Moens, 2003], [Moers, 2003]. For long-term storage the moisture content should preferably be reduced to 7-9%. It is assumed that the infrastructure between the field and the processor is the same in the Netherlands as in Germany. Based on German practice for PPO and biodiesel production, the following estimate can be made for setting up this infrastructure. The following differentiation is made: A. Small-scale production (up to 5,000 ton seed processed per year), conform the current

practice for PPO production in Germany; B. Large-scale production (around 100,000 ton seed processed per year), conform the

current practice for biodiesel in Germany. The research team expect that for local agricultural systems coupled to small-scale oil presses, the seed will be transported direct from the field to the processor, and both dried and stored at the processor. However, for large-scale systems, studies such as [Elsayed et al., 2003] and [FFE] have assumed an infrastructure whereby the seed is dried and stored at separate locations, before being transported to the oil press as and when required. The drying plant/storage facility is owned by a cooperation or by a commercial company. In the Netherlands farmers seldom do the drying themselves [Van der Mheen, 2003], [Kempenaar, 2003]. The research team therefore assumes that it is cheaper to perform such tasks using a central drying and storage plant. It is also assumed that with small-scale oil presses, transport takes place by road, using a trailer. In Germany, this type of small-scale press is served by farmers within a radius of up to 100 km, with 70% of the farmers supplying within a radius of 50 km [Stotz, 2004]. This study has used a distance of 50 km when estimating the net environmental impact relating to PPO. Large-scale biodiesel plants in Germany are often located along a waterway, and raw materials are often largely transported via water. The transport distance, according to [Elsayed et al., 2003] and [FFE] is generally around 200 km. Transport to a drying and storage facility generally occurs in trailers, via the road network. The distance is then several dozen kilometres.

4.24.24.24.2 EnergyEnergyEnergyEnergy The RIVM report [MV5, 2000] was used when calculating fuel consumption for road vehicles. A consumption of 36 litres/100 km was used, for a lorry carrying a 20 ton load. A

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total transport distance of around 50 km results in a fuel consumption of around 1 litre/ton seed. Drying costs: • Around 400 ± 100 MJ natural gas/ton seed9 ;• Around 10 ± 2 kWhe/ton seed. These consumptions are calculated on the basis of a moisture content of 14% - 18% before drying, and around 8% after drying10 . The [MV5, 2000] report was also used for calculating transport by ship, with an average specific consumption of 0.02 litres diesel per ton·km11 . For a total transport distance of around 200 km, the specific consumption is around 4 litres/ton dry seed.

4.34.34.34.3 EmissionsEmissionsEmissionsEmissions Table 4.1 provides estimates for the emissions related to road transport, drying and shipping transport. Transport emissions are based on [MV5, 2000]. Emissions for underfiring assume a specific NOx emission of 50 g/GJ and the CO2 emission factor of Gronings natural gas.

Road transport Drying Shipping Emissions to air (kg)

CO2 2 15- 26 0.2CO 6.3E-03 2.2E-04VOS 1.5E-03 5.3E-04N2O 7.0E-04 4.4E-05SO2

NOx 3.5E-02 1.4E-02- 2.3E-02 3.8E-03PM10 1.5E-03 2.6E-04

Table 4.1: Transport emissions between the field and the processor (all statistics are per ton of seed at the field)

4.44.44.44.4 CostsCostsCostsCosts Drying, cleaning and storage of rapeseed by contracting companies costs (according to information from [Dekker, 2003], at a moisture content of 14-18%), around € 27 ± € 15 per ton of seed, including VAT (sales tax). These costs are also assumed to be valid for drying and storage. As far as road transport is concerned, [Dekker, 2003] assumes an amount of € 5 - € 8 per ton of seed, including VAT.

9 [Elsayed et al., 2003] assumes a consumption of 300 MJ fuel per ton of seed. However, this study

assumes a lower moisture content of the seed. 10 A specific natural gas consumption of 4.2 GJ/ton of water removed is assumed, as per [Riela], [Stela],

[Cimbria]. This is slightly lower than the 4.5 GJ/ton assumed by [Elsayed et al., 2003]. A specific electricity consumption of around 10 kWe/ton removed water is also assumed, conform [Riela] and [Cimbria].

11 [MV5, 2000] assumes the following figures: • A transport performance of 32,246 million ton·km/year; • A fuel consumpiton of 651 million litres.

Adding these two together results in the figures mentioned in the main text.

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5555 Production: from rapeseed to oilProduction: from rapeseed to oilProduction: from rapeseed to oilProduction: from rapeseed to oil 5.15.15.15.1 TechnologyTechnologyTechnologyTechnology

PPO production includes two subsections: 1. Producing the raw oil from the seed. This can be achieved in two ways:

a. Mechanical isolation, using cold pressing (small-scale oil presses). b. Pressing/extracting: mechanical and physical-chemical isolation using a combination of flattening and pressing and extraction via solvents (large-scale extraction using hexane).

2. Refining the oil in order to remove undesired components. In practice both processes are used to produce rapeseed oil for use as a vehicle fuel. The oil produced can then be estered with methanol into biodiesel, but this study looks only at the unestered oil. Scale size The scale of the oil presses producing biodiesel vary, from several thousands of tons of oil per year, up to 100,000 or 150,000 tons per year. The oil-seed processing industry maintains a rule of thumb that cold pressing is economically more beneficial when processing less than 500 tons of seed per day. In both cases the oil can be refined in order to remove unwanted substances. Following the aforementioned rule of thumb, cold pressing is primarily used for small-scale decentralised presses with production capacities of several thousands of tons per year. However, there are also large-scale plants where this technique is used, e.g. Bio-Ölwerk Magdeburg12 . Pressing/extracting is the standard production technology for manufacturing pure plant oil for the foodstuff industry. It is also used in large-scale integrated biodiesel plants with their own oil press, e.g. at Rheinische Bioester in Neuss.

5.1.15.1.15.1.15.1.1 SmallSmallSmallSmall----scale productionscale productionscale productionscale production The press generally consists of a screw press. The seeds are slightly preheated to reduce the viscosity, and are squashed in the press. With some types of press the exhaust area of the press pulp is heated, in order to prevent blockages. The oil obtained consists of several percent solid material that needs to be removed before the oil can be used in road vehicles. Current cleaning techniques include filtration, centrifuge or sedimentation. Sedimentation has the disadvantage that there is a relatively large loss of oil. The cleaned oil should preferably be stored in a stainless steel tank, to prevent the acid in the tank material damaging the oil, and to prevent degradation of the oil due to light. The operation of the press aims for maximum isolation of the oil, as well as minimising the amount of phosphor and solid particles in the oil. Solid particles are not conducive to using the oil as a vehicle fuel and can lead to extra oil loss during separation. Phosphor is present in the oil or seed in the form of phosphor lipids; the presence of which makes the oil more sensitive to oxidation break-up and increases the hydration abilities (i.e. its ability to absorb water). Phosphor is also an undesired element when using the oil as a vehicle fuel, as it can lead to deposits and blockages in the engine and can contaminate catalytic converters. Table

12 The processing capacity of Bio-Ölwerk Magdeburg, according to the [best case], is 250 tons of seed

per day, and this is being expanded to 450 tons of seed per day.

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5.1 provides an indication of how these parameters are important and how operation can be optimised.

Revolutions press screw ↑↑↑↑

Moisture content of seed ↑↑↑↑

Temperature of seed ↑↑↑↑

Phosphor content of oil ↑ ↑ ↑Continuing ↑ ↑ ↓Amount of solid particles in the oil

↑ ↓ ↓

Result in oil ↓ ↓ ↑Energy consumption ↑ ↑

Table 5.1: Influence of parameters on the oil extraction process

Cold pressing and filtration isolates around 75% of the oil from the seed as a separate fraction. The rest is left behind in the press pulp and the filter cake. This result, at an original rapeseed oil content of 43%, produces 3.3 tons of rapeseed (from 1 hectare) and around 0.9 tons of oil – taking into account the dry substance level of the harvested seeds13 . German experience shows that the quality of the oil produced in around half of these small-scale decentralised oil presses does not meet the so-called ‘RK-Qualitätsstandard 05/2000’ (see Chapter 5) [Hassel, 2004], [Schümann, 2003]. The

quality of the oil produced by these plants, if stored for a long time, is also clearly reduced and, even if it initially met this standard, no longer does so if stored for any length of time [Hassel, 2004].

5.1.25.1.25.1.25.1.2 LargeLargeLargeLarge----scale productionscale productionscale productionscale production So-called oil-seed plants lightly press the seed, thus producing a pulp with a relatively high oil content. The residual oil is then isolated from the pulp via extraction, whereby hexane is often used. The remaining ‘scrap’ is then lightly ‘toasted’ to remove the remaining hexane, and is then made into pellets. The combination of pressing and extracting ensures that 98% of the oil is removed from the seed. This return, at an original oil content of 43% in the rapeseed, produces around 1.2 tons of oil from 3.3 tons of rapeseed (from 1 hectare), taking into account the dry substance level of the harvested seeds14 .

5.1.35.1.35.1.35.1.3 Refining Refining Refining Refining Refining of the raw rapeseed oil is necessary via pressing/extracting, in order to bring the fuel quality up to the required level. A somewhat simpler refining process is sufficient if the raw oil is to be upgraded for use in the foodstuff industry. Certain substances can disturb the balance when used in combustion engines and storing PPO, i.e. phosphor lipids and free fatty acids [De Kock, 2004], see also Chapter 7. For foodstuff applications, additives such as colourings and fragrances are not a problem when the oil is used in combustion engines, and thus do not need to be removed. Refining plant oil in order to produce PPO is not yet common practice. Large-scale PPO production is not a fact, as yet. However, relatively simple refining is taking place at large-scale biodiesel plants, such as at Elbe-Öl Prignitz.

13 3,3 x (100% - 16%) x 43% * 75% ≈ 0,9 ton/ha, whereby the 16% concerns the moisture content of the

freshly harvested seeds. 14 3.3 x (100% - 16%) x 43% * 98% ≈ 1.2 ton/ha, whereby the 16% concerns the moisture content of the

freshly harvested seed.

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5.25.25.25.2 Energy usageEnergy usageEnergy usageEnergy usage Cold pressing With respect to the energy consumption of a complete small-scale plant, excluding dryer, in practice values have been found ranging from 20 kWhe/ton dry seed to around 90 kWhe/ton dry seed [Widmann, 1998]. Energy consumption greatly depends on the design of the plant, particularly the engine driving the press. In practice, an average of around 45 kWhe/ton dry seed is used, which is comparable to the indication given in [Folkecenter, 2000a], of around 35 kWhe/ton. Industrial plants The literature [Elsayed et al., 2003] and [FFE], mentions the following energy usage per ton of dried seed for pressing/extracting: • 700 – 850 MJ natural gas • 30 – 35 kWhe Refining This same literature [Elsayed et al., 2003] and [FFE], mentions the following energy use per ton of raw oil: • 350 - 580 MJ natural gas • 6 - 10 kWhe Fact sheets published on the Internet by manufacturers of plant-oil refining equipment (Lurgi, Cimbria Sket) quote similar figures.

5.35.35.35.3 EmissionsEmissionsEmissionsEmissions Cold pressing As far as researchers currently know, cold pressing produces no direct emissions into the air or other forms of environmental impact. Industrial plants, extraction and refining This form of production produces emissions to air and water. This primarily concerns emissions of organic substances to water, and fragrances to the air. However, there is no information available with respect to the extent of these emissions. This production method also causes direct emissions from underfiring the natural gas. The related emissions are estimated, based on the natural gas consumptions given in the previous section and the following emissions factors: • CO2 = 56 kg/GJ (Groningen gas). • NOx = 50 g/GJ. The estimated emissions are shown in Table 5.2.

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Extraction Refining

Emissions to air (kg) CO2 39 - 48 20 - 32CO CH4

VOS N2ONH3

SO2

NOx 0.035 - 0.043 0.018 - 0.029PM10

Table 5.2: Emissions from processing in industrial plants

5.45.45.45.4 CostsCostsCostsCosts The research team has tried to produce an estimate of the basis production costs (for both small-scale and large-scale PPO production) per ton of PPO, excluding VAT, excluding purchasing of raw materials, and excluding the profit from selling these products. This information gives a better insight into the importance of production costs. Cold pressing Based on the research team’s own cost calculations, the process costs for an oil press capable of processing 750 kg of dry seed per hour15 is estimated at around € 30 - € 50 per ton dry seed, excluding the cost of the seed. The process parameters used in this estimate are shown in Table 5.3.

At 4,000 operating hours

At 7,500 operating hours

Processing capacity (ton dry seed per year) 3,000 5,625Products (ton/year)

• Flakes 1,843 3,455• Oil 917 1,720

Investment (€) 582,258 582,258Annual maintenance costs 3% of investment 3% of investmentTime spent by personnel (hrs per year) 333 625Hourly rate of personnel (€) 50 50Electricity

• Consumption per ton seed (kWhe) 35 35• Energy costs (€/kWhe) 0.17 0.17

Table 5.3: Process parameters for small-scale oil presses [Folkecenter, 2000a]

The annual costs have been estimated based on these parameters, using the Environmental Costing method [VROM, 1998]. This method was developed to determine the cost effectiveness of environmental measures and is thus a general method16 , so that further details are not given in this study. 15 This is similar to the production capacity that can be achieved by the Solaroilsystems oil press 16 This method is described in the appendices to the latest NeR, see Infomil website

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The resulting build-up of the annual costs is shown in Table 5.4. Personnel and energy costs are derived by multiplying the annual time spent by personnel and the annual energy consumption with the hourly rate and electricity price respectively.

At 4,000 operating hours per year

At 7,500 operating hours per year

Annual costs Depreciation17 94,908 94,908Maintenance 17,468 17,468Personnel 16,650 31,250Energy 17,850 33,469Subtotal 146,876 177,095

Table 5.4: Annual costs for small-scale oil presses (all costs in €/year, excluding VAT)

Industrial plants Information on the costs of industrial plants is also extremely limited. It is only possible to determine (from the current prices for dry rapeseed, rapeseed scrap and rapeseed oil) that the process costs are around € 10/ton. • The price of dry rapeseed at the factory door is estimated at € 290/ton, based on the

information from previous sections18 ; • The price for extracted scrap and refined oil are € 130/ton and € 600/ton ± € 100/ton

respectively [Bergmans, 2004]; • Dry seed with an average oil content of 43% and a moisture content of 8%, produces (at

almost complete isolation of the oil) around 530 kg scrap and around 390 kg oil; • The balance for the process would thus be: (53%·130 + 39%·600) – 290 � €10/ton dry

seed. Conclusions The production costs are only a few tens of euro per ton of PPO (excluding VAT). Considering the costs of the rapeseed, the production costs cannot be characterised as an important cost element.

17 Conform the Environmental Costing method, an annuity of 16.3% is assumed. 18 The average market price for rapeseed (at the field) is € 230 per ton. Transport, cleaning, drying and

storage costs average € 35 per ton of seed (at the field). One ton of seed (at the field) with a moisture content of 16% gives an average, when drying, of up to 8% remaining moisture, or around 900 kg dry seed.

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6666 Distribution, from processing to Distribution, from processing to Distribution, from processing to Distribution, from processing to endendendend----useruseruseruser

6.16.16.16.1 TechnologyTechnologyTechnologyTechnology

6.1.16.1.16.1.16.1.1 PPO refuelling and storagePPO refuelling and storagePPO refuelling and storagePPO refuelling and storage PPO should be stored in an oxygen-free dark environment, and well protected against water leakage. The transport equipment and storage tanks used for storage and distribution should be made of synthetic material or stainless steel, due to the high acidity of PPO. For large-scale distribution systems, the stocking of distribution locations will generally occur in the same way as for fossil diesel [IEA, 1996]. This means that the distribution occurs from a central point and that refuelling stations are regularly restocked from tanker lorries. In theory, PPO can be mixed at refuelling stations with fossil diesel – in any ratio. However, a mixture of PPO and diesel is not desired by the market because it can give problems for vehicles that have not been modified (see Chapter 7). Solaroilsystems will use an alternative distribution system in the Netherlands. The oil will be transported to the customers in tankers containing 15,000-20,000 litres, which will be coupled at each location to a modified diesel pump. The fuel will be sold to hauliers, utility companies owning fleets of vehicles, shipping and other large-scale diesel users [Solaroilsystems, 2003]. It is currently not yet possible to refuel your car with PPO at commercial refuelling stations in the Netherlands, because PPO does not meet European criteria for motor fuels, and the government is also not prepared to grant duty exemption. However, this is the case in Germany, where PPO is offered separately at refuelling stations. In the Netherlands PPO can only be tanked at several oil presses, where a permit has been granted. In order to refuel vehicles on private property using PPO, refuelling installations (1,000 litres) can be purchased in the Netherlands for around € 750, excluding VAT19 . For larger installations, the costs per litre are lower. A modified refuelling nozzle is required when refuelling the vehicle with PPO, due to the higher viscosity. Stability With regard to the stability concerning oxidation of PPO, the literature and the experts consulted gave opposing indications. The following section gives first a brief theoretical description, followed by a summary of practical experience gained. A quality reduction can occur through bacteriological deterioration (it is actually a liquid that deteriorates easily), water intake and oxidation. The last two mechanisms produce free fatty acids, which can cause corrosion of the injector pumps and injectors during direct injection into diesel engines. In addition, quality change also leads to changes in the combustion-technical characteristics, which in turn has consequences for the performance and emissions of modern engines. These are regulated with considerable accuracy within a small margin and are fine-tuned according to the expected characteristics of the fuel. 19 When refuelling five cars at such installations, with a depreciation period of five years, the costs are

around € 0.02 per year.

