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Transcript of The Ribat System and Its Role in Coastal Navigation
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The Ribât System and Its Role in Coastal Navigation
Author(s): Hassan S. KhaliliehReviewed work(s):Source: Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol. 42, No. 2 (1999), pp.212-225Published by: BRILLStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3632336 .
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THE RIBATSYSTEM AND ITS ROLE IN
COASTAL NAVIGATION
BY
HASSAN S. KHALILIEH
(University of Haifa)
Abstract
The article deals with the role of the coastal defense system, called ribadtn medieval
Islam, in coastal navigation. The issues emerge through this discussion are the distancebetween each one of the watching points along the coastal frontiers, inhabitantsof the ri-
bats, and the civil functions of the ribdts. The article proves that these fortresses located
along the Islamic coastal frontiersalong the Mediterraneanas well as the Indian Ocean func-tioned as a refuge for attackedMuslim merchant ships by foreign powers and pirates.Ourevidence came from written sources and archeologicalfinds.
Makingno distinctionbetweendefensiveand offensivepurposes, he Qur'anstates:"Prepare e againstthem what force andcompaniesof horseye can [wa-a'idda lahum md-astata'tum min quwwa wa-min ribdt al-khayl ...]."') Literally,the ribcitmeans the place where the horses were kept ready(lit. "tiedup")tobe mountedfor an expedition.Ribdt, in the abstract,was the safeguardingof
frontiersof the ddr al-Isldmby stationing orces in the harborsand the frontiertowns [thughar] or defense purposes.This type of jihdd, althoughbased on a
Qur'anicinjunction,developed at a time when the Islamic state was on the
defensive.2)Aside fromthe Qur'anicnjunction,Muslimscholarsand specialistsin the hadfthliteratureProphetic radition)explainedthe religious significanceof residingin ribdts.Many Islamic traditionspraiseand encouragethose whovolunteer o garrison n the coastalareasagainst enemyraidsfromthe sea.3)In
1) Qur'cin,8:60. In sara 4, verse 200, the Qur'dnstates: "O ye who believe! perseverein
patience and constancy, vie in such perseverance,strengtheneach other, and fear Allah; that
ye may prosper [Yd ayyuhatal-ladhtna amana usbira wa-sdabirawa-rdbitf wa-ittaqa Alldhala'allakumtuflihan]."
2) Balba' 1968, pp. 27-29; Khaddfiri1973, pp. 114-115; Margais 1936, pp. 1150-1151.
3) Bashear 1991, pp. 193-198. According to the Prophetictraditionsguarding the coastsin general, making takbtr,or even just sitting or moving about there and watching the seawas considered a holy duty. Some of them stated: "Standing [mawqif] for one hour in the
way of God [ft sabfl Alldh] is better than standing in prayer [qiydm]near the Black Stoneon the night of al-Qadr [the night when the ProphetMuhammadwas ascended to heaven].""A sum of three
daysfor a minimal
ribdt and forty days for a full one [wa-man radbata
? KoninklijkeBrill NV, Leiden, 1999 JESHO42,2
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THERIBAT YSTEMAND ITS ROLE N COASTALNAVIGATION 213
principle,the institutionof the ribdtwas connectedwith the duty of the holy-war [jihatd].Togetherwith the soldiers and garrisonswhich were changedperi-
odically, the ribdts were also inhabitedby pious Muslims who came therefor
religious salvation. They were border cities on the frontiersof Islam, to bedefendedby the servantsof Allah.4)Architecturally,he structureof the ribdtconsisted of a fortifiedsurroundingwall with an entrance, iving rooms,maga-zines of arms, cisterns,storehouses or provisions,a towerfor signaling,and, in
the case of large-sizedfortresses,a mosque. Customarily,each ribdtalso had
four to eight towers--projecting ircular owers at each cornerand semicircular
towers in the centerof each side (Figures1 & 2).5)The ribatsandmihrases(watchtowers)6)ervedas an alarmsystemwhen the
