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Title:ThePrince

Author:NicoloMachiavelli

Translator:W.K.Marriott

ReleaseDate:February11,2006[EBook#1232]

LastUpdated:November5,2012

Language:English

***STARTOFTHISPROJECTGUTENBERGEBOOKTHEPRINCE***

ProducedbyJohnBickers,DavidWidgerandOthers

THEPRINCE

byNicoloMachiavelli

TranslatedbyW.K.Marriott

NicoloMachiavelli,bornatFlorenceon3rdMay1469.From1494to1512

heldanofficialpostatFlorencewhichincludeddiplomaticmissionsto

variousEuropeancourts.ImprisonedinFlorence,1512;laterexiledand

returnedtoSanCasciano.DiedatFlorenceon22ndJune1527.

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

YOUTHAet.1-25—1469-94

OFFICEAet.25-43—1494-1512

LITERATUREANDDEATHAet.43-58—1512-27

THEMANANDHISWORKS

DEDICATION

THEPRINCE

CHAPTERIHOWMANYKINDSOFPRINCIPALITIESTHEREARE

CHAPTERIICONCERNINGHEREDITARYPRINCIPALITIES

CHAPTERIIICONCERNINGMIXEDPRINCIPALITIES

CHAPTER IV WHY THE KINGDOM OF DARIUS, CONQUERED BYALEXANDER

CHAPTER V CONCERNING THE WAY TO GOVERN CITIES ORPRINCIPALITIES

CHAPTERVICONCERNINGNEWPRINCIPALITIESWHICHAREACQUIRED

CHAPTERVIICONCERNINGNEWPRINCIPALITIESWHICHAREACQUIRED

CHAPTER VIII CONCERNING THOSE WHO HAVE OBTAINED APRINCIPALITY

CHAPTERIXCONCERNINGACIVILPRINCIPALITY

CHAPTERXCONCERNINGTHEWAYINWHICHTHESTRENGTH

CHAPTERXICONCERNINGECCLESIASTICALPRINCIPALITIES

CHAPTERXIIHOWMANYKINDSOFSOLDIERYTHEREARE

CHAPTERXIIICONCERNINGAUXILIARIES,MIXEDSOLDIERY

CHAPTERXIV THATWHICHCONCERNSAPRINCEONTHESUBJECTOFWAR

CHAPTERXVCONCERNINGTHINGSFORWHICHMEN,ANDESPECIALLYPRINCES

CHAPTERXVICONCERNINGLIBERALITYANDMEANNESS

CHAPTERXVIICONCERNINGCRUELTYANDCLEMENCY

CHAPTERXVIII(*) CONCERNINGTHEWAY INWHICHPRINCESSHOULDKEEP

CHAPTERXIXTHATONESHOULDAVOIDBEINGDESPISEDANDHATED

CHAPTERXX AREFORTRESSES, ANDMANYOTHER THINGS TOWHICHPRINCES

CHAPTERXXI HOW A PRINCE SHOULD CONDUCT HIMSELF SO AS TOGAINRENOWN

CHAPTERXXIICONCERNINGTHESECRETARIESOFPRINCES

CHAPTERXXIIIHOWFLATTERERSSHOULDBEAVOIDED

CHAPTERXXIVWHYTHEPRINCESOFITALYHAVELOSTTHEIRSTATES

CHAPTERXXVWHATFORTUNECANEFFECTINHUMANAFFAIRS

CHAPTER XXVI AN EXHORTATION TO LIBERATE ITALY FROM THEBARBARIANS

DESCRIPTIONOFTHEMETHODSADOPTEDBYTHEDUKEVALENTINOWHENMURDERING

THELIFEOFCASTRUCCIOCASTRACANIOFLUCCA

INTRODUCTION

NicoloMachiavelliwasbornatFlorenceon3rdMay1469.HewasthesecondsonofBernardodiNicoloMachiavelli, a lawyerof somerepute,andofBartolommeadiStefanoNelli,hiswife.BothparentsweremembersoftheoldFlorentinenobility.Hislifefallsnaturallyintothreeperiods,eachofwhichsingularlyenoughconstitutesadistinctand

importanterainthehistoryofFlorence.HisyouthwasconcurrentwiththegreatnessofFlorenceasanItalianpowerundertheguidanceofLorenzode'Medici,IlMagnifico.ThedownfalloftheMediciin Florence occurred in 1494, in which year Machiavelli entered the public service. During hisofficialcareerFlorencewasfreeunderthegovernmentofaRepublic,whichlasteduntil1512,whentheMedicireturnedtopower,andMachiavellilosthisoffice.TheMediciagainruledFlorencefrom1512until1527,whentheywereoncemoredrivenout.ThiswastheperiodofMachiavelli'sliteraryactivityandincreasinginfluence;buthedied,withinafewweeksoftheexpulsionoftheMedici,on22ndJune1527,inhisfifty-eighthyear,withouthavingregainedoffice.

YOUTH—Aet.1-25—1469-94

AlthoughthereislittlerecordedoftheyouthofMachiavelli,theFlorenceofthosedaysissowellknownthattheearlyenvironmentofthisrepresentativecitizenmaybeeasilyimagined.Florencehasbeendescribedas a citywith twoopposite currentsof life, onedirectedby the fervent andaustereSavonarola, the other by the splendour-loving Lorenzo. Savonarola's influence upon the youngMachiavelli must have been slight, for although at one time he wielded immense power over thefortunesofFlorence,heonlyfurnishedMachiavelliwithasubjectofagibein"ThePrince,"whereheiscitedasanexampleofanunarmedprophetwhocametoabadend.WhereasthemagnificenceoftheMediceanruleduringthelifeofLorenzoappearedtohaveimpressedMachiavellistrongly,forhefrequentlyrecurstoitinhiswritings,anditistoLorenzo'sgrandsonthathededicates"ThePrince."Machiavelli, inhis"HistoryofFlorence,"givesusapictureof theyoungmenamongwhomhis

youthwaspassed.Hewrites: "Theywere freer than their forefathers indressand living, and spentmoreinotherkindsofexcesses,consumingtheirtimeandmoneyinidleness,gaming,andwomen;theirchiefaimwastoappearwelldressedandtospeakwithwitandacuteness,whilsthewhocouldwound others themost cleverlywas thought thewisest." In a letter to his sonGuido,Machiavellishowswhyyouthshouldavailitselfofitsopportunitiesforstudy,andleadsustoinferthathisownyouthhadbeensooccupied.Hewrites:"Ihavereceivedyourletter,whichhasgivenmethegreatestpleasure,especiallybecauseyoutellmeyouarequiterestoredinhealth,thanwhichIcouldhavenobetternews;for ifGodgrant life toyou,andtome,Ihopetomakeagoodmanofyouifyouarewillingtodoyourshare."Then,writingofanewpatron,hecontinues:"Thiswill turnoutwellforyou,but it isnecessaryforyoutostudy;since, then,youhavenolongertheexcuseof illness, takepains to study letters andmusic, for you seewhat honour is done tome for the little skill I have.Therefore,myson,ifyouwishtopleaseme,andtobringsuccessandhonourtoyourself,dorightandstudy,becauseotherswillhelpyouifyouhelpyourself."

OFFICE—Aet.25-43—1494-1512

ThesecondperiodofMachiavelli'slifewasspentintheserviceofthefreeRepublicofFlorence,whichflourished,asstatedabove,fromtheexpulsionoftheMediciin1494untiltheirreturnin1512.AfterservingfouryearsinoneofthepublicofficeshewasappointedChancellorandSecretarytotheSecondChancery,theTenofLibertyandPeace.HereweareonfirmgroundwhendealingwiththeeventsofMachiavelli'slife,forduringthistimehetookaleadingpartintheaffairsoftheRepublic,andwe have its decrees, records, and dispatches to guide us, aswell as his ownwritings.Amererecapitulation of a few of his transactionswith the statesmen and soldiers of his time gives a fairindication of his activities, and supplies the sources from which he drew the experiences andcharacterswhichillustrate"ThePrince."Hisfirstmissionwasin1499toCatherinaSforza,"myladyofForli"of"ThePrince,"fromwhose

conductandfatehedrewthemoralthatitisfarbettertoearntheconfidenceofthepeoplethantorelyonfortresses.ThisisaverynoticeableprincipleinMachiavelli,andisurgedbyhiminmanywaysasamatterofvitalimportancetoprinces.In1500hewassenttoFrancetoobtaintermsfromLouisXIIforcontinuingthewaragainstPisa:

thiskingitwaswho,inhisconductofaffairsinItaly,committedthefivecapitalerrorsinstatecraftsummarized in "The Prince," and was consequently driven out. He, also, it was who made thedissolutionofhismarriageaconditionofsupporttoPopeAlexanderVI;whichleadsMachiavellitoreferthosewhourgethatsuchpromisesshouldbekepttowhathehaswrittenconcerningthefaithofprinces.Machiavelli's public lifewas largely occupiedwith events arising out of the ambitions of Pope

AlexanderVIandhisson,CesareBorgia,theDukeValentino,andthesecharactersfillalargespaceof"ThePrince."Machiavellineverhesitatestocitetheactionsofthedukeforthebenefitofusurperswhowishtokeepthestatestheyhaveseized;hecan,indeed,findnopreceptstooffersogoodasthepatternofCesareBorgia'sconduct,insomuchthatCesareisacclaimedbysomecriticsasthe"hero"of"ThePrince."Yetin"ThePrince"thedukeisinpointoffactcitedasatypeofthemanwhorisesonthe fortune of others, and fallswith them;who takes every course thatmight be expected from aprudentman but the coursewhichwill save him;who is prepared for all eventualities but the onewhichhappens;andwho,whenallhisabilitiesfailtocarryhimthrough,exclaimsthatitwasnothisfault,butanextraordinaryandunforeseenfatality.On the death of Pius III, in 1503, Machiavelli was sent to Rome to watch the election of his

successor,andtherehesawCesareBorgiacheatedintoallowingthechoiceoftheCollegetofallonGiulianodelleRovere(JuliusII),whowasoneofthecardinalsthathadmostreasontofeartheduke.Machiavelli,whencommentingonthiselection,saysthathewhothinksnewfavourswillcausegreatpersonagestoforgetoldinjuriesdeceiveshimself.JuliusdidnotrestuntilhehadruinedCesare.It was to Julius II that Machiavelli was sent in 1506, when that pontiff was commencing his

enterprise against Bologna; which he brought to a successful issue, as he did many of his otheradventures,owingchieflytohisimpetuouscharacter.ItisinreferencetoPopeJuliusthatMachiavellimoralizeson the resemblancebetweenFortuneandwomen,andconcludes that it is thebold ratherthanthecautiousmanthatwillwinandholdthemboth.It is impossible to follow here the varying fortunes of the Italian states, which in 1507 were

controlledbyFrance,Spain,andGermany,withresultsthathavelastedtoourday;weareconcernedwith those events, and with the three great actors in them, so far only as they impinge on the

personalityofMachiavelli.HehadseveralmeetingswithLouisXIIofFrance,andhisestimateofthatmonarch'scharacterhasalreadybeenalludedto.MachiavellihaspaintedFerdinandofAragonasthemanwho accomplishedgreat thingsunder the cloakof religion, butwho in reality hadnomercy,faith, humanity, or integrity; and who, had he allowed himself to be influenced by such motives,wouldhavebeenruined.TheEmperorMaximilianwasoneof themost interestingmenof theage,andhischaracterhasbeendrawnbymanyhands;butMachiavelli,whowasanenvoyathiscourtin1507-8, reveals the secret of hismany failureswhen he describes him as a secretiveman,withoutforce of character—ignoring the human agencies necessary to carry his schemes into effect, andneverinsistingonthefulfilmentofhiswishes.The remaining years ofMachiavelli's official career were filled with events arising out of the

LeagueofCambrai,madein1508betweenthethreegreatEuropeanpowersalreadymentionedandthepope,with theobjectofcrushing theVenetianRepublic.Thisresultwasattained in thebattleofVaila,whenVenicelostinonedayallthatshehadwonineighthundredyears.Florencehadadifficultpart toplayduringtheseevents,complicatedas theywerebythefeudwhichbrokeoutbetweenthepopeand theFrench,because friendshipwithFrancehaddictated theentirepolicyof theRepublic.When,in1511,JuliusIIfinallyformedtheHolyLeagueagainstFrance,andwiththeassistanceoftheSwissdrovetheFrenchoutofItaly,FlorencelayatthemercyofthePope,andhadtosubmittohisterms,oneofwhichwasthattheMedicishouldberestored.ThereturnoftheMedicitoFlorenceon1st September 1512, and the consequent fall of the Republic, was the signal for the dismissal ofMachiavelli andhis friends, and thusputanend tohispubliccareer, for, aswehave seen,hediedwithoutregainingoffice.

LITERATUREANDDEATH—Aet.43-58—1512-27

OnthereturnoftheMedici,Machiavelli,whoforafewweekshadvainlyhopedtoretainhisofficeunderthenewmastersofFlorence,wasdismissedbydecreedated7thNovember1512.ShortlyafterthishewasaccusedofcomplicityinanabortiveconspiracyagainsttheMedici,imprisoned,andputtothequestionby torture.ThenewMediceanpope,LeoX,procuredhis release,andheretired tohissmallpropertyatSanCasciano,nearFlorence,wherehedevotedhimself to literature.Ina letter toFrancescoVettori,dated13thDecember1513,hehasleftaveryinterestingdescriptionofhislifeatthisperiod,whichelucidateshismethodsandhismotives inwriting"ThePrince."Afterdescribinghisdailyoccupationswithhisfamilyandneighbours,hewrites:"Theeveningbeingcome,Ireturnhomeandgotomystudy;attheentranceIpulloffmypeasant-clothes,coveredwithdustanddirt,andputonmynoblecourtdress,andthusbecominglyre-clothedIpassintotheancientcourtsofthemenofold,where,beinglovinglyreceivedbythem,Iamfedwiththatfoodwhichisminealone;whereIdo not hesitate to speak with them, and to ask for the reason of their actions, and they in theirbenignityanswerme;andforfourhoursIfeelnoweariness,Iforgeteverytrouble,povertydoesnotdismay,deathdoesnot terrifyme; I ampossessedentirelyby thosegreatmen.AndbecauseDantesays:Knowledgedothcomeoflearningwellretained,

Unfruitfulelse,

IhavenoteddownwhatIhavegainedfromtheirconversation,andhavecomposedasmallworkon'Principalities,'whereIpourmyselfoutasfullyasIcaninmeditationonthesubject,discussingwhataprincipalityis,whatkindsthereare,howtheycanbeacquired,howtheycanbekept,whytheyarelost: and if any ofmy fancies ever pleased you, this ought not to displease you: and to a prince,especiallytoanewone, itshouldbewelcome:thereforeIdedicateit tohisMagnificenceGiuliano.FilippoCasavecchiohasseenit;hewillbeabletotellyouwhatisinit,andofthediscoursesIhavehadwithhim;nevertheless,Iamstillenrichingandpolishingit."The"littlebook"sufferedmanyvicissitudesbeforeattainingtheforminwhichithasreachedus.

Variousmentalinfluenceswereatworkduringitscomposition;itstitleandpatronwerechanged;andfor some unknown reason it was finally dedicated to Lorenzo de' Medici. Although MachiavellidiscussedwithCasavecchiowhetheritshouldbesentorpresentedinpersontothepatron,thereisnoevidence that Lorenzo ever received or even read it: he certainly never gave Machiavelli anyemployment. Although it was plagiarized during Machiavelli's lifetime, "The Prince" was neverpublishedbyhim,anditstextisstilldisputable.MachiavelliconcludeshislettertoVettorithus:"Andastothislittlething[hisbook],whenithas

been read itwill be seen that during the fifteenyears I havegiven to the studyof statecraft I haveneithersleptnoridled;andmenoughtevertodesiretobeservedbyonewhohasreapedexperienceat the expense of others.And ofmy loyalty none could doubt, because having always kept faith Icouldnotnowlearnhowtobreakit;forhewhohasbeenfaithfulandhonest,asIhave,cannotchangehisnature;andmypovertyisawitnesstomyhonesty."BeforeMachiavellihadgot"ThePrince"offhishandshecommencedhis"DiscourseontheFirst

Decade of Titus Livius,"which should be read concurrentlywith "The Prince." These and severalminorworksoccupiedhimuntil theyear1518,whenheacceptedasmallcommissiontolookaftertheaffairsofsomeFlorentinemerchantsatGenoa.In1519theMediceanrulersofFlorencegrantedafew political concessions to her citizens, and Machiavelli with others was consulted upon a newconstitutionunderwhichtheGreatCouncilwastoberestored;butononepretextoranotheritwas

notpromulgated.In1520theFlorentinemerchantsagainhadrecoursetoMachiavellitosettletheirdifficultieswith

Lucca,butthisyearwaschieflyremarkableforhisre-entryintoFlorentineliterarysociety,wherehewasmuchsoughtafter,andalsofortheproductionofhis"ArtofWar."ItwasinthesameyearthathereceivedacommissionattheinstanceofCardinalde'Medicitowritethe"HistoryofFlorence,"ataskwhichoccupiedhimuntil1525.HisreturntopopularfavourmayhavedeterminedtheMedicitogivehim this employment, for an oldwriter observes that "an able statesman out ofwork, like a hugewhale,willendeavourtooverturntheshipunlesshehasanemptycasktoplaywith."Whenthe"HistoryofFlorence"wasfinished,MachiavellitookittoRomeforpresentationtohis

patron,Giulianode'Medici,whohadinthemeanwhilebecomepopeunderthetitleofClementVII.Itissomewhatremarkablethat,as,in1513,Machiavellihadwritten"ThePrince"fortheinstructionoftheMediciaftertheyhadjustregainedpowerinFlorence,so,in1525,hededicatedthe"HistoryofFlorence" to theheadof the familywhen its ruinwasnowat hand. In that year thebattle ofPaviadestroyedtheFrenchruleinItaly,andleftFrancisIaprisonerinthehandsofhisgreatrival,CharlesV.Thiswas followedby the sack ofRome, upon the news ofwhich the popular party at FlorencethrewofftheyokeoftheMedici,whowereoncemorebanished.Machiavelliwas absent fromFlorence at this time, but hastenedhis return, hoping to secure his

formerofficeofsecretarytothe"TenofLibertyandPeace."UnhappilyhewastakenillsoonafterhereachedFlorence,wherehediedon22ndJune1527.

THEMANANDHISWORKS

NoonecansaywherethebonesofMachiavellirest,butmodernFlorencehasdecreedhimastatelycenotaph in Santa Croce, by the side of her most famous sons; recognizing that, whatever othernationsmayhavefoundinhisworks,ItalyfoundinthemtheideaofherunityandthegermsofherrenaissanceamongthenationsofEurope.Whilstitisidletoprotestagainsttheworld-wideandevilsignificationofhisname,itmaybepointedoutthattheharshconstructionofhisdoctrinewhichthissinisterreputationimplieswasunknowntohisownday,andthattheresearchesofrecenttimeshaveenabledustointerprethimmorereasonably.Itisduetotheseinquiriesthattheshapeofan"unholynecromancer,"whichsolonghauntedmen'svision,hasbeguntofade.Machiavelli was undoubtedly a man of great observation, acuteness, and industry; noting with

appreciativeeyewhateverpassedbeforehim,andwithhissupremeliterarygiftturningittoaccountin his enforced retirement from affairs. He does not present himself, nor is he depicted by hiscontemporaries, as a type of that rare combination, the successful statesman and author, for heappearstohavebeenonlymoderatelyprosperousinhisseveralembassiesandpoliticalemployments.HewasmisledbyCatherinaSforza,ignoredbyLouisXII,overawedbyCesareBorgia;severalofhisembassieswerequitebarrenofresults;hisattemptstofortifyFlorencefailed,andthesoldierythatheraisedastonishedeverybodybytheircowardice.Intheconductofhisownaffairshewastimidandtime-serving;hedarednot appearby the sideofSoderini, towhomheowed somuch, for fearofcompromisinghimself;hisconnectionwiththeMediciwasopentosuspicion,andGiulianoappearsto have recognized his real forte when he set him to write the "History of Florence," rather thanemployhiminthestate.Anditisontheliterarysideofhischaracter,andtherealone,thatwefindnoweaknessandnofailure.Althoughthelightofalmostfourcenturieshasbeenfocusedon"ThePrince,"itsproblemsarestill

debatable and interesting,because theyare the eternalproblemsbetween the ruledand their rulers.Suchastheyare,itsethicsarethoseofMachiavelli'scontemporaries;yettheycannotbesaidtobeoutof date so long as the governments of Europe rely on material rather than on moral forces. Itshistorical incidents and personages become interesting by reason of the uses which Machiavellimakesofthemtoillustratehistheoriesofgovernmentandconduct.LeavingoutofconsiderationthosemaximsofstatewhichstillfurnishsomeEuropeanandeastern

statesmenwithprinciplesofaction,"ThePrince"isbestrewnwithtruthsthatcanbeprovedateveryturn.Menarestillthedupesoftheirsimplicityandgreed,astheywereinthedaysofAlexanderVI.The cloak of religion still conceals the vices which Machiavelli laid bare in the character ofFerdinandofAragon.Menwillnotlookatthingsastheyreallyare,butastheywishthemtobe—andare ruined. In politics there are no perfectly safe courses; prudence consists in choosing the leastdangerousones.Then—topass toahigherplane—Machiavelli reiterates that,althoughcrimesmaywin an empire, they do notwin glory.Necessarywars are justwars, and the armsof a nation arehallowedwhenithasnootherresourcebuttofight.It is thecryofafarlaterdaythanMachiavelli's thatgovernmentshouldbeelevatedintoaliving

moralforce,capableofinspiringthepeoplewithajustrecognitionofthefundamentalprinciplesofsociety; to this "high argument" "The Prince" contributes but little.Machiavelli always refused towriteeitherofmenorofgovernmentsotherwisethanashefoundthem,andhewriteswithsuchskillandinsightthathisworkisofabidingvalue.Butwhatinvests"ThePrince"withmorethanamerelyartisticorhistoricalinterestistheincontrovertibletruththatitdealswiththegreatprincipleswhich

stillguidenationsandrulersintheirrelationshipwitheachotherandtheirneighbours.Intranslating"ThePrince"myaimhasbeentoachieveatallcostsanexactliteralrenderingofthe

original, rather than a fluent paraphrase adapted to the modern notions of style and expression.Machiavelliwasnofacilephrasemonger;theconditionsunderwhichhewroteobligedhimtoweigheveryword;histhemeswerelofty,hissubstancegrave,hismannernoblyplainandserious."Quiseofuitunquaminpartiundisrebus,indefiniendis,inexplanandispressior?"In"ThePrince,"itmaybetrulysaid,thereisreasonassignable,notonlyforeveryword,butforthepositionofeveryword.Toan Englishman of Shakespeare's time the translation of such a treatise was in some ways acomparativelyeasytask,forinthosetimesthegeniusoftheEnglishmorenearlyresembledthatofthe Italian language; to theEnglishmanof to-day it isnot so simple.To takea singleexample: theword "intrattenere," employed byMachiavelli to indicate the policy adopted by the Roman SenatetowardstheweakerstatesofGreece,wouldbyanElizabethanbecorrectlyrendered"entertain,"andeverycontemporaryreaderwouldunderstandwhatwasmeantbysayingthat"RomeentertainedtheAetoliansandtheAchaeanswithoutaugmentingtheirpower."Butto-daysuchaphrasewouldseemobsoleteandambiguous,ifnotunmeaning:wearecompelledtosaythat"RomemaintainedfriendlyrelationswiththeAetolians,"etc.,usingfourwordstodotheworkofone.IhavetriedtopreservethepithybrevityoftheItaliansofaraswasconsistentwithanabsolutefidelitytothesense.IftheresultbeanoccasionalasperityIcanonlyhopethatthereader,inhiseagernesstoreachtheauthor'smeaning,mayoverlooktheroughnessoftheroadthatleadshimtoit.ThefollowingisalistoftheworksofMachiavelli:Principal works. Discorso sopra le cose di Pisa, 1499; Del modo di trattare i popoli della

