The qualitative process
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The The ‘‘QualitativeQualitative’’ Research Research Process: Process:
Techniques for ResearchTechniques for Research
Dr Fiona M Beals
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Lecture AimsLecture Aims
Review key research methods brought to qualitative research by ethnographic designs
Outline the role of the qualitative researcherIntroduce and look at methods of:
– Observation– Interviews– Fieldnotes– Reflective Journaling
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ObservationObservation
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Why Observe?Why Observe?
To develop a theoryTo prove/disprove a theoryMaking use of an “opportunity” (Wolcott,
1995)Provide a thick description to analyseProvide an instrument of triangulation
(alongside interviewing and fieldnotes)
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What to observeWhat to observe
Interactions– Between people– Between people and settings– Between people and yourself
Behaviours– Reactions– Routines– Interactions
The Context/Setting The overt and the covert
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How?How?
Traditional– Eyes, pen, and paper
Technological– Cameras/Video/ICT
Combination– Trad+Post– Even the post involves
a level of the traditional
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To what degree/levelTo what degree/level
Four phases of observation1. Scoping
2. Descriptive
3. Focused
4. Selective
Each involves a differentfocus/depth
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Phase One: ScopingPhase One: Scoping
Familisation with the setting– Setting mapping– Apparent rules/structures– General impressions– Your own reactions– Any thoughts/hypotheses
A reflexive toolJottings and diagrams
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Phase Two: DescriptivePhase Two: Descriptive
Detailed descriptions of settings, interactions, and behaviours
Focuses on questions that can be addressed through observation - the inquisitive eye
Uses delimiters and descriptors for current details and future reference
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Phase Two: DescriptivePhase Two: Descriptive
Includes– Setting description– Recorded descriptions of events, interactions,
and individuals– Time intervals
Points of reference Points of description
– Researcher Reflection
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Phase Three: Focused Phase Three: Focused ObservationObservation
Descriptive observation focusing on specific descriptive questions:– Space– Objects– Time– Behaviours– Individuals
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Descriptive QuestionsDescriptive Questions
Space Object Act Activity Event Time Actor Goal Feeling
Space
Object
Act
Activity
Event
Time
Actor
Goal
Feeling From Spradley (1980)
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Descriptive QuestionsDescriptive Questions
Space Object Act Activity Event Time Actor Goal Feeling
Space
Object
Act
Activity
Event
Time
Actor
Goal
Feeling
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Descriptive QuestionsDescriptive Questions
Space Object Act Activity Event Time Actor Goal Feeling
Space
Object
Act
Activity
Event
Time
Actor
Goal
Feeling
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Descriptive QuestionsDescriptive Questions
Space Object Act Activity Event Time Actor Goal Feeling
Space
Object
Act
Activity
Event
Time
Actor
Goal
Feeling
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Descriptive QuestionsDescriptive Questions
Space Object Act Activity Event Time Actor Goal Feeling
Space
Object
Act
Activity
Event
Time
Actor
Goal
Feeling
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Descriptive QuestionsDescriptive Questions
Space Object Act Activity Event Time Actor Goal Feeling
Space
Object
Act
Activity
Event
Time
Actor
Goal
Feeling
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Descriptive QuestionsDescriptive Questions
Space Object Act Activity Event Time Actor Goal Feeling
Space
Object
Act
Activity
Event
Time
Actor
Goal
Feeling
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Phase Four: Selective Phase Four: Selective ObservationObservation
The focusing down of ‘focus observations’ Looks at filling in the gaps Providing other dimensions to focused
observations and the phenomenon in question Focuses on the specifics
– Individual– Event– Behaviour– Context
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Observation and TechnologyObservation and Technology
What are the strengths of involving technology as an observation tool?
What ‘new’ dilemmas arise from using technology as an observation tool?
Do paper and pen still have a role to play alongside technology?
What is this role?
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InterviewsInterviews
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Research InterviewingResearch Interviewing Unstructured
– Conversation– Central to ethnography
Semi-structured– Broad open questions with prompting– Fits within most qualitative paradigms
Structured– Tight questions with limited or already given responses– Quantitative/positivist research– Mixed paradigm research– Technology-based methodologies (phone interviewing, ICT
research)
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Unstructured InterviewingUnstructured Interviewing
Conversations in the fieldIdeally recorded on tape or after the researchRequires the researcher to be skilled:
– In holding conversations– In listening– In focusing/re-focusing conversations
Requires time
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Semi-Structured InterviewingSemi-Structured Interviewing
Guided conversationsUses broad opening questions which can be
redirected by interviewee or interviewer Uses verbal promptingAllows for the development of
conversation/research skillsGenerally piloted beforehandRecorded on tape and on paper
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Structured InterviewingStructured Interviewing
Focused conversationsUses tight questions which require set
responses (sometimes given)Reflects survey researchAllows for collection of theme-driven dataRequires piloting with similar sampleRecorded on Paper
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Interviewing and ParadigmsInterviewing and Paradigms
Different interviews suit different paradigms of research– Where do you think??
Structured is used most Unstructured is used most Semi-structured is used most
Unless theory building most qualitative research uses semi-structured interviews
Mixed design uses a mixture of structured and semi-structured questions
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What leads to a good What leads to a good interviewinterview
Rapport– Before the interview– The first question/opening comments
Reciprocity– You shouldn’t be the only one gaining from the interview
Acceptance of the unexpected– Unanswered questions
Self-Confidence– Practice and faith in oneself
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Ann Oakley (1981): The Ann Oakley (1981): The Central DilemmaCentral Dilemma
Who holds power in the interview process?Who gains from research?What is false about ‘rapport’
in qualitative research interviewing?
When does the relationship finish?
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FieldnotesFieldnotes
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FieldnotesFieldnotes
Sit alongside observations and interviewsDetailed notes and reflections of the fieldThree types
– Descriptive– Methodological– Reflexive
Occur after/before – rather than during
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Descriptive FieldnotesDescriptive Fieldnotes
Include observations (scoping, descriptive, focused, and selective)
Describe the field – including maps, setting descriptions, and individual description
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Methodological FieldnotesMethodological Fieldnotes
Reflections on methodological approaches being used
Notes on any changes to any approach being used
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Reflexive FieldnotesReflexive Fieldnotes
Journaling of own
learning/experiences/
thoughts throughout the
process
May sit within or
alongside descriptive and
methodological notes
Technically seen as
journaling of experience
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Leading to the Role of the Leading to the Role of the Qualitative Researcher Qualitative Researcher
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The ReseacherThe Reseacher’’s Roles Role
“Being There”, “Getting Nosy” and “Looking Over Others’ Shoulders” (Wolcott, 1995)
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The ReseacherThe Reseacher’’s Roles Role
Being a learner – ‘Sucking in’ the atmosphere of the field
– Reflecting on your own experiences
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DilemmasDilemmas
What dilemmas and issues to research does the practice of observation bring?
How can fieldnotes counter these issues and dilemmas?
What else can the researcher do to ensure that the story makes sense intrinsically (on an emic level) and extrinsically (on an etic level)?
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Outside of EthnographyOutside of Ethnography
Scoping observations are central to making sure that the research makes sense in itself
Fieldnotes ensures that researchers are observing the field and themselves throughout the research
Fieldnotes allow for the subjective nature of qualitative research to be acknowledged and, if necessary, discussed
Interviews work as a tool of triangulation ensuring that the story ‘fits’ and makes sense in itself
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SummarySummary
The three key methods in qualitative research are– Observations– Interviews – Fieldnotes
It is important to use more than one (across or within) to allow for triangulation