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In general, the iodine number of a fuel provides an indication of its stability for oxidation. Oils with a low iodine number are less sensitive to oxidation than oils with a high iodine number. Considering the high iodine number in PPO it is a relatively unstable plant oil, but it is more stable than biodiesel. There is very little information available about the problems that this can cause. PPO is in any case less stable than traditional diesel (because PPO can damage copper pipes), but it is more stable than biodiesel. Apparently adding an antioxidant may help prevent the oil being degraded through oxidation. In practice, some parts of the aforementioned description agree with the practical experience gained, however in some cases, the experience has been more negative. According to [Thuneke, 2004], the stability of PPO should not be a problem. When taking the regulations for storage into account, PPO can be stored for 6-12 months without the oil deteriorating. Under the framework of the ‘100 Tractors project’ it has been clearly determined that there is considerable degradation of PPO when stored for a long time [Hassel, 2004]. Oil that originally met the ‘RK Qualitätsstandard 05/2000’ appeared, after long-term storage , to have deteriorated such that it no longer met this standard. Based on their practical experience the authors of this report therefore conclude that it is necessary to refine the oil in order to guarantee a high-value fuel20 .

6.1.26.1.26.1.26.1.2 One stOne stOne stOne standard for fuel qualityandard for fuel qualityandard for fuel qualityandard for fuel quality Rapeseed oil does not meet the current European standard (EN 590) for diesel, therefore it may not be sold as a fuel on the Dutch market (i.e. at a refuelling station). The government has granted an exemption for a trial project in the north of the Netherlands, where 3.5 million litres of PPO may be produced until the year 2010. However, a product standardisation is necessary for large-scale market introduction. There is no such standard for raw rapeseed oil, such as for other biofuels (e.g. biodiesel). The reason for this is the limited use, to date. Because reliable use of the fuel and optimum engine tuning (emissions) are very important, a German working group (representing manufacturers, research organisations, engine manufacturers and the relevant government ministries) have recommended a single standard for cold pressed rapeseed oil. The fact that this took place in Germany is due to the number of activities relating to PPO use in vehicles and vehicle modifications in this country. The RK standard (Qualitätsstandard für Rapsöl als Kraftstoff) that has been developed specially for PPO describes a number of important parameters that specify the product. Despite the fact that the standard is still not final, because further experiments are still being carried out, it is seen as a guideline by engine manufacturers, rapeseed producers and processors. The proposal is shown in Table 6.1. At the time of writing, Germany is working on a DIN standard21 (DIN UA 632.2) where the RK standard serves as starting point. Standardisation in the Netherlands is not yet relevant due to the small market for PPO, in contrast to that in Germany. According to Mr Aberson of Solaroilsystems, production in the Netherlands will also follow this German standard. The characteristic criteria are determined by nature, and vary only slightly. The variable characteristics, such as phosphor content, ash content, and water content, are influenced by the way in which it is grown, harvested and pressed. The variation in these characteristics is

20 For the sake of clarity: the authors are involved in the ‘100 Tractors programme’ and, as such, are

paid as researchers by the UFOP (Union zur Förderung von Oel- und Proteipflanzen), the trade association of growers and users of rapeseed and similar plants).

21 Deutsche Industrie Norm; see the website www.din.de

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much larger. German scientists indicate that the RK standard forms a good basis for a German or European norm (Remmele, 2002]. Practical tests in Germany show that in many cases PPO does not meet the RK standard, particularly the variable characteristics are in excess of the maximum value. The reasons for this are the low seed quality, lack of refining steps and quality assurance throughout the chain. Deficient storage conditions also play a role [BLT Wieselburg, 203]. A Japanese study showed that not carrying out a number of purifications steps reduces the quality of the fuel and can even cause problems through the build-up of uncombusted particles [Togashi, 1998]. Characteristics/ Substances

Units Limiting values Test procedure

Min. Max. Density (15ºC) kg/m3 900 930 DIN EN ISO 3675

DIN EN ISO 12185 PM flashpoint ° C 220 DIN EN ISO 22719

Calorific value MJ/kg 35,000 DIN 51900-3

Kinematic viscosity (40°C) Mm2/s 38 DIN EN ISO 3104

Behaviour at low temperatures

rotation viscosimetry

Cetane number (ignition quality)

process is being evaluated

Coke residues % by mass 0.40 DIN EN ISO 10370

Iodine number

G/100g 100 120 DIN 53241-1

Sulphur content

mg/kg 20 ASTM D 5453-93

Variable characteristics Total contamination

mg/kg 25 DIN EN 12662

Neutralisation value

Mg KOH/g

2.0 DIN EN ISO 660

Oxidation stability

H 5.0 ISO 6886

Phosphor content

mg/kg 15 ASTM D3231-99

Ash content

% by mass 0.01 DIN EN ISO 6245

Water content % by mass 0.075 pr EN ISO 12937

Table 6.1: Quality standard for rapeseed oil as fuel (RK quality standard, 05/2000)

6.26.26.26.2 Energy usageEnergy usageEnergy usageEnergy usage Energy usage from distributing PPO is estimated at 1% of the energy content. In other words, distribution will use around 10 litres of diesel per ton of oil. For small-scale distribution this may be slightly higher [IEA, 1996]. On the other hand, if PPO is sold directly from the oil press or the local rapeseed supplier, there is no real energy consumption, or this is extremely limited.

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6.36.36.36.3 The environmeThe environmeThe environmeThe environmentntntnt Emissions of hydrocarbons during storage and refuelling are negligible due to the low vapour pressure of PPO. The following emissions are estimated for distribution (based on diesel consumption and emission data from [MV5, 2000]). It is assumed that distribution will be by road (in lorries).

Emissions to air (kg) CO2 25.6CO 6.8E-02VOS 1.7E-02SO2

NOx 3.8E-01PM10 1.6E-02

Table 6.2: Emissions from distributing PPO (per ton PPO)

6.46.46.46.4 CostsCostsCostsCosts The costs of distributing PPO are in the same ballpark as for other biofuels and fossil fuels. Various GAVE studies have estimated this at € 0.10/litre, or around € 110/ton of oil.

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7777 Using rapeseed oil in vehiclesUsing rapeseed oil in vehiclesUsing rapeseed oil in vehiclesUsing rapeseed oil in vehicles This chapter discusses using PPO in combustion engines. This is followed by a look at the techniques used, users’ experiences, air pollution emissions and the related health aspects, plus the costs of using PPO in vehicles. The chapter closes with a number of points that need further consideration plus a number of improvement prospects.

7.17.17.17.1 TechnologyTechnologyTechnologyTechnology Engines need to be modified before they can run on PPO. This is due to the higher viscosity and molecule weight, lower cetane number and the higher flashpoint of the fuel, whereby ignition is more difficult. These are also the most important differences with ordinary (fossil) diesel. The viscosity of PPO (particularly at low temperatures) is much higher than that of traditional diesel fuel (see Figure 7.1). Before PPO can combust correctly in a diesel engine, the fuel must first be heated to around 60ºC. In some cases the injection time needs to be modified and special injectors or atomisers need to be fitted to the engine. This depends on the type of vehicle and the converter. Since PPO is pH-neutral, pipes and gaskets do not need to be replaced.

Figure 7.1: Viscosity of fossil diesel, compared to rapeseed oil

The available conversion technologies are also still in development. Converting from older indirectly injected diesel engines and the newer direct-injected diesel engines using the Bosch atomiser system with a central injection pump, is the most-used technique. However, for direct-injection systems such as common rail engines and systems with multiple injection pumps, there are still very few conversion packs available, and these are still being developed. It also seems as if every vehicle will need a different conversion pack, and sets have only been developed for a limited number of vehicle types, i.e. Audi, Ford and Volkswagen. PPO could thus, at the moment, only be used for a limited number of vehicles during large-scale introduction. Up to now, the development of conversion packs has taken place in small companies that do not have good connections to the large engine manufacturers. In Germany, the conversion

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itself is only carried out at a few garages and small companies. In other words, it is not current technology and know-how, and (due to the limited manpower) it is debatable how fast this know-how development can occur. In addition, the size and structure of the current ‘conversion industry’ raises questions as to how fast this industry could supply the required conversion packs necessary for large-scale implementation of PPO as a vehicle fuel. There are two modification systems available: a single-tank system and a two-tank system. Single-tank system With a single-tank system, both PPO and diesel can be used in the tank. A vehicle with a single-tank system should be fitted with a pre-heating system, to improve the viscosity of the fuel in cold weather. The single-tank system can only be used for a limited number of cars (of which the management source codes are known), because the engine management systems need to be modified. These are generally only known to the car manufacturer, so this system is only used to a limited extent. Two-tank system With a two-tank system, the vehicle starts up using ordinary diesel, and the PPO is heated to around 60°C via a separate fuel flow system. Once the PPO is up to temperature) after around 15 minutes, a small onboard computer switches the engine over to PPO. This system is fully automatic, with a small display on the dashboard. Towards the end of the journey the driver switches back to diesel, to ensure that there is no PPO left in the fuel lines and to prevent startup problems and blockages in the pipes and filters. This system uses ordinary fossil diesel when starting and stopping the vehicle. When converting a standard vehicle, modified atomisers are generally used, and a heat exchanger, thicker fuel lines and a fuel filter (1µm) are added. A number of electronic adjustments are also made. The two-tank system is currently preferred because this has been tested for the Dutch climate. However, it is more expensive than the single tank system.

7.27.27.27.2 Advantages and disadvantages of running on PPOAdvantages and disadvantages of running on PPOAdvantages and disadvantages of running on PPOAdvantages and disadvantages of running on PPO Practical experience of running on PPO produces mixed results. On the one hand users are generally enthusiastic because engines make less noise (due to the better lubrication of PPO), via the glycerol present in the fuel. This better lubrication has a positive effect on the lifespan of the engine. Users are also pleased with the lower noise level and optimum gear changing. For PPO this is around 1,000 revs, while for conventional diesel fuel this is around 1,200 revs. This is due to the oxygen levels in the fuel, but there is no further clarity on this [Aberson, 2004; Togashi, 1998]. On the other hand, using PPO in cars has a number of disadvantages, i.e. the limited availability and the high conversion costs. The smell is another disadvantage for some people, although with modern vehicles this plays very little role due to the better engine combustion. Various studies have also shown that pyrolised particles and carbon flakes can build up in the combustion chamber and on the valves and injectors, which can damage the engine. Recent practical tests in Germany have confirmed this [BLT Wieselburg, 2003]. When the PPO is sufficiently refined this type of problem will no longer occur [Togashi, 2003]. For users this is an important point. Problems with the stability of the lubrication oil are also mentioned in the literature, when the PPO lubrication oil is contaminated [Jensen, 2003] and [BLT Wieselburg, 2003]. This is caused by PPO particles that (due to incomplete combustion) remain in the engine oil on the pistol wall and springs. Fossil-based diesel evaporates at normal engine operating temperature from the engine oil when this occurs, but PPO’s higher boiling point means that it remains in the oil [Thuneke, 2004].

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Experiences Several dozen vehicles have now been converted in the Netherlands. After an initial test period, McDonalds has now converted all its 23 trucks to run on PPO. Germany currently has 10,000-20,000 vehicles running on PPO. Germany and Austria have run extensive tests on 100 and 35 agricultural tractors respectively. There are also examples of ships and trains running on PPO. There are also signs from Germany that the car industry is not interested in PPO as a fuel alongside biodiesel. This is due to the insufficient quality of the fuel. Car manufacturers also give no guarantee with respect to their vehicles running on this fuel [Bockey, 2004]. This guarantee – or reimbursement of the cost of technical problems that are not caused by the user – is therefore given by the conversion companies.

7.37.37.37.3 EnergyEnergyEnergyEnergy The energy usage (in energy terms) is similar to that of standard diesel vehicles. Usage in litres is slightly higher (up to 10%) than a standard diesel engine, due to the lower energy content [Ricardo, 2003], [IEA, 1996].

7.47.47.47.4 Vehicle emissionsVehicle emissionsVehicle emissionsVehicle emissions With respect to the regulated exhaust emissions, literature currently available gives no clear picture. Some sources quote increased emissions, while others show lower emission levels. The information is often not detailed enough to compare these sources and draw conclusions. Naturally the engine technology and fuel quality play an important role and emissions can only be compared in identical (the same) vehicles before and after conversion. Studies on this are very limited. Therefore, in order to provide some indication of PPO emissions, the following brief results are given for a number of tests. Converted vehicles In Switzerland the EMPA [Folkecenter, 2000b] carried out a series of measurements in 2000 on a VW Golf (Euro-1 test) and a VW Lupo (Euro-3 test), the test results of which are shown in Tables 7.1 and 7.2.

NB: Sulphur level in diesel = 430 ppm

Table 7.1: Emissions from a VW Golf (1986) running on diesel and PPO [EMPA, 1999]

.

VW Golf 1.6D, IDI, 1986, Euro-1 test (Elsbett system) Limit value (g/km) Diesel (g/km) Rapeseed oil (g/km)

CO 1.00 1.00 0.58HC+NOX 0.88 0.88 0.56PM10 0.2 0.12 0.07

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NB: Sulphur level in diesel is 430 ppm. The test was unintentially carried out with a 20% higher roller resistance during the two tests (after conversion). This makes the results before and after conversion difficult to compare

Table 7.2: Emissions from a VW Lupo (1999) running on diesel and PPO

The tests on the Euro-1 diesel car with pre-chamber mixing appear to show that PPO can be used without increased emissions in indirect-injected (IDI) diesel engines. However, for modern direct-injected (DI) engines this is slightly more complex. These engines are so optimised to produce minimum emissions that changing a number of parameters and exchanging some components can negatively influence emissions performance. The results do not clearly show the difference between a converted modern vehicle running on PPO and a standard modern diesel vehicle, because the roller resistance was not the same for the ‘ standard tests’ and the tests after conversion. However, a number of general comments can be made: • Emissions from modern PPO vehicles are probably not lower than those of standard

vehicles. However, the number of vehicles tested is insufficient to allow conclusions to be drawn ;

• Performance partly depends on the way in which a vehicle is converted. The cheapest solution is often not the one producing the lowest emissions;

• A fairly small vehicle was used in the aforementioned test, which generally has lower emissions and thus no problem meeting emission criteria. This means that a VW Lupo can also run on PPO and can still meet these criteria (at least for a number of components), while this is not necessarily the case with a larger car. The sulphur content of 430 ppm is no longer the standard (which is 50 ppm). This produces a higher PM10 emission for the standard vehicle than shown in practice;

• The high NOX emissions can only partially be explained by the higher engine temperatures at increased roller resistance.

Emissions for unconverted vehicles In 2003 Ricardo Consulting [Ricardo, 2003] carried out tests on a VW Passat and a Peugeot 106. These vehicles were not converted, but tested with low-sulphur diesel and PPO. The testers simply added a heat exchanger and did not change any of the internal engine settings. Table 7.3 shows the emission figures measured.

CO2 CO HC NOX PM10 Low-sulphur diesel 124 0.073 0.025 0.409 0.025Peugeot 106 IDI PPO 127 0.204 0.037 0.412 0.021

Low-sulphur diesel 139 0.125 0.066 0.727 0.073VW Passat DI PPO 151 0.665 0.206 0.673 0.153

NB: The related fuel consumptions are 23 and 19 km/litre respectively for driving on PPO over the cycle.

Table 7.3: Emission factors for non-converted Euro-2 vehicles (g/km) over hot start NEDC cycle 22

22 NEDC stands for New European Driving Cycle, the type/rating test for cars

VW Lupo 1.2 PDI, 1999, Euro-3 test Limit value (g/km)

Diesel (g/km) (before conversion)

Diesel (g/km) (after conversion)

Rapeseed oil (g/km)

CO 0.64 0.36 0.27 0.42HC+NOX 0.56 0.23 0.96 0.90NOX 0.50 0.35 0.96 0.92PM10 0.05 0.035 0.025 0.043

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With respect to the aforementioned test, the following comments are relevant: • Both vehicles show greatly increased CO and HC emissions. This is primarily caused

through reduced atomising of the fuel in the cylinder, which creates a less than optimal combustion. This leads to partially burnt particles and unburned residues being found in the exhaust;

• The increased PM emissions for the VW Passat can be explained by the increased volatile organic particles in the PM, because no additional amounts of elementary carbons were measured;

• The Peugeot 106 generally performed better than the VW Passat. This is due to the high exhaust gas temperature, which ensures that the fuel is better atomised and combusted;

• Measured over one practical cycle, it is possible that there is less difference between these two vehicles, because the test cycle is not representative of actual use of the vehicle. In particular, acceleration is very low, whereby the engine temperature remains low;

• It is not possible to confirm with certainty the effects between the various types of injection. A DI vehicle has higher injection pressures, which leads to better atomisation, while an IDI vehicle has more possibilities for evaporation and spreading in the cylinder [Ricardo, 2003].