Valdichiana ribellati,1502;Delmodo tenutodalducaValentinonell' ammazzareVitellozzoVitelli,Oliverotto daFermo, etc., 1502;Discorso sopra la provisione del danaro, 1502;Decennale primo(poem in terza rima),1506;Ritrattidelle cosedell'Alemagna,1508-12;Decennale secondo,1509;Ritratti delle cose di Francia, 1510;Discorsi sopra la prima deca di T. Livio, 3 vols., 1512-17; IlPrincipe, 1513;Andria, comedy translated fromTerence, 1513 (?);Mandragola, prose comedy infiveacts,withprologueinverse,1513;Dellalingua(dialogue),1514;Clizia,comedyinprose,1515(?); Belfagor arcidiavolo (novel), 1515; Asino d'oro (poem in terza rima), 1517; Dell' arte dellaguerra,1519-20;Discorsosopra il riformare lostatodiFirenze,1520;SommariodellecosedellacittadiLucca,1520;VitadiCastruccioCastracanidaLucca,1520;Istoriefiorentine,8books,1521-5;Frammentistorici,1525.OtherpoemsincludeSonetti,Canzoni,Ottave,andCanticarnascialeschi.Editions.Aldo,Venice,1546;dellaTertina,1550;Cambiagi,Florence,6vols.,1782-5;deiClassici,

Milan,101813;Silvestri,9vols.,1820-2;Passerini,Fanfani,Milanesi,6vols.onlypublished,1873-7.Minorworks.Ed.F.L.Polidori,1852;Lettere familiari, ed.E.Alvisi,1883,2editions,onewith

excisions;CreditedWritings, ed.G.Canestrini, 1857;Letters to F.Vettori, seeA.Ridolfi, Pensieriintorno allo scopo di N. Machiavelli nel libro Il Principe, etc.; D. Ferrara, The PrivateCorrespondenceofNicoloMachiavelli,1929.

DEDICATION

TotheMagnificentLorenzoDiPieroDe'Medici:

Thosewhostrivetoobtainthegoodgracesofaprinceare

accustomedtocomebeforehimwithsuchthingsastheyholdmost

precious,orinwhichtheyseehimtakemostdelight;whenceone

oftenseeshorses,arms,clothofgold,preciousstones,and

similarornamentspresentedtoprinces,worthyoftheirgreatness.

DesiringthereforetopresentmyselftoyourMagnificencewith

sometestimonyofmydevotiontowardsyou,Ihavenotfoundamong

mypossessionsanythingwhichIholdmoredearthan,orvalueso

muchas,theknowledgeoftheactionsofgreatmen,acquiredby

longexperienceincontemporaryaffairs,andacontinualstudyof

antiquity;which,havingreflecteduponitwithgreatand

prolongeddiligence,Inowsend,digestedintoalittlevolume,to

yourMagnificence.

AndalthoughImayconsiderthisworkunworthyofyour

countenance,neverthelessItrustmuchtoyourbenignitythatit

maybeacceptable,seeingthatitisnotpossibleformetomakea

bettergiftthantoofferyoutheopportunityofunderstandingin

theshortesttimeallthatIhavelearntinsomanyyears,and

withsomanytroublesanddangers;whichworkIhavenot

embellishedwithswellingormagnificentwords,norstuffedwith

roundedperiods,norwithanyextrinsicallurementsoradornments

whatever,withwhichsomanyareaccustomedtoembellishtheir

works;forIhavewishedeitherthatnohonourshouldbegivenit,

orelsethatthetruthofthematterandtheweightinessofthe

themeshallmakeitacceptable.

NordoIholdwiththosewhoregarditasapresumptionifaman

oflowandhumbleconditiondaretodiscussandsettlethe

concernsofprinces;because,justasthosewhodrawlandscapes

placethemselvesbelowintheplaintocontemplatethenatureof

themountainsandofloftyplaces,andinordertocontemplatethe

plainsplacethemselvesuponhighmountains,evensotounderstand

thenatureofthepeopleitneedstobeaprince,andto

understandthatofprincesitneedstobeofthepeople.

Takethen,yourMagnificence,thislittlegiftinthespiritin

whichIsendit;wherein,ifitbediligentlyreadandconsidered

byyou,youwilllearnmyextremedesirethatyoushouldattain

thatgreatnesswhichfortuneandyourotherattributespromise.

AndifyourMagnificencefromthesummitofyourgreatnesswill

sometimesturnyoureyestotheselowerregions,youwillseehow

unmeritedlyIsufferagreatandcontinuedmalignityoffortune.

THEPRINCE

CHAPTERI—HOWMANYKINDSOFPRINCIPALITIESTHEREARE,ANDBYWHATMEANSTHEYAREACQUIRED

Allstates,allpowers,thathaveheldandholdruleovermenhavebeenandareeitherrepublicsorprincipalities.Principalitiesareeitherhereditary,inwhichthefamilyhasbeenlongestablished;ortheyarenew.The new are either entirely new, as was Milan to Francesco Sforza, or they are, as it were,

membersannexedtothehereditarystateoftheprincewhohasacquiredthem,aswasthekingdomofNaplestothatoftheKingofSpain.Suchdominionsthusacquiredareeitheraccustomedtoliveunderaprince,ortoliveinfreedom;

and are acquired either by the arms of the prince himself, or of others, or else by fortune or byability.

CHAPTERII—CONCERNINGHEREDITARYPRINCIPALITIES

Iwillleaveoutalldiscussiononrepublics,inasmuchasinanotherplaceIhavewrittenofthematlength,andwilladdressmyselfonly toprincipalities. IndoingsoIwillkeepto theorder indicatedabove,anddiscusshowsuchprincipalitiesaretoberuledandpreserved.Isayatoncetherearefewerdifficultiesinholdinghereditarystates,andthoselongaccustomedto

thefamilyoftheirprince,thannewones;foritissufficientonlynottotransgressthecustomsofhisancestors,andtodealprudentlywithcircumstancesastheyarise,foraprinceofaveragepowerstomaintainhimselfinhisstate,unlesshebedeprivedofitbysomeextraordinaryandexcessiveforce;and if he should be so deprived of it, whenever anything sinister happens to the usurper, he willregainit.WehaveinItaly,forexample,theDukeofFerrara,whocouldnothavewithstoodtheattacksofthe

Venetiansin'84,northoseofPopeJuliusin'10,unlesshehadbeenlongestablishedinhisdominions.Forthehereditaryprincehaslesscauseandlessnecessitytooffend;henceithappensthathewillbemoreloved;andunlessextraordinaryvicescausehimtobehated,itisreasonabletoexpectthathissubjectswillbenaturallywelldisposedtowardshim;andintheantiquityanddurationofhisrulethememoriesandmotivesthatmakeforchangearelost,foronechangealwaysleavesthetoothingforanother.

CHAPTERIII—CONCERNINGMIXEDPRINCIPALITIES

But the difficulties occur in a newprincipality.And firstly, if it be not entirely new, but is, as itwere, a member of a state which, taken collectively, may be called composite, the changes arisechieflyfromaninherentdifficultywhichthereisinallnewprincipalities;formenchangetheirrulerswillingly,hopingtobetterthemselves,andthishopeinducesthemtotakeuparmsagainsthimwhorules:whereintheyaredeceived,becausetheyafterwardsfindbyexperiencetheyhavegonefrombadtoworse.This follows alsoon another natural and commonnecessity,which always causes a newprincetoburdenthosewhohavesubmittedtohimwithhissoldieryandwithinfiniteotherhardshipswhichhemustputuponhisnewacquisition.Inthiswayyouhaveenemiesinallthosewhomyouhaveinjuredinseizingthatprincipality,and

youarenotable tokeep those friendswhoputyou therebecauseofyournotbeingable to satisfytheminthewaytheyexpected,andyoucannottakestrongmeasuresagainst them,feelingboundtothem. For, although onemay be very strong in armed forces, yet in entering a province one hasalwaysneedofthegoodwillofthenatives.ForthesereasonsLouistheTwelfth,KingofFrance,quicklyoccupiedMilan,andasquicklylostit;

and to turn him out the first time it only needed Lodovico's own forces; because those who hadopened the gates to him, finding themselves deceived in their hopes of future benefit, would notenduretheill-treatmentofthenewprince.Itisverytruethat,afteracquiringrebelliousprovincesasecondtime,theyarenotsolightlylostafterwards,becausetheprince,withlittlereluctance,takestheopportunity of the rebellion to punish the delinquents, to clear out the suspects, and to strengthenhimselfintheweakestplaces.ThustocauseFrancetoloseMilanthefirsttimeitwasenoughfortheDukeLodovico(*)toraiseinsurrectionsontheborders;buttocausehimtoloseitasecondtimeitwas necessary to bring the whole world against him, and that his armies should be defeated anddrivenoutofItaly;whichfollowedfromthecausesabovementioned.(*)DukeLodovicowasLodovicoMoro,asonofFrancesco

Sforza,whomarriedBeatriced'Este.HeruledoverMilan

from1494to1500,anddiedin1510.

NeverthelessMilanwastakenfromFranceboththefirstandthesecondtime.Thegeneralreasonsforthefirsthavebeendiscussed;itremainstonamethoseforthesecond,andtoseewhatresourceshehad,andwhatanyoneinhissituationwouldhavehadformaintaininghimselfmoresecurelyinhisacquisitionthandidtheKingofFrance.NowI say that thosedominionswhich,whenacquired,areadded toanancient statebyhimwho

acquiresthem,areeitherofthesamecountryandlanguage,ortheyarenot.Whentheyare,itiseasiertoholdthem,especiallywhentheyhavenotbeenaccustomedtoself-government;andtoholdthemsecurelyitisenoughtohavedestroyedthefamilyoftheprincewhowasrulingthem;becausethetwopeoples, preserving in other things the old conditions, and not being unlike in customs, will livequietly together, asonehas seen inBrittany,Burgundy,Gascony, andNormandy,whichhavebeenbound to France for so long a time: and, although there may be some difference in language,neverthelessthecustomsarealike,andthepeoplewilleasilybeabletogetonamongstthemselves.Hewhohasannexedthem,ifhewishestoholdthem,hasonlytobearinmindtwoconsiderations:theone, that the familyof their former lord isextinguished; theother, thatneither their lawsnor theirtaxes are altered, so that in a very short time they will become entirely one body with the oldprincipality.But when states are acquired in a country differing in language, customs, or laws, there are

difficulties,andgoodfortuneandgreatenergyareneededtoholdthem,andoneofthegreatestandmostrealhelpswouldbethathewhohasacquiredthemshouldgoandresidethere.Thiswouldmakehispositionmoresecureanddurable,asithasmadethatoftheTurkinGreece,who,notwithstandingalltheothermeasurestakenbyhimforholdingthatstate,ifhehadnotsettledthere,wouldnothavebeenabletokeepit.Because,ifoneisonthespot,disordersareseenastheyspringup,andonecanquicklyremedythem;butifoneisnotathand,theyareheardofonlywhentheyaregreat,andthenone can no longer remedy them. Besides this, the country is not pillaged by your officials; thesubjects are satisfied by prompt recourse to the prince; thus,wishing to be good, they havemorecausetolovehim,andwishingtobeotherwise,tofearhim.Hewhowouldattackthatstatefromtheoutsidemusthavetheutmostcaution;aslongastheprinceresidesthereitcanonlybewrestedfromhimwiththegreatestdifficulty.Theotherandbettercourseistosendcoloniestooneortwoplaces,whichmaybeaskeystothat

state,foritisnecessaryeithertodothisorelsetokeepthereagreatnumberofcavalryandinfantry.Aprincedoesnot spendmuchoncolonies, forwith littleornoexpensehecansend themoutandkeepthemthere,andheoffendsaminorityonlyofthecitizensfromwhomhetakeslandsandhousestogive themto thenewinhabitants;and thosewhomheoffends, remainingpoorandscattered,areneverabletoinjurehim;whilsttherestbeinguninjuredareeasilykeptquiet,andatthesametimeareanxiousnot toerr for fear it shouldhappen to themas ithas to thosewhohavebeendespoiled. Inconclusion, I say that thesecoloniesarenotcostly, theyaremore faithful, they injure less,and theinjured,ashasbeensaid,beingpoorandscattered,cannothurt.Uponthis,onehastoremarkthatmenoughteithertobewelltreatedorcrushed,becausetheycanavengethemselvesoflighterinjuries,ofmoreseriousonestheycannot;thereforetheinjurythatistobedonetoamanoughttobeofsuchakindthatonedoesnotstandinfearofrevenge.But in maintaining armed men there in place of colonies one spends much more, having to

consumeonthegarrisonall the incomefromthestate,sothat theacquisitionturns intoa loss,andmanymoreareexasperated,becausethewholestateisinjured;throughtheshiftingofthegarrisonupanddownallbecomeacquaintedwithhardship, andallbecomehostile, and theyareenemieswho,whilstbeatenontheirownground,areyetabletodohurt.Foreveryreason,therefore,suchguardsareasuselessasacolonyisuseful.Again, theprincewhoholdsacountrydiffering in theaboverespectsought tomakehimself the

headanddefenderofhislesspowerfulneighbours,andtoweakenthemorepowerfulamongstthem,takingcarethatnoforeigneraspowerfulashimselfshall,byanyaccident,getafootingthere;foritwillalwayshappenthatsuchaonewillbeintroducedbythosewhoarediscontented,eitherthroughexcessofambitionorthroughfear,asonehasseenalready.TheRomanswerebroughtintoGreecebytheAetolians;andineveryothercountrywheretheyobtainedafootingtheywerebroughtinbythe inhabitants. And the usual course of affairs is that, as soon as a powerful foreigner enters acountry,allthesubjectstatesaredrawntohim,movedbythehatredwhichtheyfeelagainsttherulingpower.So that in respect to thosesubjectstateshehasnot to takeany trouble togain themover tohimself,forthewholeofthemquicklyrallytothestatewhichhehasacquiredthere.Hehasonlytotakecarethattheydonotgetholdoftoomuchpowerandtoomuchauthority,andthenwithhisownforces,andwiththeirgoodwill,hecaneasilykeepdownthemorepowerfulofthem,soastoremainentirelymaster in the country.Andhewhodoesnot properlymanage this businesswill soon losewhathehasacquired,andwhilsthedoesholdithewillhaveendlessdifficultiesandtroubles.The Romans, in the countries which they annexed, observed closely these measures; they sent

colonies and maintained friendly relations with(*) the minor powers, without increasing theirstrength;theykeptdownthegreater,anddidnotallowanystrongforeignpowerstogainauthority.

Greeceappearstomesufficientforanexample.TheAchaeansandAetolianswerekeptfriendlybythem, the kingdom of Macedonia was humbled, Antiochus was driven out; yet the merits of theAchaeans and Aetolians never secured for them permission to increase their power, nor did thepersuasionsofPhilipeverinducetheRomanstobehisfriendswithoutfirsthumblinghim,nordidthe influence of Antiochus make them agree that he should retain any lordship over the country.BecausetheRomansdidintheseinstanceswhatallprudentprincesoughttodo,whohavetoregardnot only present troubles, but also future ones, for which they must prepare with every energy,because,whenforeseen,itiseasytoremedythem;butifyouwaituntiltheyapproach,themedicineisnolongerintimebecausethemaladyhasbecomeincurable;forithappensinthis,asthephysicianssay it happens inhectic fever, that in thebeginningof themalady it is easy to curebutdifficult todetect, but in the course of time, not having been either detected or treated in the beginning, itbecomeseasytodetectbutdifficulttocure.Thisithappensinaffairsofstate,forwhentheevilsthatarisehavebeenforeseen(whichitisonlygiventoawisemantosee),theycanbequicklyredressed,butwhen,throughnothavingbeenforeseen,theyhavebeenpermittedtogrowinawaythateveryonecan see them, there is no longer a remedy.Therefore, theRomans, foreseeing troubles, dealtwiththematonce,and,eventoavoidawar,wouldnotletthemcometoahead,fortheyknewthatwarisnottobeavoided,butisonlytobeputofftotheadvantageofothers;moreovertheywishedtofightwithPhilipandAntiochusinGreecesoasnottohavetodoitinItaly;theycouldhaveavoidedboth,butthistheydidnotwish;nordidthateverpleasethemwhichisforeverinthemouthsofthewiseonesofourtime:—Letusenjoythebenefitsofthetime—butratherthebenefitsoftheirownvalourandprudence,fortimedriveseverythingbeforeit,andisabletobringwithitgoodaswellasevil,andevilaswellasgood.

(*)Seeremarkintheintroductionontheword

"intrattenere."

ButletusturntoFranceandinquirewhethershehasdoneanyofthethingsmentioned.IwillspeakofLouis(*)(andnotofCharles)(+)astheonewhoseconductisthebettertobeobserved,hehavingheldpossessionofItalyforthelongestperiod;andyouwillseethathehasdonetheoppositetothosethingswhichoughttobedonetoretainastatecomposedofdiverselements.(*)LouisXII,KingofFrance,"TheFatherofthePeople,"

born1462,died1515.

(+)CharlesVIII,KingofFrance,born1470,died1498.

KingLouiswasbroughtintoItalybytheambitionoftheVenetians,whodesiredtoobtainhalfthestateofLombardybyhisintervention.Iwillnotblamethecoursetakenbytheking,because,wishingtogetafootholdinItaly,andhavingnofriendsthere—seeingratherthateverydoorwasshuttohimowingtotheconductofCharles—hewasforcedtoacceptthosefriendshipswhichhecouldget,andhe would have succeeded very quickly in his design if in other matters he had not made somemistakes. The king, however, having acquired Lombardy, regained at once the authority whichCharles had lost:Genoa yielded; the Florentines became his friends; theMarquess ofMantua, theDuke of Ferrara, theBentivogli,my lady of Forli, the Lords of Faenza, of Pesaro, of Rimini, ofCamerino,ofPiombino,theLucchese,thePisans,theSienese—everybodymadeadvancestohimtobecomehisfriend.ThencouldtheVenetiansrealizetherashnessofthecoursetakenbythem,which,inorder that theymightsecure twotownsinLombardy,hadmadethekingmasterof two-thirdsofItaly.Letanyonenowconsiderwithwhatlittledifficultythekingcouldhavemaintainedhispositionin

Italyhadheobserved the rules above laiddown, andkept all his friends secure andprotected; foralthoughtheywerenumeroustheywerebothweakandtimid,someafraidoftheChurch,someoftheVenetians,andthustheywouldalwayshavebeenforcedtostandinwithhim,andbytheirmeanshecouldeasilyhavemadehimselfsecureagainstthosewhoremainedpowerful.ButhewasnosoonerinMilanthanhedidthecontrarybyassistingPopeAlexandertooccupytheRomagna.Itneveroccurredtohimthatbythisactionhewasweakeninghimself,deprivinghimselfoffriendsandofthosewhohad thrown themselves into his lap, whilst he aggrandized the Church by adding much temporalpowertothespiritual,thusgivingitgreaterauthority.Andhavingcommittedthisprimeerror,hewasobligedtofollowitup,somuchsothat,toputanendtotheambitionofAlexander,andtopreventhisbecomingthemasterofTuscany,hewashimselfforcedtocomeintoItaly.AndasifitwerenotenoughtohaveaggrandizedtheChurch,anddeprivedhimselfoffriends,he,

wishingtohavethekingdomofNaples,dividesitwiththeKingofSpain,andwherehewastheprimearbiterinItalyhetakesanassociate,sothattheambitiousofthatcountryandthemalcontentsofhisown should have somewhere to shelter; and whereas he could have left in the kingdom his ownpensionerasking,hedrovehimout,toputonetherewhowasabletodrivehim,Louis,outinturn.Thewishtoacquireisintruthverynaturalandcommon,andmenalwaysdosowhentheycan,and

forthistheywillbepraisednotblamed;butwhentheycannotdoso,yetwishtodosobyanymeans,then there is follyandblame.Therefore, ifFrancecouldhaveattackedNapleswithherownforcessheoughttohavedoneso;ifshecouldnot,thensheoughtnottohavedividedit.Andifthepartitionwhich she made with the Venetians in Lombardy was justified by the excuse that by it she got afootholdinItaly,thisotherpartitionmeritedblame,forithadnottheexcuseofthatnecessity.ThereforeLouismadethesefiveerrors:hedestroyedtheminorpowers,heincreasedthestrength

ofoneofthegreaterpowersinItaly,hebroughtinaforeignpower,hedidnotsettleinthecountry,hedidnotsendcolonies.Whicherrors,hadhelived,werenotenoughtoinjurehimhadhenotmadeasixth by taking away their dominions from the Venetians; because, had he not aggrandized the

Church,norbroughtSpain into Italy, itwouldhavebeenvery reasonableandnecessary tohumblethem;buthavingfirsttakenthesesteps,heoughtnevertohaveconsentedtotheirruin,forthey,beingpowerful, would always have kept off others from designs on Lombardy, to which the Venetianswould never have consented except to become masters themselves there; also because the otherswouldnotwishtotakeLombardyfromFranceinordertogiveittotheVenetians,andtoruncountertoboththeywouldnothavehadthecourage.And if anyone should say: "KingLouis yielded theRomagna toAlexander and thekingdom to

Spaintoavoidwar,"Ianswerforthereasonsgivenabovethatablunderoughtnevertobeperpetratedtoavoidwar,becauseitisnottobeavoided,butisonlydeferredtoyourdisadvantage.Andifanothershould allege the pledge which the king had given to the Pope that he would assist him in theenterprise, inexchangefor thedissolutionofhismarriage(*)andfor thecaptoRouen,(+) to thatIreplywhatIshallwritelateronconcerningthefaithofprinces,andhowitoughttobekept.(*)LouisXIIdivorcedhiswife,Jeanne,daughterofLouis

XI,andmarriedin1499AnneofBrittany,widowofCharles

VIII,inordertoretaintheDuchyofBrittanyforthe

crown.