Islamic coastal frontierswere exposed to enemy attacks.This defense systemwas fully describedby al-Muqaddasiwho providesus with an interestingac-
count of the warningand signalingsystem in Palestine,used here for the ran-
soming of captives:
Along the seacoast of the capital [Ramle] are watch-stations [ribdtdtt],rom which thesummons to arms is given. The warships and the galleys [shalandiyyadtnd shawcni]of the Greeks come into these ports, bringingaboard them the captives takenfrom the
Muslims; these they offer for ransom--three for the hundreddtndrs. And in each ofthese stations there are men who know the Greek
tongue,for
theyhave missions to
the Greeks, and tradewith them in provisions of all kinds. At the stations,whenevera Greek vessel appears,they give the alarm by lighting a beacon on the tower of thestation if it be night, or, if it be day, by making a great smoke. From every watch-station on the coast up to the capital [Ramle] are built, at intervals,high towers, ineach of which is stationeda company of men. As soon as they perceive the beaconon the tower of the coast station, the men of the next tower above it kindle their own,and then on, one after another;so that hardly is an hour elapsed before the trumpetsare sounding in the capital,and drumsare beating from the city tower, calling the peo-ple down to thatwatch-stationby the sea; and they hurryout in force, with theirarms,and the young men of the villages gather together. Then the ransomingbegins. One
prisonerwill be given in exchange for another,or money and jewels will be offered;until at length all the prisonerswho are in the Greek ships have been set free. Andthe ribadtswatch-stations]of this Districtwhere this ransomingof captives takes place
thaldthat ayydmft sabtl Alldhfa-qad rdbata, wa-man rdabata rba'tn yawmanfa-qad istak-mala al-ribdt].""A ribat of one night near the sea from behind an exposed point ['awra] ofthe Muslim is better for me than spending the night in one of the two mosques, the Ka'baand Medina." Lastly, "whoever fears hell-fire for himself should do ribdt on the coast for
forty days [man khdf 'ald nafsihi al-ndrfa-l-yurdbit 'ald al-sdhil arba'fnyawm]."
4) El'ad 1982, p. 157.5) Creswell 1989, pp. 286-289.
6) The differencebetween ribdt and mihradss in the physical size of the structureand inthe number of warriors who stationed there. Mihrds simply means a fortifiedarea containinga small garrisonand a watchtower.The ribdt, on the other hand, is several times bigger thanthe mihras.
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214 HASSANS. KHALILIEH
are:Gaza,Mimas Maiumaf Gaza], AscalanAscalon],Mahuiz,7)theportof]Azdfid,theportof] Yubnl,Yafa Jaffa],ndArstif.8)
It is evident that the ribatfunctioned,
firstandforemost,
as a coastalwarn-
ing system. Whenever enemy ships were sighted, the murabitin (the ribdt's
occupants)alertedthe inhabitants f nearbyregionsby kindlinga beacon, if it
was night,and makingsmokein the day. In this mannersignalscould be trans-
mittedfrom one watch-station o another n a very short time. A message sent
from Ceuta(Sabta),Morocco,could reach Alexandriawithin one night, thoughthe distance between the two cities was that of a journey of several months
duration.9) he purposeof the systemwas to trackthe movementsof the enemyor even
pirate shipsand to
provide warningof their
militaryntentions.There
was also an agreedsystemof signals (fire and smoke)which was used to send
governmentalmessages between the districts. Watchmenwere equippedwith
opticaldevices, and stationed n high places.10) econdly,al-Muqaddasihowed
that ransomingof captives was taking place in the coastal frontiers. It was
reportedthat duringthe time of the 'Abbasid caliph Harfinal-Rashid (170-
193/786-809),Lamasa city on the Mediterraneanoast thirty-fivemiles west of
Tarsfs, was chosen as a place for ransomingMuslimand Byzantinecaptives.More than twelve such events occurred hereduringthe ninthcenturyC.E.")