Other experiences The literature is also not clear regarding emissions from PPO vehicles. One test, by MAN B&W on a ship’s engine showed that the NOX emissions were higher, while a Finnish study with mustard oil showed increased emissions of ultra-fine particles (<100 nm) that are particularly damaging to our health [Jensen, 2003]. Experience with the PPO converted vehicles from SITA/McDonalds also show a significant reduction in fine particle emissions due to PPO use. An Austrian report concerning a German test with agricultural tractors – the ‘100 Tractors project’ shows increased NOx emissions [BLT Wieselburg, 2003] and [Hassel, 2004]. The CO emissions generally remained lower than for diesel cars [Hassel]. Optimising the engine management systems ensures that the increased NOx emissions remain limited and around the same levels as those for diesel. Based on the oxygen level23 of the fuel and the lower cetane number, an increased NOx emission and lower PM emissions can be expected, provided that the fuel is well atomised in the cylinder [EPA, 2003] and [Ricardo, 2003]. Influence of the fuel quality The fuel quality has a considerable influence on emissions. If the fuel is not refined then the chance of high emissions is greater. An excessive slime level in the fuel causes contamination of the injectors and combustion chamber. This disturbs the correct atomisation of fuel in the cylinder, whereby particles emission increases. Free fatty acids also damage the engine as they are corrosive. High concentrations of solid particles (ash) in the fuel cause particle emissions and blockage of any filters present. Cautious initial conclusions Based on the limited information available it is not possible to draw definite conclusions concerning PPO influence on vehicle emissions. However, the information available provides the following picture: • If the vehicle is converted correctly and good-quality PPO is used, emissions of CO,

hydrocarbons PM10 will probably be lower than when the same vehicle runs on diesel;

23 The oxygen content of the fuel is currently still seen as a disadvantage, due to the higher NOx

emissions, but experts are now talking about ´impregnated´ fuels for the future (10 years from now)

to reduce particle emissions

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• The NOx emission will probably be higher. The extent to which changes to the engine management system will effect the emissions is difficult to determine.

7.4.17.4.17.4.17.4.1 Emissions of EuroEmissions of EuroEmissions of EuroEmissions of Euro----4/5 vehicles: a preview4/5 vehicles: a preview4/5 vehicles: a preview4/5 vehicles: a preview In future, vehicles will have to meet stricter environmental norms, as per EU legislation from Brussels. The implementation of Euro-4 and Euro-5 norms (in 2005 and 2008 respectively) will also ensure that new technologies, such as selective catalytic reduction (SCR) and diesel particle filters (DPF) will be introduced. At the moment, phosphor (that is present in PPO as it is added during the growth of the plant) is seen as a possible problem. Phosphor contaminates the catalyst in the SCR system, whereby its activity and the effectiveness of the emission reduction is lessened (DAF). PPO is almost sulphur-free, which is an advantage when using an SCR catalyst. Sulphur also contaminates the catalyst, just like phosphor. However, small-scale oil presses (cold pressing) produce an oil with a very low phosphor content. See also [Folkecenter, 2000a], [Widmann, 1998] . During large-scale production, the phosphor can be removed during the refining process. This is therefore not expected to cause insurmountable problems. Calcium too is a problem, as it does not combust in the engine and leaves the engine as ash particles. The ash particles collect in the filter, which reduces its effectiveness. For this reason calcium has recently been added to the quality standard for the DIN norm that is currently being developed [Thuneke, 2004]. It is assumed that calcium can be removed during refining. It will cost the car and engine manufacturers more time and money to meet the ever-stricter emission criteria. It is possible that large amounts of money will need to be invested in order to meet the environmental criteria in the future, which is why not all manufacturers are enthusiastic about PPO [Bockey, 2004]. In October 2004 a European organisation was set up for PPO, in which various European countries will work together. According to Aberson (Solaroilsystems), researching the emissions behaviour of cars and lorries of various Euro-categories and conversion systems (single-tank or two-tank systems) will be one of the first activities of this new organisation.

7.57.57.57.5 Health aspects of running on PPOHealth aspects of running on PPOHealth aspects of running on PPOHealth aspects of running on PPO In contrast to conventional diesel fuel, PPO is a pure biological product and is also used in food preparation. PPO contains no traces of carcinogens (benzene) and heavy metals, such as in conventional diesel fuels. Soot particles The physical-chemical composition24 of particles determine the amount of damage caused by the particle emission. An English test has shown that the particle size distribution for vehicles running on PPO is no different to that of fossil diesel [Ricardo, 2003]. There is little information available on the effect of the chemical composition of particles. Although some PM10 particles, such as those related to combustion processes, seem to be more important for health effects than other fractions (sea salt, inorganic secondary fine particles, and soil particles), there is little clarity on this subject.

24 There is increasing evidence that smaller particles do more harm to human health because they penetrate deeper into the lungs.

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It seems that the particle composition from a PPO vehicle is really no different to the particles from a standard diesel vehicle. Emission tests of PPO vehicles also show traces of substances that are damaging to human health, particularly toxic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) that are released during incomplete combustion, e.g. formaldehyde, acetaldehyde and benzopyrene. These are also found in the same quantities in the exhaust gases of ordinary diesel vehicles [Ricardo, 2003]. There are possibly fewer heavy metals in the exhaust gas, because diesel contains traces of heavy metals, whereas PPO does not. In short, there is very little evidence to show that the particles from PPO vehicles are far less toxic than fossil soot particles, but further research is required before it is possible to give scientifically proven judgements. PPO compared to fossil-based diesel Because the more important emissions (NOX and PM10) show no proven differences, the particle-size distribution for PPO and fossil diesel is identical, and PPO emissions also include toxic PAHs, the health effects of PPO vehicles are hardly any better than for diesel vehicles. Since PPO includes less aromatic substances (e.g. benzene) and fewer heavy metals, it is possible that less of these are found in the exhaust gases. An American study into the health effects of biodiesel (which is to some extent comparable to PPO), confirmed these assumptions. A Swedish study even suggests that the combustion of biodiesel produces a higher emission of toxic substances, primarily at relatively low engine temperatures (stationary) due to the low thermic stability. This is particularly important when used as a fuel for shipping, trains and city buses. This could well also be applicable for PPO [EPA, 2002].

7.67.67.67.6 OdourOdourOdourOdour Odour is an aspect that typically plays a role when using PPO as an engine fuel, and which often draws some comment. The exhaust gases have another odour, e.g. of cooking oil. Modern diesel engines in cars are almost always fitted with an oxidation catalyst and, in these vehicles, there is almost no difference to the smell of conventional diesel25 . However, this does not apply to lorries, as oxidation catalysts are only used to a limited extent.

7.77.77.77.7 Costs of using PPOCosts of using PPOCosts of using PPOCosts of using PPO The costs of using PPO as an engine fuel primarily lie in the conversion costs of the engine that, depending on the type of vehicle, are around € 1,700. Table 7.4 provides an estimate of the resulting extra costs per ton of rapeseed oil and per kilometre driven, at various annual distances, for an average driver and for someone who drives many kilometres.

Investment € 1,700 (ex. VAT) Interest rate 5% Depreciation period (year) 4 Depreciation per year € 479 Average fuel consumption (km/l) 13 Extra costs per ton PPO € 272 € 389Kilometres per year 25,000 16,000Extra costs per km € 0.009 € 0.22 Source: Elsbett Technologie GmbH

25 www.opek.nl.

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NB: These prices are valid for passenger cars. For lorries the investment lies between € 5,000 - € 6,000.

Table 7.4: Emissions for a VW Lupo (1999) running on diesel and PPO

A depreciation term of 8 years is assumed for the installation. The costs presented concern the extra vehicle costs, excluding extra maintenance. There is little information available on the extra maintenance costs as a result of blockages and cleaning. The fuel costs in Germany are around € 0.60 per litre. With the current high fuel prices it is possibly economically beneficial for consumers to convert to PPO, since this fuel is exempt from excise duty. This exemption for biofuels aims to encourage the development of these fuels

7.87.87.87.8 Prospects for improvement and conclusionsProspects for improvement and conclusionsProspects for improvement and conclusionsProspects for improvement and conclusions Over the past few years the EU has achieved considerable emission reduction for traffic through stricter emission criteria for new vehicles, and tightening the criteria for fuel composition. When introducing PPO for vehicle use in the Netherlands, it is important to prevent car emissions increasing. Problems concerning the sustainability of vehicles should also be prevented. There are two points that require consideration: • Ensure high-quality vehicle conversion (certification), so that low emissions levels are

guaranteed; • Ensure that the fuel produced meet quality norms. This can prevent damage to the

engine and ensure that emission levels remain low. The German standard forms a good basis [Remmele, 2002].

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8888 Side tracks, alternative oil Side tracks, alternative oil Side tracks, alternative oil Side tracks, alternative oil sources and alternative sources and alternative sources and alternative sources and alternative applicationsapplicationsapplicationsapplications

8.18.18.18.1 Alternative sourcesAlternative sourcesAlternative sourcesAlternative sources This study primarily focuses on oil produced from rapeseed, but there are also various alternative ‘oil sources’ for producing renewable oils: • Other crops apart from rapeseed (soya, sunflowers) ; • Used oils and fats from the catering sector (e.g. cooking oils); • Oil from animal residues, e.g. residual fats from slaughter houses. Oil from other crops Of the other crop alternatives, sunflower oil and soya are relevant for our region. The former is apparently used as transport fuel in France [Aberson, 2004]. Soya is used in the USA [IFEU, 2004]. With respect to storage-related characteristics, rapeseed oil is superior to sunflower oil because it is relatively stable for oxidation and ageing processes, and has a low wax level [Widmann, 2002]. This high stability is also shown by the low iodine number for rapeseed oil. The solidification point of both oil types is slightly lower than for rapeseed oil, which means that the viscosity is comparable or slightly higher than for rapeseed oil. The oil is therefore easier to implement and, for example, gives fewer problems at low temperatures. As far as the CO2 balance is concerned, sunflower oil would result in approximately 50% lower reduction of greenhouse gas emissions than rapeseed oil [IFEU, 2004]. No information could be found for soya oil. Used oils and fats Using oil and fats from the catering sector is, with respect to the environmental impact, an interesting alternative to rapeseed oil. It would mean that the entire crop growth and its related emissions and energy could be avoided. However, as far as the research team could ascertain, experience with used oils and fats from the catering sector is extremely limited. In the Netherlands the [AD, 2004] reports that around 360,000 tons of used oil and fats are available. To date these have primarily been processed in animal fodder. In other countries too, direct application in a non-estered form is very limited. As far as is known, used cooking oils (frying fats etc.) are used in Germany and Austria in a number of cogeneration plants, see [Callegari, 2002]. Exactly how it is processed is not clear; this possibly refers to estered fats. Processing the used oils and fats is theoretically possible, as described in [Falk, 2001]. However, this study indicates that some kind of pre-processing would be necessary for estering, and would cost around € 50,00/ton of fat. An Internet search (keyword search for ‘frittenöl’) shows that there are vehicles running on filtered cooking oil, but that this is confined to a limited group of enthusiasts, who also use the same conversion accessories as those used to modify engines for rapeseed oil.

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Processing used oils and fats, according to the following diagram, would have limited environmental impact. The process is comparable to refining rapeseed oil for biodiesel production and application in the foodstuff industry. For refining, the literature consulted [Elsayed et al., 2003] and[FFE], mentioned the following energy usage per ton of raw oil: • 350 - 580 MJ natural gas • 6 - 10 kWhe The environmental impact related to this consumption is marginal compared to the environmental impact related to PPO production from rapeseed. Considering the potentially huge advantages (both economically and environmentally) it is certainly worthwhile studying this route further. Oil from animal fats Producing oil from animal fats is, with respect to environmental impact, is a potentially interesting route, due to the fact that there is no need to grow oil-retaining seed crops and thus no associated environmental impact. The example of the lorry running on chicken fat (Polskamp slaughterhouse in Ermelo) shows that oil from animal fats is a feasible option (see the website: www.zqcentral.com/index/news/show/3276). The BTG study also shows that processing animal fats into a fuel for stationary engines or transport equipment is a clear possibility (see [BTG, 2002]). The Polskamp example apparently indicates that it is economically attractive for the slaughterhouse to process chicken fat into transport fuel: ‘ Per litre of fuel we save around 30%. This saving is the most important point for us.’ Calculating backwards from a diesel price of 80% per litre, the processing costs would need to be at least € 500 net, per ton of oil. However, there are only a limited amount of fats available. The [BTG, 2002] study apparently shows that in the Netherlands, there is only 28 kton/year of residual fats available from Dutch pig slaughterhouses, which is by far the largest section of the animal slaughter trade.

8.28.28.28.2 Alternative applicationsAlternative applicationsAlternative applicationsAlternative applications An application that has recently appeared, primarily in a few places in Germany, concerns fuel in decentralised cogeneration plants. These are engine-driven cogeneration plants that are used as heating installations for a building. Applications can be found in a hospital, a parson’s house, an alpine hut and in various apartment buildings26 . Suppliers include the following companies: • KWS Energie und Umwelt GmbH; • B + V Industrietechnik; • Wärtsilä NSD Deutschland GmbH; • Antriebs- und Maschinentechnik; • Anlagen- und Antriebstechnik Nordhausen GmbH. All these suppliers deliver engines designed to run on rapeseed oil. Standard diesel engines can also be converted. The electrical capacity generated by these ‘dedicated’ engines ranges from a few kWe up to over 8 mWe. The electrical efficiency varies from 25% for the smallest engines, to 42-43% for the largest. The thermal efficiency varies from 55% for the smallest engines, to 40% for the largest. 26 For examples see www.carmen-ev.de/dt/energie/beispielprojekte/Prienerhuette.pdf;

www.biosphaerenreservat-rhoen.de/news/Blockheizkraftwerk.pdf; http://enius.de/presse/710.html.

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In theory, all engines can be fitted with a complete flue gas cleaning system, consisting of a soot filter, SCR and oxycatalyst, thereby (in theory) always meeting the BEES criteria for suction engines. As a comparison of the feasible residual concentrations and BEES, the following figures are listed here: • Emissions from engines with a soot filter amount to 2 – 5 mg/Nm3 (5 vol% O2); • Emissions from engines with an oxycatalyst amount to 2 – 15 mg/Nm3 (5 vol% O2); • For NOx, engines with an SCR give guarantee values of 250 mg/Nm3 (5 vol% O2). The cost price is less than € 1,000/kWe for the largest machines (including SCR), up to € 1,000 - € 1,500 per kWe for machines producing several hundred kWe. Details of the economic return can be found on the website: www.bhkw-infozentrum.de/req/poe_wirtschaftlichkeit.html. In summary, it is clear that using PPO in stationary cogeneration engines in Germany is economically viable. Corporate experience of stationary engines running on rapeseed oil are comparable to experience of engines in mobile applications. Problems exist due to insufficiently pure fuel, deposits of phosphor compounds and reduced quality of the lubrication oil.

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9999 Conclusions: aggregating Conclusions: aggregating Conclusions: aggregating Conclusions: aggregating infoinfoinfoinformation, a complete picture rmation, a complete picture rmation, a complete picture rmation, a complete picture of the entire PPO chainof the entire PPO chainof the entire PPO chainof the entire PPO chain

9.19.19.19.1 Additional informationAdditional informationAdditional informationAdditional information This section summarises the analysis of the PPO chain as described in the individual chapters, and primarily gives an overview of the environmental impact. The results are compared with those of other studies, particularly studies into biodiesel.

9.29.29.29.2 Results etc.Results etc.Results etc.Results etc. Based on the data available, the following overview is given for both small-scale and large-scale PPO production.

Average Worst case Best case Crop

− Result per ha (ton) 4 3 5− Oil content 43% 40% 45%− Moisture content 16% 18% 14%

Drying, moisture content after drying 8%− Dry material (ton/ha) 3.4 2.5 4.3− Water removed (ton/ha) 0.3 0.3 0.3− Remaining seed (ton/ha) 3.7 2.7 4.7

Extraction, return equals 77%− Oil returns (ton/ha) 1.12 0.76 1.50− Pressed cake return (ton/ha) 2.2 1.7 2.8

Table 9.1: Overview for PPO production based on cold press method

Small-scale production requires around 3.5 ton (± 0.5 ton) of rapeseed per ton of PPO. For large-scale production this is around 2.8 ton (± 0.3 ton) of rapeseed per ton of PPO. A comparison with other studies, e.g. those discussed in [Broek, 2003], shows no significant differences in terms of return for hectare and oil levels of the seed. The figures given in other studies for oil return per hectare are also fairly similar.

Average Worst Best Crop

− Return per ha (ton) 1.12 0.76 1.50− Oil content 2.2 1.7 2.8− Moisture content 1.12 0.76 1.50

Drying, moisture content after drying 8%− Dry material (ton/ha) 3.4 2.5 4.3

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− Water removed (ton/ha) 0.3 0.3 0.3− Seed remaining (ton/ha) 3.7 2.7 4.7

Extraction, return equals 98%− Oil return (ton/ha) 1.42 0.96 1.90− Pressed cake return (ton/ha) 1.9 1.5 2.4

Table 9.2: Overview for PPO production based on extraction and pressing

9.39.39.39.3 Using PPO in vehiclesUsing PPO in vehiclesUsing PPO in vehiclesUsing PPO in vehicles The available and developed technologies for using PPO in vehicles are, up to now, limited to a restricted set of conversion packs for a limited number of vehicle types. The technique is still being developed. This means that the possibilities for using PPO in vehicles is still limited at this point in time. The standardisation criteria for PPO production are also still being developed. Production currently only takes place on a small scale. Standards for storage, production, cleaning and analysis of the oil are currently lacking. [Hassel, 2004] provides recommendations for developing these types of standards. Recommendations are also made for handling large-scale distribution and mixing batches of PPO at central locations, thus achieving and guaranteeing a more constant fuel quality. The production technologies used thus far (cold pressing with refining), seem to produce a fuel that is often of insufficient quality. It would be better to refine the fuel. There is also still no standard available for the fuel, to which the car and engine manufacturers agree. It will probably be some years yet before such a standard is defined (if ever), considering the lack of interest by manufacturers. In other words, using PPO as a vehicle fuel is indeed technically possible, but PPO is not yet ready for large-scale sale to end-users, due to the lack of suitable structure and standardisation.

