The Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance now includes 2,122 sites (known asRamsar Sites) covering 205,366,160ha (507,470,800 acres),[1]up from 1,021 sites in 2000. The nation with the highest number of sites is theUnited Kingdomat 169; the nation with the greatest area of listed wetlands isCanada, with over 130,000km2(50,000sqmi), including theQueen Maud Gulf Migratory Bird Sanctuaryat 62,800km2(24,200sqmi).[2]The Ramsar definition of wetlands is fairly wide, including "areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters" as well as fish ponds,rice paddiesandsalt pans.[3]Presently there are168 contracting parties, up from 119 in 1999 and from 21 initial signatory nations in 1971. The state parties meet every three years as the Conference of the Contracting Parties (CCP), the first held inCagliari,Italyin 1980. Amendments to the original convention have been agreed to inParis(in 1982) andRegina(in 1987).[4]There is a standing committee, a scientific review panel, and a secretariat. The headquarters is located inGland, Switzerland, shared with theIUCN.The Convention uses a broad definition of the types of wetlands covered in its mission, including lakes and rivers, swamps and marshes, wet grasslands and peatlands, oases, estuaries, deltas and tidal flats, near-shore marine areas, mangroves and coral reefs, and human-made sites such as fish ponds, rice paddies, reservoirs, and salt pans.Ramsar commitmentsThe Ramsar Contracting Parties, or Member States, have committed themselves to implementing the three pillars of the Convention: to designate suitable wetlands for the List of Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar List) and ensure their effective management; to work towards the wise use of all their wetlands through national land-use planning, appropriate policies and legislation, management actions, and public education; and to cooperate internationally concerning transboundary wetlands, shared wetland systems, shared species, and development projects that may affect wetlands.TheConvention on Biological Diversity(CBD), known informally as theBiodiversity Convention, is an international legally bindingtreaty. In other words, its objective is to develop national strategies for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity. It is often seen as the key document regardingsustainable development.The convention recognized for the first time in international law that the conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humankind" and is an integral part of the development process. The agreement covers allecosystems, species, and genetic resources. It links traditional conservation efforts to the economic goal of using biological resources sustainably. It sets principles for the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources, notably those destined for commercial use. It also covers the rapidly expanding field of biotechnology through itsCartagena Protocol on Biosafety, addressing technology development and transfer, benefit-sharing andbiosafetyissues. Importantly, the Convention is legally binding; countries that join it ('Parties') are obliged to implement its provisions.The convention reminds decision-makers that natural resources are not infinite and sets out a philosophy ofsustainable use. While pastconservationefforts were aimed at protecting particular species and habitats, the Convention recognizes that ecosystems, species and genes must be used for the benefit of humans. However, this should be done in a way and at a rate that does not lead to the long-term decline of biological diversity.The convention also offers decision-makers guidance based on theprecautionary principlethat where there is a threat of significant reduction or loss of biological diversity, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing measures to avoid or minimize such a threat. The Convention acknowledges that substantial investments are required to conservebiological diversity. It argues, however, that conservation will bring us significant environmental, economic and social benefits in return.The Convention on Biological Diversity of 2010 would ban some forms ofgeoengineering.Some of the many issues dealt with under the convention include: Measures and incentives for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity. Regulated access to genetic resources andtraditional knowledge, including Prior Informed Consent of the party providing resources. Sharing, in a fair and equitable way, the results of research and development and the benefits arising from the commercial and other utilization of geneticresources with the Contracting Party providing such resources (governments and/or local communities that provided the traditional knowledge or biodiversity resources utilized). Access to and transfer of technology, includingbiotechnology, to the governments and/or local communities that provided traditional knowledge and/or biodiversity resources. Technical and scientific cooperation. Coordination of a global directory of taxonomic expertise (Global Taxonomy Initiative). Impact assessment. Education and public awareness. Provision of financial resources. National reporting on efforts to implement treaty commitments.The Convention requires countries to prepare a national biodiversity strategy (or equivalent instrument) and to ensure that this strategy is mainstreamed into the planning and activities of all those sectors whose activities can have an impact (positive and negative) on biodiversity. To date [2012-02-01], 173 Parties have developed NBSAPs in line with Article 6."