In a letter written n late June or early Julyof the 1060s the consignorwrote:
From these letters which I have received and from the passengerson the barge [thathas just arrived], it has been confirmedthat the following ships have safely movedfartherfrom the coast: Ibn al-Iskander,Ibn Labad,al-Qadi BuiTalib, al-Mufaddal,thevessel of Ibn Madhkfir, he vessel of al-Tarajimaand that of al-Jiljilin]i;... the bargeof al-Ghazzfilwas sighted at Suhat Barqa; at Hirasatal-Qadi, the ships of Sadaqa b.
al-Safrawi, Ibn Rahman and Ibn al-'Udi [were sighted] at Ra's al-Tin, the ships ofSabi b. Shiblfinand al-Zaffatwere sighted. At Shaqqfltal-Wa'r, to the west of Tobruk,the ships of al-Lakki,al-Mursiand Ibn Shabih [were sighted]. The second ship of Ibn
Madhkfirand those of Ibn al-Shubniand 'Abbas Ashnas, and the vessel of Amir andof Ibn Abi Qashsh were sighted at Milha.12)
Undoubtedly, ailingin sight of the coast was of greatimportancen particularwhen enemy and pirate vessels were cruising at sea. Under adverse situations,
merchantvessels could seek shelter from threatening lements and find protec-
7) Mdhaz is an Aramaicword signifying "port," ike "Majuma,"portus or navale.
8) Muqaddasi 1897, p. 291.
9) Maqrizi, Al-Khitat,vol. 1, p. 324; Qalqashandi,Subh al-A'shd, vol. 5, p. 121; ibid.,vol. 14, pp. 398-400.
10) Daradkeh1991, p. 200.
11) El'ad 1982, p. 160.
12) Udovitch 1978, pp. 542-543; Goitein 1973, pp. 319-322; idem 1967a, vol. 1, pp. 319-
320, 330; idem 1967b, p. 395.
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THERIBAT YSTEMANDITS ROLE N COASTALNAVIGATION 215
tion from potentialattackers at a coastal fortification.13) And in the case of
necessity, a vessel could stop there for rest, for minor repairs,or to take on
basic supplies such as food and water.14) Documentsfrom the Cairo Geniza
published hus far provideus with little information oncerning he featuresand
functionsof the observationpoints locatedalong the coastal frontiersof Islamic
Mediterranean.My assumption s that the observationpoints to which Goitein
and Udovitch referare, in fact, an arrayof ribacts nd mihrcdses,and thatthey
playedan integralrole in coastal navigation n the classical period.In orderto drawa complete pictureof the actual functions of these observa-
tionpoints, it is necessaryto examine theirtopographical ettingsand the dis-
tances between fortresses o determinewho theiroccupantswere and to uncover
thegovernmentalole in maintainingheseway stations.An interdisciplinaryis-cussion involving archeologicalremains,and historical andjurisprudentialvi-
dence, where it is available,will significantlycontribute o a reconstruction f
the actual functionsof the ribat system. Above all, two questionsshould be
answered:Who was most concernedaboutsecuringthe coastal lanes, andwhy?
Dispersed over a narrowstrip of one hundredand fifty miles, the twentycoastalwatch-stations, ibadtsnd mihradsesf Palestinearelocatedon smallhills
nearthe sea (Figure3).15)Some watch-stationswere built near naturalor arti-
ficial anchorages,and estuaries,such as the mihrdsesat Minat Abfi Zabbtira(Tel Mikhmoret), located 6 miles south of Caesarea, and Tel Qantfir(Tel
Michal),ocated2.25 milessouthof the Islamicportcityof Arsof(modernHerzliya).
Chronologically, hese mihrdses dated from the early Islamic period (13/634-
493/1099). Archeologicalexcavationsat both sites discoveredthat the mihrds
was a squarebuildingwith one preserved loorstrengthened y eight buttresses,two in each corner.According o thearcheological eports,hegeneraldimensions
of the interiorwas 18.3 by 18.3 feet, and each of the walls measured22.5 by
3.66 feet (Figures4 and 5).'6) Althougharcheologicalevidence is necessarily
13) Cahen 1978, pp. 307-308.
14) Udovitch 1978, p. 541.