(+)TheArchbishopofRouen.HewasGeorgesd'Amboise,

createdacardinalbyAlexanderVI.Born1460,died1510.

ThusKingLouislostLombardybynothavingfollowedanyoftheconditionsobservedbythosewhohavetakenpossessionofcountriesandwishedtoretainthem.Noristhereanymiracleinthis,butmuch that is reasonable and quite natural.And on thesematters I spoke atNanteswithRouen,when Valentino, as Cesare Borgia, the son of Pope Alexander, was usually called, occupied theRomagna,andonCardinalRouenobservingtomethattheItaliansdidnotunderstandwar,IrepliedtohimthattheFrenchdidnotunderstandstatecraft,meaningthatotherwisetheywouldnothaveallowedtheChurchtoreachsuchgreatness.AndinfactithasbeenseenthatthegreatnessoftheChurchandofSpaininItalyhasbeencausedbyFrance,andherruinmaybeattributedtothem.Fromthisageneralruleisdrawnwhichneverorrarelyfails:thathewhoisthecauseofanotherbecomingpowerfulisruined;becausethatpredominancyhasbeenbroughtabouteitherbyastutenessorelsebyforce,andbotharedistrustedbyhimwhohasbeenraisedtopower.

CHAPTERIV—WHYTHEKINGDOMOFDARIUS,CONQUEREDBYALEXANDER,DIDNOTREBELAGAINST

THESUCCESSORSOFALEXANDERATHISDEATH

Considering the difficultieswhichmen have had to hold to a newly acquired state, somemightwonder how, seeing thatAlexander theGreat became themaster ofAsia in a few years, and diedwhilst itwasscarcelysettled(whence itmightappearreasonable that thewholeempirewouldhaverebelled),neverthelesshissuccessorsmaintainedthemselves,andhadtomeetnootherdifficultythanthatwhicharoseamongthemselvesfromtheirownambitions.Ianswerthattheprincipalitiesofwhichonehasrecordarefoundtobegovernedintwodifferent

ways;eitherbyaprince,withabodyofservants,whoassisthimtogovernthekingdomasministersbyhisfavourandpermission;orbyaprinceandbarons,whoholdthatdignitybyantiquityofbloodandnotby thegraceof theprince.Suchbaronshave states and their own subjects,who recognizethemaslordsandholdtheminnaturalaffection.Thosestatesthataregovernedbyaprinceandhisservantshold theirprince inmoreconsideration,because inall thecountry there isnoonewho isrecognizedassuperiortohim,andiftheyyieldobediencetoanothertheydoitastoaministerandofficial,andtheydonotbearhimanyparticularaffection.The examples of these two governments in our time are the Turk and theKing of France. The

entiremonarchyof theTurkisgovernedbyone lord, theothersarehisservants;and,dividinghiskingdom into sanjaks, he sends there different administrators, and shifts and changes them as hechooses.ButtheKingofFranceisplacedinthemidstofanancientbodyoflords,acknowledgedbytheirownsubjects,andbelovedbythem;theyhavetheirownprerogatives,norcanthekingtaketheseaway except at his peril. Therefore, he who considers both of these states will recognize greatdifficulties in seizing the state of theTurk, but, once it is conquered, great ease in holding it.ThecausesofthedifficultiesinseizingthekingdomoftheTurkarethattheusurpercannotbecalledinbytheprincesofthekingdom,norcanhehopetobeassistedinhisdesignsbytherevoltofthosewhomthelordhasaroundhim.Thisarisesfromthereasonsgivenabove;forhisministers,beingallslavesandbondmen,canonlybecorruptedwithgreatdifficulty,andonecanexpect littleadvantagefromthem when they have been corrupted, as they cannot carry the people with them, for the reasonsassigned.Hence,hewhoattackstheTurkmustbearinmindthathewillfindhimunited,andhewillhave to relymoreonhisownstrength thanon the revoltofothers;but, ifonce theTurkhasbeenconquered,androutedinthefieldinsuchawaythathecannotreplacehisarmies,thereisnothingtofearbutthefamilyofthisprince,and,thisbeingexterminated,thereremainsnoonetofear,theothershavingnocreditwiththepeople;andastheconquerordidnotrelyonthembeforehisvictory,soheoughtnottofearthemafterit.ThecontraryhappensinkingdomsgovernedlikethatofFrance,becauseonecaneasilyenterthere

bygainingoversomebaronofthekingdom,foronealwaysfindsmalcontentsandsuchasdesireachange.Suchmen,forthereasonsgiven,canopenthewayintothestateandrenderthevictoryeasy;but ifyouwish tohold itafterwards,youmeetwith infinitedifficulties,both from thosewhohaveassisted you and from those you have crushed.Nor is it enough for you to have exterminated thefamilyof theprince,because the lords that remainmake themselves theheadsof freshmovementsagainstyou,andasyouareunableeither tosatisfyorexterminate them, that state is lostwhenevertimebringstheopportunity.

NowifyouwillconsiderwhatwasthenatureofthegovernmentofDarius,youwillfinditsimilartothekingdomoftheTurk,andthereforeitwasonlynecessaryforAlexander,firsttooverthrowhiminthefield,andthentotakethecountryfromhim.Afterwhichvictory,Dariusbeingkilled,thestateremained secure to Alexander, for the above reasons. And if his successors had been united theywould have enjoyed it securely and at their ease, for therewere no tumults raised in the kingdomexceptthosetheyprovokedthemselves.ButitisimpossibletoholdwithsuchtranquillitystatesconstitutedlikethatofFrance.Hencearose

those frequent rebellions against the Romans in Spain, France, and Greece, owing to the manyprincipalities there were in these states, of which, as long as the memory of them endured, theRomansalwaysheldaninsecurepossession;butwiththepowerandlongcontinuanceoftheempirethememoryofthempassedaway,andtheRomansthenbecamesecurepossessors.Andwhenfightingafterwardsamongstthemselves,eachonewasabletoattachtohimselfhisownpartsofthecountry,according to the authority he had assumed there; and the family of the former lord beingexterminated,noneotherthantheRomanswereacknowledged.WhenthesethingsarerememberednoonewillmarvelattheeasewithwhichAlexanderheldthe

EmpireofAsia,orat thedifficultieswhichothershavehadtokeepanacquisition,suchasPyrrhusandmanymore;thisisnotoccasionedbythelittleorabundanceofabilityintheconqueror,butbythewantofuniformityinthesubjectstate.

CHAPTERV—CONCERNINGTHEWAYTOGOVERNCITIESORPRINCIPALITIESWHICHLIVEDUNDERTHEIROWN

LAWSBEFORETHEYWEREANNEXED

Wheneverthosestateswhichhavebeenacquiredasstatedhavebeenaccustomedtoliveundertheirownlawsandinfreedom,therearethreecoursesforthosewhowishtoholdthem:thefirstistoruinthem, thenext is toreside there inperson, the third is topermit themto liveunder theirownlaws,drawingatribute,andestablishingwithinitanoligarchywhichwillkeepitfriendlytoyou.Becausesuchagovernment,beingcreatedbytheprince,knowsthatitcannotstandwithouthisfriendshipandinterest, anddoes itutmost to supporthim;and thereforehewhowouldkeepacityaccustomed tofreedomwillholditmoreeasilybythemeansofitsowncitizensthaninanyotherway.There are, for example, the Spartans and the Romans. The Spartans held Athens and Thebes,

establishing there an oligarchy, nevertheless they lost them.TheRomans, in order to holdCapua,Carthage,andNumantia,dismantledthem,anddidnotlosethem.TheywishedtoholdGreeceastheSpartansheldit,makingitfreeandpermittingitslaws,anddidnotsucceed.Sotoholdittheywerecompelled to dismantlemany cities in the country, for in truth there is no safeway to retain themotherwise thanby ruining them.Andhewhobecomesmasterofacityaccustomed to freedomanddoesnotdestroyit,mayexpecttobedestroyedbyit,forinrebellionithasalwaysthewatchwordoflibertyanditsancientprivilegesasarallyingpoint,whichneithertimenorbenefitswillevercauseitto forget. And whatever you may do or provide against, they never forget that name or theirprivilegesunlesstheyaredisunitedordispersed,butateverychancetheyimmediatelyrallytothem,asPisaafterthehundredyearsshehadbeenheldinbondagebytheFlorentines.Butwhencitiesorcountriesareaccustomedtoliveunderaprince,andhisfamilyisexterminated,

they, being on the one hand accustomed to obey and on the other hand not having the old prince,cannot agree in making one from amongst themselves, and they do not know how to governthemselves.Forthisreasontheyareveryslowtotakeuparms,andaprincecangainthemtohimselfandsecurethemmuchmoreeasily.Butinrepublicsthereismorevitality,greaterhatred,andmoredesireforvengeance,whichwillneverpermitthemtoallowthememoryoftheirformerlibertytorest;sothatthesafestwayistodestroythemortoresidethere.

CHAPTERVI—CONCERNINGNEWPRINCIPALITIESWHICHAREACQUIREDBYONE'SOWNARMSAND

ABILITY

Let no one be surprised if, in speaking of entirely newprincipalities as I shall do, I adduce thehighestexamplesbothofprinceandofstate;becausemen,walkingalmostalwaysinpathsbeatenbyothers,andfollowingbyimitationtheirdeeds,areyetunabletokeepentirelytothewaysofothersorattaintothepowerofthosetheyimitate.Awisemanoughtalwaystofollowthepathsbeatenbygreatmen,andtoimitatethosewhohavebeensupreme,sothatifhisabilitydoesnotequaltheirs,atleastitwillsavourofit.Lethimactlikethecleverarcherswho,designingtohitthemarkwhichyetappearstoo far distant, and knowing the limits to which the strength of their bow attains, take aimmuchhigherthanthemark,nottoreachbytheirstrengthorarrowtosogreataheight,buttobeablewiththeaidofsohighanaimtohitthemarktheywishtoreach.I say, therefore, that in entirely new principalities, where there is a new prince, more or less

difficulty is found in keeping them, accordingly as there is more or less ability in him who hasacquired the state.Now,as the factofbecomingaprince fromaprivate stationpresupposeseitherability or fortune, it is clear that one or other of these thingswillmitigate in some degreemanydifficulties.Nevertheless, hewhohas relied leaston fortune is established the strongest.Further, itfacilitatesmatterswhentheprince,havingnootherstate,iscompelledtoresidethereinperson.Buttocometothosewho,bytheirownabilityandnotthroughfortune,haverisentobeprinces,I

say that Moses, Cyrus, Romulus, Theseus, and such like are the most excellent examples. AndalthoughonemaynotdiscussMoses,hehavingbeenamereexecutorofthewillofGod,yetheoughttobeadmired,ifonlyforthatfavourwhichmadehimworthytospeakwithGod.ButinconsideringCyrusandotherswhohaveacquiredorfoundedkingdoms,allwillbefoundadmirable;andiftheirparticulardeedsandconductshallbeconsidered,theywillnotbefoundinferiortothoseofMoses,althoughhehadsogreatapreceptor.Andinexaminingtheiractionsandlivesonecannotseethattheyowed anything to fortune beyond opportunity, which brought them thematerial tomould into theformwhich seemed best to them.Without that opportunity their powers ofmindwould have beenextinguished,andwithoutthosepowerstheopportunitywouldhavecomeinvain.Itwasnecessary,therefore,toMosesthatheshouldfindthepeopleofIsraelinEgyptenslavedand

oppressedbytheEgyptians,inorderthattheyshouldbedisposedtofollowhimsoastobedeliveredout of bondage. It was necessary that Romulus should not remain in Alba, and that he should beabandonedathisbirth,inorderthatheshouldbecomeKingofRomeandfounderofthefatherland.ItwasnecessarythatCyrusshouldfindthePersiansdiscontentedwiththegovernmentoftheMedes,andtheMedessoftandeffeminatethroughtheirlongpeace.TheseuscouldnothaveshownhisabilityhadhenotfoundtheAtheniansdispersed.Theseopportunities,therefore,madethosemenfortunate,andtheirhighabilityenabledthemtorecognizetheopportunitywherebytheircountrywasennobledandmadefamous.Thosewhobyvalorouswaysbecomeprinces,likethesemen,acquireaprincipalitywithdifficulty,

buttheykeepitwithease.Thedifficultiestheyhaveinacquiringitriseinpartfromthenewrulesandmethods which they are forced to introduce to establish their government and its security. And itoughttoberememberedthatthereisnothingmoredifficulttotakeinhand,moreperiloustoconduct,ormoreuncertain in its success, than to take the lead in the introductionofaneworderof things,

because the innovatorhas for enemies all thosewhohavedonewell under theold conditions, andlukewarmdefendersinthosewhomaydowellunderthenew.Thiscoolnessarisespartlyfromfearoftheopponents,whohavethelawsontheirside,andpartlyfromtheincredulityofmen,whodonotreadily believe in new things until they have had a long experience of them. Thus it happens thatwhenever thosewho are hostile have the opportunity to attack they do it like partisans, whilst theothersdefendlukewarmly,insuchwisethattheprinceisendangeredalongwiththem.It isnecessary, therefore, ifwedesire todiscuss thismatter thoroughly, to inquirewhether these

innovatorscanrelyonthemselvesorhavetodependonothers:thatistosay,whether,toconsummatetheir enterprise, have they to use prayers or can they use force? In the first instance they alwayssucceedbadly,andnevercompassanything;butwhentheycanrelyonthemselvesanduseforce,thentheyarerarelyendangered.Henceitisthatallarmedprophetshaveconquered,andtheunarmedoneshavebeendestroyed.Besidesthereasonsmentioned,thenatureofthepeopleisvariable,andwhilstitiseasytopersuadethem,itisdifficulttofixtheminthatpersuasion.Andthusitisnecessarytotakesuchmeasuresthat,whentheybelievenolonger,itmaybepossibletomakethembelievebyforce.If Moses, Cyrus, Theseus, and Romulus had been unarmed they could not have enforced their

constitutionsforlong—ashappenedinourtimetoFraGirolamoSavonarola,whowasruinedwithhisneworderofthingsimmediatelythemultitudebelievedinhimnolonger,andhehadnomeansofkeepingsteadfastthosewhobelievedorofmakingtheunbelieverstobelieve.Thereforesuchasthesehavegreatdifficulties in consummating their enterprise, for all theirdangers are in theascent,yetwithabilitytheywillovercomethem;butwhentheseareovercome,andthosewhoenviedthemtheirsuccessareexterminated,theywillbegintoberespected,andtheywillcontinueafterwardspowerful,secure,honoured,andhappy.TothesegreatexamplesIwishtoaddalesserone;stillitbearssomeresemblancetothem,andI

wishittosufficemeforallofalikekind:itisHierotheSyracusan.(*)ThismanrosefromaprivatestationtobePrinceofSyracuse,nordidhe,either,oweanythingtofortunebutopportunity;fortheSyracusans,beingoppressed,chosehimfortheircaptain,afterwardshewasrewardedbybeingmadetheirprince.Hewasofsogreatability,evenasaprivatecitizen,thatonewhowritesofhimsayshewantednothingbutakingdomtobeaking.Thismanabolishedtheoldsoldiery,organizedthenew,gaveupoldalliances,madenewones;andashehadhisownsoldiersandallies,onsuchfoundationshewasable tobuildanyedifice: thus,whilsthehadenduredmuch trouble inacquiring,hehadbutlittleinkeeping.(*)HieroII,bornabout307B.C.,died216B.C.

CHAPTERVII—CONCERNINGNEWPRINCIPALITIESWHICHAREACQUIREDEITHERBYTHEARMSOFOTHERS

ORBYGOODFORTUNE

Thosewhosolelybygoodfortunebecomeprincesfrombeingprivatecitizenshavelittletroubleinrising,butmuchinkeepingatop;theyhavenotanydifficultiesonthewayup,becausetheyfly,buttheyhavemanywhentheyreachthesummit.Sucharethosetowhomsomestateisgiveneitherformoneyorbythefavourofhimwhobestowsit;ashappenedtomanyinGreece,inthecitiesofIoniaandof theHellespont,whereprincesweremadebyDarius, inorder that theymighthold thecitiesboth for his security and his glory; as also were those emperors who, by the corruption of thesoldiers,frombeingcitizenscametoempire.Suchstandsimplyelevateduponthegoodwillandthefortuneofhimwhohaselevatedthem—twomostinconstantandunstablethings.Neitherhavetheytheknowledgerequisitefortheposition;because,unlesstheyaremenofgreatworthandability,itisnotreasonable to expect that they should know how to command, having always lived in a privatecondition;besides,theycannotholditbecausetheyhavenotforceswhichtheycankeepfriendlyandfaithful.Statesthatriseunexpectedly,then,likeallotherthingsinnaturewhicharebornandgrowrapidly,

cannot leavetheirfoundationsandcorrespondencies(*)fixedinsuchawaythat thefirststormwillnotoverthrowthem;unless,asissaid,thosewhounexpectedlybecomeprincesaremenofsomuchabilitythattheyknowtheyhavetobepreparedatoncetoholdthatwhichfortunehasthrownintotheirlaps,andthatthosefoundations,whichothershavelaidBEFOREtheybecameprinces,theymustlayAFTERWARDS.(*)"Leradiciecorrispondenze,"theirroots(i.e.

foundations)andcorrespondenciesorrelationswithother

states—acommonmeaningof"correspondence"and

"correspondency"inthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies.

Concerningthesetwomethodsofrisingtobeaprincebyabilityorfortune,Iwishtoadducetwoexamples within our own recollection, and these are Francesco Sforza(*) and Cesare Borgia.Francesco,bypropermeansandwithgreatability,frombeingaprivatepersonrosetobeDukeofMilan, and thatwhich he had acquiredwith a thousand anxieties he keptwith little trouble.On theother hand, Cesare Borgia, called by the people Duke Valentino, acquired his state during theascendancyofhisfather,andonitsdeclinehelostit,notwithstandingthathehadtakeneverymeasureanddoneallthatoughttobedonebyawiseandablemantofixfirmlyhisrootsinthestateswhichthearmsandfortunesofothershadbestowedonhim.(*)FrancescoSforza,born1401,died1466.Hemarried

BiancaMariaVisconti,anaturaldaughterofFilippo

Visconti,theDukeofMilan,onwhosedeathheprocuredhis

ownelevationtotheduchy.Machiavelliwastheaccredited

agentoftheFlorentineRepublictoCesareBorgia(1478-

1507)duringthetransactionswhichleduptothe

assassinationsoftheOrsiniandVitelliatSinigalia,and

alongwithhisletterstohischiefsinFlorencehehasleft

anaccount,writtentenyearsbefore"ThePrince,"ofthe

proceedingsofthedukeinhis"Descritionedelmodotenuto

dalducaValentinonelloammazzareVitellozzoVitelli,"

etc.,atranslationofwhichisappendedtothepresent

work.