9.49.49.49.4 EnergyEnergyEnergyEnergy Based on information concerning energy use for transport, for processing rapeseed and PPO and for producing fertilisers, the research team have produced the following estimate of the PPO-production-related consumption of primary energy (see Table 9.3). The bottom line is that 25-40% of the PPO energy content is required for its production.

Small-scale Large-scale Best case Worst case Best case Worst case

Crop − Direct 1,523 2,855 1,266 2,375− Indirect 4,737 7,600 3,938 6,324

Transporting and drying 766 1,403 936 1,469PPO production 423 1,871 2,227 3,020Distribution 350 350 350 350

7,798 14,079 8,717 13,538

Table 9.3: Primary energy consumption in the PPO production chain (all figures in MJ primary energy per ton of PPO)

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These figures do not include residual flakes or powder, as per current LCA calculation methodology based on economic values. The figures used for energy consumption, with respect to the production and eventual refining of PPO, have been taken from other studies and verified using practical details, such as those reported by manufacturers. The research team therefore expect no deviations with other studies/practice. For the other process steps (growing, cleaning/drying/storage) these figures are based on practical information.

9.59.59.59.5 EmissionsEmissionsEmissionsEmissions

9.5.19.5.19.5.19.5.1 OverviewOverviewOverviewOverview Based on the data from the literature concerning consumption by energy carriers and auxiliary equipment during rapeseed cultivation and PPO production, the research team make the following estimates of the direct and indirect environmental impact relating to PPO production. The team therefore differentiates between small-scale and large-scale production using pressing/extraction, due to the various efficiency levels involved, whereby the oil is isolated from the seed. In both cases, part of the environmental impact is due to residual flakes or powder. It was not possible to include these figures in these calculations of vehicle emissions (tank-to-wheel) due to the limited and unreliable information available.

Well-to-tank Direct Indirect Total

Emissions to air (kg) CO2 180 - 313 345 - 647 525 - 959 CO 1.1 - 2.0 1.1 - 2.0 CH4 0.02 - 0.03 0.00 - 0.00 0.02 - 0.03 VOS 0.0 - 0.0 0.0 - 0.0 N2O 2.3 - 3.3 1.4 - 2.4 3.7 - 5.7 NH3 2.7 - 4.4 0.1 - 0.1 2.8 - 4.5 SO2 0.1 - 0.2 1.7 - 1.9 1.8 - 2.2 NOx 22 - 3.8 2.1 - 2.7 4.4 - 6.5 PM10 0.2 - 0.3 0.179 - 0.307 0.4 - 0.7

Solid waste (kg) 187 - 210 187 - 210

Table 9.4: Emissions for small-scale production (all figures in kg per ton PPO)

Well-to-tank

Direct Indirect Total Emissions to air (kg)

CO2 251 - 396 299 - 477 550 - 873 CO 1.0 - 1.7 1.0 - 1.7 CH4 1.4E-02 - 2.4E-02 1.1E-03 - 1.3E-03 1.5E-02 - 2.5E-02VOS 0.0 - 0.0 00 - 00 N2O 1.9 - 2.8 1.2 - 2.0 3.1 - 4.8 NH3 2.3 - 3.7 0.1 - 0.1 2.3 - 3.8

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SO2 0.1 - 0.2 1.4 - 1.6 1.5 - 1.8 NOx 2.0 - 3.3 1.8 - 2.2 3.8 - 5.5 PM10 0.2 - 0.3 0.1 - 0.3 0.3 - 0.5

Solid waste (kg) 155 - 175 155 - 175

Table 9.5: Emissions for large-scale production (all figures in kg per ton PPO)

Both tables show the indirect environmental impact that includes emissions occurring during the production of fertiliser and electricity. The production of solid waste concerns the use of phosphate fertiliser. When this fertiliser is produced, this creates phosphoric gypsum, which (in Europe) is usually stored on land. Emissions from hydrocarbons and toxic substances primarily depend on the PPO application. However, the emission of acidic substances is primarily related to the production from fertiliser using when growing the crop. Last, but not least, N2O emission occurs during the crop-growing phase. In both cases, PPO preparation (small-scale and large-scale production) results in a considerable contribution to the total environmental impact relating to PPO application. Also in both cases, the indirect environmental impact in the well-to-wheel phase is clearly greater than the direct environmental impact during this phase. The indirect environmental impact primarily concerns the production of fertiliser that is used to grow the rapeseed. In other words, the environmental impact relating to PPO application as a vehicle fuel is primarily determined by the use of fertilisers to grow rapeseed and the use of PPO in road vehicles. The environmental impact from large-scale production is comparable to that of small-scale production. The higher energy consumption for large-scale production is compensated (per litre PPO) by the higher oil returns per ton of rapeseed. The greenhouse gas emissions result in a total contribution to climate change of 1,460 – 2,650 kg CO2-eq per ton PPO.

Greenhouse gas emissions

(kg/ton PPO) Well-to-tank PPO

Characterisa-tion factor (kg

CO2-eq/kg) Contribution to climate

change

CO2 550 - 959 1 550 - 959 CH4 0 - 0 23 0 - 1 N2O 3 - 6 296 909 - 1,691

1,460 - 2,651

Table 9.7: Contribution to climate change by PPO production (all figures per ton PPO)

The table above shows that the contribution to climate change is largely determined by the N2O emission, which is partly due to the nitrification/denitification of nitrogen on the fields and is also partly due to the production of nitric acid, as per KAN 27%.

Minimum estimate

Maximum estimate

N2O emissions (kg/ton PPO)

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- from the field 1.9 - 3.3 - nitric acid production 1.2 - 2.4

3.1 - 5.7

Table 9.8: N2O emissions in the PPO chain (all figures per ton PPO)

Emissions from the field are, at best, uncertain. According to the IPCC, emissions per unit of nitrogen should allow for an uncertainty factor of ±80%. Another uncertainty concerns the amount of nitrogen used per ton of rapeseed, but this uncertainty has not been included in the methodology used for this study, since a range of figures was used. Emissions for nitric acid concern an average for the European nitric acid industry, but can certainly deviate by ±50% from the average for individual plants, see [Wood, 2004]. Emissions of N2O for nitric acid should drop significantly in the future. Catalysts are being developed and launched on the market whereby the N2O in the exhaust gases of the nitric acid plants can be reduced to N2. Emissions, per unit of nitric acid, can be reduced by 80-90%. For the PPO production chain this would mean a reduction (of around 20%) in the contribution to climate change. In summary, it is possible to conclude that the contribution to climate change per ton PPO is very uncertain, and in the future this could drop by several dozen percent, through improvements in industrial processes outside the PPO chain.

9.5.29.5.29.5.29.5.2 Comparison with diesel precombustionComparison with diesel precombustionComparison with diesel precombustionComparison with diesel precombustion Table 9.9 shows the well-to-tank emissions for PPO compared to emissions when preparing diesel for the Dutch market.

Well-to-tank Diesel precombustion PPO per ton PPO27

Emissions to air (kg) CO2 550 - 959 306 CO 1.0 - 2.0 0.4 CH4 1.5E-02 - 3.0E-02 4.4 VOS 0.0 - 0.0 0.3 N2O 3.1 - 5.7 0.0 NH3 2.3 - 4.5 SO2 1.5 - 2.2 0.3 NOx 3.8 - 6.5 0.7 PM10 0.3 - 0.7 0.1

Solid waste (kg) 155 - 210 Unknown

Table 9.9: Comparing emissions when preparing PPO and diesel (all figures in kg per ton PPO)

The figures for diesel include crude extraction, crude transport and refining [Tillemans, 2003]. The comparison assumes that, energy-wise, there is no difference in using diesel or PPO in vehicles.

27 The heating value of rapeseed oil amounts to 35 GJ/ton. The emissions for diesel precombustion are related to the 35 GJ from diesel (an equivalent amount of energy content).

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PPO production clearly contributes more to greenhouse gas emissions and to emissions of acidic and toxic substances, but produces lower emissions of hydrocarbons. The contribution to climate change, per ton of PPO, is given in the previous subsection as 1,460 – 2,650 kg CO2-eq. In comparison, the production of an equivalent amount of diesel would result in a climate change contribution of around 410 kg CO2-eq.

Well-to-tank PPO Characterisation factor (kg CO2-eq/kg)

Greenhouse gas emissions (kg/ton PPO)

CO2 306 1

CH4 4 23

N2O 0 296Total contribution to climate change, in kg CO2-eq per ton PPO 409

Table 9.10: Contribution to climate change for diesel precombustion (all figures per ton PPO)

Then there is also the additional contribution of around 2,560 kg CO2 for diesel, which produces a total climate change contribution for diesel of around 2,960 kg CO2-eq. In other words, using PPO can achieve a feasible reduction in greenhouse gas emissions of between 10% and 50%.

9.5.39.5.39.5.39.5.3 An indicative wellAn indicative wellAn indicative wellAn indicative well----totototo----wheel analysiswheel analysiswheel analysiswheel analysis Table 9.1 provides an indication of the environmental balance for the complete well-to-wheel chain. The figures shown are only meant to give an impression of the total chain of PPO-related environmental impact. The data given for vehicle emissions is not derived scientifically. The emission figures shown in the table for tank-to-wheel concern the average fleet of diesel cars [MV5, 2000]. This approach shows that replacing diesel with PPO over the entire fuel chain possibly leads to reduced hydrocarbon emissions, and possibly also fine particles and CO. However, emissions of acidic and fertilised (and toxic) substances such as NOx and NH3 will increase. The net reduction in greenhouse gas emissions amounts to 950 kg CO2-eq per ton PPO. Replacing diesel certainly reduces emissions of CO2 and CH4, but also leads to a net increase in N2O emissions. The estimated level of N2O emissions has a significant influence on the net balance for greenhouse gases.

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Emissions average diesel

vehicle

Indicative reduction

percentages (optimum situation)

Reduction achieved

Difference well-to-

tank PPO and diesel

Net effect

Emissions to air (kg) CO2 2,555 100% -2,555 448 -2,107CO 8.5 50% -4 1.1 -3.1CH4 -4.3 -4.3VOS 2.3 40% -0.9 -0.2 -1.2N2O 0.1 4.4 4.4NH3 3.4 3.4SO2 1.5 1.5NOx 20.9 -10% 2.1 4.4 6.5PM10 2.5 50% -1,270 0.4 -0.9

Solid waste (kg) 183 183

Table 9.11: Comparison of well-to-wheel net effects of replacing diesel with PPO (all figures in kg per ton PPO)

9.69.69.69.6 CostsCostsCostsCosts Small-scale production

Large-scale production

Worst case Best case Worst case Best caseCosts of rapeseed at the field 907 769 716 606Cleaning, drying, storage 134 114 106 90PPO production 206 129 35 31Distribution of PPO 110 110 110 110Usage in vehicle 356 228 356 228Minus: turnover from residual flakes and powder -246 -206 -202 -165

1,468 1,143 1,121 901

Table 9.12: Cost breakdown (all figures per ton of oil)

These cost estimates result in a litre price for PPO of €0.85 - €1.35, which is clearly higher than the price circulated in the press and literature of around €0.75 - €0.80 per litre. This price also includes the conversion costs for the vehicle and the costs of a distribution system which is similar to that of the current fossil fuels, i.e. a distribution system of refuelling stations along the motorway network and locally, with storage depots supplied via ship, with fuel supplied from the depots to the refuelling stations. If these distribution costs are excluded, then the total costs of PPO at the oil press (for small-scale production) amount to around €780 - €970 and the price per litre is around €0.70 - €0.90, which is similar to the price mentioned in the press. The diesel price at the pump (in 2003) was € 0.80 per litre (including excise duty and VAT). Combining the costs per ton of PPO with the climate change contribution saved through using PPO as a diesel replacement, results in specific reduction costs of € 600/ton CO2 to €

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4,700/ton CO2, with an average value of around € 1,200/ton CO2. This value is considerably higher than that given in [Broek, 2003] due to the higher costs and lower greenhouse gas reduction found during this current study.

Small-scale production

Large-scale production

Worst case Best case Worst case Best caseNet costs per ton PPO (€/ton) 1,468 1,143 1,121 901Saved CO2 contribution (kg CO2-eq/ton PPO) 313 1,345 683 1,504Resulting specific reduction costs (€/ton CO2) 4,689 850 1,641 599

Table 9.13: Determining the specific reduction costs for greenhouse gases (all figures per ton of oil)

9.79.79.79.7 Improvement options and future prospectsImprovement options and future prospectsImprovement options and future prospectsImprovement options and future prospects As previous sections of this chapter have clearly shown, improvement options are required to: • Reduce the environmental impact relating to rapeseed crops; • Increasing the return from by-products. One way of reducing the environmental impact related to crop growing would be to switch from winter rapeseed to summer rapeseed. As far as is known, PPO Lelystad has recently published a report28 summarising the results of field tests with summer rapeseed. From information currently available at CE it would appear from this report that 2.8 ton of seed was obtained during the field test, although only 100 kg of active nitrogen was used as fertiliser, probably in the form of cow manure. This is also a relatively smaller nitrogen fertilisation than normally used for winter rapeseed. On the other hand, the oil content of the rapeseed is not known, thus it is not possible to determine the relationship between fertilisation and oil return. Increasing the return from the by-products can possibly be achieved by extracting the oil from the rapeseed in some other manner. The current method results in a certain amount of quality loss, whereby a lower price is achieved for both the oil and the pressed cake than might otherwise be possible. Enzymatic extraction could prevent this loss of quality. A trial plant for this technique has been set up in Bornholm [Pedersen, 2001], [Emcentre]. The potential economic advantages have, as yet, not been realised, but the technology is still in development.

28 This concerns the study: Mheen, H. van der, 2004. Testing rapeseed for biodiesel 2003. PPO-project

report 510252-2

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10101010 Sensitivity analysis for Sensitivity analysis for Sensitivity analysis for Sensitivity analysis for environmental statisticsenvironmental statisticsenvironmental statisticsenvironmental statistics This chapter includes a global sensitivity analysis for the indicative well-to-wheel analysis carried out in the previous chapter and for the estimated environmental impact per unit of PPO. Two approaches were taken: • Comparing the results of other studies; • Global calculations of several alternatives to the PPO chain.

10.110.110.110.1 Comparing the results of other Comparing the results of other Comparing the results of other Comparing the results of other studiesstudiesstudiesstudies

10.1.110.1.110.1.110.1.1 General comparison with other studiesGeneral comparison with other studiesGeneral comparison with other studiesGeneral comparison with other studies Comparisons with other studies are difficult. Firstly, because these studies use varying basis data and assumptions, e.g. for the environmental impact relating to fertiliser and electricity production. Secondly, this current study for the Netherlands assumes the use of natural gas for underfiring in industrial processes, and Dutch crop details. In order countries, underfiring may often use oil, while crop results and use of fertilisers can vary from the situation in the Netherlands. Comparing the results based on the use of energy carriers and additives is often both possible and useful. However, it is clear that many other studies use/advise a nitrogen fertiliser that is less than half that indicated in the various ATO reports. This has considerable consequences for the total contribution of the PPO chain to climate change.

10.1.210.1.210.1.210.1.2 Comparing N2O emissionsComparing N2O emissionsComparing N2O emissionsComparing N2O emissions Estimating emissions from laughing gas seems to be an important point. This study assumes the following emission factors: • For production of calcium ammonium nitrate fertiliser (KAS) conform [Wood, 2004] an

average emission factor of 1.5%29 is assumed, as determined for the European fertiliser industry;

• For N2O emissions through converting nitrogen from soil-derived KAS, an emission factor of 1% is assumed, conform [Kroeze, 1994]. This RIVM report determines the Dutch emission factor for N2O from fertiliser using the internationally recognised IPSS methodology.

Based on these (net) emission factors and fertilisation of 170-195 kg N/ha, the total N2O emission (field + plant) amounts to 3.1-5.7 kg/ton of PPO. In addition to this, the CO2 emission amounts to around 240-650 kg/ton of PPO, due to the transport emissions and the use of natural gas and electricity for frying, oil production and eventual refining of the oil. This brings the total contribution to climate change to 1,460 – 2,650 kg CO2-eq/ton PPO. In comparison: the use of 35 GJ diesel30 would contribute to climate change by around 2,960 kg CO2-eq, including diesel precombustion.

29 Emission factor here means the amount of N2O that per kg N is emitted in ammonium nitrate fertiliser. For the

average European fertiliser production this is 15 g/kg N 30 One ton of PPO has a heating value of around 35 GJ. When PPO is used as an engine fuel for vehicles it is

assumed that the fuel consumption with respect to energy content remains the same as the original consumption of fossil diesel, so one ton of PPO is therefore equal to 35 GJ diesel

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On the other hand, the Sheffield study, for example, which served as the basis for [Broek, 2003], used other emission factors: • For production of ammonium nitrate fertiliser (KAS) this study assumed an emission

factor of 1.5%, which is similar to that used in this current study; • For N2O emission through converting nitrogen from soil-derived KAS, an emission

factor of 0.36% was assumed – an IPCC emission factor that has now been changed to 1.25%.