15) A simple calculation shows that the ribats and mihrtses along the Palestinian coastwere built at set distances. The averagedistance between each watch-stationwas roughly7.5
miles. A combinationof the archeologicalevidence and the Geniza documents would help usto conceive the role of watch-stations in protecting ships sailing along the coast. Based onthe Geniza papers, Goitein calculated that the duration of a maritimevoyage from Acre to
Jaffa was on average five days. Between these two port cities, there were only two major
ports, Caesareaand Arsfif, which could be reachedby a commercial vessel in few days, andseven watch-stations. However, in case of unexpected enemy or pirate attack, commercial
ships must have found shelter in the closest port or ribadt nchorage.Likewise, these anchor-
ages also functioned as stationarypoints at night. For further details about the durationofsea voyages, see Goitein 1967a, vol. 1, pp. 325-326; Udovitch 1978, pp. 511-513.
16) Herzog, et al. 1977, pp. 99-108; idem, 1989, pp. 5-7; Purath,et al., 1985),pp. 126-135.
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216 HASSANS. KHALILIEH
silentabouta tower'sheight,written ources eporthatthemihrdsreached s
high as 75 feet.'7)
Tworibdtsstillstandn reasonablyoodconditionn thecoastof Palestine,KeferLam(ha-Bonim)ndAzdfd(Ashdod).Thegeographicalocationandthedimensions f thesetworibdcts iffer romeach other.Theformer, ituated enmilesnorthof Caesarea,hreemilesnorth f TantrraDor),andsix miles southof 'Athlit,was builton a highhill (90 feet abovesea level),a halfmilefromthe sea. Theribcit(159by 102feet)has fourprojectingircular owersat thecorners ndtwo semicircularowers lankinghe entrancen the southernide,in addition o sixteenbuttressesupportinghe eastern,western,and northernwalls (Figure6). As usual,it includesa cistern,storehousesor provisions,
magazinesor arms,anda tower or signaling."8)espite ts proximityo thesea, theribcatwas built n close vicinity o a natural nchoragen which,pre-sumably,a few shipscould findshelter from maritime aids or inclementweather.
Situated n theMediterraneanhore en milesnorthof 'Ascalin(Ascalon),thewatch-stationt Azdid(180by 135feet) is slightly arger han hefortressat KeferLam(Figure ). Theexternal ppearancef theribdt,particularlytswest wall, facingthe sea, raises the questionof the civilianfunctionof the
coastal ortifications.hiswall contains f twothree-quarterowersn thenorth-westernand southwesternorners, ndtwo semicircularowersalongsidehe
pieroverlookinghe sea. The fortress'snorth,east,andsouthwalls aresup-portedby buttresses uiltat measured istances,withtwo projectingquaretowersn the northeasternndsoutheasternorners,nd wosemicircularowers
flankinghe mainentrancen the easternacade.As in other slamic ibats,the
archeologistsxcavated residentialnit,stable,magazines,ndstorehouses.'9)
17) Balba' 1968, p. 51.
18) Hadashot Archeologiot 17 (1966), p. 17; Hadashot Archeologiot 33 (1970), p. 11;Benvenisti 1984, pp. 219-221. He contends that this fortress was founded by a Frenchnoble
family during the early years of the Crusaders n the Levant. His assumptionmust be incor-rect since similar architecturaldesigns and plans are found in Qasr al-MushattAJordan),the
ribditsof Suisaand Monastir (Tunisia), and the ribdt of Azdfid (Palestine), all of which arementioned by al-Muqaddasiin the tenth century C.E. More interestingly,medieval sourcesfrom the early Islamic period provide more details regardingthe history of the site and indi-cate that the Umayyad caliph Hishim Ibn 'Abd al-Malik established the settlement of Kefer
Lim. For furtherhistoricaldetails, see Yaqilt,Mu'jamal-Bulddn,vol. 4, p. 470; Sam'fini,Al-Ansadb, ol. 5, p. 671; Marmardji1951, p. 175.