Because,asisstatedabove,hewhohasnotfirstlaidhisfoundationsmaybeablewithgreatabilitytolaythemafterwards,buttheywillbelaidwithtroubletothearchitectanddangertothebuilding.If,therefore,allthestepstakenbythedukebeconsidered,itwillbeseenthathelaidsolidfoundations

forhisfuturepower,andIdonotconsideritsuperfluoustodiscussthem,becauseIdonotknowwhatbetterpreceptstogiveanewprincethantheexampleofhisactions;andifhisdispositionswereofnoavail,thatwasnothisfault,buttheextraordinaryandextrememalignityoffortune.Alexander the Sixth, in wishing to aggrandize the duke, his son, had many immediate and

prospectivedifficulties.Firstly,hedidnotseehiswaytomakehimmasterofanystatethatwasnotastateoftheChurch;andifhewaswillingtorobtheChurchheknewthattheDukeofMilanandtheVenetianswould not consent, because Faenza andRiminiwere already under the protection of theVenetians. Besides this, he saw the arms of Italy, especially those by which he might have beenassisted, in hands that would fear the aggrandizement of the Pope, namely, the Orsini and theColonnesiandtheirfollowing.Itbehovedhim,therefore,toupsetthisstateofaffairsandembroilthepowers,soas tomakehimselfsecurelymasterofpartof theirstates.Thiswaseasyforhimtodo,becausehefoundtheVenetians,movedbyotherreasons,inclinedtobringbacktheFrenchintoItaly;he would not only not oppose this, but he would render it more easy by dissolving the formermarriageofKingLouis.ThereforethekingcameintoItalywiththeassistanceoftheVenetiansandtheconsentofAlexander.Hewasnosooner inMilan than thePopehadsoldiers fromhimfor theattempt on theRomagna,which yielded to himon the reputation of the king.The duke, therefore,havingacquired theRomagnaandbeaten theColonnesi,whilewishing tohold that and toadvancefurther,washinderedby two things: theone, his forces didnot appear loyal to him, theother, thegoodwillofFrance:thatistosay,hefearedthattheforcesoftheOrsini,whichhewasusing,wouldnotstandtohim,thatnotonlymighttheyhinderhimfromwinningmore,butmightthemselvesseizewhathehadwon,andthatthekingmightalsodothesame.OftheOrsinihehadawarningwhen,aftertakingFaenzaandattackingBologna,hesawthemgoveryunwillingly to thatattack.Andas to theking,helearnedhismindwhenhehimself,aftertakingtheDuchyofUrbino,attackedTuscany,andthekingmadehimdesistfromthatundertaking;hencethedukedecidedtodependnomoreuponthearmsandtheluckofothers.ForthefirstthingheweakenedtheOrsiniandColonnesipartiesinRome,bygainingtohimselfall

their adherents who were gentlemen, making them his gentlemen, giving them good pay, and,accordingtotheirrank,honouringthemwithofficeandcommandinsuchawaythatinafewmonthsallattachmenttothefactionswasdestroyedandturnedentirelytotheduke.Afterthisheawaitedanopportunity tocrush theOrsini,havingscattered theadherentsof theColonnahouse.Thiscame tohimsoonandheuseditwell;fortheOrsini,perceivingatlengththattheaggrandizementofthedukeandtheChurchwasruintothem,calledameetingoftheMagioneinPerugia.FromthissprungtherebellionatUrbinoandthetumultsintheRomagna,withendlessdangerstotheduke,allofwhichheovercamewiththehelpoftheFrench.Havingrestoredhisauthority,nottoleaveitatriskbytrustingeithertotheFrenchorotheroutsideforces,hehadrecoursetohiswiles,andheknewsowellhowtoconcealhismindthat,bythemediationofSignorPagolo—whomthedukedidnotfailtosecurewithall kinds of attention, givinghimmoney, apparel, and horses—theOrsiniwere reconciled, so thattheir simplicity brought them into his power at Sinigalia.(*)Having exterminated the leaders, andturnedtheirpartisansintohisfriends,thedukelaidsufficientlygoodfoundationstohispower,havingall the Romagna and the Duchy of Urbino; and the people now beginning to appreciate theirprosperity,hegainedthemallovertohimself.Andasthispointisworthyofnotice,andtobeimitatedbyothers,Iamnotwillingtoleaveitout.(*)Sinigalia,31stDecember1502.

When the duke occupied the Romagna he found it under the rule of weakmasters, who ratherplunderedtheirsubjectsthanruledthem,andgavethemmorecausefordisunionthanforunion,sothat thecountrywasfullofrobbery,quarrels,andeverykindofviolence;andso,wishingtobring

back peace and obedience to authority, he considered it necessary to give it a good governor.Thereupon he promotedMesser Ramiro d'Orco,(*) a swift and cruel man, to whom he gave thefullestpower.Thismaninashorttimerestoredpeaceandunitywiththegreatestsuccess.Afterwardsthedukeconsideredthatitwasnotadvisabletoconfersuchexcessiveauthority,forhehadnodoubtbut that he would become odious, so he set up a court of judgment in the country, under amostexcellentpresident,whereinallcitieshadtheiradvocates.Andbecauseheknewthatthepastseverityhadcausedsomehatredagainsthimself,so,toclearhimselfinthemindsofthepeople,andgainthementirely tohimself,hedesired to show that, if anycrueltyhadbeenpractised, ithadnotoriginatedwithhim,but in thenatural sternnessof theminister.Under thispretencehe tookRamiro,andonemorningcausedhimtobeexecutedandleftonthepiazzaatCesenawiththeblockandabloodyknifeathisside.Thebarbarityofthisspectaclecausedthepeopletobeatoncesatisfiedanddismayed.(*)Ramirod'Orco.RamirodeLorqua.

Butletusreturnwhencewestarted.Isaythattheduke,findinghimselfnowsufficientlypowerfulandpartlysecuredfromimmediatedangersbyhavingarmedhimselfinhisownway,andhavinginagreatmeasurecrushedthoseforcesinhisvicinitythatcouldinjurehimifhewishedtoproceedwithhisconquest,hadnexttoconsiderFrance,forheknewthattheking,whotoolatewasawareofhismistake,wouldnotsupporthim.Andfromthistimehebegantoseeknewalliancesandtotemporizewith France in the expedition which she was making towards the kingdom of Naples against theSpaniardswhowerebesiegingGaeta.Itwashisintentiontosecurehimselfagainstthem,andthishewouldhavequicklyaccomplishedhadAlexanderlived.Suchwashislineofactionastopresentaffairs.Butastothefuturehehadtofear,inthefirstplace,

thatanewsuccessortotheChurchmightnotbefriendlytohimandmightseektotakefromhimthatwhich Alexander had given him, so he decided to act in four ways. Firstly, by exterminating thefamilies of those lords whom he had despoiled, so as to take away that pretext from the Pope.Secondly,bywinningtohimselfall thegentlemenofRome,soas tobeable tocurb thePopewiththeir aid, as has been observed. Thirdly, by converting the collegemore to himself. Fourthly, byacquiringsomuchpowerbeforethePopeshoulddiethathecouldbyhisownmeasuresresistthefirstshock.Ofthesefourthings,atthedeathofAlexander,hehadaccomplishedthree.Forhehadkilledasmanyofthedispossessedlordsashecouldlayhandson,andfewhadescaped;hehadwonovertheRoman gentlemen, and he had the most numerous party in the college. And as to any freshacquisition, he intended to become master of Tuscany, for he already possessed Perugia andPiombino,andPisawasunderhisprotection.AndashehadnolongertostudyFrance(fortheFrenchwere already driven out of the kingdom of Naples by the Spaniards, and in this way both werecompelledtobuyhisgoodwill),hepounceddownuponPisa.Afterthis,LuccaandSienayieldedatonce,partlythroughhatredandpartlythroughfearoftheFlorentines;andtheFlorentineswouldhavehadnoremedyhadhecontinuedtoprosper,ashewasprosperingtheyearthatAlexanderdied,forhehadacquiredsomuchpowerandreputationthathewouldhavestoodbyhimself,andnolongerhavedependedontheluckandtheforcesofothers,butsolelyonhisownpowerandability.ButAlexanderdiedfiveyearsafterhehadfirstdrawnthesword.Heleftthedukewiththestateof

Romagnaaloneconsolidated,withtherestintheair,betweentwomostpowerfulhostilearmies,andsickuntodeath.Yettherewereinthedukesuchboldnessandability,andheknewsowellhowmenaretobewonorlost,andsofirmwerethefoundationswhichinsoshortatimehehadlaid,thatifhehadnothadthosearmiesonhisback,orifhehadbeeningoodhealth,hewouldhaveovercomealldifficulties.And it is seen thathis foundationsweregood, for theRomagnaawaitedhim formorethan a month. In Rome, although but half alive, he remained secure; and whilst the Baglioni, theVitelli,andtheOrsinimightcometoRome,theycouldnoteffectanythingagainsthim.Ifhecouldnot

havemadePopehimwhomhewished,at least theonewhomhedidnotwishwouldnothavebeenelected.ButifhehadbeeninsoundhealthatthedeathofAlexander,(*)everythingwouldhavebeendifferenttohim.OnthedaythatJuliustheSecond(+)waselected,hetoldmethathehadthoughtofeverythingthatmightoccuratthedeathofhisfather,andhadprovidedaremedyforall,exceptthathehadneveranticipatedthat,whenthedeathdidhappen,hehimselfwouldbeonthepointtodie.(*)AlexanderVIdiedoffever,18thAugust1503.

(+)JuliusIIwasGiulianodellaRovere,CardinalofSan

PietroadVincula,born1443,died1513.

Whenalltheactionsofthedukearerecalled,Idonotknowhowtoblamehim,butratheritappearstobe,asIhavesaid,thatIoughttoofferhimforimitationtoallthosewho,bythefortuneorthearmsofothers,areraisedtogovernment.Becausehe,havingaloftyspiritandfar-reachingaims,couldnothave regulatedhis conduct otherwise, andonly the shortness of the life ofAlexander andhis ownsicknessfrustratedhisdesigns.Therefore,hewhoconsidersitnecessarytosecurehimselfinhisnewprincipality,towinfriends,toovercomeeitherbyforceorfraud,tomakehimselfbelovedandfearedbythepeople, tobefollowedandreveredbythesoldiers, toexterminate thosewhohavepowerorreason to hurt him, to change the old order of things for new, to be severe and gracious,magnanimousandliberal,todestroyadisloyalsoldieryandtocreatenew,tomaintainfriendshipwithkingsandprincesinsuchawaythattheymusthelphimwithzealandoffendwithcaution,cannotfindamorelivelyexamplethantheactionsofthisman.Only can he be blamed for the election of Julius the Second, in whom he made a bad choice,

because,asissaid,notbeingabletoelectaPopetohisownmind,hecouldhavehinderedanyotherfrombeingelectedPope;andheoughtnevertohaveconsentedtotheelectionofanycardinalwhomhehadinjuredorwhohadcausetofearhimiftheybecamepontiffs.Formeninjureeitherfromfearorhatred.Thosewhomhehad injured, amongstothers,wereSanPietroadVincula,Colonna,SanGiorgio, and Ascanio.(*) The rest, in becoming Pope, had to fear him, Rouen and the Spaniardsexcepted; the latter from their relationship and obligations, the former from his influence, thekingdomofFrancehavingrelationswithhim.Therefore,aboveeverything,thedukeoughttohavecreatedaSpaniardPope,and,failinghim,heoughttohaveconsentedtoRouenandnotSanPietroadVincula. He who believes that new benefits will cause great personages to forget old injuries isdeceived.Therefore,thedukeerredinhischoice,anditwasthecauseofhisultimateruin.(*)SanGiorgioisRaffaelloRiario.AscanioisAscanio

Sforza.

CHAPTERVIII—CONCERNINGTHOSEWHOHAVEOBTAINEDAPRINCIPALITYBYWICKEDNESS

Althoughaprincemay rise fromaprivate station in twoways,neitherofwhichcanbeentirelyattributedtofortuneorgenius,yetitismanifesttomethatImustnotbesilentonthem,althoughonecouldbemorecopiouslytreatedwhenIdiscussrepublics.Thesemethodsarewhen,eitherbysomewicked or nefarious ways, one ascends to the principality, or when by the favour of his fellow-citizensaprivatepersonbecomestheprinceofhiscountry.Andspeakingofthefirstmethod,itwillbeillustratedbytwoexamples—oneancient,theothermodern—andwithoutenteringfurtherintothesubject,Iconsiderthesetwoexampleswillsufficethosewhomaybecompelledtofollowthem.Agathocles,theSicilian,(*)becameKingofSyracusenotonlyfromaprivatebutfromalowand

abjectposition.Thisman, thesonofapotter, throughall thechanges inhisfortunesalways ledaninfamouslife.Nevertheless,heaccompaniedhisinfamieswithsomuchabilityofmindandbodythat,having devoted himself to the military profession, he rose through its ranks to be Praetor ofSyracuse.Beingestablishedinthatposition,andhavingdeliberatelyresolvedtomakehimselfprinceandtoseizebyviolence,withoutobligationtoothers,thatwhichhadbeenconcededtohimbyassent,hecametoanunderstandingforthispurposewithAmilcar,theCarthaginian,who,withhisarmy,wasfightinginSicily.OnemorningheassembledthepeopleandthesenateofSyracuse,asifhehadtodiscuss with them things relating to the Republic, and at a given signal the soldiers killed all thesenators and the richest of the people; these dead, he seized and held the princedom of that citywithoutanycivilcommotion.AndalthoughhewastwiceroutedbytheCarthaginians,andultimatelybesieged,yetnotonlywasheabletodefendhiscity,butleavingpartofhismenforitsdefence,withthe others he attackedAfrica, and in a short time raised the siege of Syracuse.TheCarthaginians,reducedtoextremenecessity,werecompelledtocometotermswithAgathocles,and,leavingSicilytohim,hadtobecontentwiththepossessionofAfrica.(*)AgathoclestheSicilian,born361B.C.,died289B.C.

Therefore,hewhoconsiderstheactionsandthegeniusofthismanwillseenothing,orlittle,whichcan be attributed to fortune, inasmuch as he attained pre-eminence, as is shown above, not by thefavourofanyone,butstepbystepinthemilitaryprofession,whichstepsweregainedwithathousandtroubles and perils, andwere afterwards boldly held by himwithmany hazardous dangers. Yet itcannotbecalledtalenttoslayfellow-citizens,todeceivefriends,tobewithoutfaith,withoutmercy,withoutreligion;suchmethodsmaygainempire,butnotglory.Still,ifthecourageofAgathoclesinenteringintoandextricatinghimselffromdangersbeconsidered,togetherwithhisgreatnessofmindin enduring andovercominghardships, it cannot be seenwhyhe should be esteemed less than themostnotablecaptain.Nevertheless,hisbarbarouscrueltyandinhumanitywithinfinitewickednessdonotpermithimtobecelebratedamongthemostexcellentmen.Whatheachievedcannotbeattributedeithertofortuneorgenius.In our times, during the rule of Alexander the Sixth, Oliverotto da Fermo, having been left an

orphanmanyyearsbefore,wasbroughtupbyhismaternaluncle,GiovanniFogliani,andintheearlydaysofhisyouthsenttofightunderPagoloVitelli,that,beingtrainedunderhisdiscipline,hemightattainsomehighpositioninthemilitaryprofession.AfterPagolodied,hefoughtunderhisbrotherVitellozzo, and in a very short time, being endowed with wit and a vigorous body and mind, hebecame the first man in his profession. But it appearing a paltry thing to serve under others, heresolved,with theaidofsomecitizensofFermo, towhomtheslaveryof theircountrywasdearer

thanitsliberty,andwiththehelpoftheVitelleschi,toseizeFermo.SohewrotetoGiovanniFoglianithat,havingbeenawayfromhomeformanyyears,hewishedtovisithimandhiscity,andinsomemeasure to lookuponhispatrimony;andalthoughhehadnot laboured toacquireanythingexcepthonour,yet,inorderthatthecitizensshouldseehehadnotspenthistimeinvain,hedesiredtocomehonourably, sowouldbeaccompaniedbyonehundredhorsemen,his friendsand retainers;andheentreatedGiovanni toarrange thatheshouldbereceivedhonourablyby theFermians,allofwhichwouldbenotonlytohishonour,butalsotothatofGiovannihimself,whohadbroughthimup.Giovanni, therefore, did not fail in any attentions due to his nephew, and he caused him to be

honourably received by theFermians, and he lodged him in his ownhouse,where, having passedsome days, and having arranged what was necessary for his wicked designs, Oliverotto gave asolemnbanquettowhichheinvitedGiovanniFoglianiandthechiefsofFermo.Whentheviandsandall theotherentertainments thatareusual in suchbanquetswere finished,Oliverottoartfullybegancertain grave discourses, speaking of the greatness of PopeAlexander and his sonCesare, and oftheirenterprises,towhichdiscourseGiovanniandothersanswered;butheroseatonce,sayingthatsuchmatters ought to be discussed in amore private place, and he betook himself to a chamber,whither Giovanni and the rest of the citizens went in after him. No sooner were they seated thansoldiers issued from secret places and slaughtered Giovanni and the rest. After these murdersOliverotto,mountedonhorseback,rodeupanddownthetownandbesiegedthechiefmagistrateinthepalace,sothatinfearthepeoplewereforcedtoobeyhim,andtoformagovernment,ofwhichhemadehimselftheprince.Hekilledallthemalcontentswhowereabletoinjurehim,andstrengthenedhimselfwithnewcivilandmilitaryordinances,insuchawaythat,intheyearduringwhichheheldtheprincipality,notonlywashesecureinthecityofFermo,buthehadbecomeformidabletoallhisneighbours. And his destruction would have been as difficult as that of Agathocles if he had notallowed himself to be overreached byCesareBorgia,who took himwith theOrsini andVitelli atSinigalia,aswasstatedabove.Thusoneyearafterhehadcommittedthisparricide,hewasstrangled,togetherwithVitellozzo,whomhehadmadehisleaderinvalourandwickedness.Somemaywonderhow it canhappen thatAgathocles, andhis like, after infinite treacheriesand

cruelties,shouldliveforlongsecureinhiscountry,anddefendhimselffromexternalenemies,andneverbeconspiredagainstbyhisowncitizens;seeing thatmanyothers,bymeansofcruelty,haveneverbeenableeveninpeacefultimestoholdthestate,stilllessinthedoubtfultimesofwar.Ibelievethatthisfollowsfromseverities(*)beingbadlyorproperlyused.Thosemaybecalledproperlyused,ifofevilitispossibletospeakwell,thatareappliedatoneblowandarenecessarytoone'ssecurity,andthatarenotpersistedinafterwardsunlesstheycanbeturnedtotheadvantageofthesubjects.Thebadly employedare thosewhich,notwithstanding theymaybe few in the commencement,multiplywithtimeratherthandecrease.Thosewhopractisethefirstsystemareable,byaidofGodorman,tomitigateinsomedegreetheirrule,asAgathoclesdid.Itisimpossibleforthosewhofollowtheothertomaintainthemselves.(*)MrBurdsuggeststhatthiswordprobablycomesnearthe

modernequivalentofMachiavelli'sthoughtwhenhespeaksof

"crudelta"thanthemoreobvious"cruelties."

Hence it is to be remarked that, in seizing a state, the usurper ought to examine closely into allthoseinjurieswhichitisnecessaryforhimtoinflict,andtodothemallatonestrokesoasnottohavetorepeatthemdaily;andthusbynotunsettlingmenhewillbeabletoreassurethem,andwinthemtohimselfbybenefits.Hewhodoesotherwise,eitherfromtimidityoreviladvice,isalwayscompelledtokeep theknife inhishand;neithercanhe relyonhis subjects,norcan theyattach themselves tohim,owingtotheircontinuedandrepeatedwrongs.Forinjuriesoughttobedoneallatonetime,sothat,beingtastedless,theyoffendless;benefitsoughttobegivenlittlebylittle,sothattheflavourof

themmaylastlonger.Andaboveallthings,aprinceoughttoliveamongsthispeopleinsuchawaythatnounexpected

circumstances, whether of good or evil, shall make him change; because if the necessity for thiscomesintroubledtimes,youaretoolateforharshmeasures;andmildoneswillnothelpyou,fortheywillbeconsideredasforcedfromyou,andnoonewillbeunderanyobligationtoyouforthem.

