The Road to Newton - Kagan

8/7/2019 The Road to Newton - Kagan

1/12

The Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment

1 | P a g e

What was the relationship between science and religion during the

Scientific Revolution?

Kagan pages 450-454; 467

- The Scientific Revolutiono Background

Scientific revolutiony Process that established the new view of the universey Not everything associated with new science was actually new

o Natural philosophers were actually examining andrethinking theories

y Process was not rapidy Achievements not isolated in the minds of individuals

o Involved artisans and craftspeople to build constructand carry out experiments

y Saw the establishment of new social enterprises to supportemerging scientific enterprise

The word scientist did not exist in the 17th centuryy Nor the idea of a scientific careery Entire pursuit of knowledge was largely informal

Scientific concepts set the standard for assessing validity ofknowledge

y Achieved greater cultural authority than any other intellectualactivity in the Western world

y Astronomy most persuaded the people of the power ofnatural knowledge

o Nicolaus Copernicus Rejects an Earth-centered universe Background

y Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)o

Polish astronomer

o On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres 1543 a revolution-making rather than a

revolutionary text

Provided an intellectual springboard for acomplete criticism of the earth-centered view

of the universe


2/12


2 | P a g e

Ptolemaic systemy (See Palmer Notes)

Copernicuss universey Adopted many elements of the Ptolemaic model

o Revolutions in circleso No more accurate than Ptolemaic model

y Argued further planets away from sun, longer to revolvey Repositioning of earth was not the goal

o Set out to achieve new intelligibility and mathematicalelegance to astronomy

y Used no new evidencey Provided another way to confront difficulties inherent in

Ptolemaic system

o Allowed people to think in new directionso Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler Make New Scientific Observations

Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)y Took another major step in the conception of a sun-centered

system

y Suggested Sun and moon revolve around the eartho Other planets revolve around sun

y Produced a vast array of astronomical data from which issuccessors could work

Johnnes Kepler (1571-1630)y German astronomery Brahe assistanty Discovered that motion of planets was elliptical

o Set forth first astronomical model that portrayedmotion

y 1609 The New Astronomyo Solved the problem of planetary motiono Introduced new problem

Why orbits were elliptical or why they evenstayed in orbit at all?

o GalileoGalilei Argues for a Universe of Mathematical Laws From Brahe to Kepler produced little knowledge unknown to

Ptolemaic system

Galileo (11564-1642)y Italian mathematician and natural philosopher


3/12


3 | P a g e

y First turned telescope to the heavensy Starry Messenger (1610) and Letters on Sunspots (1613)

o Used considerable rhetorical skills to argue that thisnewly observed evidence required a Copernican model

y Illustrates the forging of the new science involved more thanjust presentations of arguments and evidence

y To win funding, named moons of Jupiter after the Medicisy Popularized the Copernican systemy Articulated the concept of a universe subject to rigorous

mathematical laws

o Argued nature displayed mathematical regularityo Universe was rational mathematicallyo World of quantities replacing world of qualities

Mathematical models would eventually beapplied to social relationships

What was real and lasting could be describedmathematically

Few intellectual shifts could have wrought such change in Westerncivilization

o Isaac Newton Discovers the Laws ofGravitation Englishmen Isaac Newton (1642-1727)

y Principia Mathematica 1687o Reasoned that planets and other physical objects in

the universe moved through mutual attraction

Gravityo Demonstrated this relationship mathematically

Upheld the importance of empirical data Great opponent ofDescartes rationalism

o Theory of universal gravitation was widely acceptedo The Case ofGalileo

Condemnation ofGalileo by church in 1633 is the most famousincident of conflict between science and religion

y Occurred during the Counter-Reformationy Condemned Copernican model for its conflict with scripture

o Galileo agreed to stop advocating ity 1623 Pope Urban VIII was elected and Galileo was given

permission to research Copernican model

o Offended Pope Urban VIII


4/12


4 | P a g e

o Put on trial for violating decreeo Placed on the equivalent ofhouse arrest

Cast a shadow over the relationship of emerging science and churchHow did philosophers revolutionize thinking?