19) Balba' 1968, p. 54. In days of peace and political tranquilitythe ribdts functionedascaravansaries[khdns], so it is not surprisingto discover that each watch-stationincludes of
large numberof roomy magazines and storehouses,and it is reportedthat some ribdts, suchas the Moroccan ribcitof Qfiz (Jiiz), on the Atlantic Ocean, had become commercial centers.
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THERIBAT YSTEMANDITSROLE N COASTALNAVIGATION 217
According to the archeological reports, the pier was built to facilitate access to
the muradbiti2n ho periodically patrolled the coasts.20) Since the watch-station
at Azdild was established in an intermediary port, it is possible that the pier was
also intended to provide assistance and shelter to commercial ships sailing alongthe coast in the event of hostile attacks.21)
Historical accounts and jurisprudential inquiries substantiate the hypothesisthatgarrisonsat the ribadts ndmihraseswere obligatedto provideassistanceto
commercial ships confronted by hostile attacks.22) At present there are three
known references dealing exclusively with the role of the ribdt institution in
providing assistance and refuge to seacrafts. Muhammad Ibn 'Ali al-Mazariwrites:
A merchant ave a sailorAlmoravid indrs n the formof a qiraddcommenda)otravel to Sicily. The capitalist (i.e., the merchant)went away and, upon his return,called the sailor to account. The sailor declared having borroweda light boat [qciriblattf] other than the one usually took for his journeys between Sicily and Ifriqiyya.The passengers had been warned of the proximity of the enemy by the occupantsof a citadel [hisn] named al-Rukam and the sailor had abandoned ship, taking allhis belongings, more particularly he merchandisebought with the capitalist's dfndrsand had entrusted the commanding officer [qd'id] of the place in question with
them..... 23)
Additionaldocumentaryvidence thatsubstantiateshis arguments foundinthe commercial privileges granted by the Mamlfik sultdn Qaitbay (872-901/
1468-1496) to the Republic of Florence in 1497 C.E. Article twenty-four of the
treaty states:
XXIV. The aforesaid envoy has asked that when one of the ships of the aforesaidflorentines enters one of thefortresses of our noble station and treacheryhas befallenthe aforesaidship, it should be favored with what it needs for repulsionof the enemy.So let his honorableExcellency promulgatehis exalted commandthat when one of the
20) Conder and Kitchner 1882, vol. 2, pp. 422, 426-427; Le Strange 1965, p. 405;Benvenisti 1984, pp. 219-220; Hadashot Archeologiot 33 (1970) pp. 26-27; Kloner andBirman 1973/4, pp. 21-24; Peiphano 1986, pp. 23-24.
Although typically stationed in majorstrategicports, the fleet with its galleys and warshipswas under certain circumstances concentrated n the ribdts' anchorages. In 585/1189 whenthe Europeanfleets blockadedAcre, the navy of Saladin which was stationed in the ribdt ofal-Zib (Akhziv), ten miles north of Acre, was able to break through the European navalblockade and supply the city by sea. The intermediarystations [ribdts] of Haifa and al-Zib
played an essential role in defendingthe coastal frontiersand providingimmediateassistance
to the Palestinianport cities duringthe early Crusades. AbUiShamaAl-Rawdatayn,vol. 2, pp.181-184; 'AbbAdyand Salem 1981, pp. 284-285; Ehrenkreutz1955, pp. 112-113.
21) Balba' 1968, p. 39.
22) Maqqari Nafh al-Tib, vol. 9, pp. 109-110; Salem and 'Abb~dy 1969, p. 305.
23) Idris 1961, p. 234; idem. 1992, vol. 2, p. 284. An identical fatwa is mentionedby al-
Wansharisi,Al-Mi'ydr,ol. 8, pp. 207-208.
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218 HASSANS. KHALILIEH
florentines' ships enters one of thefortresses of Islam and treacheryfrom enemies hasbefallen it, it shall be favored with what it needs for repulsion of the enemy, the costand expense falling to the ship's master.24)
The commanderof the fortress was held responsiblefor storingand protect-ing the cargo and propertiesof Muslim and non-Muslimmerchants ailing in
Islamic vessels. He was not entitled to be remunerated or assistanceprovidedto the passengersand merchants board he vessel. In principle, he act of assis-
tance as reflected by Islamic law must be considered as a religious duty.25)Nonetheless, when Muslim governmentssuffered financial crises, the ship'smasterwas chargedfor the protectionof the ship and its contents.