CHAPTERIX—CONCERNINGACIVILPRINCIPALITY

Butcomingtotheotherpoint—wherealeadingcitizenbecomestheprinceofhiscountry,notbywickednessoranyintolerableviolence,butbythefavourofhisfellowcitizens—thismaybecalledacivil principality: nor is genius or fortune altogether necessary to attain to it, but rather a happyshrewdness.Isaythenthatsuchaprincipalityisobtainedeitherbythefavourofthepeopleorbythefavourofthenobles.Becauseinallcitiesthesetwodistinctpartiesarefound,andfromthisitarisesthatthepeopledonotwishtoberulednoroppressedbythenobles,andthenobleswishtoruleandoppress the people; and from these twoopposite desires there arises in cities one of three results,eitheraprincipality,self-government,oranarchy.Aprincipalityiscreatedeitherbythepeopleorbythenobles,accordinglyasoneorotherofthem

has the opportunity; for the nobles, seeing they cannot withstand the people, begin to cry up thereputationofoneofthemselves,andtheymakehimaprince,sothatunderhisshadowtheycangiveventtotheirambitions.Thepeople,findingtheycannotresistthenobles,alsocryupthereputationofone of themselves, andmake him a prince so as to be defended by his authority.Hewho obtainssovereigntybytheassistanceofthenoblesmaintainshimselfwithmoredifficultythanhewhocomestoitbytheaidofthepeople,becausetheformerfindshimselfwithmanyaroundhimwhoconsiderthemselveshisequals,andbecauseofthishecanneitherrulenormanagethemtohisliking.Buthewhoreachessovereigntybypopular favour findshimselfalone,andhasnonearoundhim,or few,whoarenotpreparedtoobeyhim.Besidesthis,onecannotbyfairdealing,andwithoutinjurytoothers,satisfythenobles,butyoucan

satisfy the people, for their object ismore righteous than that of the nobles, the latter wishing tooppress,while the former only desire not to be oppressed. It is to be added also that a prince canneversecurehimselfagainstahostilepeople,becauseoftheirbeingtoomany,whilstfromthenobleshecansecurehimself,astheyarefewinnumber.Theworstthataprincemayexpectfromahostilepeopleistobeabandonedbythem;butfromhostilenobleshehasnotonlytofearabandonment,butalsothattheywillriseagainsthim;forthey,beingintheseaffairsmorefar-seeingandastute,alwayscome forward in time to save themselves, and to obtain favours from him whom they expect toprevail. Further, the prince is compelled to live always with the same people, but he can do wellwithout the same nobles, being able to make and unmake them daily, and to give or take awayauthoritywhenitpleaseshim.Therefore, tomake this point clearer, I say that the nobles ought to be looked atmainly in two

ways:thatistosay,theyeithershapetheircourseinsuchawayasbindsthementirelytoyourfortune,or they do not. Those who so bind themselves, and are not rapacious, ought to be honoured andloved; thosewho do not bind themselvesmay be dealtwith in twoways; theymay fail to do thisthroughpusillanimityandanaturalwantofcourage,inwhichcaseyououghttomakeuseofthem,especially of those who are of good counsel; and thus, whilst in prosperity you honour them, inadversity you do not have to fear them.Butwhen for their own ambitious ends they shunbindingthemselves, it is a token that theyaregivingmore thought to themselves than toyou, andaprinceoughttoguardagainstsuch,andtofearthemasiftheywereopenenemies,becauseinadversitytheyalwayshelptoruinhim.Therefore, one who becomes a prince through the favour of the people ought to keep them

friendly,andthishecaneasilydoseeingtheyonlyasknottobeoppressedbyhim.Butonewho,inoppositiontothepeople,becomesaprincebythefavourofthenobles,ought,aboveeverything,to

seektowinthepeopleovertohimself,andthishemayeasilydoifhetakesthemunderhisprotection.Becausemen,whentheyreceivegoodfromhimofwhomtheywereexpectingevil,areboundmorecloselytotheirbenefactor;thusthepeoplequicklybecomemoredevotedtohimthanifhehadbeenraisedtotheprincipalitybytheirfavours;andtheprincecanwintheiraffectionsinmanyways,butasthesevaryaccordingtothecircumstancesonecannotgivefixedrules,soIomitthem;but,Irepeat,itisnecessaryforaprincetohavethepeoplefriendly,otherwisehehasnosecurityinadversity.Nabis,(*) Prince of the Spartans, sustained the attack of all Greece, and of a victorious Roman

army,andagainstthemhedefendedhiscountryandhisgovernment;andfortheovercomingofthisperilitwasonlynecessaryforhimtomakehimselfsecureagainstafew,butthiswouldnothavebeensufficient had the people been hostile.And do not let any one impugn this statementwith the triteproverbthat"Hewhobuildsonthepeople,buildsonthemud,"forthisistruewhenaprivatecitizenmakesafoundationthere,andpersuadeshimselfthatthepeoplewillfreehimwhenheisoppressedbyhisenemiesorbythemagistrates;whereinhewouldfindhimselfveryoftendeceived,ashappenedto theGracchi inRomeand toMesserGiorgioScali(+) inFlorence.Butgrantedaprincewhohasestablishedhimselfasabove,whocancommand,andisamanofcourage,undismayedinadversity,who does not fail in other qualifications, andwho, by his resolution and energy, keeps thewholepeopleencouraged—suchaonewillneverfindhimselfdeceivedinthem,anditwillbeshownthathehaslaidhisfoundationswell.(*)Nabis,tyrantofSparta,conqueredbytheRomansunder

Flamininusin195B.C.;killed192B.C.

(+)MesserGiorgioScali.Thiseventistobefoundin

Machiavelli's"FlorentineHistory,"BookIII.

Theseprincipalitiesareliabletodangerwhentheyarepassingfromtheciviltotheabsoluteorderofgovernment,forsuchprinceseitherrulepersonallyorthroughmagistrates.Inthelattercasetheirgovernmentisweakerandmoreinsecure,becauseitrestsentirelyonthegoodwillofthosecitizenswhoareraisedtothemagistracy,andwho,especiallyintroubledtimes,candestroythegovernmentwithgreatease,eitherbyintrigueoropendefiance;andtheprincehasnotthechanceamidtumultstoexercise absolute authority, because the citizens and subjects, accustomed to receive orders frommagistrates, are not of a mind to obey him amid these confusions, and there will always be indoubtful times a scarcity ofmenwhom he can trust. For such a prince cannot rely uponwhat heobservesinquiettimes,whencitizenshaveneedofthestate,becausetheneveryoneagreeswithhim;theyallpromise,andwhendeathisfardistanttheyallwishtodieforhim;butintroubledtimes,whenthe state has need of its citizens, then he finds but few.And somuch themore is this experimentdangerous, inasmuch as it can only be tried once. Therefore awise prince ought to adopt such acoursethathiscitizenswillalwaysineverysortandkindofcircumstancehaveneedofthestateandofhim,andthenhewillalwaysfindthemfaithful.

CHAPTERX—CONCERNINGTHEWAYINWHICHTHESTRENGTHOFALLPRINCIPALITIESOUGHTTOBE

MEASURED

Itisnecessarytoconsideranotherpointinexaminingthecharacteroftheseprincipalities:thatis,whetheraprincehassuchpowerthat,incaseofneed,hecansupporthimselfwithhisownresources,orwhetherhehasalwaysneedof theassistanceofothers.And tomake thisquiteclear I say that Iconsider those who are able to support themselves by their own resources who can, either byabundance ofmen ormoney, raise a sufficient army to join battle against any onewho comes toattackthem;andIconsiderthosealwaystohaveneedofotherswhocannotshowthemselvesagainsttheenemyinthefield,butareforcedtodefendthemselvesbyshelteringbehindwalls.Thefirstcasehas been discussed, but we will speak of it again should it recur. In the second case one can saynothingexcepttoencouragesuchprincestoprovisionandfortifytheirtowns,andnotonanyaccountto defend the country.Andwhoever shall fortify his townwell, and shall havemanaged the otherconcerns of his subjects in theway stated above, and to be often repeated, will never be attackedwithoutgreatcaution,formenarealwaysadversetoenterpriseswheredifficultiescanbeseen,anditwillbeseennottobeaneasythingtoattackonewhohashistownwellfortified,andisnothatedbyhispeople.ThecitiesofGermanyareabsolutelyfree,theyownbutlittlecountryaroundthem,andtheyyield

obediencetotheemperorwhenitsuitsthem,nordotheyfearthisoranyotherpowertheymayhavenearthem,becausetheyarefortifiedinsuchawaythateveryonethinksthetakingofthembyassaultwould be tedious and difficult, seeing they have proper ditches and walls, they have sufficientartillery, and theyalwayskeep inpublicdepots enough foroneyear's eating,drinking, and firing.Andbeyondthis,tokeepthepeoplequietandwithoutlosstothestate,theyalwayshavethemeansofgivingwork to thecommunity in those labours thatare the lifeandstrengthof thecity,andon thepursuitofwhichthepeoplearesupported;theyalsoholdmilitaryexercisesinrepute,andmoreoverhavemanyordinancestoupholdthem.Therefore,aprincewhohasastrongcity,andhadnotmadehimselfodious,willnotbeattacked,or

ifanyoneshouldattackhewillonlybedrivenoffwithdisgrace;again,becausethattheaffairsofthisworldaresochangeable, it isalmost impossible tokeepanarmyawholeyear in thefieldwithoutbeinginterferedwith.Andwhoevershouldreply:Ifthepeoplehavepropertyoutsidethecity,andseeitburnt,theywillnotremainpatient,andthelongsiegeandself-interestwillmakethemforgettheirprince;tothisIanswerthatapowerfulandcourageousprincewillovercomeallsuchdifficultiesbygivingatonetimehopetohissubjectsthattheevilwillnotbeforlong,atanothertimefearofthecrueltyoftheenemy,thenpreservinghimselfadroitlyfromthosesubjectswhoseemtohimtobetoobold.Further,theenemywouldnaturallyonhisarrivalatonceburnandruinthecountryatthetimewhen

thespiritsofthepeoplearestillhotandreadyforthedefence;and,therefore,somuchthelessoughttheprincetohesitate;becauseafteratime,whenspiritshavecooled,thedamageisalreadydone,theillsareincurred,andthereisnolongeranyremedy;andthereforetheyaresomuchthemorereadytounitewith theirprince,heappearing tobeunderobligations to themnow that theirhouseshavebeenburntandtheirpossessionsruinedinhisdefence.Foritisthenatureofmentobeboundbythebenefitstheyconferasmuchasbythosetheyreceive.Therefore,ifeverythingiswellconsidered,itwill not bedifficult for awiseprince tokeep themindsof his citizens steadfast from first to last,

whenhedoesnotfailtosupportanddefendthem.

CHAPTERXI—CONCERNINGECCLESIASTICALPRINCIPALITIES

It only remains now to speak of ecclesiastical principalities, touching which all difficulties areprior togettingpossession,because theyareacquiredeitherbycapacityorgood fortune,and theycanbeheldwithouteither;fortheyaresustainedbytheancientordinancesofreligion,whicharesoall-powerful,andofsuchacharacterthattheprincipalitiesmaybeheldnomatterhowtheirprincesbehaveandlive.Theseprincesalonehavestatesanddonotdefendthem;andtheyhavesubjectsanddo not rule them; and the states, although unguarded, are not taken from them, and the subjects,althoughnotruled,donotcare,andtheyhaveneitherthedesirenortheabilitytoalienatethemselves.Suchprincipalitiesonlyaresecureandhappy.Butbeingupheldbypowers,towhichthehumanmindcannotreach,Ishallspeaknomoreofthem,because,beingexaltedandmaintainedbyGod,itwouldbetheactofapresumptuousandrashmantodiscussthem.Nevertheless,ifanyoneshouldaskofmehowcomesitthattheChurchhasattainedsuchgreatness

intemporalpower,seeingthatfromAlexanderbackwardstheItalianpotentates(notonlythosewhohavebeencalledpotentates,buteverybaronandlord,thoughthesmallest)havevaluedthetemporalpowerveryslightly—yetnowakingofFrancetremblesbeforeit,andithasbeenabletodrivehimfromItaly,andtoruintheVenetians—althoughthismaybeverymanifest, itdoesnotappeartomesuperfluoustorecallitinsomemeasuretomemory.BeforeCharles,KingofFrance,passed intoItaly,(*) thiscountrywasunder thedominionof the

Pope,theVenetians,theKingofNaples,theDukeofMilan,andtheFlorentines.Thesepotentateshadtwoprincipalanxieties:theone,thatnoforeignershouldenterItalyunderarms;theother,thatnoneof themselves should seizemore territory.Thoseaboutwhom therewas themost anxietywere thePopeandtheVenetians.TorestraintheVenetianstheunionofalltheotherswasnecessary,asitwasforthedefenceofFerrara;andtokeepdownthePopetheymadeuseof thebaronsofRome,who,being divided into two factions, Orsini and Colonnesi, had always a pretext for disorder, and,standing with arms in their hands under the eyes of the Pontiff, kept the pontificate weak andpowerless.Andalthoughtheremightarisesometimesacourageouspope,suchasSixtus,yetneitherfortunenorwisdomcouldridhimoftheseannoyances.Andtheshortlifeofapopeisalsoacauseofweakness;forinthetenyears,whichistheaveragelifeofapope,hecanwithdifficultyloweroneofthefactions;andif,sotospeak,onepeopleshouldalmostdestroytheColonnesi,anotherwouldarisehostile to theOrsini,whowould support their opponents, and yetwould not have time to ruin theOrsini.ThiswasthereasonwhythetemporalpowersofthepopewerelittleesteemedinItaly.(*)CharlesVIIIinvadedItalyin1494.

Alexander theSixth arose afterwards,whoof all thepontiffs that have everbeen showedhowapopewith bothmoney and armswas able to prevail; and through the instrumentality of theDukeValentino,andbyreasonof theentryof theFrench,hebroughtaboutall those thingswhichIhavediscussed above in the actions of the duke. And although his intention was not to aggrandize theChurch,buttheduke,nevertheless,whathedidcontributedtothegreatnessoftheChurch,which,afterhisdeathandtheruinoftheduke,becametheheirtoallhislabours.PopeJuliuscameafterwardsandfoundtheChurchstrong,possessingalltheRomagna,thebarons

ofRomereducedtoimpotence,and,throughthechastisementsofAlexander,thefactionswipedout;healsofoundthewayopentoaccumulatemoneyinamannersuchashadneverbeenpractisedbeforeAlexander'stime.SuchthingsJuliusnotonlyfollowed,butimprovedupon,andheintendedtogain

Bologna,toruintheVenetians,andtodrivetheFrenchoutofItaly.Alloftheseenterprisesprosperedwithhim,andsomuchthemoretohiscredit,inasmuchashedideverythingtostrengthentheChurchandnotanyprivateperson.HekeptalsotheOrsiniandColonnesifactionswithintheboundsinwhichhefoundthem;andalthoughtherewasamongthemsomemindtomakedisturbance,neverthelessheheldtwothingsfirm:theone,thegreatnessoftheChurch,withwhichheterrifiedthem;andtheother,notallowingthemtohavetheirowncardinals,whocausedthedisordersamongthem.Forwheneverthese factions have their cardinals they do not remain quiet for long, because cardinals foster thefactions in Rome and out of it, and the barons are compelled to support them, and thus from theambitionsofprelatesarisedisordersandtumultsamongthebarons.ForthesereasonshisHolinessPopeLeo(*)foundthepontificatemostpowerful,anditistobehopedthat,ifothersmadeitgreatinarms,hewillmakeitstillgreaterandmoreveneratedbyhisgoodnessandinfiniteothervirtues.(*)PopeLeoXwastheCardinalde'Medici.

CHAPTERXII—HOWMANYKINDSOFSOLDIERYTHEREARE,ANDCONCERNINGMERCENARIES

Having discoursed particularly on the characteristics of such principalities as in the beginning Iproposed todiscuss,andhavingconsidered insomedegree thecausesof theirbeinggoodorbad,andhavingshownthemethodsbywhichmanyhavesoughttoacquirethemandtoholdthem,itnowremainsformetodiscussgenerallythemeansofoffenceanddefencewhichbelongtoeachofthem.Wehaveseenabovehownecessaryitisforaprincetohavehisfoundationswelllaid,otherwiseit

follows of necessity hewill go to ruin. The chief foundations of all states, new aswell as old orcomposite,aregoodlawsandgoodarms;andastherecannotbegoodlawswherethestateisnotwellarmed,itfollowsthatwheretheyarewellarmedtheyhavegoodlaws.Ishallleavethelawsoutofthediscussionandshallspeakofthearms.Isay,therefore,thatthearmswithwhichaprincedefendshisstateareeitherhisown,ortheyare

mercenaries,auxiliaries,ormixed.Mercenariesandauxiliariesareuselessanddangerous;andifoneholds his state based on these arms, he will stand neither firm nor safe; for they are disunited,ambitious, andwithoutdiscipline,unfaithful,valiantbefore friends, cowardlybeforeenemies; theyhaveneitherthefearofGodnorfidelitytomen,anddestructionisdeferredonlysolongastheattackis; for in peace one is robbed by them, and inwar by the enemy. The fact is, they have no otherattractionorreasonforkeepingthefieldthanatrifleofstipend,whichisnotsufficienttomakethemwillingtodieforyou.Theyarereadyenoughtobeyoursoldierswhilstyoudonotmakewar,butifwarcomestheytakethemselvesofforrunfromthefoe;whichIshouldhavelittletroubletoprove,fortheruinofItalyhasbeencausedbynothingelsethanbyrestingallherhopesformanyyearsonmercenaries, and although they formerly made some display and appeared valiant amongstthemselves,yetwhentheforeignerscametheyshowedwhattheywere.ThusitwasthatCharles,KingofFrance,wasallowedtoseizeItalywithchalkinhand;(*)andhewhotoldusthatoursinswerethecauseofittoldthetruth,buttheywerenotthesinsheimagined,butthosewhichIhaverelated.Andastheywerethesinsofprinces,itistheprinceswhohavealsosufferedthepenalty.(*)"Withchalkinhand,""colgesso."Thisisoneofthe

bonsmotsofAlexanderVI,andreferstotheeasewith

whichCharlesVIIIseizedItaly,implyingthatitwasonly

necessaryforhimtosendhisquartermasterstochalkupthe

billetsforhissoldierstoconquerthecountry.Cf."The

HistoryofHenryVII,"byLordBacon:"KingCharleshad

conqueredtherealmofNaples,andlostitagain,inakind

ofafelicityofadream.Hepassedthewholelengthof

Italywithoutresistance:sothatitwastruewhatPope

Alexanderwaswonttosay:ThattheFrenchmencameinto

Italywithchalkintheirhands,tomarkuptheirlodgings,

ratherthanwithswordstofight."

Iwishtodemonstratefurthertheinfelicityofthesearms.Themercenarycaptainsareeithercapablemen or they are not; if they are, you cannot trust them, because they always aspire to their owngreatness,eitherbyoppressingyou,whoaretheirmaster,orotherscontrarytoyourintentions;butifthecaptainisnotskilful,youareruinedintheusualway.And if it beurged thatwhoever is armedwill act in the sameway,whethermercenaryor not, I

replythatwhenarmshavetoberesortedto,eitherbyaprinceorarepublic,thentheprinceoughttogoinpersonandperformthedutyofacaptain;therepublichastosenditscitizens,andwhenoneissentwhodoesnotturnoutsatisfactorily,itoughttorecallhim,andwhenoneisworthy,toholdhimbythelawssothathedoesnotleavethecommand.Andexperiencehasshownprincesandrepublics,

single-handed,makingthegreatestprogress,andmercenariesdoingnothingexceptdamage;anditismoredifficulttobringarepublic,armedwithitsownarms,undertheswayofoneofitscitizensthanit is tobringonearmedwithforeignarms.RomeandSpartastoodformanyagesarmedandfree.TheSwitzersarecompletelyarmedandquitefree.Of ancientmercenaries, for example, there are theCarthaginians,whowere oppressed by their

mercenary soldiers after the firstwarwith theRomans, although theCarthaginians had their owncitizensforcaptains.After thedeathofEpaminondas,PhilipofMacedonwasmadecaptainof theirsoldiersbytheThebans,andaftervictoryhetookawaytheirliberty.Duke Filippo being dead, theMilanese enlisted Francesco Sforza against theVenetians, and he,

having overcome the enemy atCaravaggio,(*) allied himselfwith them to crush theMilanese, hismasters. His father, Sforza, having been engaged by Queen Johanna(+) of Naples, left herunprotected,sothatshewasforcedtothrowherselfintothearmsoftheKingofAragon,inordertosaveherkingdom.AndiftheVenetiansandFlorentinesformerlyextendedtheirdominionsbythesearms,andyettheircaptainsdidnotmakethemselvesprinces,buthavedefendedthem,IreplythattheFlorentinesinthiscasehavebeenfavouredbychance,foroftheablecaptains,ofwhomtheymighthavestoodinfear,somehavenotconquered,somehavebeenopposed,andothershaveturnedtheirambitionselsewhere.OnewhodidnotconquerwasGiovanniAcuto,(%)andsincehedidnotconquerhisfidelitycannotbeproved;buteveryonewillacknowledgethat,hadheconquered,theFlorentineswouldhave stoodathisdiscretion.Sforzahad theBracceschi alwaysagainsthim, so theywatchedeachother.FrancescoturnedhisambitiontoLombardy;BraccioagainsttheChurchandthekingdomofNaples.But letuscome to thatwhichhappeneda shortwhileago.TheFlorentinesappointedastheircaptainPagoloVitelli,amostprudentman,whofromaprivatepositionhadrisentothegreatestrenown. If this man had taken Pisa, nobody can deny that it would have been proper for theFlorentinestokeepinwithhim,forifhebecamethesoldieroftheirenemiestheyhadnomeansofresisting, and if they held to him they must obey him. The Venetians, if their achievements areconsidered,will be seen tohave acted safely andgloriously so longas they sent towar their ownmen, when with armed gentlemen and plebians they did valiantly. This was before they turned toenterpriseson land,butwhen theybegan to fighton land theyforsook thisvirtueandfollowed thecustomofItaly.Andinthebeginningoftheirexpansiononland,throughnothavingmuchterritory,andbecauseof theirgreat reputation, theyhadnotmuch to fear fromtheircaptains;butwhen theyexpanded,asunderCarmignuola,(#) theyhada tasteof thismistake; for,havingfoundhimamostvaliantman(theybeattheDukeofMilanunderhisleadership),and,ontheotherhand,knowinghowlukewarmhewasinthewar,theyfearedtheywouldnolongerconquerunderhim,andforthisreasontheywerenotwilling,norweretheyable,tolethimgo;andso,nottoloseagainthatwhichtheyhadacquired, theywerecompelled, inorder tosecure themselves, tomurderhim.TheyhadafterwardsfortheircaptainsBartolomeodaBergamo,RobertodaSanSeverino,thecountofPitigliano,(&)andthelike,underwhomtheyhadtodreadlossandnotgain,ashappenedafterwardsatVaila,($)whereinonebattletheylostthatwhichineighthundredyearstheyhadacquiredwithsomuchtrouble.Becausefromsucharmsconquestscomebutslowly, longdelayedandinconsiderable,but thelossessuddenandportentous.(*)BattleofCaravaggio,15thSeptember1448.

(+)JohannaIIofNaples,thewidowofLadislao,Kingof

Naples.

(%)GiovanniAcuto.AnEnglishknightwhosenamewasSir

JohnHawkwood.HefoughtintheEnglishwarsinFrance,and

wasknightedbyEdwardIII;afterwardshecollectedabody

oftroopsandwentintoItaly.Thesebecamethefamous

"WhiteCompany."Hetookpartinmanywars,anddiedin

Florencein1394.Hewasbornabout1320atSibleHedingham,

avillageinEssex.HemarriedDomnia,adaughterofBernabo

Visconti.

(#)Carmignuola.FrancescoBussone,bornatCarmagnolaabout

1390,executedatVenice,5thMay1432.