Kagan pages 454-458; 467-469

- Philosophy Responds to Changing Scienceo Background

Revolution in scientific thought led to a major reevaluation ofWestern philosophy

y Philosophers discontented with scholastic heritagey Turned to empirical research

Idea of mechanism explained the world in language of machineryy i.e. the clocky Nature conceived as machinery removed much of the mystery

of the world

y Came to understandGod as a kind of divine watchmaker Language of science and natural philosophy would become largely

that of mathematics

New mode of thinking transformed nature into a realm where theylooked for utility or usefulness

y Knowledge of nature revealed nothing beyond itselfy Path towards physical improvement and ability to command

the process of nature

o Francis Bacon: The Empirical Method Bacon (1561-1626)

y Man of universal accomplishmenty Traditionally had been regarded as the father of empiricism

and of experimentation in science

o

Not a natural philosopher

y Set an intellectual tone and helped create a climate conduciveto scientific work

y Believed scholastic thinkers paid too much attention totradition

o Wanted 17th century Europe to have confidence intheir own abilities rather than past abilities


5/12


5 | P a g e

o One of the first writers to champion the desirability ofchange and innovation

y Believed human knowledge should produce useful resultso Urged that philosophers and investigators of nature

examine th

e evidence of th

eir senses beforeconstructing logical speculations

y Compared himself with Columbus plotting a new route tointellectual discovery

o Urged people to look to the future for materialimprovement achieved through empirical examination

of nature

y Believed science had a practical goal in the improvement ofhuman living

o Made those who can appeal to science major forcesfor change and innovation

o The pursuit of knowledge would increase the power ofgovernments and monarchies

o Rene Descartes: The Method of Rational Deduction (1596-1650)

y Gifted mathematician who invented analytical geometryo Was to develop scientific method of deduction that

existed more on deduction than empirical observation

and inductiony Rejected all forms of authority beyond his own

o Concluded that he could not doubt his own act ofthinking and his own existence

o Presence ifGod was important to Descartes becauseGod guaranteed the correctness of clear and distinct

ideas

Ideas ofGod-given reason could not be falseo Human reason could fully comprehend the worldo Divided matter into two categories

Thinking things (mind) Things that occupied space (body)

o Reason was to be applied only to the mechanical realmof matter or to the exploration of itself


6/12


6 | P a g e

y Emphasis on deduction, rational speculation, and internalreflection by the mind have exercised broad influence in the

present

- The New Science and Religious Faitho Blaise Pascal: Reason and FaithWhat is the legacy of the Scientific Revolution?

Kagan pages 462-466; 469-476; 590-597

- The New Institutions of expanding Natural Knowledgeo Background

Fundamental of scientific revolution was that genuinely newknowledge could be discovered

y Proponents sought Baconian advancement of learning This required new institutions

y Powerful social implicationy Opposed universities

o For scholasticismo Medical faculties however assimilated learning into

their fields of study

y Assimilation of science into universities produced new supportfor natural philosophers

o Provided physical and financial support Support did vary by country

y Needed new institutions to share informationo Institutions of sharing

Royal Society of London 1660 Academy ofExperiments ofFlorence 1657 FrenchAcademy of Science 1666 Local academies at which new science was

discussed

o Provided organizationo Published informationo Organized librarieso Attempted to separate the discussion of natural

philosophy from religion

Fostered civility


7/12


7 | P a g e

European expansion contributed to growth by bringing backspecimens and experiences to be investigated an classified

Presented science in a way that could aid government and economyy People who sold ideas were known as projectorsy Brought new science to a wider publicy Formed a social base for the enlightenment

o Women in the World of the Scientific Revolution Traditionally, institutions of knowledge excluded women But women could and did exercise much influence over princely

courts where philosophers sought patronage

y Queen Christina of Sweden Isolated women did manage to get involved

y Noblewomeno Allowed them to command attention of philosophers

Margaret Cavendish (1623-1673) Criticized Royal Science Academy for being

more interested in novel scientific interests

that solving real problems

y Artisan womeno Achieved greater freedom in pursuing science

German female astronomer Maria CunitZ Policies of exclusion did not altogether prevent women from being

involvedy Emilie du Chatelet aided Voltaire withher knowledge of

mathematics

But with few exceptions women were barred from science andmedicine until the late 19

thcentury

- The EnglishApproach to Science and religiono Background

Bacon established a key framework for reconciling science andreligion

y Two books of revelationo Bibleo Nature

y Studying nature led to deeper knowledge of things diviney Shared same author, must be compatible

Work ofNewton led to world of law and regularityy New picture ofGod


8/12


8 | P a g e

o Creator must also be rationalo To study nature was to better understand Godo Mutually supportive

y Religious thought associated with deduction from nature wasph

ysico-th

eologyo Allowed new physics and astronomy to spread rapidly

y Faith in rational God encouraged faith in rational humanbeings

Scientific revolution provided model for the desirability of changecriticism of inherited views

y New science and technological innovations were interpretedas a divine plan

y God had placed humans in world to understand ity Provided justification for economic improvement that

characterized 18th

century Europe

o Continuing superstition Background

y Traditional beliefs and fears long retained their hold onWestern culture

y Continued to believe in the powers of magic and the occulto Almost all believed in demons in one way or another