[5]For example, the United Kingdom, New Zealand and Tanzania have carried out elaborate responses to conserve individual species and specific habitats. The United States of America, a signatory who has not yet ratified the treaty,[6]has produced one of the most thorough implementation programs through species Recovery Programs and other mechanisms long in place in the USA for species conservation.Singapore has also established a detailedNational Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. TheNational Biodiversity Centreof Singapore represents Singapore in the Convention for Biological Diversity.The World Heritage Convention is one of the most important global conservation instrumentsIt is governed by the World Heritage Committee supported by the UNESCO World Heritage Centre, the secretariat for the Convention, and three technical advisory bodies to the Committee: IUCN is the Advisory Body on natural heritage, evaluating sites that are nominated and in accordance with the relevant Convention criteria 7 - 10:7. to contain superlative natural phenomena or areas of exceptional natural beauty and aesthetic importance;8. to be outstanding examples representing major stages of earth's history, including the record of life, significant on-going geological processes in the development of landforms, or significant geomorphic or physiographic features;9. to be outstanding examples representing significant on-going ecological and biological processes in the evolution and development of terrestrial, fresh water, coastal and marine ecosystems and communities of plants and animals;10. to contain the most important and significant natural habitats for in-situ conservation of biological diversity, including those containing threatened species of outstanding universal value from the point of view of science or conservation.

The most significant feature of the 1972 World Heritage Convention is that it links together in a single document the concepts of nature conservation and the preservation of cultural properties. What the Convention containsThe Convention defines the kind of natural or cultural sites which can be considered for inscription on theWorld Heritage List.The Convention sets out the duties ofStates Partiesin identifying potential sites and their role in protecting and preserving them. By signing the Convention, each country pledges to conserve not only the World Heritage sites situated on its territory, but also to protect its national heritage. The States Parties are encouraged to integrate the protection of the cultural and natural heritage into regional planning programmes, set up staff and services at their sites, undertake scientific and technical conservation research and adopt measures which give this heritage a function in the day-to-day life of the community.It explains how theWorld Heritage Fundis to be used and managed and under what conditions international financial assistance may be provided.The Convention stipulates the obligation of States Parties to report regularly to the World Heritage Committee on the state of conservation of their World Heritage properties. These reports are crucial to the work of the Committee as they enable it to assess the conditions of the sites, decide on specific programme needs and resolve recurrent problems.It also encourages States Parties to strengthen the appreciation of the public for World Heritage properties and to enhance their protection through educational and information programmes.The World Heritage concept was founded on a premise that certain places on earth are of outstanding universal value and as such should form part of a common heritage of human kind. Their splendor enriches our lives and illustrates the diversity of our planet and its inhabitants. The lossthrough deterioration or disappearance of any of these most prized possessions constitute the impoverishment of the heritage of all peoples in the world.To ensure the proper identification, protection, conservation of the worlds irreplaceable heritage, Member States of UNESCO adopted the Convention Concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage in 1972. Since then, 190 countries have ratified the treaty. It is not intended to provide protection to all properties of great interest, importance or value, but only for a select list of the most outstanding of these from an international viewpoint. To be deemed of Outstanding Universal Value, a property must also meet the conditions of integrity and/or authenticity and must have an adequate protection and management system to ensure its safeguarding.The Convention defines the kind of cultural and natural sites which can be considered for inscription to the World Heritage List. By signing the convention, countries recognize that sites located in their national territories and which have been inscribed on the World Heritage List, without prejudice to national sovereignty or ownership constitute a world heritage. At present 962 properties are inscribed on the List including 745 Cultural, 188 natural and 29 mixed sites. The Philippines has 3 cultural sites namely Baroque Churches