(&)BartolomeoColleoniofBergamo;died1457.Robertoof

SanSeverino;diedfightingforVeniceagainstSigismund,

DukeofAustria,in1487."PrimocapitanoinItalia."—

Machiavelli.CountofPitigliano;NicoloOrsini,born1442,

died1510.

($)BattleofVailain1509.

And as with these examples I have reached Italy, which has been ruled for many years bymercenaries,Iwishtodiscussthemmoreseriously,inorderthat,havingseentheirriseandprogress,onemay be better prepared to counteract them. Youmust understand that the empire has recentlycome tobe repudiated in Italy, that thePopehas acquiredmore temporal power, and that Italyhasbeendividedup intomore states, for the reason thatmanyof thegreatcities tookuparmsagainsttheirnobles,who,formerlyfavouredbytheemperor,wereoppressingthem,whilsttheChurchwasfavouring them so as to gain authority in temporal power: in many others their citizens becameprinces.FromthisitcametopassthatItalyfellpartlyintothehandsoftheChurchandofrepublics,and, the Church consisting of priests and the republic of citizens unaccustomed to arms, bothcommencedtoenlistforeigners.Thefirstwhogaverenownto thissoldierywasAlberigodaConio,(*) theRomagnian.Fromthe

schoolofthismansprang,amongothers,BraccioandSforza,whointheirtimewerethearbitersofItaly.AfterthesecamealltheothercaptainswhotillnowhavedirectedthearmsofItaly;andtheendof all their valour has been, that she has been overrun by Charles, robbed by Louis, ravaged byFerdinand,andinsultedbytheSwitzers.Theprinciplethathasguidedthemhasbeen,first,tolowerthecreditofinfantrysothattheymightincreasetheirown.Theydidthisbecause,subsistingontheirpayandwithoutterritory,theywereunabletosupportmanysoldiers,andafewinfantrydidnotgivethemanyauthority; so theywere led toemploycavalry,withamoderate forceofwhich theyweremaintainedandhonoured;andaffairswerebroughttosuchapassthat,inanarmyoftwentythousandsoldiers,therewerenottobefoundtwothousandfootsoldiers.Theyhad,besidesthis,usedeveryartto lessen fatigue and danger to themselves and their soldiers, not killing in the fray, but takingprisonersandliberatingwithoutransom.Theydidnotattacktownsatnight,nordidthegarrisonsofthetownsattackencampmentsatnight;theydidnotsurroundthecampeitherwithstockadeorditch,nor did they campaign in the winter. All these things were permitted by their military rules, anddevisedby them to avoid, as I have said,both fatigue anddangers; thus theyhavebrought Italy toslaveryandcontempt.(*)AlberigodaConio.AlbericodaBarbiano,CountofCunio

inRomagna.Hewastheleaderofthefamous"CompanyofSt

George,"composedentirelyofItaliansoldiers.Hediedin

1409.

CHAPTERXIII—CONCERNINGAUXILIARIES,MIXEDSOLDIERY,ANDONE'SOWN

Auxiliaries, which are the other useless arm, are employedwhen a prince is called in with hisforcestoaidanddefend,aswasdonebyPopeJuliusinthemostrecenttimes;forhe,having,intheenterprise againstFerrara, hadpoor proof of hismercenaries, turned to auxiliaries, and stipulatedwithFerdinand,KingofSpain,(*)forhisassistancewithmenandarms.Thesearmsmaybeusefulandgoodinthemselves,butforhimwhocallsthemintheyarealwaysdisadvantageous;forlosing,oneisundone,andwinning,oneistheircaptive.(*)FerdinandV(F.IIofAragonandSicily,F.IIIof

Naples),surnamed"TheCatholic,"born1542,died1516.

Andalthoughancienthistoriesmaybefullofexamples,IdonotwishtoleavethisrecentoneofPopeJuliustheSecond,theperilofwhichcannotfailtobeperceived;forhe,wishingtogetFerrara,threw himself entirely into the hands of the foreigner.But his good fortune brought about a thirdevent, so thathedidnot reap the fruit ofhis rash choice;because, havinghis auxiliaries routed atRavenna,andtheSwitzershavingrisenanddrivenout theconquerors(againstallexpectation,bothhisandothers),itsocametopassthathedidnotbecomeprisonertohisenemies,theyhavingfled,nortohisauxiliaries,hehavingconqueredbyotherarmsthantheirs.TheFlorentines,beingentirelywithoutarms,sent ten thousandFrenchmen to takePisa,whereby

theyranmoredangerthanatanyothertimeoftheirtroubles.TheEmperorofConstantinople,(*)toopposehisneighbours,senttenthousandTurksintoGreece,

who,onthewarbeingfinished,werenotwillingtoquit; thiswasthebeginningof theservitudeofGreecetotheinfidels.(*)JoannesCantacuzenus,born1300,died1383.

Therefore,lethimwhohasnodesiretoconquermakeuseofthesearms,fortheyaremuchmorehazardousthanmercenaries,becausewiththemtheruinisreadymade;theyareallunited,allyieldobedience to others; but with mercenaries, when they have conquered, more time and betteropportunitiesareneededtoinjureyou;theyarenotallofonecommunity,theyarefoundandpaidbyyou, and a third party,which you havemade their head, is not able all at once to assume enoughauthority to injure you. In conclusion, in mercenaries dastardy is most dangerous; in auxiliaries,valour.Thewiseprince,therefore,hasalwaysavoidedthesearmsandturnedtohisown;andhasbeenwillingrathertolosewiththemthantoconquerwiththeothers,notdeemingthatarealvictorywhichisgainedwiththearmsofothers.I shallneverhesitate tociteCesareBorgiaandhisactions.Thisdukeentered theRomagnawith

auxiliaries, taking there only French soldiers, and with them he captured Imola and Forli; butafterwards, such forces not appearing to him reliable, he turned to mercenaries, discerning lessdanger in them, andenlisted theOrsini andVitelli;whompresently, onhandlingand finding themdoubtful, unfaithful, and dangerous, he destroyed and turned to his own men. And the differencebetweenoneandtheotheroftheseforcescaneasilybeseenwhenoneconsidersthedifferencetherewas in the reputationof theduke,whenhehad theFrench,whenhehad theOrsiniandVitelli, andwhen he relied on his own soldiers, on whose fidelity he could always count and found it everincreasing;hewasneveresteemedmorehighlythanwheneveryonesawthathewascompletemasterofhisownforces.IwasnotintendingtogobeyondItalianandrecentexamples,butIamunwillingtoleaveoutHiero,

theSyracusan,hebeingoneofthoseIhavenamedabove.Thisman,asIhavesaid,madeheadofthearmy by the Syracusans, soon found out that a mercenary soldiery, constituted like our Italiancondottieri,wasofnouse;anditappearingtohimthathecouldneitherkeepthemnotletthemgo,hehadthemallcuttopieces,andafterwardsmadewarwithhisownforcesandnotwithaliens.IwishalsotorecalltomemoryaninstancefromtheOldTestamentapplicabletothissubject.David

offeredhimselftoSaultofightwithGoliath,thePhilistinechampion,and,togivehimcourage,Saularmedhimwithhisownweapons;whichDavidrejectedassoonashehadthemonhisback,sayinghecouldmake no use of them, and that hewished tomeet the enemywith his sling and his knife. Inconclusion,thearmsofotherseitherfallfromyourback,ortheyweighyoudown,ortheybindyoufast.Charles the Seventh,(*) the father of King Louis the Eleventh,(+) having by good fortune and

valourliberatedFrancefromtheEnglish,recognizedthenecessityofbeingarmedwithforcesofhisown,andheestablishedinhiskingdomordinancesconcerningmen-at-armsandinfantry.Afterwardshisson,KingLouis,abolishedtheinfantryandbegantoenlisttheSwitzers,whichmistake,followedbyothers,is,asisnowseen,asourceofperiltothatkingdom;because,havingraisedthereputationof the Switzers, he has entirely diminished the value of his own arms, for he has destroyed theinfantry altogether; and his men-at-arms he has subordinated to others, for, being as they are soaccustomedtofightalongwithSwitzers,itdoesnotappearthattheycannowconquerwithoutthem.HenceitarisesthattheFrenchcannotstandagainsttheSwitzers,andwithouttheSwitzerstheydonotcomeoffwellagainstothers.Thearmiesof theFrenchhave thusbecomemixed,partlymercenaryand partly national, both of which arms together are much better than mercenaries alone orauxiliariesalone,butmuchinferiortoone'sownforces.Andthisexampleprovesit,forthekingdomofFrancewouldbeunconquerableiftheordinanceofCharleshadbeenenlargedormaintained.(*)CharlesVIIofFrance,surnamed"TheVictorious,"born

1403,died1461.

(+)LouisXI,sonoftheabove,born1423,died1483.

Butthescantywisdomofman,onenteringintoanaffairwhichlookswellatfirst,cannotdiscernthe poison that is hidden in it, as I have said above of hectic fevers. Therefore, if hewho rules aprincipalitycannot recognizeevilsuntil theyareuponhim,he isnot trulywise;and this insight isgiventofew.AndifthefirstdisastertotheRomanEmpire(*)shouldbeexamined,itwillbefoundtohave commenced only with the enlisting of the Goths; because from that time the vigour of theRomanEmpirebegantodecline,andallthatvalourwhichhadraiseditpassedawaytoothers.(*)"ManyspeakerstotheHousetheothernightinthe

debateonthereductionofarmamentsseemedtoshowamost

lamentableignoranceoftheconditionsunderwhichthe

BritishEmpiremaintainsitsexistence.WhenMrBalfour

repliedtotheallegationsthattheRomanEmpiresankunder

theweightofitsmilitaryobligations,hesaidthatthis

was'whollyunhistorical.'Hemightwellhaveaddedthatthe

Romanpowerwasatitszenithwheneverycitizen

acknowledgedhisliabilitytofightfortheState,butthat

itbegantodeclineassoonasthisobligationwasnolonger

recognized."—PallMallGazette,15thMay1906.

Iconclude,therefore,thatnoprincipalityissecurewithouthavingitsownforces;onthecontrary,it is entirelydependentongood fortune,nothaving thevalourwhich inadversitywoulddefend it.And it has alwaysbeen theopinionand judgmentofwisemen thatnothingcanbe souncertainorunstableasfameorpowernotfoundedonitsownstrength.Andone'sownforcesarethosewhicharecomposedeitherofsubjects,citizens,ordependents;allothersaremercenariesorauxiliaries.Andtheway tomake readyone'sownforceswillbeeasily found if the rulessuggestedbymeshallbereflected upon, and if onewill consider how Philip, the father of Alexander theGreat, andmany

republicsandprinceshavearmedandorganizedthemselves,towhichrulesIentirelycommitmyself.

CHAPTERXIV—THATWHICHCONCERNSAPRINCEONTHESUBJECTOFTHEARTOFWAR

Aprinceoughttohavenootheraimorthought,norselectanythingelseforhisstudy,thanwaranditsrulesanddiscipline;forthisisthesoleartthatbelongstohimwhorules,anditisofsuchforcethat itnotonlyupholds thosewhoarebornprinces,but itoftenenablesmentorisefromaprivatestationtothatrank.And,onthecontrary,itisseenthatwhenprinceshavethoughtmoreofeasethanofarmstheyhavelosttheirstates.Andthefirstcauseofyourlosingitistoneglectthisart;andwhatenables you to acquire a state is to bemaster of the art. FrancescoSforza, through beingmartial,from a private person became Duke of Milan; and the sons, through avoiding the hardships andtroublesofarms,fromdukesbecameprivatepersons.Foramongotherevilswhichbeingunarmedbringsyou,itcausesyoutobedespised,andthisisoneofthoseignominiesagainstwhichaprinceought to guard himself, as is shown later on. Because there is nothing proportionate between thearmed and the unarmed; and it is not reasonable that he who is armed should yield obediencewillinglytohimwhoisunarmed,orthattheunarmedmanshouldbesecureamongarmedservants.Because,therebeingintheonedisdainandintheothersuspicion,itisnotpossibleforthemtoworkwell together.And therefore a princewho does not understand the art ofwar, over and above theothermisfortunesalreadymentioned,cannotberespectedbyhissoldiers,norcanherelyonthem.Heoughtnever,therefore,tohaveoutofhisthoughtsthissubjectofwar,andinpeaceheshouldaddicthimselfmoretoitsexercisethaninwar;thishecandointwoways,theonebyaction,theotherbystudy.Asregardsaction,heoughtaboveallthingstokeephismenwellorganizedanddrilled,tofollow

incessantly the chase, by which he accustoms his body to hardships, and learns something of thenatureof localities,andgets tofindouthowthemountainsrise,howthevalleysopenout,howtheplainslie,andtounderstandthenatureofriversandmarshes,andinallthistotakethegreatestcare.Whichknowledgeisusefulintwoways.Firstly,helearnstoknowhiscountry,andisbetterabletoundertake its defence; afterwards, bymeans of the knowledge and observation of that locality, heunderstandswith ease anyotherwhich itmaybenecessary forhim to studyhereafter; because thehills, valleys, and plains, and rivers andmarshes that are, for instance, in Tuscany, have a certainresemblanceto thoseofothercountries,so thatwithaknowledgeof theaspectofonecountryonecaneasilyarriveataknowledgeofothers.Andtheprincethatlacksthisskilllackstheessentialwhichitisdesirablethatacaptainshouldpossess,foritteacheshimtosurprisehisenemy,toselectquarters,toleadarmies,toarraythebattle,tobesiegetownstoadvantage.Philopoemen,(*) Prince of the Achaeans, among other praises which writers have bestowed on

him,iscommendedbecauseintimeofpeaceheneverhadanythinginhismindbuttherulesofwar;andwhenhewasinthecountrywithfriends,heoftenstoppedandreasonedwiththem:"Iftheenemyshouldbeuponthathill,andweshouldfindourselvesherewithourarmy,withwhomwouldbetheadvantage?Howshouldonebestadvancetomeethim,keepingtheranks?Ifweshouldwishtoretreat,howoughtwetopursue?"Andhewouldsetforthtothem,ashewent,allthechancesthatcouldbefallanarmy;hewould listen to theiropinionandstatehis,confirming itwithreasons,so thatby thesecontinualdiscussions therecouldneverarise, in timeofwar,anyunexpectedcircumstances thathecouldnotdealwith.(*)Philopoemen,"thelastoftheGreeks,"born252B.C.,

died183B.C.

But to exercise the intellect the prince should read histories, and study there the actions of

illustrious men, to see how they have borne themselves in war, to examine the causes of theirvictoriesanddefeat,soastoavoidthelatterandimitatetheformer;andabovealldoasanillustriousman did,who took as an exemplar onewho had been praised and famous before him, andwhoseachievementsanddeedshealwayskeptinhismind,asitissaidAlexandertheGreatimitatedAchilles,CaesarAlexander, Scipio Cyrus. Andwhoever reads the life of Cyrus, written byXenophon,willrecognize afterwards in the life of Scipio how that imitation was his glory, and how in chastity,affability,humanity,andliberalityScipioconformedtothosethingswhichhavebeenwrittenofCyrusbyXenophon.Awiseprinceoughttoobservesomesuchrules,andneverinpeacefultimesstandidle,butincreasehisresourceswithindustryinsuchawaythattheymaybeavailabletohiminadversity,sothatiffortunechancesitmayfindhimpreparedtoresistherblows.

CHAPTERXV—CONCERNINGTHINGSFORWHICHMEN,ANDESPECIALLYPRINCES,AREPRAISEDORBLAMED

Itremainsnowtoseewhatoughttobetherulesofconductforaprincetowardssubjectandfriends.AndasIknowthatmanyhavewrittenon thispoint, Iexpect Ishallbeconsideredpresumptuous inmentioningitagain,especiallyasindiscussingitIshalldepartfromthemethodsofotherpeople.But,itbeingmyintentiontowriteathingwhichshallbeusefultohimwhoapprehendsit,itappearstomemoreappropriatetofollowuptherealtruthofthematterthantheimaginationofit;formanyhavepicturedrepublicsandprincipalitieswhichinfacthaveneverbeenknownorseen,becausehowonelivesissofardistantfromhowoneoughttolive,thathewhoneglectswhatisdoneforwhatoughttobedone,soonereffectshisruinthanhispreservation;foramanwhowishestoactentirelyuptohisprofessionsofvirtuesoonmeetswithwhatdestroyshimamongsomuchthatisevil.Henceitisnecessaryforaprincewishingtoholdhisowntoknowhowtodowrong,andtomake

useofitornotaccordingtonecessity.Therefore,puttingononesideimaginarythingsconcerningaprince,anddiscussingthosewhicharereal,Isaythatallmenwhentheyarespokenof,andchieflyprincesforbeingmorehighlyplaced,areremarkableforsomeofthosequalitieswhichbringthemeitherblameorpraise;andthusitisthatoneisreputedliberal,anothermiserly,usingaTuscanterm(becauseanavariciouspersoninourlanguageisstillhewhodesirestopossessbyrobbery,whilstwecallonemiserlywhodepriveshimselftoomuchoftheuseofhisown);oneisreputedgenerous,onerapacious; one cruel, one compassionate; one faithless, another faithful; one effeminate andcowardly,anotherboldandbrave;oneaffable,anotherhaughty;onelascivious,anotherchaste;onesincere, another cunning; one hard, another easy; one grave, another frivolous; one religious,another unbelieving, and the like. And I know that every one will confess that it would be mostpraiseworthyinaprincetoexhibitalltheabovequalitiesthatareconsideredgood;butbecausetheycanneitherbeentirelypossessednorobserved,forhumanconditionsdonotpermitit,itisnecessaryforhimtobesufficientlyprudentthathemayknowhowtoavoidthereproachofthoseviceswhichwouldlosehimhisstate;andalsotokeephimself,ifitbepossible,fromthosewhichwouldnotlosehimit;butthisnotbeingpossible,hemaywithlesshesitationabandonhimselftothem.Andagain,heneednotmakehimselfuneasyatincurringareproachforthoseviceswithoutwhichthestatecanonlybe savedwith difficulty, for if everything is considered carefully, it will be found that somethingwhichlookslikevirtue,iffollowed,wouldbehisruin;whilstsomethingelse,whichlookslikevice,yetfollowedbringshimsecurityandprosperity.

CHAPTERXVI—CONCERNINGLIBERALITYANDMEANNESS

Commencingthenwiththefirstoftheabove-namedcharacteristics,Isaythatitwouldbewelltobereputedliberal.Nevertheless,liberalityexercisedinawaythatdoesnotbringyouthereputationforit, injures you; for if one exercises it honestly and as it should be exercised, it may not becomeknown,andyouwillnotavoidthereproachofitsopposite.Therefore,anyonewishingtomaintainamongmenthenameofliberalisobligedtoavoidnoattributeofmagnificence;sothataprincethusinclinedwillconsume insuchactsallhisproperty,andwillbecompelled in theend, ifhewish tomaintainthenameofliberal, toundulyweighdownhispeople,andtaxthem,anddoeverythinghecantogetmoney.Thiswillsoonmakehimodioustohissubjects,andbecomingpoorhewillbelittlevaluedbyanyone;thus,withhisliberality,havingoffendedmanyandrewardedfew,heisaffectedbytheveryfirst troubleandimperilledbywhatevermaybethefirstdanger;recognizingthishimself,andwishingtodrawbackfromit,herunsatonceintothereproachofbeingmiserly.Therefore, a prince, not being able to exercise this virtue of liberality in such a way that it is

recognized,excepttohiscost,ifheiswiseheoughtnottofearthereputationofbeingmean,forintimehewillcometobemoreconsideredthanif liberal,seeingthatwithhiseconomyhisrevenuesareenough,thathecandefendhimselfagainstallattacks,andisabletoengageinenterpriseswithoutburdening his people; thus it comes to pass that he exercises liberality towards all fromwhomhedoesnottake,whoarenumberless,andmeannesstowardsthosetowhomhedoesnotgive,whoarefew.Wehavenotseengreatthingsdoneinourtimeexceptbythosewhohavebeenconsideredmean;

theresthavefailed.PopeJulius theSecondwasassisted in reaching thepapacybya reputationforliberality,yethedidnotstriveafterwardstokeepitup,whenhemadewarontheKingofFrance;andhe made many wars without imposing any extraordinary tax on his subjects, for he supplied hisadditionalexpensesoutofhislongthriftiness.ThepresentKingofSpainwouldnothaveundertakenorconqueredinsomanyenterprisesifhehadbeenreputedliberal.Aprince,therefore,providedthathehasnottorobhissubjects,thathecandefendhimself,thathedoesnotbecomepoorandabject,thatheisnotforcedtobecomerapacious,oughttoholdoflittleaccountareputationforbeingmean,foritisoneofthoseviceswhichwillenablehimtogovern.Andifanyoneshouldsay:Caesarobtainedempirebyliberality,andmanyothershavereachedthe

highest positions by having been liberal, and by being considered so, I answer: Either you are aprinceinfact,orinawaytobecomeone.Inthefirstcasethisliberalityisdangerous,intheseconditisverynecessarytobeconsideredliberal;andCaesarwasoneofthosewhowishedtobecomepre-eminentinRome;butifhehadsurvivedafterbecomingso,andhadnotmoderatedhisexpenses,hewould have destroyed his government.And if any one should reply:Many have been princes, andhavedonegreat thingswitharmies,whohavebeenconsideredveryliberal,Ireply:Eitheraprincespends thatwhich ishisownorhis subjects' or else thatofothers. In the first caseheought tobesparing, inthesecondheoughtnot toneglectanyopportunityforliberality.Andtotheprincewhogoesforthwithhisarmy,supportingitbypillage,sack,andextortion,handlingthatwhichbelongstoothers,thisliberalityisnecessary,otherwisehewouldnotbefollowedbysoldiers.Andofthatwhichisneitheryoursnoryoursubjects'youcanbeareadygiver,aswereCyrus,Caesar,andAlexander;becauseitdoesnottakeawayyourreputationifyousquanderthatofothers,butaddstoit;itisonlysquanderingyourownthatinjuresyou.