For these emission factors the N2O emission would only be 1.9-4.2 kg/ton of PPO, and the total contribution to climate change would be 1,100-2,200 kg CO2-eq/ton PPO.

10.210.210.210.2 Global analysis of alternative construction of the Global analysis of alternative construction of the Global analysis of alternative construction of the Global analysis of alternative construction of the PPO chainPPO chainPPO chainPPO chain

10.2.110.2.110.2.110.2.1 Evaluation of possible alternative farming systemsEvaluation of possible alternative farming systemsEvaluation of possible alternative farming systemsEvaluation of possible alternative farming systems This analysis continues to focus on the current practice of growing winter rapeseed. The crop is treated with KAS, and conventional diesel is used to fuel the agricultural vehicles. Grey electricity from the grid is also used for decentralised activities such as drying and small-scale oil production. The straw that remains after harvesting is generally ploughed back into the soil because there is very little market for this product. In order to check how sensitive the results of the study are to these system assumptions, the research team has estimated the net contribution to climate change for a number of alternative systems, using the following alternatives: • Using renewable energy carriers. PPO is used for agricultural vehicles and other means

of transport. Green electricity is purchased for drying and small-scale oil production; • For crop growing, the maximum amount of animal manure is used and minimum

possible fertiliser; • Straw is not ploughed back into the soil, but used to fuel a decentralised cogeneration

plant. Using renewable energy carriers Using PPO in agricultural vehicles and other means of transport, but purchasing green electricity for other tasks, does not seem to result in a significant reduction in the net contribution to climate change. This can be explained as follows: • The system used in this study assumes the use of conventional diesel and grey electricity

as being only 15-20% of the total greenhouse gas emissions in the PPO chain; • For agricultural activities and transport only 100-150 g of the produced PPO are

required. In other words, an important part of using renewable energy carriers would be cancelled out because there would be less net PPO to be used by the fuels market to replace PPO. Replacing a maximum amount of fertiliser with animal manure. Replacing KAS and TSP (TriSuperPhosphate) with animal manure has the potential advantage that the environmental impact associated with fertiliser production can be saved. The production of KAS, in particular, provides a significant contribution to the total greenhouse gas emissions in the PPO chain, due to the N2O emissions that occur during production. The amount of fertiliser that animal manure can replace is fairly limited due to the maximum amount of nitrogen and phosphor that may be ploughed into the soil in the form of animal manure. Manure also has a lower efficiency as N-fertiliser, which means that more

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fertiliser/nitrogen would be required. Animal manure also has a higher emission of N2O per unit of nitrogen. These three effects ensure that replacing part of the fertiliser would not lead to a reduction in the net contribution to climate change, but could actually cause a slight increase. This is further explained in Appendix D. Using straw as an energy carrier Straw produced from rapeseed is currently ploughed back into the soil, due to the lack of sales possibilities. However, current technology means that it would be possible to use the straw as an energy carrier. Processing options for rapeseed straw as an energy carrier are, in theory: co-incineration in a coal-fired power plant, or incineration in a specially built incineration plant31 , such as occurs in Denmark. The chance that this would take place in the Netherlands is fairly small. Due to the negative influence of the straw on the quality of the powder coal fly-ash, co-incineration is not a very attractive option. There are also extra costs involved in making plants suitable for co-incineration of straw, while it is expected that the management of coal-fired power plants would offer a lower price for this alternative fuel. The economic profit from residual flows, such as RWZI sludge (from sewage treatment plants) and B-grade wood are also looked at carefully by management teams. Incineration in a specially built plant would probably be too expensive. In the case of using straw as an energy carrier, part of the environmental impact relating to the rapeseed crop should be accredited to straw, which means that (conform the LCA methodology), straw then becomes a valuable by-product. Based on the current calculation methodology using economic value, it is expected that the straw-based environmental impact would be limited, because straw as a fuel will have a market price that will never be higher than a few dozen euro per ton. The value of the oil (€ 600/ton) is so high that, in comparison the turnover for straw will be only marginal. This picture changes, however, when prices are attributed based on energy content. Straw, rapeseed cake and oil each represent around 40%, 25% and 35% respectively of the energy content of the entire plant. When attributing these amounts based on energy content, and assuming that straw can be sold as an energy carrier, the crop-related environmental impact of the oil only amounts to 35%. This study assumes a percentage of 70-75%. In other words, the environmental impact attributed to the oil will then only amount to 50% of the environmental impact calculated by this study.

31 Fermenting is not an option because the straw does not break down properly during fermentation.

This is confirmed by Henk Knap ( Essent) and Olof Cristof (Linde KCA Dresden).

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LiteratureLiteratureLiteratureLiterature Aberson, 2004 Verbal information from Hein Aberson Alpmann, 2004 Stickstoff – der Motor der Rapspflanze L. Alpmann, Innovation 1/2004, pp. 15 – 17 Armstrong, 2002 Energy and greenhouse gas balance of biofuels for Europe – an update, A. P. Armstrong et al., Concawe, Brussel, April 2002 ASA, 2004 Market analysis by ASA Europe, available from the website: www.asa-europe.org/eiweissf Bello, 2003 De beste weg voor slakkenwol; O. Bello, H. Croezen, CE, Delft, January 2003 Bergmans, 2004 Verbal information from Frank Bergamns (Productschap MVO) Bernelot Moens et al., 2003 Teelt van koolzaad, H.L. Bernelot Moens, J.E. Wolffert; Praktijkonderzoek Plant & Omgeving, WUR (Wageningen University), May 2003 BHKW, 2001 Anonymous Arbeitsgemeischaft für Sparsamen und Umweltfreundlichen Energieverbrauch, Kaiserslautern, 2001 (?), BHKW-Kenndaten 2001 BLT Wieselburg, 2003 Rapeseed oil as fuel for farm tractors; prepared for IEA Bioenergy task 39, subtask biodiesel; 2003 Bockey, 2004 Verbal information from Dieter Bockey (UFOP, 2004), 9 October 2004 Broek, 2003 Biofuels in the Dutch market: a fact-finding study,R. van den Broek et al., Ecofys; Utrecht, November 2003 Broek, 2000 Sustainability of biomass electricity systems; an assessment of costs, macro economics and environmental impacts in Nicaragua, Ireland and the Netherlands (thesis) R. van der Broek, Rijksuniversiteit Utrecht, Utrecht, 2000 Brouwer, 2000 Diplomarbeit by Jens Brouwer, 2000. No further information available Bemesting Praktijkgids bemesting, 2e druk inclusief wijzigingen 2003,NMI, Den Haag, 2003

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BTG, 2002 Opwerking van slachtbijproducten tot een brandstof voor toepassing in stationaire dieselmotoren (Novem – 249.402-0120). L. van de Beld, D. Assink, J. de Jonge, E. Jaarsma, Novem, Utrecht, March 2002 CBS, 2004 Oogstraming akkerbouwgewassen; CBS; 2004 www.cbs.nl/nl/publicaties/artikelen/algemeen/webmagazine/artikelen/2004/1548k.htm Dawkins, 1983 Some factors in successful cropping; Dr T.C.K. Dawkins; 2. Oilseed rape. Span, 26-3-1983; page 116-117; 1983 Dekker, 2003 Kwantitatieve informatie akkerbouw en vollegrondsgroenteteelt 2002 3e druk Praktijkonderzoek plant en omgeving business unit AGV, W.A. Dekker, Lelystad, March 2003 De Kock, 2004 Verbal comment from Mr De Kock (Desmet), September 2004 Dorland, 1997 C. Dorland et al Externe national implementation the Netherlands,IVM, Amsterdam November 1997 Dreier, 1999 Ganzheitliche Bilanzierung von Grundstoffen und Halbzeugen T. Dreier, Forschungsstelle für Energiewirtschaft, Munich, July 1999 EFMA, 2000a Anonymous Production of Ammonia, BAT for pollution prevention and control in the European Fertilizer Industry booklet 1, EFMA< Brussels, 2000 EFMA, 2000b Anonymous Production of nitric acid, BAT for pollution prevention and control in the European Fertilizer Industry booklet 2 EFMA, 2000c Anonymous Production of Ammonium Nitrate and Calcium Amonnium Nitrate, BAT for pollution prevention and control in the European Fertilizer Industry booklet 6, EFMA, Brussels, 2000 EFMA, 2000d Anonymous Production of sulphuric acid, BAT for pollution prevention and control in the European Fertilizer Industry booklet 3, EFMA, Brussels, 2000 EFMA, 2000e Anonymous Production of Phosphoric acid, BAT for pollution prevention and control in the European Fertilizer Industry booklet 4, EFMA, Brussels, 2000 El Bassam, 1998 Energy plant species, their use and impact on environment and development; N. El Bassam; James & James (scientific publishers) Ltd, London; 1998 Elsayed et al., 2003 Carbon and energy balances for a range of biofuel options

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M.A. Elsayed, R. Matthews and N.D. Mortimer; project number B/B6/00784/REP URN 03/836; Sheffield Hallam University; 2003 EPA, 2002 A comprehensive analysis of biodiesel impacts on exhaust emissions, draft technical report, office of transportation and air quality US Environmental Protection agency; October 2002 EPA, 2003 The Effect of Cetane Number Increase Due to Additives on NOx Emissions from Heavy-Duty Highway Engines Final Technical Report, Office of Transportation and Air Quality, US Environmental Protection Agency; 2003 Falk, 2001 Altspeisefett: Aufkommen und Verwertung Falk et al., Technische Universität München, April 2001 Ferchau, 2000 Equipment for decentralised cold pressing of oil seeds,E. Ferchau, Folkecenter for renewable energy; Hurup Thy, November 2000 Folkecenter, 2000a Equipment for decentralised cold pressing of oil seeds E. Ferchau; Folkecenter for Renewable Energy, Hurup Thy; November 2000

Folkecenter, 2000b Emission from combustion of pure plant oil, PPO www.folkecenter.dk/plant-oil/publications/PPO-emissions.htm Gunstone, 2004 Rapeseed and KASola oil – production, processing, properties and uses F.D. Gunstone, Blackwell Publishing, Carlton, Australia, 2004 Hamelinck, 2004 Outlook for advanced biofuels C. Hamelinck, Universiteit Utrecht, Utrecht, 2004 Hassel, 2004 Rapsöl als Kraftstoff ?! Position der Union zur Förderung von Öl- und Proteinpflanzen zum Einsatz von naturbelassenem Rapsöl in der Land- und Forstwirtschaft E. Hassel et al., UFOP, Berlin, 2004 Hoek, 2002 Uitgangspunten voor de mest- en ammoniakberekeningen 1997 tot en met 1999 zoals gebruikt in de Milieubalans 1999 en 2000 K.W. van der Hoek, RIVM, Bilthoven, 2002 Janssen, 2004 Beschikbaarheid koolzaad voor biodiesel B. Janssen et al., LEI, Den Haag, August 2004 Jensen, 2003 Short note on Pure Plant Oil (PPO) as fuel for modified internal combustion engines European Commission, DG JRC/IPTS, 2003

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Kempenaar, 2003 C Gangbare landbouwkundige praktijk en recente ontwikkelingen voor vier akkerbouwgewassen in Nederland Kempenaar et al., Plant Research International, Wageningen, June 2003 Kroeze, 1994 Nitrous Oxide (N2O), emission inventory and options for control in the Netherlands C. Kroeze, RIVM, Bilthoven, November 1994 Landenweb www.landenweb.com Netherlands : 41,526 km2 France : 543,965 km2 Germany : 356,970 km2 MV5, 2000 Nationale Milieuverkenning 5, 2000 – 2030 RIVM, Bilthoven, 2000 Parkhomenko, 2004 International competitiveness of soybean, rapeseed and palm oil production in major producing regions Landbauforschung Völkenrode FAL agricultural research, 2004 PDE Projectbureau Duurzame Energie, www.pde.nl Potjer, 2000 Fosforkringloop voor Thermphos Potjer, B., J. Vermeulen, G. de Weerd, G. Bergsma, H. Croezen, Delft, 2000 Prayon, 2004 www.prayon.com/ (see environmental data) Remelle, 2002 Standardisiering vor Rapsöl als kraftstoff – untersuchungen zu kenngröβen, prüfverfahren und grenzwerthen Edgar Remelle; Dissertation, TU Munich, 2002 Ricardo, 2003 DfT biofuels Evaluation – Final Report of Test Programme to Evaluate Emission Performance of Vegetable Oil Fuel on Two Light Duty Diesel Vehicles D. Lance, J. Andersson, Ricardo Consulting Engineers Riela (Anonymus) DLG-Prüfbericht 5360, Riela Durchlauftrockner GDT 200, deutsche Landwirtschaftsgesellschaft, Riesenbeck Schröder, 2004 Gebruiksnormen bij verschillende landbouwkundige en milieukundige uitgangspunten J.J. Schröder et al., Plant Research International, Wageningen, March 2004 Schümann, 2003 Praxiseinsatz von serienmässigen neuen rapsöltauglichen Traktoren U. Schümann, J. Golisch, V. Wichmann

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Smit, 2001 Market analysis DeN2O, market potential for reduction of N2O emissions at nitric acid facilitie,A.W. Smit, M.M.C. Gent, R.W. van den Brink , Jacobs Engineering Nederland and ECN, May 2001 Stotz, 2004 Dezentrale Ölsaatenverarbeitung in Deutschland, Ergebnisseeiner Befragung Technologie- und Förderzentrum in Kompetenzzentrum für Nachwachsende Rohstoffe, Straubing, K. Stotz, E. Remmele, July 2004 Solaroilsystems, 2003 Press release from Solaroil , 2003 Tillemans, 2003 Brandstofcelbussen en distributievrachtwagens in de stedelijke omgeving F.W.A. Tillemans, A.C.B. den Ouden, ECN, Petten, May 2003 Timmer, 2004 Teelthandleiding groenbemester – welke groenbemester is de beste keuze? R.D. Timmer, G.W. Korthals, L.P.G. Molendijk, Kenniscentrum Kennisakker (Akkerbouwkennis voor iedereen!). Togashi, 1998 Operation of a diesel engine using unrefined rapeseed oil as fuel Chiyuki Togashi and Jun-ichi Kamide, Japan, 1998 Thuneke, 2002 Operation and emission characteristics of CHP units, fuelled with rapeseed oil Contribution to the Proceedings of the 12th European Conference and Technology Exhibition on biomass for energy, industry and climate protection, K. Thuneke, B. Widmann, Amsterdam 2002 Thuneke, 2004 Particulate filter systems for vegetable oil fuelled chp-units Contribution to the Proceedings of the 2nd World Conference and Technology Exhibition on biomass for energy, Industry and Climate Protection, K. Thuneke, H. Link, Rome, 10–14 May 2004 Van der Mheen, 2003 Teeltaspecten rond de productie van koolzaad voor biodiesel, Een inventarisatie op basis van literatuuronderzoek Hans van der Mheen, Project report no. 510252, Praktijkonderzoek Plant & Omgeving, WUR, Wageningen, July 2003 Van der Mheen, 2004 Proeven koolzaad voor biodiesel 2003 (report of field test by Ebelsheerd and Vredepeel 2003) H. van der Mheen, Praktijkonderzoek Plant & Omgeving, WUR, Wageningen, March 2004 Van Geel, 2004 Proeven koolzaad voor biobrandstof 2004 (report of field tests by Ebelsheerd and Vredepeel 2004) W. van Geel, G. Borm, Praktijkonderzoek Plant & Omgeving, WUR, Wageningen, November 2004 Van Os, 2003 R.van Os et al. TEWI benadering mestbewerking en –verwerking

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Grontmij water en reststoffen, De Bilt, November 2003 Velthof, 2000 Beperking van lachgasemissie uit gewasresten (een systeemanalyse)G.L. Velthof, P.J. Kuikman, Alterra report 114-3, Alterra, Wageningen, 2000 VROM, 1998 Kosten en baten in het milieubeleid: definities en berekeningsmethoden Ministery of VROM, The Hague, 1998 Walwijk Automotive fuels for the future M. van Walwijk, M. Bückmann, W. P. Troelstra, N. Elam, IEA AFIS, Brussel Widmann, 1998 Production of vegetable oils in decentral plants and aspects of quality management – investigations on plants in practice to optimise the process B. Widmann, University of Munich, Bijdrage aan ‘Biomass for Energy and Industry 10th European Conference’, H. Kopetz et al. (Ed.) Widmann, 2002 Leitfaden Pflanzenölbetriebene Blockheizkraftwerke.Widmann et al., Bayerisches Staatsministerium für Landesentwicklung und Umweltfragen, Munich, April 2002 Wiesler, 2002 F. Wiesler. Wegener Sleeswijk et al., 1996 Application of LCA to agricultural products A. Wegener Sleeswijk et al., CML, Leiden, 1996 Zhou Untersuchungen zum Blatt- und Wurzelmetabolismus sowie zum Phloem- und Xylemtransport in Zusammenhang mit der Stickstoff-Effizienz bei Raps (Brassica napus L.) Zhou, Zewen, Dissertation zur Erlangung des Doktortitels, angenommen von: Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftliche Fakultät, 2000-11-02 Experts consulted for this study: Harold Pauwels NNI Mr Costenoble NNI Hein Aberson Solaroilsystems Mr Noack Elsbett Eltjo Buringh RIVM Gerard Hoek IRAS, Universiteit Utrecht

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bijlagen

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AAAA PPO network PPO network PPO network PPO network A.1A.1A.1A.1 The NetherlandsThe NetherlandsThe NetherlandsThe Netherlands