of the Philippines, Rice Terraces of the Cordillera, Historic Town of Vigan, and 2 natural sites, the Tubbataha Reef Natural Park and the Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park.CITES(theConvention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, also known as theWashington Convention) is amultilateral treatyto protect endangered plants and animals. It was drafted as a result of a resolution adopted in 1963 at a meeting of members of theInternational Union for Conservation of Nature(IUCN). The convention was opened for signature in 1973, and CITES entered into force on 1 July 1975. Its aim is to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten the survival of the species in the wild, and it accords varying degrees of protection to more than 34,000speciesof animals and plants. In order to ensure that theGeneral Agreement on Tariffs and Trade(GATT) was not violated, the Secretariat of GATT was consulted during the drafting process.Funding for the activities of the Secretariat and Conference of the Parties (CoP) meetings comes from a Trust Fund derived from Party contributions. Trust Fund money is not available to Parties to improve implementation or compliance. These activities, and all those outside Secretariat activities (training, species specific programmes such as Monitoring the Illegal Killing of Elephants - MIKE) must find external funding, mostly from donor countries and regional organizations such as the European Union.Although the Convention itself does not provide for arbitration or dispute in the case of noncompliance, 36 years of CITES in practice has resulted in several strategies to deal with infractions by Parties. The Secretariat, when informed of an infraction by a Party, will notify all other parties. The Secretariat will give the Party time to respond to the allegations and may provide technical assistance to prevent further infractions. Other actions the Convention itself does not provide for but that derive from subsequent COP resolutions may be taken against the offending Party. These include: Mandatory confirmation of all permits by the Secretariat Suspension of cooperation from the Secretariat A formal warning A visit by the Secretariat to verify capacity Recommendations to all Parties to suspend CITES related trade with the offending party[4] Dictation of corrective measures to be taken by the offending Party before the Secretariat will resume cooperation or recommend resumption of tradeBilateral sanctions have been imposed on the basis of national legislation (e.g. the USA used certification under the Pelly Amendment to get Japan to revoke its reservation to hawksbill turtle products in 1991, thus reducing the volume of its exports).Infractions may include negligence with respect to permit issuing, excessive trade, lax enforcement, and failing to produce annual reports (the most common).Originally, CITES addressed depletion resulting from demand for luxury goods such as furs in Western countries, but with the rising wealth of Asia, particularly in China, the focus changed to products demanded there, particularly those used for luxury goods such as ivory or shark fins or for superstitious purposes such as rhinoceros horn. As of 2013 the demand was massive and had expanded to include thousands of species previously considered unremarkable and in no danger of extinction such asmanta raysorpangolinsEach Party to the Convention must designate one or more Management Authorities in charge of administering that licensing system and one or more Scientific Authorities to advise them on the effects of trade on the status of the species.In accordance with Article IX of the Convention, Management and Scientific Authorities, each Party to the Convention must designate one or more Management Authorities competent to grant permits or certificates on behalf of that Party, and one or more Scientific Authorities to provide advice that international trade in any CITES-listed species will not be detrimental to the survival of that species.General limitations about the structure and philosophy of CITES include: by design and intent it focuses on trade at the species level and does not address habitat loss,ecosystem approachesto conservation, or poverty; it seeks to prevent unsustainable use rather than promote sustainable use (which generally conflicts with the Convention on Biological Diversity), although this has been changing (seeNile Crocodile,African elephant, South Africanwhite rhinocase studies in Hutton and Dickinson 2000). It does not explicitly address market demand.[16]Funding does not provide for increased on-the-ground enforcement (it must apply for bilateral aid for most projects of this nature).This Manual was designed to improve and facilitate use of the UNEP Guidelines on Compliance with and Enforcement of MEAs through a variety of means. Its organisation follows that of the UNEP Guidelines, with the first part of the Manual devoted to compliance and the second part to enforcement. The Manual is intended for use by a wide audience: treaty negotiators, political officials, lawyers, police, customs officers, researchers, and legal drafters in governmental, non-governmental, academic, and professional institutions. Considering the breadth of topics and audiences entailed, this Manual is a reference tool. It is not meant to be read cover-to-cover.