While the biographiesof Muslimscholarsshed little light on the identityof
the proprietors f seagoingvessels, the Genizapapers reportthat these vesselswere owned by personsconnectedwith government: he sultdnhimself, mem-
bersof the royalhousehold,governors qa'idsandamfrs],militarycommanders,
viziers, and Muslimjudges, in additionto well-to-do Muslimsand Jews. The
shippingbusiness was regardedas one of the most profitable nvestments.26)Therefore, he government ook on the responsibilityo physicallymaintain he
coastal defense system and to secure the navigational anes by providingnaval
escorts as a protectionagainstpirateandenemyattacksandby stationingarma-
das and garrisonsalong the coastalroutes.27) s Ibn MammAti544-606/ 1149-1209), the Ayyfibidvizier,writes:
In the month of Barmah&t28)... which coincides with the beginning of the spring,commercialshipshead for theMediterranean ea fromtheEgyptiandistricts, heMaghrib,andByzantium.Duringthismonth[thegovernment]ooks afterconcentratinghegarisonsin the protectedfrontiers,and preparing he victorious battleshipsto defend them.29)
While our sourcesgive mainlyreligiousmotivations or fortifyingthe coasts
and securingthe maritime anes, the government'sconcern was certainlyeco-
nomic. The fact that warships [harbis] served, apparentlyon a fairly regularbasis, as commercialcarriersconfirmsthe government's nterest and involve-
ment in the shippingbusiness.Securingthe maritime anes must have created
favorableconditions to expand the overseas trade, thereby increasingthe tax
24) Wansbrough 1965, p. 519; for the Arabic text see pp. 504-505.
25) Wansharisi,AI-Mi'ydr,vol. 8, pp. 302-304; Ibn Rushd, Al-Baydn wal-TahsFl,vol. 3,
pp. 61-62.
26) Goitein 1967a, vol. 1,pp.
309-313; Udovitch 1978,pp.
519-521.
27) Balba' 1968, p. 34.
28) Barmahit is the seventh month of the Coptic calender corresponding o March/April.29) Ibn Mammati,Qawdninal-Dawdwi^n,p. 247-248: "Baramhait.. wa-huwa ibtidd' asl
al-rabi', wa-fthi jaraydn al-marckib al-safariyya fi al-bahr al-matlih min al-a'amdtl al-
Misriyya wal-Gharbiyyawal-Rumiyya,wa-fihi al-'ihtimdmbi-tarkfzal-ajncidbil-thughfr al-mahrasa wa-mardtkib l-asdtfl al-mansara li-hifzihd."
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THERIBAT YSTEMAND ITS ROLE N COASTALNAVIGATION 219
revenuesand the income of the proprietors f commercialvessels, which were
largelyowned by personsassociatedwith the government.The establishmentof watchtowersalong the coastal lanes extendedbeyond
the Mediterranean egion. The 'Abbasidcaliphatein the East erected watch-towers and lighthousesalong the shores as guides for coasting pilots and to
secure the maritimeroutes.3") asir- K̂hosraw(395-481/1004-1088)vividly de-
scribedthe watchtowerssituatedbetween Basra and 'Abbaidan,tating:
At dawn something like a small bird could be seen on the sea. The closer we ap-proached, the larger it appeared. When it was about one parasang to our left, anadverse wind came up so they droppedanchor and took down the sail. I asked whatthat thingwas and was told that it was called a "khashshdb." t consisted of fourenor-mous wooden posts made of teak and was shaped something like a war machine,
squarish,wide at the base and narrowat the top. It was about forty ells above the sur-face of the water and had tile and stone on top held together by wood so as to forma kind of ceiling. On top of that were four archedopenings where a sentinel could bestationed. Some said this khashshdbhad been constructedby a rich merchant,othersthat a king had it made. It served two functions: first, that area was being silted andthe sea consequently becoming shallow so that if a large ship chanced to pass, itwould strike the bottom. At night lamps encased in glass (so that the wind would notblow them out) were lit for people to see from afar and take precaution,since therewas no possibility of rescue. Second, one could know the extent of the land and, ifthere were thieves, steer a ship away. When the khashshdb was no longer visible,anotherone of the same shape came into view; but this one did not have the watch-tower on top, as though it had not been finished.")