A.1.1A.1.1A.1.1A.1.1 Contact persons and addressesContact persons and addressesContact persons and addressesContact persons and addresses Table A.1 provides a brief overview of the contact persons and websites that are active in other countries with respect to PPO. Organisation Website Solaroilsystems www.solaroilsystems.nl OPEK Nederland Organisation for plant oil and ecological power sources

www.opek.nl

Productschap margarine, oliën en vetten Represents certain interests, e.g. biofuels chain

www.mvo.nl

Hoofdproductschap Akkerbouw Also provides up-to-date information on current biofuel developments

http://hpa.akkerbouw.com/main/Akkerbouw/index.htm

SenterNovem Specifically the GAVE programme: policies, research and information

http://gave.novem.nl/novem_new/index.asp?id=20

Table A.1: Overview of contact persons and addresses with respect to PPO in the Netherlands)

A.1.2A.1.2A.1.2A.1.2 A few activities A few activities A few activities A few activities

KEPRO KEPRO is a chain project for rapeseed oil. Farmers in the Flevopolder area, or elsewhere, will cultivate rapeseed, which will then be processed into oil in an oil press located in Zeewolde. The oil produced will be used directly as a fuel in diesel engines, without further processing. The conversion of the diesel engines will be paid for by the vehicles’ owners. The oil press has been purchased, and will be run, by OPEK Nederland [www.opek.nl]. Auxiliary incineration There are also various initiatives from the oils and fats sector and the energy industry, to use low-grade oil and fats, where possible, as raw material for auxiliary incineration in power plants, or for heat generation by companies. A good example is the use in the horticultural sector, where oil and fat reduces peak gas consumption costs [www.mvo.nl]. Oil press in Delfzijl An oil press is being constructed in Delfzijl, the first of its kind in the Netherlands, to produce rapeseed oil from cold-pressed rapeseed plants, for use as a biofuel. Funding, supply of rapeseed, the production location, storage and transfer, distribution, sales and – last but not least – official exemption of the excise duty on fuels, have now finally been agreed. In 2004 Solaroilsystems were permitted to produce and sell 1.2 million litres of PPO. Solaroilsystems is working together with the NLTO (northern agricultural and horticultural organisation), which maintains contact with the growers and suppliers of rapeseed plus the

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grain commissioner Nieveen, which has a corporate area in Delfzijl harbour to build an oil press, plus storage and transfer facilities for gains and oil seed (6,000 ton), and has a plant to clean and dry the seeds (necessary before they can be processed). Eventually, the oil press should be capable of producing 3.5 million litres of PPO, an amount that requires around 2,000 hectare of rapeseed. Up to now around 150 farmers in the north of the country have agreed to use 750 ha for rapeseed crops which, considering the 1.2 million litres PPO production required in 2004, this is a good start [various sources, including www.solaroilsystems.nl] HYPERLINK McDonalds McDonalds has also recently converted a number of its vehicles so that they can run on PPO.

A.2A.2A.2A.2 InternationalInternationalInternationalInternational

A.2.1A.2.1A.2.1A.2.1 Contact persons and addressesContact persons and addressesContact persons and addressesContact persons and addresses Table A.2 contains a brief overview of the contact persons and websites in other countries that are working on PPO. Germany, in particular, has various organisations that are active, ranging from research organisations, technical companies building oil presses, to hobbyists who maintain websites detailing their practical experience and resolving of problems. A selection can be found in Table A.3.

Organisation Website Folkecenter Danish organisation for R&D of renewable energy technologies

www.folkecenter.dk/plant-oil/plant-oil.htm

Bundesverband Pflanzenöle e.V. Umbrella organisation for PPO products and users

www.bv-pflanzenoele.de/

Projektorganisation Regionale Oelpflanzennutzung (P.R.O.e.V.) Regional project organisation to promote PPO

www.pro-ev.de/

Wolf-pflanzenoel-technik Company researching technical possibilities for using PPO in engines, test laboratories etc.

www.wolf-pflanzenoel-technik.de

Firma Rolf Deinert Fahrzugbautechnik Company converting car engines to run on PPO

www.pflanzenoel-fahrzeuge.de

Elsbett Company converting car engines to run on PPO

www.elsbett.de/

Autozubehör-Technik Glött (ATG) GmbH Research, specifically into converting cars to run on PPO

www.diesel-therm.de/index.htm

Agricultural Research Service (ARS) www.ars.usda.gov/research/

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US agricultural research, part of the Ministry for Agriculture, with PPO for fuel as one of its focal points Journey to Forever Small NGO started by car in Hong Kong, and driving 40,000 km through 26 countries, finally arriving in Cape Town, South Africa. The objective is to prevent poverty and hunger, with PPO as one of the focal points

http://journeytoforever.org/biodiesel_svo.html

Dancing Rabbit An ideological organisation that provides lots of information on PPO.

www.dancingrabbit.org/biodiesel/vegetable_oil_fuel.html

Table A.2: Overview of contact persons and addresses concerning PPO internationally32

A.2.2A.2.2A.2.2A.2.2 A few activitiesA few activitiesA few activitiesA few activities Ghana An entrepreneur in Ghana plans to grow 1,000 ha of rapeseed or other oil-retaining crops, and also hopes to purchase an oil press. An important objective of this project is to make Ghana more ‘self-supporting’ with respect to fuel, and to improve the animal husbandry results. Ghana is the most stable country in West Africa. Multinationals such as Heineken and Coca-Cola have chosen Ghana as their operating base [www.opek.nl].

32 Some of this information was taken from the Solaroilsystems website

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BBBB Background informationBackground informationBackground informationBackground information This appendix provides background information concerning the environmental impacts that are used to estimate the impact associated with producing PPO from rapeseed. There will sometimes (e.g. for initiators and underfiring with natural gas) be some repeat of the previous text in the relevant chapters. In other cases the data has not previously been mentioned in this report. The following overview first shows the data used, then discusses the reliability and representativeness of the data, plus their origins. Transport emissions and emissions from agricultural vehicles Figures from [MV5 (traffic and transport in the fifth national environmental report), 2000] were taken for emissions per litre of diesel or per ton km for shipping. At the time of publication this was an impressive study that was used as a basis for the environmental policy for traffic and transport in the Netherlands. Underfiring with natural gas The CO2 emission per GJ of natural gas is based on the assumption that Gronings gas will be used. Gronings gas (or G-gas) is the standard quality natural gas for small-scale users and for most of the larger users. Only industries using natural gas as a raw material or companies requiring high-caloric gas from the main transport pipeline use other qualities of natural gas. The assumption that G-gas will be used also means a ‘ best case’ approach to the CO2 emission factor. High-caloric gas has a higher CO2 emission factor. The emission factor for NOx is based on [Van der Velde, 1998], which served to determine and support the reduction objectives for NOx in heavy industries. This study assumes an emission factor of 60 g/GJ for older boilers (as per 1995) and 16 g/GJ for newer boilers. According to this source, in 2005 around 1/3 of the larger boilers will be new and the rest will be old, which results in an average emission factor of 45.3 g/GJ. This has been rounded up to 50 g/GJ. Electricity The emissions used for electricity concern production at the central production units of the four electricity supply companies in the Netherlands. Emission figures are taken from the environmental report by Energiened and the four electricity producers. These emission figures refer to the year 2002.

Table B.1: Background data for environmental impact

Natural gasin

underfiring(MJ)

Dieselprecombus-tion (litre)

Electricity(kWhe)

KAS (kg) TSP (kg) K2O (kg) Agric.vehicles in

general (litrediesel)

Emissionscanal

shipping, inkg/ton·km

Emissionslorries (kg/l)

Emissions to air (kg)CO2 5.60E-02 5.54E-01 5.69E-01 2.87E+00 7.19E-01 4.53E-01 2.63E+00 5.31E-02 2.63E+00CO 4.09E-04 2.47E-02 5.89E-05 7.04E-03

CH4 4.48E-03 2.30E-05 2.10E-05 3.30E-04 2.17E-06 1.81E-04VOS 2.79E-04 1.40E-04 1.71E-03

N2O 9.58E-06 1.45E-02 4.20E-05 9.40E-06 5.74E-04 1.18E-05 7.75E-04

NH3 7.41E-04

SO2 3.27E-04 1.67E-04 4.21E-02 4.50E-03 2.82E-03

NOx 4.53E-05 7.39E-04 2.14E-04 4.40E-03 4.52E-02 4.12E-02 1.01E-03 3.88E-02

PM10 9.95E-05 1.12E-05 1.85E-03 3.17E-06 4.12E-03 7.01E-05 1.68E-03

Emissions to water(kg)

N 2.12E-05P

Solid waste (kg) 5.00E+00

Diesel production The greenhouse gas emission figures for diesel production are taken from the GM study and from the Ecofys study [Broek, 2003], i.e. a well-to-wheel emission of around 84.6 g CO2-eq/MJ diesel. The CO2 emission per MJ of diesel is typically 73 g CO2-eq/MJ, so that precombustion apparently results in 11.6 g CO2-eq/MJ of greenhouse gas emissions. The extent of the other emissions relating to diesel production (diesel precombustion) is taken from [Tillemans, 2003], and relate to the production of sulphur-free diesel (< 10 ppm) in northern Europe based on crude from the Middle East. The Netherlands has three refineries that are designed to process heavy crude from the Middle East. K2O production Data for K2O production was taken from [Elsayed et al., 2003]. KAS production Emission data for KAS production is partially taken from the EFMA ‘BAT documents’ (the trade association of European fertiliser producers) [EFMA, 2000a], [EFMA, 2000b], [EFMA, 2000c]. These documents refer to several emission figures for the production of NH3 and HNO3 – the main ingredient for ammonium nitrate – and for granulating calcium ammonium nitrate. These are ‘best case’ figures, since they concern emissions where BAT is applied. Other figures, particularly for acidic emissions, could not be found in publicly available literature. This means that the indirect environmental impact relating to KAS use for rapeseed crops is probably underestimated. Figures for greenhouse gas emissions were taken from [Wood, 2004]. With respect to verifying the information used, Table B.2 indicates which emission data were used. The text underneath the table shows which amounts of raw material per ton of KAS (27%N) were used. The nitrogen content of KAS thereby determines the amount of ammonium nitrate used. The amount of ammonia (NH3) is discounted as nitric acid is produced through ammonia incineration (see [EFMA, 2000b] for details of this process).

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Tota

lpro

duct

Gra

nula

ting

KA

S

NH

3pr

oduc

tion

HN

O3

prod

uctio

n

Emissions to air (g) CO2 360.16 1,700 CO CH4

VOS N2O 3.11 8.13NH3 0.20 0.20SO2

NOx 0.75 1.00 1.40PM10 0.50 0.50

Emissions to water (gg) N 0.021186 0.1 P

Solid waste (kg)

Steering size: weight in raw material 1.0E+03 2.1E+02 3.8E+02

Table B.2: Amounts of raw material per ton KAS

The data used shows the following gaps: • The extraction and transport of limestone has not yet been factored into the

environmental analysis. When granulating KAS, finely crushed limestone is mixed with liquid and hot ammonium nitrate (96-98% pure) to achieve a solid fertiliser. Limestone production primarily involves excavation and transport. For the Netherlands this would be achieved from Belgium, via the inland waterways (200 km) and lorry (50 km) [Dorland, 1997];

• CO and hydrocarbons are also produced during ammonia production due to underfiring of the process using natural gas. The extent of this amounts only to a few grams per GJ and is negligible in the total environmental balance of fertiliser production;

• Electricity is also used when producing ammonia, nitric acid, ammonium nitrate and KAS. For ammonia production, the electricity required is often generated by the company’s own power plant based on residual heat. Residual heat is also released when producing nitric acid and ammonium nitrate, which is partially used to generate electricity for own use. The EFMA reports consulted do not indicate how much electricity is produced by these power plants, and how much is taken from the national grid. It is therefore impossible to factor in any electricity that is taken from the national grid into the electricity-related environmental impact.

TriSuperPhosphate (TSP) production Greenhouse gas emissions per TSP unit are taken from [Wood, 2004]. The emission data used in this study for TSP production for other environmental pollutants are based on a number of own sources [Potjer, 2000] and on a number of public sources [EFMA, 2000d], [Prayon, 2004], [EFMA, 2000e] and concern the specific situation at

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Thermphos in Vlissingen. This company manufactures phosphic acid and TSP, and purchases raw phosphoric acid to make TSP. Raw phosphoric acid is not thermic but is produced using the ‘wet’ production process, where phosphate ore is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid. Table B.3 indicates the environmental impact that is assigned to TSP.

wei

ghed

prod

uct(

pert

onPO

4)

Raw

acid

prep

arat

ion

(per

ton

PO4)

Ore

extr

actio

n

H2S

O4

prod

uctio

n

Emissions to air (g) SO2 43.13 1.97 16.00 0.65NOx 45.18 18.00 PM10 0.00 0.00

Emissions to water (gg) NP

Solid waste (kg) 5000 5000

Steering size: weight in raw materials 1 2.51 1.55

Table B.3: Environmental impact assigned to TSP

The emissions relating to ore extraction and transport are taken from one of the CE studies [Potjer, 2000] and concern extraction in Kovdor, Russia. This ore was used by Thermphos in Vlissingen. In practice the European fertiliser industry primarily uses ore from North Africa, the Middle East and Central Africa. Emission figures for H2SO4 production are taken from [EFMA, 2000e]. The SO2 emission concerns a specific plant in Germany, where sulphur is produced from incinerated elementary sulphur.; sulphuric acid from this plant is also used by Thermphos in Vlissingen. At other phosphoric acid manufacturers (e.g. Prayon, near Luik), the sulphuric acid is partially produced in the company’s own plant and the residual heat released is used to produce raw acid. Details on raw acid production were taken from[EFMA, 2000d] and [Prayon, 2004]. The fact that part of the gypsum produced during raw acid production is sold as raw material for the gypsum industry, has been factored into the calculations. In practice, fluorides and fine substances are emitted to air and fluorides and phosphor are emitted to water. These emissions are not included in this study because these are somewhat exotic for the rest of the chain. A more detailed description of the representativeness of the figures used can be found in [Bello, 2003]. There is currently no data available concerning the environmental impact for TSP production.

- 72 -

In all, the data used provides a global, but incomplete, profile for TSP production, which is partially specific to the Thermphos application. This could be improved.

- 73 -

CCCC Calculations of environmental Calculations of environmental Calculations of environmental Calculations of environmental impact per ton PPOimpact per ton PPOimpact per ton PPOimpact per ton PPO

C.1C.1C.1C.1 IntroIntroIntroIntroductionductionductionduction This appendix provides the foundations for the figures used in Tables 9.4 and 9.5, and starts by stating which consumption is used for energy carriers and additives. This is followed by a short description of the mass balance of the various links in the chain, and then an overview of how a combination of consumption, mass balance and background details on environmental impact per unit of energy carrier or additive leads to the figures shown in Tables 9.4 and 9.5. Mass balance The data available leads to the following mass balance for small-scale and large-scale PPO production.

Average Worst Best Crop

− yield per ha 3.3 3 3.6− oil content 43% 40% 45%− moisture content 16% 18% 14%

Drying, moisture content after drying 8%

− dry substance 2.8 2.5 3.1− water removed 0.3 0.3 0.2− remaining seed 3.0 2.7 3.4

Extraction, return is 77% − oil yield (ton/ha) 0.92 0.76 1.08− yield of rapeseed cake

(ton/ha) 1.9 1.7 2.0

Table C.3: Mass balance for PPO production based on cold pressing

Small-scale production requires around 3.5 ton ± 0.5 ton of rapeseed per ton of PPO. Large-scale production requires around 2.8 ton ± 0.3 ton per ton PPO.

Average Worst Best Crop

− yield per ha 3.3 3 3.6− oil content 43% 40% 45%− moisture content 16% 18% 14%

Drying, moisture content after drying 8%

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− dry substance 2.8 2.5 3.1− water removed 0.3 0.3 0.2− remaining seed 3.0 2.7 3.4

Extraction, return is 98%− oil yield (ton/ha) 1.17 0.96 1.37− yield in rapeseed cake

(ton/ha) 1.6 1.5 1.7

Table C.4: Mass balance for PPO production based on extraction and pressing

Combination of mass balance and consumption The following tables show the outcome of this combination of mass balance and consumption. For consumption please refer to the main report text and Appendix D. The figures shown in the four tables are calculated from the tables in the previous two sections, by multiplying the consumption for a certain link in the chain by the ratio between oil/PPO and the functional unit for which the consumption is given. For example, the worst case small-scale production shows a consumption of 0.9 litre diesel per ton of seed at the field, for transport of the harvested seed. According to the mass balance for small-scale production, per hectare a ‘worst case’ harvest of 3 ton seed is shown, which will eventually produce 0.76 ton of oil. The diesel consumption for transport of the seed from the field to the drying plant results in

a diesel consumption per ton of PPO of: . PPOtonliter /6,3

76,0

39,0 =×

This figure can also be found in Table C.6 (third column from the left). Tables C.5 through C.8 show the aggregated consumption per ton PPO in the right-hand column.