And there isnothingwastes so rapidly as liberality, for evenwhilst youexercise it you lose thepowertodoso,andsobecomeeitherpoorordespised,orelse,inavoidingpoverty,rapaciousandhated.And a prince should guard himself, above all things, against being despised and hated; andliberality leads you to both. Therefore it iswiser to have a reputation formeannesswhich bringsreproachwithouthatred, thantobecompelledthroughseekingareputationforliberalitytoincuranameforrapacitywhichbegetsreproachwithhatred.

CHAPTERXVII—CONCERNINGCRUELTYANDCLEMENCY,ANDWHETHERITISBETTERTOBELOVED

THANFEARED

Comingnowtotheotherqualitiesmentionedabove,Isaythateveryprinceoughttodesiretobeconsidered clement and not cruel.Nevertheless he ought to take care not tomisuse this clemency.CesareBorgiawasconsideredcruel;notwithstanding,hiscrueltyreconciledtheRomagna,unifiedit,andrestored it topeaceand loyalty.And if thisberightlyconsidered,hewillbeseen tohavebeenmuchmoremerciful than the Florentine people, who, to avoid a reputation for cruelty, permittedPistoiatobedestroyed.(*)Thereforeaprince,solongashekeepshissubjectsunitedandloyal,oughtnottomindthereproachofcruelty;becausewithafewexampleshewillbemoremercifulthanthosewho, through toomuchmercy,allowdisorders toarise, fromwhich followmurdersor robberies;forthesearewonttoinjurethewholepeople,whilstthoseexecutionswhichoriginatewithaprinceoffendtheindividualonly.(*)DuringtheriotingbetweentheCancellieriand

Panciatichifactionsin1502and1503.

Andofallprinces,itisimpossibleforthenewprincetoavoidtheimputationofcruelty,owingtonewstatesbeingfullofdangers.HenceVirgil,throughthemouthofDido,excusestheinhumanityofherreignowingtoitsbeingnew,saying:"Resdura,etregninovitasmetaliacogunt

Moliri,etlatefinescustodetueri."(*)

Nevertheless he ought to be slow to believe and to act, nor should he himself show fear, butproceed in a temperatemannerwith prudence andhumanity, so that toomuch confidencemaynotmakehimincautiousandtoomuchdistrustrenderhimintolerable.(*)...againstmywill,myfate

Athroneunsettled,andaninfantstate,

Bidmedefendmyrealmswithallmypow'rs,

Andguardwiththeseseveritiesmyshores.

ChristopherPitt.

Uponthisaquestionarises:whetheritbebettertobelovedthanfearedorfearedthanloved?Itmaybeansweredthatoneshouldwishtobeboth,but,becauseitisdifficulttounitetheminoneperson,itismuchsafertobefearedthanloved,when,ofthetwo,eithermustbedispensedwith.Becausethisistobe asserted ingeneral ofmen, that they areungrateful, fickle, false, cowardly, covetous, and aslong as you succeed they are yours entirely; they will offer you their blood, property, life, andchildren,asissaidabove,whentheneedisfardistant;butwhenitapproachestheyturnagainstyou.Andthatprincewho,relyingentirelyon theirpromises,hasneglectedotherprecautions, is ruined;because friendships that are obtained by payments, and not by greatness or nobility ofmind,mayindeedbeearned,buttheyarenotsecured,andintimeofneedcannotbereliedupon;andmenhavelessscrupleinoffendingonewhoisbelovedthanonewhoisfeared,forloveispreservedbythelinkof obligation which, owing to the baseness of men, is broken at every opportunity for theiradvantage;butfearpreservesyoubyadreadofpunishmentwhichneverfails.Neverthelessaprinceoughttoinspirefearinsuchawaythat, ifhedoesnotwinlove,heavoids

hatred;becausehecanendureverywellbeingfearedwhilstheisnothated,whichwillalwaysbeaslongasheabstainsfromthepropertyofhiscitizensandsubjectsandfromtheirwomen.Butwhenitisnecessaryforhimtoproceedagainstthelifeofsomeone,hemustdoitonproperjustificationandformanifestcause,butaboveall thingshemustkeephishandsoff thepropertyofothers,because

menmorequicklyforgetthedeathoftheirfatherthanthelossoftheirpatrimony.Besides,pretextsfortakingawaythepropertyareneverwanting;forhewhohasoncebeguntolivebyrobberywillalwaysfindpretextsforseizingwhatbelongstoothers;butreasonsfortakinglife,onthecontrary,aremoredifficulttofindandsoonerlapse.Butwhenaprinceiswithhisarmy,andhasundercontrolamultitudeofsoldiers, thenit isquitenecessaryforhimtodisregard thereputationofcruelty, forwithoutithewouldneverholdhisarmyunitedordisposedtoitsduties.AmongthewonderfuldeedsofHannibalthisoneisenumerated:thathavingledanenormousarmy,

composedofmanyvariousracesofmen,tofightinforeignlands,nodissensionsaroseeitheramongthemoragainsttheprince,whetherinhisbadorinhisgoodfortune.Thisarosefromnothingelsethanhisinhumancruelty,which,withhisboundlessvalour,madehimreveredandterribleinthesightofhissoldiers,butwithoutthatcruelty,hisothervirtueswerenotsufficienttoproducethiseffect.Andshort-sighted writers admire his deeds from one point of view and from another condemn theprincipalcauseofthem.Thatitistruehisothervirtueswouldnothavebeensufficientforhimmaybeproved by the case of Scipio, that most excellent man, not only of his own times but within thememoryofman,againstwhom,nevertheless,hisarmyrebelledinSpain;thisarosefromnothingbuthis too great forbearance, which gave his soldiers more license than is consistent with militarydiscipline.ForthishewasupbraidedintheSenatebyFabiusMaximus,andcalledthecorrupteroftheRomansoldiery.TheLocrianswere laidwastebya legateofScipio,yet theywerenotavengedbyhim,norwas the insolenceof the legatepunished,owingentirely tohiseasynature. Insomuch thatsomeoneintheSenate,wishingtoexcusehim,saidthereweremanymenwhoknewmuchbetterhownot to err than to correct the errors of others. This disposition, if he had been continued in thecommand,wouldhavedestroyedintimethefameandgloryofScipio;but,hebeingunderthecontroloftheSenate,thisinjuriouscharacteristicnotonlyconcealeditself,butcontributedtohisglory.Returning to the question of being feared or loved, I come to the conclusion that, men loving

accordingtotheirownwillandfearingaccordingtothatoftheprince,awiseprinceshouldestablishhimselfonthatwhichisinhisowncontrolandnotinthatofothers;hemustendeavouronlytoavoidhatred,asisnoted.

CHAPTERXVIII(*)—CONCERNINGTHEWAYINWHICHPRINCESSHOULDKEEPFAITH

(*)"Thepresentchapterhasgivengreateroffencethanany

otherportionofMachiavelli'swritings."Burd,"Il

Principe,"p.297.

Everyoneadmitshowpraiseworthyitisinaprincetokeepfaith,andtolivewithintegrityandnotwithcraft.Neverthelessourexperiencehasbeenthatthoseprinceswhohavedonegreatthingshaveheldgoodfaithoflittleaccount,andhaveknownhowtocircumventtheintellectofmenbycraft,andintheendhaveovercomethosewhohavereliedontheirword.Youmustknowtherearetwowaysofcontesting,(*)theonebythelaw,theotherbyforce;thefirstmethodispropertomen,thesecondtobeasts;butbecausethefirstisfrequentlynotsufficient,itisnecessarytohaverecoursetothesecond.Therefore it isnecessary foraprince tounderstandhowtoavailhimselfof thebeastand theman.Thishasbeenfigurativelytaughttoprincesbyancientwriters,whodescribehowAchillesandmanyother princes of old were given to the Centaur Chiron to nurse, who brought them up in hisdiscipline;whichmeanssolelythat,astheyhadforateacheronewhowashalfbeastandhalfman,soitisnecessaryforaprincetoknowhowtomakeuseofbothnatures,andthatonewithouttheotherisnotdurable.Aprince,therefore,beingcompelledknowinglytoadoptthebeast,oughttochoosethefox and the lion; because the lion cannot defend himself against snares and the fox cannot defendhimself againstwolves.Therefore, it is necessary to be a fox to discover the snares and a lion toterrify the wolves. Those who rely simply on the lion do not understand what they are about.Therefore a wise lord cannot, nor ought he to, keep faith when such observance may be turnedagainsthim,andwhenthereasonsthatcausedhimtopledgeitexistnolonger.Ifmenwereentirelygoodthispreceptwouldnothold,butbecausetheyarebad,andwillnotkeepfaithwithyou,youtooarenotboundtoobserveitwiththem.Norwillthereeverbewantingtoaprincelegitimatereasonstoexcuse this non-observance.Of this endlessmodern examples could be given, showing howmanytreatiesandengagementshavebeenmadevoidandofnoeffectthroughthefaithlessnessofprinces;andhewhohasknownbesthowtoemploythefoxhassucceededbest.(*)"Contesting,"i.e."strivingformastery."MrBurd

pointsoutthatthispassageisimitateddirectlyfrom

Cicero's"DeOfficiis":"Namcumsintduogeneradecertandi,

unumperdisceptationem,alterumpervim;cumqueillud

propriumsithominis,hocbeluarum;confugiendumestad

posterius,siutinonlicetsuperiore."

Butitisnecessarytoknowwellhowtodisguisethischaracteristic,andtobeagreatpretenderanddissembler;andmenaresosimple,andsosubjecttopresentnecessities,thathewhoseekstodeceivewillalwaysfindsomeonewhowillallowhimselftobedeceived.OnerecentexampleIcannotpassover in silence. Alexander the Sixth did nothing else but deceivemen, nor ever thought of doingotherwise, and he always found victims; for there never was a man who had greater power inasserting,orwhowithgreateroathswouldaffirmathing,yetwouldobserveitless;neverthelesshisdeceits always succeeded according to his wishes,(*) because he well understood this side ofmankind.(*)"Nondimancosempreglisuccederonogliinganni(ad

votum)."Thewords"advotum"areomittedintheTestina

addition,1550.

Alexanderneverdidwhathesaid,

Cesareneversaidwhathedid.

ItalianProverb.

ThereforeitisunnecessaryforaprincetohaveallthegoodqualitiesIhaveenumerated,butitisverynecessarytoappeartohavethem.AndIshalldaretosaythisalso,thattohavethemandalwaystoobservethemis injurious,andthat toappear tohavethemisuseful; toappearmerciful, faithful,humane,religious,upright,andtobeso,butwithamindsoframedthatshouldyourequirenottobeso,youmaybeableandknowhowtochangetotheopposite.Andyouhavetounderstandthis,thataprince,especiallyanewone,cannotobserveallthosethings

forwhichmen are esteemed, being often forced, in order tomaintain the state, to act contrary tofidelity,(*)friendship,humanity,andreligion.Thereforeitisnecessaryforhimtohaveamindreadytoturnitselfaccordinglyasthewindsandvariationsoffortuneforceit,yet,asIhavesaidabove,nottodivergefromthegoodifhecanavoiddoingso,but,ifcompelled,thentoknowhowtosetaboutit.(*)"Contrarytofidelity"or"faith,""controallafede,"

and"tuttofede,""altogetherfaithful,"inthenext

paragraph.Itisnoteworthythatthesetwophrases,"contro

allafede"and"tuttofede,"wereomittedintheTestina

edition,whichwaspublishedwiththesanctionofthepapal

authorities.Itmaybethatthemeaningattachedtotheword

"fede"was"thefaith,"i.e.theCatholiccreed,andnotas

renderedhere"fidelity"and"faithful."Observethatthe

word"religione"wassufferedtostandinthetextofthe

Testina,beingusedtosignifyindifferentlyeveryshadeof

belief,aswitness"thereligion,"aphraseinevitably

employedtodesignatetheHuguenotheresy.Southinhis

SermonIX,p.69,ed.1843,commentsonthispassageas

follows:"ThatgreatpatronandCoryphaeusofthistribe,

NicoloMachiavel,laiddownthisforamasterruleinhis

politicalscheme:'Thattheshowofreligionwashelpfulto

thepolitician,buttherealityofithurtfuland

pernicious.'"

Forthisreasonaprinceoughttotakecarethatheneverletsanythingslipfromhislipsthatisnotreplete with the above-named five qualities, that he may appear to him who sees and hears himaltogether merciful, faithful, humane, upright, and religious. There is nothing more necessary toappear tohave than this lastquality, inasmuchasmen judgegenerallymoreby theeye thanby thehand,becauseitbelongstoeverybodytoseeyou,tofewtocomeintouchwithyou.Everyoneseeswhatyouappeartobe,fewreallyknowwhatyouare,andthosefewdarenotopposethemselvestotheopinionofthemany,whohavethemajestyofthestatetodefendthem;andintheactionsofallmen,andespeciallyofprinces,whichitisnotprudenttochallenge,onejudgesbytheresult.For that reason, let a prince have the credit of conquering andholding his state, themeanswill

always be considered honest, and hewill be praised by everybody; because the vulgar are alwaystakenbywhatathingseemstobeandbywhatcomesofit;andintheworldthereareonlythevulgar,forthefewfindaplacethereonlywhenthemanyhavenogroundtoreston.Oneprince(*)of thepresent time,whomit isnotwell toname,neverpreachesanythingelsebut

peaceandgoodfaith,andtobothheismosthostile,andeither,ifhehadkeptit,wouldhavedeprivedhimofreputationandkingdommanyatime.(*)FerdinandofAragon."WhenMachiavelliwaswriting'The

Prince'itwouldhavebeenclearlyimpossibletomention

Ferdinand'snameherewithoutgivingoffence."Burd's"Il

Principe,"p.308.

CHAPTERXIX—THATONESHOULDAVOIDBEINGDESPISEDANDHATED

Now,concerning thecharacteristicsofwhichmention ismadeabove, Ihavespokenof themoreimportantones,theothersIwishtodiscussbrieflyunderthisgenerality,thattheprincemustconsider,ashasbeeninpartsaidbefore,howtoavoidthosethingswhichwillmakehimhatedorcontemptible;andasoftenasheshallhavesucceededhewillhavefulfilledhispart,andheneednotfearanydangerinotherreproaches.Itmakes himhated above all things, as I have said, to be rapacious, and to be a violator of the

property andwomen of his subjects, from both ofwhich hemust abstain.Andwhen neither theirpropertynortheirhonoristouched,themajorityofmenlivecontent,andhehasonlytocontendwiththeambitionofafew,whomhecancurbwitheaseinmanyways.Itmakeshimcontemptibletobeconsideredfickle,frivolous,effeminate,mean-spirited,irresolute,

fromallofwhichaprinceshouldguardhimselfasfromarock;andheshouldendeavourtoshowinhisactionsgreatness,courage,gravity,andfortitude;andinhisprivatedealingswithhissubjectslethimshowthathisjudgmentsareirrevocable,andmaintainhimselfinsuchreputationthatnoonecanhopeeithertodeceivehimortogetroundhim.That prince is highly esteemed who conveys this impression of himself, and he who is highly

esteemedisnoteasilyconspiredagainst;for,provideditiswellknownthatheisanexcellentmanandreveredbyhispeople,hecanonlybeattackedwithdifficulty.Forthisreasonaprinceoughttohavetwofears,onefromwithin,onaccountofhissubjects,theotherfromwithout,onaccountofexternalpowers.Fromthelatterheisdefendedbybeingwellarmedandhavinggoodallies,andifheiswellarmed hewill have good friends, and affairswill always remain quietwithinwhen they are quietwithout, unless they should have been already disturbed by conspiracy; and even should affairsoutsidebedisturbed,ifhehascarriedouthispreparationsandhaslivedasIhavesaid,aslongashedoesnotdespair,hewillresisteveryattack,asIsaidNabistheSpartandid.Butconcerninghis subjects,whenaffairsoutsidearedisturbedhehasonly to fear that theywill

conspire secretly, from which a prince can easily secure himself by avoiding being hated anddespised, and by keeping the people satisfied with him, which it is most necessary for him toaccomplish,asIsaidaboveatlength.Andoneofthemostefficaciousremediesthataprincecanhaveagainst conspiracies is not to be hated anddespisedby the people, for hewho conspires against aprincealwaysexpectstopleasethembyhisremoval;butwhentheconspiratorcanonlylookforwardtooffendingthem,hewillnothavethecouragetotakesuchacourse,forthedifficultiesthatconfrontaconspiratorareinfinite.Andasexperienceshows,manyhavebeentheconspiracies,butfewhavebeensuccessful;becausehewhoconspirescannotactalone,norcanhetakeacompanionexceptfromthosewhomhebelievestobemalcontents,andassoonasyouhaveopenedyourmindtoamalcontentyouhavegivenhimthematerialwithwhichtocontenthimself,forbydenouncingyouhecanlookforeveryadvantage;sothat,seeingthegainfromthiscoursetobeassured,andseeingtheothertobedoubtfulandfullofdangers,hemustbeaveryrarefriend,orathoroughlyobstinateenemyoftheprince,tokeepfaithwithyou.And,toreducethematterintoasmallcompass,Isaythat,onthesideoftheconspirator, thereis

nothingbutfear,jealousy,prospectofpunishmenttoterrifyhim;butonthesideoftheprincethereisthemajestyoftheprincipality,thelaws,theprotectionoffriendsandthestatetodefendhim;sothat,addingtoallthesethingsthepopulargoodwill,itisimpossiblethatanyoneshouldbesorashasto

conspire.Forwhereasingeneraltheconspiratorhastofearbeforetheexecutionofhisplot,inthiscasehehas also to fear the sequel to the crime;becauseonaccountof it hehas thepeople for anenemy,andthuscannothopeforanyescape.Endless examples couldbegivenon this subject, but Iwill be contentwithone, brought topass

within the memory of our fathers. Messer Annibale Bentivogli, who was prince in Bologna(grandfatherof thepresentAnnibale),havingbeenmurderedby theCanneschi,whohadconspiredagainst him, not one of his family survived but Messer Giovanni,(*) who was in childhood:immediatelyafterhisassassinationthepeopleroseandmurderedalltheCanneschi.ThissprungfromthepopulargoodwillwhichthehouseofBentivoglienjoyedinthosedaysinBologna;whichwassogreatthat,althoughnoneremainedthereafterthedeathofAnnibalewhowasabletorulethestate,theBolognese,havinginformationthattherewasoneoftheBentivoglifamilyinFlorence,whouptothattime had been considered the son of a blacksmith, sent to Florence for him and gave him thegovernmentof theircity,and itwasruledbyhimuntilMesserGiovannicameinduecourse to thegovernment.(*)GiovanniBentivogli,borninBologna1438,diedatMilan

1508.HeruledBolognafrom1462to1506.Machiavelli's

strongcondemnationofconspiraciesmaygetitsedgefrom

hisownveryrecentexperience(February1513),whenhehad

beenarrestedandtorturedforhisallegedcomplicityinthe

Boscoliconspiracy.

For this reason I consider that a prince ought to reckon conspiracies of little accountwhen hispeopleholdhiminesteem;butwhenitishostiletohim,andbearshatredtowardshim,heoughttofeareverythingandeverybody.Andwell-orderedstatesandwiseprinceshavetakeneverycarenottodrivethenoblestodesperation,andtokeepthepeoplesatisfiedandcontented,forthisisoneofthemostimportantobjectsaprincecanhave.AmongthebestorderedandgovernedkingdomsofourtimesisFrance,andinitarefoundmany

good institutions on which depend the liberty and security of the king; of these the first is theparliament and its authority, because he who founded the kingdom, knowing the ambition of thenobilityandtheirboldness,consideredthatabittotheirmouthswouldbenecessarytoholdthemin;and,ontheotherside,knowingthehatredofthepeople,foundedinfear,againstthenobles,hewishedtoprotectthem,yethewasnotanxiousforthistobetheparticularcareoftheking;therefore,totakeawaythereproachwhichhewouldbeliabletofromthenoblesforfavouringthepeople,andfromthepeopleforfavouringthenobles,hesetupanarbiter,whoshouldbeonewhocouldbeatdownthegreatandfavourthelesserwithoutreproachtotheking.Neithercouldyouhaveabetteroramoreprudent arrangement, or a greater source of security to the king and kingdom.From this one candrawanotherimportantconclusion,thatprincesoughttoleaveaffairsofreproachtothemanagementofothers,andkeepthoseofgraceintheirownhands.Andfurther,Iconsiderthataprinceoughttocherishthenobles,butnotsoastomakehimselfhatedbythepeople.Itmayappear,perhaps,tosomewhohaveexaminedthelivesanddeathsoftheRomanemperors

thatmanyofthemwouldbeanexamplecontrarytomyopinion,seeingthatsomeofthemlivednoblyandshowedgreatqualitiesof soul,nevertheless theyhave lost theirempireorhavebeenkilledbysubjectswhohaveconspiredagainstthem.Wishing,therefore,toanswertheseobjections,Iwillrecallthecharactersofsomeoftheemperors,andwillshowthatthecausesoftheirruinwerenotdifferentto those allegedbyme; at the same time Iwill only submit for consideration those things that arenoteworthytohimwhostudiestheaffairsofthosetimes.ItseemstomesufficienttotakeallthoseemperorswhosucceededtotheempirefromMarcusthe

philosopherdowntoMaximinus;theywereMarcusandhissonCommodus,Pertinax,Julian,SeverusandhissonAntoninusCaracalla,Macrinus,Heliogabalus,Alexander,andMaximinus.