Witch-hunts and panicy Between 1400 and 1700y Charges included

o Cannibalismo Ritual acts against Christian belief

y Misfortune created by religious war and division were factorso Reformation

Weakened traditional religious protectionsagainst them

People felt compelled to protect themselves byexecuting witches

y Political motiveso Wanted to eliminate competition for loyalty

Called opponents devilish Village origins

y Cunning-folk provided consolation and gave people hope inmagical powers that could avert natural calamity


9/12


9 | P a g e

y Possession of magical powers made one an important persono Claims to power made by those who most needed

security and influence

y May have been an attempt to defy attempts to impose lawsand institutions on countryside

o Substitute for impossible revolt Influence of the clergy

y Contribution of the learned society war greato Clergy practiced magic in sacramentso Fear of demons and devils allowed clergy to assert its

authority

Only priests possessed legitimate power so allelse was derived from the devil

o Based fear outside its walls on the devilo Removal of cunning folk allowed church to set up in

local villages

Why women?y 80% of victims were women

o Based on male hatred and sexual fearo Women sought to claim power to advance themselves

in the community

o Involvement in mid-wifery which was associated withth

e death

s of wives and infants End of the witch-hunts

y Emergence of more scientific worldview made witches lessbelievable

y People looked to themselves and science to overcomecalamity

y Reformation changed attitude and made devil moremanageable

o God was only supreme divine being- In perspective- The Age ofEnlightenment

o The Philosophes Background

y Philosophes were writers and critics who forged new attitudesfavorable to changed, championed reform, and flourished in

the new print culture


10/12


10 | P a g e

o Sought to apply the rules of reason to everydaypractices

o Free agentso Eastern Europe were found in royal bureaucracieso Not an organized group

y Readership was drawn from prosperous people of the 18thcentury towns and cities

o Large income and leisure timey Provided intellectual ferment and ideas that could undermine

the existing social practices and political structures

o Supported growth of everything that was transformingsociety and economy

y Chief bond was the common thought and desire for humanliberty

Voltaire-first among the philosophesy Francois-MarieArouet (1694-1778)

o Offended French authorities and was brieflyimprisoned

o Praised the virtues ofEnglish and indirectly criticizedthe French

o Popularized the thought ofNewtono Essays and writings made him the literary director of

Europe

o Candide (1759) Attacked war, religious persecution, and

unwarranted optimism

o Believed society could and should be improved Hesitant to believe that reform would be

permanent

o Formative Influences on the Enlightenment Chief influences

y Newtonian worldviewy Stability and commercial prosperity ofGreat Britain after 1688y Need for administrative and economic reform after Louis XIVy Consolidation of the print culture


11/12


11 | P a g e

To what extent did women contribute to and benefit from the

Enlightenment?

Kagan pages 607-610

- Women in thought and practice in the Enlightenmento Helped to promote the careers of philosophes

Gave access to useful social and political contacts Secured pensions Marquise de Pompadour

y Helped overcome censorship on Encyclopedie Purchases writings and distributed to friends

y Madame de Tencin was responsible for promoting Montesquieus Spiritof the Laws

o Salons Brought increased social status Organized by women

o Marie-Therese Geoffrin (1699-1777)o Julie de Lespinasse (1733-1776)o Claudine de Tencin (1689-1749)

y Were well connect to political figures Added luster to ideas

o Philosophes still advocated no radical changes in social condition of women Not strongly feminists Urged for better education Rejected ascetic views of sexual relations Examples:

y Montesquieuo Maintained that role of women in society was a result of

political climate and tradition

o Women not naturally inferior Persian Letters

y Condemned by implication the restriction onwomen in society

o Still maintained traditional view of male dominated marriageand family

Supported women right to divorce but advocatedfemale chastity

y Encyclopedieo Less generous towards women

Did not include women as focus of social reform


12/12


12 | P a g e

Contributed to by men almost exclusively Emphasized physical weakness of women

y Childbearingy Menstruation

Talked of women in family context onlyo Illustrations, on other hand, showed women involved in

economic activities of the day

y Rousseaus Emile (1726o Most radical political theorist but very traditional view of

women

y Should be educated for subordinate positiony Weaker and inferiory Excluded from political life

Views influenced many others Still achieved following among women

y Stressed importance of emotional andsubjective feelings

y Role of mother and wife as noble and fulfilling Mary Wollstonecrafts Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792)

y Enlightenment ideal of progressive knowledgey Opposition to policies towards women in the French Revolutiony Accused Rousseau of attempting to narrow view of women

o Make them slaves to meno Victims of male tyranny

y Denying education of women would impede progress ofhumanityy Placed herself among the philosophes and broadened Enlightenment to

include rights of women as well as those of men

The Road to Newton - Kagan

Documents

Transcript of The Road to Newton - Kagan