Crop Transport seeds

Drying Transport seeds

Extraction Refining Distribution oil

Energy carriers − natural gas (MJ) 902.9− diesel (l) 56.8 3.0 9.7

− electricity (kWhe) 2.2 69.5 Additives:

− KAS 27% N, kg − TPS, 45% P2O5, kg 129.6− K2O, kg 50.2

Table C.5: Consumption of energy carriers and additives per ton PPO for small-scale production, best case

Crop Transport

seeds Drying Transport

seeds Extraction Refining Distribu-

tion oil

Energy carriers − natural gas (MJ) 1,814.9

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− diesel (l) 111.8 3.6 9.7

− electricity (kWhe) 4.3 322.4Additives:

− KAS 27% N, kg − TPS, 45% P2O5, kg 231.8− K2O, kg 59.2

Table C.6: Consumption of energy carriers and additives per ton PPO for small-scale production, worst case

Crop Transport

seeds Drying Transport

seeds Extraction Refining Distribu-

tion oil Energy carriers

− natural gas (MJ) 711.9 1,725.3 350.0

− diesel (l) 44.8 3.0 10.0 9.7

− electricity (kWhe) 1.7 73.9 6.0 Additives:

− KAS 27% N, kg − TPS, 45% P2O5, kg 102.2 − K2O, kg 39.6

Table C.7: Consumption of energy carriers and additives per ton PPO for large-scale production, best case

Crop Transport

seeds Drying Transport

seeds Extraction Refining Distribu-

tion oil

Energy carriers − natural gas (MJ) 1,431.1 2,356.9 580.0 − diesel (l) 88.1 2.8 11.2 9.7

− electricity (kWhe) 3.4 97.0 10.0 Additives:

− KAS 27% N, kg − TPS, 45% P2O5, kg 182.8 − K2O, kg 46.7

Table C.8: Consumption of energy carriers and additives per ton PPO for large-scale production, worst case

Using distribution codes PPO production also creates a valuable by-product: the residual flakes (cold pressing) or powder (pressing and extraction). Due to the positive economic value of this by-product, the LCA methodology requires that part of the environmental impact relating to crops and seed processing should be allocated to this by-product. This is generally (and in this study) carried out based on the relative economic value of both product flows. The following table shows the distribution keys used and the economic values of PPO flakes/powder on which they are based.

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Small-scale production

(cold press) Large-scale production

(pressing and extraction)

best case worst case best case worst caseProducts (ton/ha):

− PPO 1.08 0.76 1.37 0.96− Residual flakes/powder 2.02 1.70 1.73 1.50

Market prices (€/ton) − PPO 600 600 600 600− flakes/powder 110 110 130 130

Turnover in €/ha − PPO 646 456 819 579− flakes/powder 222 187 225 194

Allocated percentage 74% 71% 78% 75%

Table C.9: Determining the distribution keys for allocating environmental impact

The market price for oil is taken from the information received from MVO33 . This study assumed an average price over the last 10 years, due to the considerable fluctuations in the price of rapeseed over the past few years. The market price for scrap is taken from [Folkecenter, 2000a]. The market price for powder is taken from trading data for the past six months [ASA, 2004]. Applying these distribution keys for consumption per ton of PPO is shown in the next four tables for the allocated consumption. Application simply means multiplying the values from Table C.10 through C.17 by the distribution keys. Calculating the emissions Combining the consumption per ton of PPO with background data for environmental impact, plus the direct emissions from using fertilisers, results in the emission figures shown in Tables 9.4 and 9.5 in the main report. The tables in this appendix show the total emission over the entire chain for the four combinations (worst case/best case, small-scale/large-scale) split between the individual components. Enthusiasts may check the accuracy of the figures shown in Tables C.14 through C.17, by multiplying the distribution consumption of additives and energy carriers (see Tables C.10 through C.13) by the emission figures per unit of additive or energy carrier (see Appendix B).

33 Mail from Frank Bergmans (MVO) dated 1 September 2004

Crop Dryingdirect from

fertiliseragric.

vehicleindirect from

fertiliser

Transportseeds natural

gaselectricity

Transportseeds

Extraction Refining Distributionoil

Emissions to air (kg)CO2 149 423 8 51 1 40 26 697CO 1 0 0 1CH4 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02VOS 0.01 0.02 0.02N2O 3.0 0.0 1.9 0.0 0.0 5.0NH3 3.7 0.1 3.8SO2 0.2 2.3 0.0004 0.0116 2.4NOx 2.3 2.8 0.1 0.0409 0.0005 0.0149 0.4 5.7PM10 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.0000 0.0008 0.0 0.5

Emissions to water (kg)N 3P

Solid waste (kg) 251 251

Table C.14: Details of emissions for small-scale production, best case

- 78 -

Crop Dryingdirect fromfertilisers

agric.vehicles

indirect fromfertilisers

Transportseeds natural

gaselectricity

Transportseeds

Extraction Refining Distributionoil

Emissions to air (kg)CO2 294 726 9 102 2 183 26 1.342CO 3 0 0 3CH4 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0,04VOS 0.01 0.02 0,02N2O 4.6 0.1 3.4 0.0 0.0 8,1NH3 6.2 0.2 6,4SO2 0.3 2.7 0.0 0.1 3,0NOx 4.6 3.7 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.4 9,0PM10 0.5 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0,9

Emissions to water (kg)N 25P

Solid waste (kg) 296 296

Table C.15: Details of emissions for small-scale production, worst case

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Crop Transportseeds

Drying Transportseeds

Extraction Refining

directfrom

fertilisers

agric.vehicles

indirectfrom

fertilisers

natural gas electricity electricity naturalgas

electricity naturalgas

Distribu-tion oil

Emissions to air (kg)CO2 118 334 8 40 1 1 42 97 3 20 26 688CO 1 0 0 0 1CH4 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02VOS 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.02N2O 2.4 0.0 1.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.9NH3 2.9 0.1 3.0SO2 0.1 1.8 0.0003 0.0124 0.0 1.9NOx 1.8 2.2 0.1 0.0323 0.0004 0.0100 0.0159 0.0782 0.0 0.0 0.4 4.7PM10 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.0000 0.0007 0.0008 0.0 0.0 0.4

Emissions to water(kg)

N 2P

Solid waste (kg) 198 198

Table C.16: Details of emissions for large-scale production, best case

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Crop Transportseeds

Drying Transportseeds

Extraction Refining

directfrom

fertilisers

agric.vehicles

indirectfrom

fertilisers

natural gas electricity electricity naturalgas

electricity naturalgas

Distri-bution oil

Emissions to air (kg)CO2 232 572 7 80 2 1 55 132 6 32 26 1,145CO 2 0 0 0 2CH4 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03VOS 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.02N2O 3.6 0.1 2.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.4NH3 4.9 0.1 5.0SO2 0.2 2.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.4NOx 3.6 2.9 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.4 7.3PM10 0.4 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.7

Emissions to water(kg)

N 20P

Solid waste (kg) 233 233

Table C.17: Details of emissions for large-scale production, worst case

DDDD Calculating fertiliser dosage and Calculating fertiliser dosage and Calculating fertiliser dosage and Calculating fertiliser dosage and emissions from using fertilisersemissions from using fertilisersemissions from using fertilisersemissions from using fertilisers The use of nitrogen-retaining fertiliser during rapeseed growth produces a range of emissions: • NH3 and N2O to air; • NO3 to groundwater and surface water; • Indirect emissions of N2O to air as a result of the NH3 and NO3 emissions. This appendix provides an estimate of the extent of these emissions with respect to rapeseed crops.

D.1D.1D.1D.1 Farming mFarming mFarming mFarming methods and timeframe for rapeseed and ethods and timeframe for rapeseed and ethods and timeframe for rapeseed and ethods and timeframe for rapeseed and green manuregreen manuregreen manuregreen manure Rapeseed This study assumes that the crop is winter rapeseed. Firstly, because winter rapeseed is the raw material used for the Oltamt and De peel initiatives. Secondly, because this is the most used crop for producing PPO and most of the biodiesel produced in Germany and France (see also [Broek, 2003]). In other words, it seems to be the most representative crop. Winter rapeseed also produces a higher yield of seed and oil per hectare, and the farmer therefore generates a higher income than with summer rapeseed. Winter rapeseed is a crop that is typically used in rotation schemes, in combination with grains, particularly winter wheat and winter barley (see, for example [Moens, 2003], and [Brouwer, 2004]). Winter rapeseed is sown at the end of August and germinates in the autumn. The crop remains in the soil through the winter, continues to grow from February onwards and is harvested around July of the next year. Grains grown in the same rotation are sown in the autumn or winter and harvested at the end of July or in August. Rapeseed is therefore sown almost directly after the gain harvest. The straw, stubble and underground crop residues that remain after the rapeseed has been harvested (around July) are generally ploughed back into the soil. Very little straw is sold (see also [Velthof, 2000], [Jansen, 2004]). In theory it can be used for horses, but in practice this is generally not implemented. Straw has a number of good characteristics for this application, principally that horses do not eat it and it has high moisture-absorption capacities. But horse owners generally prefer wheat straw that, in contrast to rapeseed straw, is supple and soft and, after use, can be sold as fertiliser to mushroom growers34 . Rapeseed straw is also more expensive than wheat straw. Ploughing back the remains of the crop means that the nutrients absorbed by the crops are returned to the soil. However, this does not apply to nitrogen. The nitrogen present in the remains of the crop are released as nitrate during decomposition and are generally rinsed out or converted into molecular, gaseous nitrogen. Only nitrates released during the growth season of the next crop can be used effectively. It then contributes to a high content of

34See,for example:

www.ecobodem.nl/Over_Vlasstrooisel/Strooiseltest/body_strooiseltest.htm, www.dehoefslag.nl/include/lib/frontend/standard2.asp?subsectionId=11&itemid=43

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mineral nitrogen in the soil and means that the use of fertiliser can possibly be limited for the next crop. Because crop remains of rapeseed lie on top of the soil or are ploughed back from August onwards, and the following wheat or barley crop germinates and absorbs nitrogen in February, a large part of the nitrogen in the rapeseed residue will be lost. Green manure As per the various studies and current common practice in Germany, this study also assumes that rapeseed crops form an alternative for fallow fields. In the Netherlands fallow generally means green fallow, i.e. growing so-called green manure. This can be used for several reasons, e.g. • Preventing spreading and atomising of the topsoil; • Preventing weed growth by covering the soil; • Capturing mineral nitrogen in the soil after harvesting of the main crop, to limit the

rinsing of nitrate during the winter and spring; • Maintaining the humus content of the soil. With green fallow the plant is sown in the spring (before 31 May) and may not be removed from the soil before 31 August. Any haymaking and silo storage for cattle fodder may not be implemented until this date. The crop is either sprayed with pesticide in the autumn and ploughed back into the soil, or remains in the field during the winter and is sprayed and ploughed back during the spring. Since this study assumes a crop rotation with grains (that are sown in autumn or winter), only ploughing in the autumn is relevant to this study. The most popular green manures are wild radish, yellow mustard and Italian hemp-nettle grass. There are few real differences, with respect to yield and nitrogen absorption, between these crops. Due to the sowing deadline set in the subsidy scheme for green fallow, this study uses wild radish, which can be sown as early as May on fallow fields. Italian hemp-nettle grass and yellow mustard need to be sown later in the year.

D.2D.2D.2D.2 Fertilising and soil processing for rapeseedFertilising and soil processing for rapeseedFertilising and soil processing for rapeseedFertilising and soil processing for rapeseed This study, just as [Brouwer, 2004], assumes a balanced fertilisation for rapeseed (P, K, and Ca), whereby just as many minerals are added to the soil as are removed in the form of seed. As previously mentioned, this study assumes that crop residues are ploughed back and that no straw is removed, so that the removal of extra minerals does not need to be taken into account. According to PPO Lelystad the seed has the following composition (see [Dijk, 2003], [Mheen, 2003])35 :

Nitrogen: 3.5% of fresh seed. Phosphor (as P2O5): 1.5% of fresh seed. Potassium (as K2O): 1% of fresh seed. Lime (as CaO) 5.5% of fresh seed.

Table D.1 shows (for the various yields) the amounts of fertiliser required for balanced fertilisation.

35 As comparison: [Brouwer, 2004] indicates the following values for crops in Germany: Nitrogen: 2.7% - 3.9% of d.s. Phosphor (as P2O5): 1.6% - 2.0% of d.s. Potassium (as K2O): 0.9% - 1.1% of d.s.

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Yield (ton of fresh seed/ha) 3 4 5

Consumption (kg/ha·year):

Phosphor (as P2O5): 45 60 75

Potassium (as K2O): 30 40 50Lime (as CaO) 165 220 275

Table D.1: The amount of fertiliser required for balance fertilisation of the various yields

For nitrogen fertilisation, most studies assume the fertilisation advice from [Dijk, 2003]. The nitrogen fertilisation advice for rapeseed (according to [Dijk, 2003]) consists of a dosage of 45 kg/ha in the autumn after sowing the crop, and 170 kg/ha Nmineral in the spring. Nmineral here refers to the mineral nitrogen content in the soil at the time of fertilisation. After harvesting grains, the mineral nitrogen levels are generally around 50 kg/ha (see [NMI, 2003]), but the growth of rapeseed drops in the winter to around 20 kg/ha at the time of spring fertilisation (see [Geel, 2004]). Therefore around 150 kg/ha of effective nitrogen is used in the spring (see also [Geel, 2004]) 36 . Generally speaking, nitrogen used in the spring is in the form of KAS (27%). The total consumption of fertiliser estimated using this approach for 45 + 150 = 195 kg/ha is similar to the practical figures, as mentioned in [Mheen, 2003]. Germany and the UK also give comparable advice37 . In order to achieve a higher yield (> 4 ton seed/ha) the British and Germans assume that more fertiliser is required, i.e. 30 kg/ha38 . This increased amount has been included in this study, to achieve a yield of 5 ton/ha. Germany also uses the general guideline that rapeseed requires 60 kg N/ton seed. Around 35 kg/ton seed is absorbed by the seed itself. The other ±25 kg/ton seed is absorbed by roots, leaves and straw (see [Alpmann, 2004], [Velthof]) 39.

Rapeseed on fallow fields requires the following processing, according to[Kwin, 2003], [Mheen, 2003] and [Moens, 2003]: • Ploughing in seed food); • Processing with a rotokopeg ( sowing machine); • Sowing; • Crop maintenance and fertilisation; • Harvesting, usually zwadmaaien (a harvesting method) and seed gathering (harvesting

in two sessions). The total processing requires 130 litres of fuel and lubricants per hectare .

D.3D.3D.3D.3 Fertilising and soil processing for wild radishFertilising and soil processing for wild radishFertilising and soil processing for wild radishFertilising and soil processing for wild radish It is not necessary to add nitrogen when wild radish is ploughed back into the ground in the autumn. The fertilisation advice for green manures is 80 kg/ha –Nmineral for heavily

36 See also: www.landwirtschaftskammer.de/rlp/landbau/duenger/stickst/stickrap.htm.37 See www.defra.gov.uk/environ/pollute/rb209/,

www.landwirtschaftskammer.de/rlp/landbau/duenger/stickst/stickrap.htm,

www.rcg.de/leistung/Pflanzenbau/Saatgut/Winterraps_2004/Duengung,

www.stmlf-design2.bayern.de/lbp/info/sortenblatt/soblwraps.pdf 38 See www.defra.gov.uk/environ/pollute/rb209/

www.landwirtschaftskammer.de/rlp/landbau/duenger/stickst/stickrap.htm.39 See also www.ufop.de/download/Vorfrucht.pdf.

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developed crops. The amount of mineral nitrogen in the soil (after cultivating grains) is generally around 50 kg/ha, so that 30 kg/ha effective nitrogen needs to be added. The nitrogen is generally used in the form of KAS (27%). Cultivating green manure on fallow land requires the following processing (according to [Kwin, 2003]): • Ploughing; • Sowing; • Crop maintenance and fertilisation; • Ploughing back into the soil. The total processing requires 65 litres of fuel and lubricants per hectare. It is also worth questioning whether this ploughing back could not be achieved in one session, i.e. together with the ploughing that is done before sowing grain seed. This would reduce the fuel consumption to only 35 litres/ha.

D.4D.4D.4D.4 Calculating the nitrogen balanceCalculating the nitrogen balanceCalculating the nitrogen balanceCalculating the nitrogen balance The nitrogen cycle in the soil and the use of fertilisers results in emissions of NH3 and N2O to air, and emissions of NO3 to groundwater. A nitrogen balance is used to estimate how high the emissions of these substances are for cultivating rapeseed and green manure.

D.4.1D.4.1D.4.1D.4.1 Rapeseed cropsRapeseed cropsRapeseed cropsRapeseed crops The nitrogen balance is defined as follows. The input side takes account of : • Deposits from the atmosphere (45 kg/ha); • The mineral nitrogen level in the soil (± 50 kg/ha); • Calculated fertiliser dose of ±195 kg/ha or 225 kg/ha (>4 ton/ha rapeseed yield). The total amount of fertiliser is therefore between 290 kg/ha and 320 kg/ha. The output consists of: • The nitrogen removed in the seed; • Nitrogen from crop residues, that remain available for the next crops; • Nitrogen from fertiliser that, after being applied to the soil, then evaporates (e.g.

ammonia); • Nitrate rinsing out into groundwater and surface water; • N2O emissions from fertiliser and converted crop residues; • N2, created through nitrification/denitification of mineralised nitrogen from crop

residues and from excess nitrogen during fertilisation. The amount of molecular nitrogen released is included as a final item. Of the nitrogen contained in the fertiliser, around 2% evaporates as ammonia. Of the nitrogen present in the crop residues, around 25% is available for the next crops. The other 75% mineralises because the organic material in the soil decomposes. Of the excess nitrogen from the input of deposits, fertiliser and all the mineral nitrogen present in the soil, around 28% gets rinsed out as nitrate. In addition, 1% of the nitrogen from the fertiliser, and 1.25% of the mineralised nitrogen from the crop residues is emitted as N2O. The calculation method is shown below.