The ribadtnstitution unctionedas observationpoints for ships sailing alongthe coasts. The choice of theirtopographicalocations was not accidental.Most
ribdts and mihrcdses ere built in measureddistances,situated n close vicinityto naturalor artificialanchorages,and on small hills. Functioningas precau-
tionaryguides for pilots sailing along the coast, the lighthouseswere erected
near shallowwaters and coral reefs. These establishmentswere placed at mili-
tary strongholdsn orderto
protectthe coastal frontiers
and commercialves-sels from hostile raids. The architectural lan of the ribat, which consists of
living quarters, toragefacilities for arms and food, and magazines,substanti-ates the idea that this institutionmay have providedassistance to commercial
ships when needed. Like affluentmerchants,membersof governmental ircles,
owing to their involvement n the shippingbusiness,were concerned o secure
the maritime anes and protectcommercialships from enemy or pirateattacks.
30) N^ji1988,p. 177;Barrawi948,pp.295-297.31) Nasir-^Khosraw,Book of Travels (Safarnaima),p. 96. Describing the stockades [kha-
shabdt]near he portcity of Basrah,Irfq, al-Muqaddasieported: This s by far thegreat-est evil, a strait and a shallow combined.Here small huts have been erected on palm trunksset in the sea, and people stationed thereinto keep a fine lighted at night, as a warning to
ships to steer clear of this shallow place." Al-Muqaddas 1̂906, p. 12.
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220 HASSANS. KHALILIEH
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources
AbuiSha~ma,Abd al-Rahman Ibn Isma'fl (d. 665/1268)1870 Kitdb al-Rawdatayn t Akhbdral-Dawlatayn al-Nuwriyya
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222 HASSANS. KHALILIEH
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14 ILlr ? ,1 _
J :F0o 1-4
,aIf
o,i r i,
,•
o.
--.It- ,r
F e e t ,
I;• n ',,,
,tl # •."'I-4 -:~~I , ::! • ?, ,
o 5;. _ .. . . ,' -;...
.. . . . Fee
Figure 1: Reconstructedground plan of the ribcat t Sfisa, Tunisia.
Source:K.A. Creswell, A ShortAccount of Early MuslimArchitecture.
44N
II
0
S - .
Figure 2: Reconst
Source:K.A. Cresw
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224 HASSANS. KHALILIEH
Ra's l-Niq-raal-ZTb
HaitfaTelal-Samak
'At lTtKefar ~.7n
all-TanturaCaesarea
MinatAb6Zabbura
Ars~fTelQantur
JiAffa•
Yubni * Ramle
Azdid *Jlerusalem
'Ascalin*Beit Jubreen
Gaza
al
- Dir
•T
Rafah
0 301 Miles
Figure 3: Geographical location of ribdts and mihrdses along the coastal frontiers ofPalestine during the early and classical Islamic periods.
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THERIBAT YSTEMAND ITSROLE N COASTALNAVIGATION 225
N n
ii.. ..
St . Feet-
-.-----Feet
Figure 4: Archeologicalremains of themihrdsat Minat Abfi Zabbfira.
Source: Y. Purath,Qadmoniot'EmeqRHefer.
Figure 5: Archeological remains of the
mihrds at Tel Qantiir.Source: Z. Herzog, Excavationat
Tel Michal.
N
WFeet
Figure 7: Architecturalplan of theribdt at Azdcid.
Source: A. Kloner and A. Berman,Toldotehashel Ashdod Yam.
- Feet
Figure 6: Architecturalplan of the ribat atKefer Lam.