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D.5D.5D.5D.5 Wild radishWild radishWild radishWild radish Here too, the input side assumes an atmospheric deposit of 45 kg/ha and an available amount of mineral nitrogen in the soil of 50 kg/ha. The fertiliser advice is also used in this study, i.e. 30 kg N/ha. The total fertiliser used is 125 kg/ha. Since there is no product removed from the land there is also no loss of nitrogen from the field. Less organic material is broken down and relatively more nitrogen remains available from the wild radish for the next crops: according to [Dijk, 203], this is around 30 kg/ha. Of the other 95 kg/ha, 1.25% is emitted as N2O, and 28% is rinsed out as NO3. The remainder is converted into N2.

Amount Calculation Input

= 195 kg/ha at a yield of < 4 ton/ha Nfertiliser N in added fertiliser rapeseed, otherwise 225 kg/ha Ndeposits N from atmospheric deposits = 45 kg/ha in the Netherlands Nsoil Mineral N in soil = 50 kg/ha after grain crops

Direct removal: NH3 = NH3 emission 1% of N in fertiliser N2O = N2O emission 1% of N in fertiliser Nrapeseed = Removal in rapeseed 35 kg per ton seed (yield) Ncrop residue = Absorbed by crop residue 25 kg per ton seed (yield)

Excess = (Nfertiliser + Ndeposits + Nsoil - NH3 - N2O – Nrapeseed – Ncrop residue)

N excess NO3 excess Rinsing out excess 28% of excess (on clay) N2 excess Denitrification of excess 72% of excess (on clay)

Crop residues

N next crop N from crop residue available for the next crops = 25% of N in crop residue

N2O crop residue N2O formed from denitrification N from crop residue = 1.25% of N in crop residue

= 28% not absorbed or emitted as NO3 crop residue Nitrate rinsing when converting

crop residues N2O nitrogen = 72% not absorbed or emitted as

N2 crop residue Denitrification of N from decomposing crop residue N2O nitrogen

Table D.2: Calculations used to define the N balance

D.6D.6D.6D.6 Resulting balancesResulting balancesResulting balancesResulting balances Table D.3 shows the nitrogen balances for the various rapeseed yields and for wild radish.

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Rapeseed Wild radish Yield (ton fresh seed/ha)

3 4 5In: - soil 50 50 50 50- deposits 45 45 45 45- fertiliser used 195 195 225 30

290 290 320 125Out - seeds 105 140 175- crop residue, available for next crop 19 25 31 30- NH3 evaporation 4 4 5 - N2 to air 114 84 75 67- N2O from fertiliser 2.0 2.0 2.3 - N2O from crop residue 0.9 1.3 1.6 1.0- NO3 rinsing 45 34 31 26,6

290 290 320 125

Table D.3: Resulting N balance

The balance for a yield of 5 ton is actually not accurate and assumes that the fertiliser dose is underestimated or that the nitrogen level in rapeseed is overestimated. This variant assumes that the crop (as per previously stated guideline) absorbs around 5 x 60 = 300 kg nitrogen, while in total 320 kg nitrogen is used on the land. According to [Schröder], the atmospheric deposit is actually only 60% available for crop growth, which means that in total only 302 kg N is available per hectare. This, in turn, means that the crop absorbs 100% of the available nitrogen. [Zhou, 2000] and [Wiesler, 2002] show that absorption efficiency is closer to 80-90% and that, during the growth season, rapeseed loses at least 10-20 kg N in the form of rinsed nitrate. Net fertiliser used Since some of the nitrogen is available for the following crop (this applies to both rapeseed and wild radish), this fertilising saving should be factored into the analysis for the next crop. Table D.4 shows this balance.

Table D.4: Net fertiliser used (kg/ha/year)

D.7D.7D.7D.7 N2O emissionsN2O emissionsN2O emissionsN2O emissions It is not just N2O that is emitted from the crop residue and from nitrification of nitrogen from fertiliser. There are also several indirect emissions through conversion of emitted NH3 and rinsed NO3 emissions. According to [Kroeze, 1994], 1% of both emissions are converted into N2O. The resulting N2O emissions per hectare are shown in Table D.5 for both rapeseed and wild radish.

Rapeseed Wild radishYield (ton fresh seed/ha)

3 4 5Fertiliser - used in 195 195 225 30- saved: N from crop residue -19 -25 -31 -30

176 170 194

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Rapeseed Wild radish

Yield (ton fresh seed/ha) 3 4 5

N2O emissions - direct emissions from fertiliser 2.0 2.0 2.3 - emissions from crop residue 0.9 1.3 1.6 1.0- emissions from NH3 0.04 0.04 0.05 - emissions from NO3 rinsing 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.3saved emissions through avoiding fertilisers -0.2 -0.3 -0.3 -0.3

3.2 3.3 3.9 1.0

Table D.5: N2O emissions

D.8D.8D.8D.8 Using animal manureUsing animal manureUsing animal manureUsing animal manure In theory, it is also possible to replace some of the fertiliser with animal manure. However, due to the government’s strict phosphate policy, the animal manure will be used to meet the phosphate requirement of the crop. Considering the price and availability, a particular type of pig manure (known as VDM) will most probably be used. The government’s manure policy defines VDM as equal to this particular manure from pig farming. The composition of the VDM produced from pig farming is as follows: • Nitrogen (N)

• mineral 4.2% • organic, easy to decompose 2.0% • organic, difficult to decompose 1.0%

• Phosphor (as P2O5): 4.2% • Potassium (as K2O): 7.2% • Lime (as CaO) Due to the K2O level in VDM, the potassium requirement for rapeseed will be easily met by adding an amount of VDM suitable for the phosphor requirements of the crop. Potassium is not very mobile in the soil so it will not be rinsed out and will be available for the next crops.

Required Dosage Required Dosage Required Dosage

Phosphor (as P2O5): 45 45 60 60 75 75

Potassium (as K2O): 30 77 40 103 50 129Lime (as CaO) 165 0 220 0 275 0

Table D.6: Other types of fertiliser used (kg/ha/year)

Nitrogen will also be included with the VDM, but this is barely absorbed by the rapeseed and is mainly rinsed out or converted into N2. Table D.7 shows the nitrogen balance for autumn fertilisation for VDM. The balance is defined according to the distribution given in [Schröder, 2004], except that the item rinsing/nitrification has been further split in Table D.7 into NO3, N2O and N2. The rapeseed is assumed to be cultivated on clay soil. According to [Schröder, 2004] around 28% of the nitrogen mentioned under rinsing/nitrification is rinsed out of this type of soil as NO3.

Distribution of N from VDM per unit of VDM Relative

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during autumn fertilisation - as fertiliser 1.4% 20%- NH3 loss 0.4% 6%- humus 1.0% 14%- N2O 0.1% 2%- N2 3.0% 42%- NO3 1.2% 16%

7.20% 100%

Table D.7: Distribution of nitrogen from VDM during autumn fertilisation

The nitrogen absorbed in the humus is eventually, over the years, also converted. Therefore, according to [Schröder, 2004] eventually 60% is absorbed by crops and the rest is converted into NO3, N2O and N2: • Total absorbed by crop = 60% • N2O 2% • N2 27% • NO3 11% Distribution again concerns clay soil The aforementioned observation shows that only a small part of the nitrogen is actually used by the crop. This means that almost the same amount of N fertiliser will need to be added to ensure that the crop receives all necessary minerals. Table D.8 shows the nitrogen balance for using animal manure. Nitrogen from fertiliser and crop residues are assumed to use the same distribution amounts as when using fertiliser alone.

Rapeseed Wild radishYield (ton fresh seed/ha)

3 4 5 In: - soil 50 50 50 50- deposits 45 45 45 45- VDM dose 77 103 129 - fertiliser dose 180 174 199 30

352 372 423 125Out - seeds 105 140 175 - crop residue, available for next crop 25 34 42 30- NH3 evaporation 8 10 12 - N2 to air 134 110 107 67- N2O from fertiliser and VDM 3.3 3.8 4.6 - N2O from crop residue 1.2 1.5 1.9 1.0- NO3 rinsing 75 74 80 26.6

352 372 423 125

Table D.8: Nitrogen balance when using VDM and fertiliser (kg/ha/year)

N2O emissions and net fertiliser use As previously described by the analysis for rapeseed using just N-fertiliser, the long-term mineralisation and availability of nitrogen in crop residues and from VDM in nitrogen stored in the humus, can save on the amount of fertiliser used for following crops. Under the

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LCA methodology, this future saving can be deducted from the fertiliser use for rapeseed. The net fertiliser use is shown in Table D.9.

Table D.9: Net fertiliser use (kg/ha/year) when using VDM

An estimate has also been made of the total (direct and indirect) N2O emissions for rapeseed cultivation using VDM and fertiliser. Here too the indirect emissions of N2O from NH3 and NO3 have been estimated, plus the emissions of N2O from rinsed (not absorbed) NO3 from crop residue. The saved N2O emissions from using less fertiliser have also been factored into the calculation.

Rapeseed Wild radish Yield (ton fresh seed/ha)

3 4 5N2O emissions - direct emissions from fertiliser and VDM 3.3 3.8 4.6 - emissions from crop residue 0.9 1.3 1.6 1.0- emissions from NH3 0.08 0.10 0.12 - emissions from NO3 rinsing 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.3emissions saved through using less fertiliser -0.3 -0.3 -0.4 -0.3

4.9 5.5 6.6 1.0

Table D.10: Extent of N2O emissions from various sources (kg/ha/year)

Net effect on greenhouse gas emissions from partially replacing fertiliser with VDM Using animal manure could be carried out from the objective that animal manure limits the amount of fertiliser used, and limits the greenhouse gas emissions relating to fertilisers. On the other hand, it appears that using animal manure results in a higher N2O emission, and thus a higher direct contribution to climate change. Table D.11 shows this net effect. As can be seen, replacing part of the fertiliser dose with animal manure is not a good idea if greenhouse gas emissions are meant to be reduced.

Rapeseed Wild radish Yield (ton fresh seed/ha)

3 4 5 Fertiliser - use in cultivation 180 174 199 30- saved: N from crop residue -25 -34 -42 -30

154 141 157

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Yield (ton fresh seed/ha)

Emission factor (kg CO2-

eq/kg)

3 4 5

KAS 27% -22 -29 -37 7.2

TSP 48% 0.7

K2O -47 -63 -79 0.5

CaO 165 220 275 0.2

Net N2O emission 1.7 2.2 2.8 296

Net CO2 effect (total product) 344 458 573

Table D.11: Illustration of the net effect of using VDM on the greenhouse gas balance (kg/ha/year)

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EEEE Modifications as a result of the Modifications as a result of the Modifications as a result of the Modifications as a result of the peer reviewpeer reviewpeer reviewpeer review Rapeseed yield The study initially assumed a yield of 3-4 ton/ha, with an average of 3.5 ton/ha, conform the (limited) experience of rapeseed cultivation in the Netherlands. (See [Mheen, 2003], [Jansen, 2004] and [Berthelot Moens, 2003]). However, after further consideration the authors decided to use a higher maximum and average yield (5 ton/ha and 4 ton/ha respectively). The reasons for this change included the recent higher yields obtained in Germany and new insight into German practice. (See [Geel, 2004] and [Mheen, 2004] and the footnotes in Chapter 3 of the main report.) Reference to rapeseed cultivation As indicated in the main report, the authors assumed that rapeseed crops would be used instead of fallow fields. It was initially assumed that fallow is the same as not working the field – in Dutch agricultural jargon this is known as black fallow. This is used, for example in [Elsayed et al., 2003] and in [Broek, 2003] as best estimate for measuring the greenhouse gas balance for biodiesel. In addition, many LCAs consulted when drawing up [Broek, 2003] did not define the reference situation. As the peer review stated, fallow in the Netherlands generally refers to green fallow, i.e. cultivating a crop that has no further economic usefulness, to prevent worsening or dispersal of the topsoil, reduce weed growth, or is applied for other non-technical reasons. This criticism by the peer review is accepted due to the representativeness of green fallow in the Netherlands. The calculation method is shown in Appendix D. Nitrogen balance The original set-up of the study and its definition of the nitrogen balance did not take into account nitrogen absorption through other parts of the rapeseed than just the seed. The status of this nitrogen remaining in the field (after harvesting) was also initially not included in the study. This is actually in line with the calculation rules defined under the framework of the nitrate guideline (see [Schröder, 2004]). This assumes that there is a steady state approach in which the crop absorbs just as much mineral nitrogen from the soil as (after harvesting) is released back into the soil by remaining crop residues. [Broek, 2000] also assumes a steady state, whereby nitrogen emissions from crop residues, such as N2O en NO3 are not included. Such emissions are, for example, also considered negligible in [Elsayed et al., 2003] - the best estimate for judging the greenhouse gas balance for biodiesel used in [Broek, 2003] – and many other LCAs for biofuels. The methodological description of LCAs for agricultural products is given in [Wegener Sleeswijk et al., 1996]. Ecofys considered that crop residues should be included in the nitrogen balance. This criticism has been accepted because the LCA is thus more accurate and particularly more complete. Fertilising with nitrogen The original study assumed the nitrogen fertiliser dosage for rapeseed to be a constant 180 kg/ha in the form of KAN 27%; see also [Mheen, 2003] and [Jansen, 2004].

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However, the modified set-up of the study uses a more practical approach that is more in line with practical operations of rapeseed farmers and the fertilisation advice given in the Netherlands, Germany and the UK (see [Geel, 2004] and [Mheen, 2004], plus the footnotes in Chapter 3. CO2 emissions per unit of diesel With respect to the diesel-related CO2 emissions and emission of other greenhouse gases – including precombustion – the study initially used emission figures relating to the production of sulphur-free diesel (< 10 ppm) in northwest Europe, based on crudes from the Middle East. The figures concerned the year 2020. Despite this fact they were fairly representative for the Netherlands. A number of Dutch refineries (KPE, Nerefco, Shell) are already producing sulphur-free diesel. Most refinery capacity in the Netherlands (Shell, Exxon, KPE) is designed for heavy crudes that, in the current situation do not only come exclusively from the Middle East, but from the Middle East and Russia. In order to prevent discussion concerning the correctness of this assumption and to create more support for the study results, the study has been modified to assume the CO2 emission per unit of diesel that is also used in [Broek, 2003], namely 84.6 g/MJ.

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FFFF Using rapeseed straw as an Using rapeseed straw as an Using rapeseed straw as an Using rapeseed straw as an energy carrierenergy carrierenergy carrierenergy carrier Theoretical possibilities for using straw as an energy carrier include co-incineration in a coal-fired power plant, and incineration in a stand-alone plant. The feasibilities of both options are briefly discussed below. Co-incineration in coal-fired power plants Co-incineration of straw has a number of disadvantages for the running of the coal-fired plant, due to the high alkali-chlorine salts and phosphor content in the straw: • There is an increased risk of polluting the boiler through sedimentary deposits; • There is an increased risk of corrosion of the heat-exchanger surfaces; • The fuel volume is much higher40 ; • SCRs can be deactivated far more quickly; • The ash quality of the fly-ash can be negatively influenced, so that selling it as an

additive for cement or concrete production is no longer possible. This last point is particularly important, because if the fly-ash can no longer be sold to the cement industry then this causes a serious waste problem that has certain financial consequences. This problem means that co-incineration of straw in coal-fired plants, as far as the study team know, is only achieved in Denmark, in the Studstrup Power Plant41 . There are apparently no further plans to co-incinerate straw in Denmark, but rather to use steamside integration. Stand-alone incineration plants Information from ECN and KEMA was used with respect to incinerating straw in small-scale plants, such as that used to support the MEP tariffs. For specific initiatives, the website www.renewable-energy-policy.info/mep/2004.htmlincludes a calculation model to determine the cost-effectiveness of the initiative. The user enters information on accessibility of the plant, specific investments and capacity. Within the framework of this study this calculation model was used to determine what a farmer could expect as selling price if the straw was offered to incineration plants. This is the maximum price where the management of the incineration plant just about break even. However, in practice, there is always a margin. Considering the type of fuel (probably chlorine and ash), specific investment costs of € 4 ,500/kWe are assumed and fixed maintenance costs of € 250/kWe, which are practical values for large-scale fertiliser-fired plants (DEP and Fibronet) – see also the report on the website with the calculation model. The assumed availability is 8,000 hours per year, such as currently used for the Danish straw incineration plants. Finally, an electricity price of 2.7 eurocent/kWhe is assumed, and an MEP premium of 9.7 eurocent/kWhe, such as that used in 2005. Based on these assumptions, the price of straw to the farmer would be a maximum of around € 20/ton straw. However, the farmer would have to deliver the straw in bales, as per

40 www.jupiter-nrw.de/download/_bilder/jupiter_biomasse.pdf. 41 www.elsam-eng.com/pdf/ref14eng.pdf.

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the situation in Denmark. Information from PPO Lelystad42 shows that pressing straw into bales costs around € 40/ton more than the ordinary harvesting method using a combine harvester, whereby the straw is chopped up during harvesting. Therefore the net result when selling straw as a fuel is a loss of around € 20 per ton of straw, not including the delivery costs of transporting the bales from the field to the incineration plant. Based on the aforementioned information the research team conclude that using rapeseed straw as an energy carrier is not feasible. The farmer is simply financially worse off, which means that it is unlikely that straw will be sold as an energy carrier.

42 Verbal information from Marco de Wolf (PPO Lelystad).

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