There is first to note that, whereas in other principalities the ambition of the nobles and theinsolenceofthepeopleonlyhavetobecontendedwith,theRomanemperorshadathirddifficultyinhavingtoputupwiththecrueltyandavariceoftheirsoldiers,amattersobesetwithdifficultiesthatitwastheruinofmany;foritwasahardthingtogivesatisfactionbothtosoldiersandpeople;becausethepeoplelovedpeace,andforthisreasontheylovedtheunaspiringprince,whilstthesoldierslovedthewarlike princewhowas bold, cruel, and rapacious,which qualities theywere quitewilling heshouldexerciseuponthepeople,sothattheycouldgetdoublepayandgiveventtotheirowngreedand cruelty. Hence it arose that those emperors were always overthrown who, either by birth ortraining,hadnogreatauthority,andmostofthem,especiallythosewhocamenewtotheprincipality,recognizing thedifficultyof these twoopposinghumours,were inclined togive satisfaction to thesoldiers, caring little about injuring the people.Which course was necessary, because, as princescannothelpbeinghatedbysomeone,theyought,inthefirstplace,toavoidbeinghatedbyeveryone,andwhen theycannotcompass this, theyought toendeavourwith theutmostdiligence toavoid thehatred of the most powerful. Therefore, those emperors who through inexperience had need ofspecial favour adheredmore readily to the soldiers than to the people; a coursewhich turned outadvantageoustothemornot,accordinglyastheprinceknewhowtomaintainauthorityoverthem.From these causes it arose thatMarcus, Pertinax, andAlexander, being allmen ofmodest life,

loversof justice, enemies to cruelty, humane, andbenignant, came to a sad end exceptMarcus; healonelivedanddiedhonoured,becausehehadsucceededtothethronebyhereditarytitle,andowednothingeithertothesoldiersorthepeople;andafterwards,beingpossessedofmanyvirtueswhichmadehimrespected,healwayskeptbothordersintheirplaceswhilsthelived,andwasneitherhatednordespised.ButPertinaxwascreatedemperoragainstthewishesofthesoldiers,who,beingaccustomedtolive

licentiouslyunderCommodus,couldnotendure thehonest life towhichPertinaxwished to reducethem;thus,havinggivencauseforhatred,towhichhatredtherewasaddedcontemptforhisoldage,hewasoverthrownattheverybeginningofhisadministration.Andhereitshouldbenotedthathatredisacquiredasmuchbygoodworksasbybadones, therefore,asIsaidbefore,aprincewishingtokeephisstateisveryoftenforcedtodoevil;forwhenthatbodyiscorruptwhomyouthinkyouhaveneedoftomaintainyourself—itmaybeeitherthepeopleorthesoldiersorthenobles—youhavetosubmittoitshumoursandtogratifythem,andthengoodworkswilldoyouharm.ButletuscometoAlexander,whowasamanofsuchgreatgoodness,thatamongtheotherpraises

whichareaccordedhimisthis,thatinthefourteenyearsheheldtheempirenoonewaseverputtodeathbyhimunjudged;nevertheless,beingconsideredeffeminateandamanwhoallowedhimselftobegovernedbyhismother,hebecamedespised,thearmyconspiredagainsthim,andmurderedhim.Turning now to the opposite characters of Commodus, Severus, Antoninus Caracalla, and

Maximinus, youwill find them all cruel and rapacious-menwho, to satisfy their soldiers, did nothesitate tocommiteverykindof iniquityagainst thepeople;andall,exceptSeverus,cametoabadend;butinSeverustherewassomuchvalourthat,keepingthesoldiersfriendly,althoughthepeoplewereoppressedbyhim,he reignedsuccessfully; forhisvalourmadehimsomuchadmired in thesightofthesoldiersandpeoplethatthelatterwerekeptinawayastonishedandawedandtheformerrespectfulandsatisfied.Andbecause theactionsof thisman,asanewprince,weregreat, Iwish toshowbrieflythatheknewwellhowtocounterfeitthefoxandthelion,whichnatures,asIsaidabove,itisnecessaryforaprincetoimitate.Knowing the slothof theEmperor Julian,hepersuaded the army inSclavonia, ofwhichhewas

captain,thatitwouldberighttogotoRomeandavengethedeathofPertinax,whohadbeenkilledbythepraetoriansoldiers;andunderthispretext,withoutappearingtoaspiretothethrone,hemovedthe

armyonRome,andreachedItalybeforeitwasknownthathehadstarted.OnhisarrivalatRome,theSenate, through fear, electedhimemperorandkilled Julian.After this there remained forSeverus,whowishedtomakehimselfmasterofthewholeempire,twodifficulties;oneinAsia,whereNiger,headoftheAsiaticarmy,hadcausedhimselftobeproclaimedemperor;theotherinthewestwhereAlbinuswas,whoalsoaspired to the throne.Andasheconsidered itdangerous todeclarehimselfhostiletoboth,hedecidedtoattackNigerandtodeceiveAlbinus.Tothelatterhewrotethat,beingelectedemperorbytheSenate,hewaswillingtosharethatdignitywithhimandsenthimthetitleofCaesar;and,moreover,thattheSenatehadmadeAlbinushiscolleague;whichthingswereacceptedbyAlbinusastrue.ButafterSeverushadconqueredandkilledNiger,andsettledorientalaffairs,hereturnedtoRomeandcomplainedtotheSenatethatAlbinus,littlerecognizingthebenefitsthathehadreceivedfromhim,hadbytreacherysoughttomurderhim,andforthisingratitudehewascompelledtopunishhim.AfterwardshesoughthimoutinFrance,andtookfromhimhisgovernmentandlife.Hewhowill,therefore,carefullyexaminetheactionsofthismanwillfindhimamostvaliantlionandamostcunningfox;hewillfindhimfearedandrespectedbyeveryone,andnothatedbythearmy;anditneednotbewonderedatthathe,anewman,wasabletoholdtheempiresowell,becausehissupreme renown always protected him from that hatred which the people might have conceivedagainsthimforhisviolence.ButhissonAntoninuswasamosteminentman,andhadveryexcellentqualities,whichmadehim

admirable in thesightof thepeopleandacceptable to thesoldiers, forhewasawarlikeman,mostenduring of fatigue, a despiser of all delicate food and other luxuries, which caused him to bebelovedbythearmies.Nevertheless,hisferocityandcrueltiesweresogreatandsounheardofthat,after endless single murders, he killed a large number of the people of Rome and all those ofAlexandria.Hebecamehatedbythewholeworld,andalsofearedbythosehehadaroundhim,tosuchanextentthathewasmurderedinthemidstofhisarmybyacenturion.Andhereitmustbenotedthatsuch-like deaths,which are deliberately inflictedwith a resolved and desperate courage, cannot beavoidedbyprinces,becauseanyonewhodoesnotfeartodiecaninflictthem;butaprincemayfearthemthelessbecausetheyareveryrare;hehasonlytobecarefulnottodoanygraveinjurytothosewhomheemploysorhasaroundhimintheserviceofthestate.Antoninushadnottakenthiscare,buthadcontumeliouslykilledabrotherofthatcenturion,whomalsohedailythreatened,yetretainedinhisbodyguard;which,asitturnedout,wasarashthingtodo,andprovedtheemperor'sruin.But let us come toCommodus, towhom it should have been very easy to hold the empire, for,

beingthesonofMarcus,hehadinheritedit,andhehadonlytofollowinthefootstepsofhisfathertopleasehispeopleandsoldiers;but,beingbynaturecruelandbrutal,hegavehimselfuptoamusingthesoldiersandcorruptingthem,sothathemightindulgehisrapacityuponthepeople;ontheotherhand, not maintaining his dignity, often descending to the theatre to compete with gladiators, anddoingothervilethings,littleworthyoftheimperialmajesty,hefellintocontemptwiththesoldiers,andbeinghatedbyonepartyanddespisedbytheother,hewasconspiredagainstandwaskilled.ItremainstodiscussthecharacterofMaximinus.Hewasaverywarlikeman,andthearmies,being

disgustedwiththeeffeminacyofAlexander,ofwhomIhavealreadyspoken,killedhimandelectedMaximinus to the throne. This he did not possess for long, for two things made him hated anddespised; theone,hishavingkeptsheepinThrace,whichbroughthimintocontempt(itbeingwellknowntoall,andconsideredagreatindignitybyeveryone),andtheother,hishavingattheaccessionto his dominions deferred going toRome and taking possession of the imperial seat; he had alsogainedareputationfortheutmostferocitybyhaving,throughhisprefectsinRomeandelsewhereintheempire,practisedmanycruelties,sothatthewholeworldwasmovedtoangeratthemeannessofhisbirthandtofearathisbarbarity.FirstAfricarebelled,thentheSenatewithallthepeopleofRome,

and all Italy conspired against him, to which may be added his own army; this latter, besiegingAquileiaandmeetingwithdifficultiesintakingit,weredisgustedwithhiscruelties,andfearinghimlesswhentheyfoundsomanyagainsthim,murderedhim.Idonotwish todiscussHeliogabalus,Macrinus,orJulian,who,being thoroughlycontemptible,

werequicklywipedout;butIwillbringthisdiscoursetoaconclusionbysayingthatprincesinourtimes have this difficulty of giving inordinate satisfaction to their soldiers in a far less degree,because, notwithstanding one has to give them some indulgence, that is soon done; none of theseprinceshavearmiesthatareveteransinthegovernanceandadministrationofprovinces,aswerethearmies of the Roman Empire; andwhereas it was thenmore necessary to give satisfaction to thesoldiersthantothepeople,itisnowmorenecessarytoallprinces,excepttheTurkandtheSoldan,tosatisfythepeopleratherthesoldiers,becausethepeoplearethemorepowerful.FromtheaboveIhaveexcepted theTurk,whoalwayskeepsroundhimtwelve thousand infantry

and fifteen thousand cavalry on which depend the security and strength of the kingdom, and it isnecessarythat,puttingasideeveryconsiderationforthepeople,heshouldkeepthemhisfriends.ThekingdomoftheSoldanissimilar;beingentirelyinthehandsofsoldiers,itfollowsagainthat,withoutregardtothepeople,hemustkeepthemhisfriends.ButyoumustnotethatthestateoftheSoldanisunlikeallotherprincipalities,forthereasonthatitisliketheChristianpontificate,whichcannotbecalledeitheranhereditaryoranewlyformedprincipality;becausethesonsoftheoldprincearenottheheirs,buthewhoiselectedtothatpositionbythosewhohaveauthority,andthesonsremainonlynoblemen.Andthisbeinganancientcustom,itcannotbecalledanewprincipality,becausetherearenone of those difficulties in it that aremet with in new ones; for although the prince is new, theconstitutionofthestateisold,anditisframedsoastoreceivehimasifhewereitshereditarylord.Butreturningtothesubjectofourdiscourse,Isaythatwhoeverwillconsideritwillacknowledge

thateitherhatredorcontempthasbeenfataltotheabove-namedemperors,anditwillberecognizedalsohowithappenedthat,anumberofthemactinginonewayandanumberinanother,onlyoneineachwaycametoahappyendandtheresttounhappyones.Becauseitwouldhavebeenuselessanddangerous for Pertinax andAlexander, being new princes, to imitateMarcus,whowas heir to theprincipality; and likewise it would have been utterly destructive to Caracalla, Commodus, andMaximinustohaveimitatedSeverus,theynothavingsufficientvalourtoenablethemtotreadinhisfootsteps.Thereforeaprince,newtotheprincipality,cannotimitatetheactionsofMarcus,nor,again,is itnecessary tofollowthoseofSeverus,butheought to takefromSeverus thosepartswhicharenecessarytofoundhisstate,andfromMarcusthosewhichareproperandglorioustokeepastatethatmayalreadybestableandfirm.

CHAPTERXX—AREFORTRESSES,ANDMANYOTHERTHINGSTOWHICHPRINCESOFTENRESORT,

ADVANTAGEOUSORHURTFUL?

1.Someprinces, so as to hold securely the state, have disarmed their subjects; others have kepttheir subject towns distracted by factions; others have fostered enmities against themselves; othershave laid themselves out to gain over those whom they distrusted in the beginning of theirgovernments;somehavebuiltfortresses;somehaveoverthrownanddestroyedthem.Andalthoughonecannotgiveafinaljudgmentonallofthesethingsunlessonepossessestheparticularsofthosestatesinwhichadecisionhastobemade,neverthelessIwillspeakascomprehensivelyasthematterofitselfwilladmit.2.Thereneverwasanewprincewhohasdisarmedhis subjects; ratherwhenhehas found them

disarmedhehasalwaysarmedthem,because,byarmingthem,thosearmsbecomeyours,thosemenwho were distrusted become faithful, and those who were faithful are kept so, and your subjectsbecomeyouradherents.Andwhereasallsubjectscannotbearmed,yetwhenthosewhomyoudoarmarebenefited,theotherscanbehandledmorefreely,andthisdifferenceintheirtreatment,whichtheyquiteunderstand,makestheformeryourdependents,andthelatter,consideringittobenecessarythatthosewhohavethemostdangerandserviceshouldhavethemostreward,excuseyou.Butwhenyoudisarmthem,youatonceoffendthembyshowingthatyoudistrustthem,eitherforcowardiceorforwant of loyalty, and either of these opinions breeds hatred against you. And because you cannotremainunarmed,itfollowsthatyouturntomercenaries,whichareofthecharacteralreadyshown;eveniftheyshouldbegoodtheywouldnotbesufficienttodefendyouagainstpowerfulenemiesanddistrustedsubjects.Therefore,asIhavesaid,anewprinceinanewprincipalityhasalwaysdistributedarms. Histories are full of examples. But when a prince acquires a new state, which he adds as aprovince tohisoldone, then it isnecessary todisarmthemenof thatstate,except thosewhohavebeenhisadherentsinacquiringit;andtheseagain,withtimeandopportunity,shouldberenderedsoftandeffeminate;andmattersshouldbemanagedinsuchawaythatallthearmedmeninthestateshallbeyourownsoldierswhoinyouroldstatewerelivingnearyou.3. Our forefathers, and those who were reckoned wise, were accustomed to say that it was

necessarytoholdPistoiabyfactionsandPisabyfortresses;andwiththisideatheyfosteredquarrelsinsomeoftheirtributarytownssoastokeeppossessionofthemthemoreeasily.Thismayhavebeenwell enough in those times when Italy was in a way balanced, but I do not believe that it can beacceptedasapreceptforto-day,becauseIdonotbelievethatfactionscaneverbeofuse;ratheritiscertain that when the enemy comes upon you in divided cities you are quickly lost, because theweakest party will always assist the outside forces and the other will not be able to resist. TheVenetians,moved,asIbelieve,bytheabovereasons,fosteredtheGuelphandGhibellinefactionsintheir tributary cities; and although theynever allowed them to come tobloodshed, yet theynursedthese disputes amongst them, so that the citizens, distracted by their differences, should not uniteagainst them.Which, aswe saw, did not afterwards turn out as expected, because, after the rout atVaila,onepartyatoncetookcourageandseizedthestate.Suchmethodsargue,therefore,weaknessintheprince,becausethesefactionswillneverbepermittedinavigorousprincipality;suchmethodsforenablingonethemoreeasilytomanagesubjectsareonlyusefulintimesofpeace,butifwarcomesthispolicyprovesfallacious.4.Withoutdoubtprincesbecomegreatwhentheyovercomethedifficultiesandobstaclesbywhich

theyareconfronted,andthereforefortune,especiallywhenshedesirestomakeanewprincegreat,whohasagreaternecessitytoearnrenownthananhereditaryone,causesenemiestoariseandformdesignsagainsthim,inorderthathemayhavetheopportunityofovercomingthem,andbythemtomounthigher,asbyaladderwhichhisenemieshaveraised.Forthisreasonmanyconsiderthatawiseprince,whenhehas the opportunity, oughtwith craft to foster some animosity against himself, sothat,havingcrushedit,hisrenownmayrisehigher.5.Princes,especiallynewones,havefoundmorefidelityandassistance in thosemenwhoin the

beginningoftheirruleweredistrustedthanamongthosewhointhebeginningweretrusted.PandolfoPetrucci,PrinceofSiena,ruledhisstatemorebythosewhohadbeendistrustedthanbyothers.Butonthisquestiononecannotspeakgenerally,foritvariessomuchwiththeindividual;Iwillonlysaythis,that those men who at the commencement of a princedom have been hostile, if they are of adescriptiontoneedassistancetosupportthemselves,canalwaysbegainedoverwiththegreatestease,and theywill be tightly held to serve the princewith fidelity, inasmuch as theyknow it to be verynecessaryforthemtocancelbydeedsthebadimpressionwhichhehadformedofthem;andthustheprincealwaysextractsmoreprofitfromthemthanfromthosewho,servinghimintoomuchsecurity,mayneglect his affairs.And since thematter demands it, Imust not fail towarn a prince,whobymeans of secret favours has acquired a new state, that he must well consider the reasons whichinduced those to favourhimwhodid so; and if it benot anatural affection towardshim,butonlydiscontent with their government, then he will only keep them friendly with great trouble anddifficulty, for itwillbe impossible tosatisfy them.Andweighingwell thereasonsfor this in thoseexampleswhichcanbetakenfromancientandmodernaffairs,weshallfindthatit iseasierfortheprince to make friends of those men who were contented under the former government, and aretherefore his enemies, than of those who, being discontented with it, were favourable to him andencouragedhimtoseizeit.6.Ithasbeenacustomwithprinces,inordertoholdtheirstatesmoresecurely,tobuildfortresses

thatmayserveasabridleandbittothosewhomightdesigntoworkagainstthem,andasaplaceofrefuge from a first attack. I praise this system because it has been made use of formerly.Notwithstandingthat,MesserNicoloVitelliinourtimeshasbeenseentodemolishtwofortressesinCittadiCastellosothathemightkeepthatstate;GuidoUbaldo,DukeofUrbino,onreturningtohisdominion,whencehehadbeendrivenbyCesareBorgia,razedtothefoundationsallthefortressesinthatprovince,andconsidered thatwithout themitwouldbemoredifficult to lose it; theBentivoglireturningtoBolognacametoasimilardecision.Fortresses,therefore,areusefulornotaccordingtocircumstances;iftheydoyougoodinonewaytheyinjureyouinanother.Andthisquestioncanbereasonedthus:theprincewhohasmoretofearfromthepeoplethanfromforeignersoughttobuildfortresses,buthewhohasmore to fear fromforeigners than from thepeopleought to leave themalone.ThecastleofMilan,builtbyFrancescoSforza,hasmade,andwillmake,moretroubleforthehouseofSforzathananyotherdisorderinthestate.Forthisreasonthebestpossiblefortressis—nottobehatedbythepeople,because,althoughyoumayholdthefortresses,yettheywillnotsaveyouifthepeoplehateyou,fortherewillneverbewantingforeignerstoassistapeoplewhohavetakenarmsagainst you. It has not been seen in our times that such fortresses have been of use to any prince,unless to theCountess of Forli,(*)when theCountGirolamo, her consort,was killed; for by thatmeans she was able to withstand the popular attack and wait for assistance fromMilan, and thusrecoverherstate;andthepostureofaffairswassuchatthattimethattheforeignerscouldnotassistthepeople.ButfortresseswereoflittlevaluetoherafterwardswhenCesareBorgiaattackedher,andwhenthepeople,herenemy,werealliedwithforeigners.Therefore,itwouldhavebeensaferforher,boththenandbefore,nottohavebeenhatedbythepeoplethantohavehadthefortresses.Allthese

thingsconsideredthen,Ishallpraisehimwhobuildsfortressesaswellashimwhodoesnot,andIshallblamewhoever,trustinginthem,careslittleaboutbeinghatedbythepeople.(*)CatherineSforza,adaughterofGaleazzoSforzaand

LucreziaLandriani,born1463,died1509.Itwastothe

CountessofForlithatMachiavelliwassentasenvyon1499.

AletterfromFortunatitothecountessannouncesthe

appointment:"Ihavebeenwiththesignori,"wrote

Fortunati,"tolearnwhomtheywouldsendandwhen.They

tellmethatNicoloMachiavelli,alearnedyoungFlorentine

noble,secretarytomyLordsoftheTen,istoleavewithme

atonce."Cf."CatherineSforza,"byCountPasolini,

translatedbyP.Sylvester,1898.

CHAPTERXXI—HOWAPRINCESHOULDCONDUCTHIMSELFSOASTOGAINRENOWN

Nothingmakesaprincesomuchesteemedasgreatenterprisesandsettingafineexample.WehaveinourtimeFerdinandofAragon,thepresentKingofSpain.Hecanalmostbecalledanewprince,becausehehasrisen,byfameandglory,frombeinganinsignificantkingtobetheforemostkinginChristendom; and if you will consider his deeds you will find them all great and some of themextraordinary. In the beginning of his reign he attacked Granada, and this enterprise was thefoundationofhisdominions.Hedidthisquietlyatfirstandwithoutanyfearofhindrance,forheheldthe minds of the barons of Castile occupied in thinking of the war and not anticipating anyinnovations;thustheydidnotperceivethatbythesemeanshewasacquiringpowerandauthorityoverthem.HewasablewiththemoneyoftheChurchandofthepeopletosustainhisarmies,andbythatlong war to lay the foundation for the military skill which has since distinguished him. Further,alwaysusingreligionasaplea, soas toundertakegreaterschemes,hedevotedhimselfwithpiouscrueltytodrivingoutandclearinghiskingdomoftheMoors;norcouldtherebeamoreadmirableexample,noronemorerare.UnderthissamecloakheassailedAfrica,hecamedownonItaly,hehasfinallyattackedFrance;andthushisachievementsanddesignshavealwaysbeengreat,andhavekepttheminds of his people in suspense and admiration and occupiedwith the issue of them.And hisactionshaveariseninsuchaway,oneoutoftheother,thatmenhaveneverbeengiventimetoworksteadilyagainsthim.Again, itmuchassistsaprincetosetunusualexamplesininternalaffairs,similar to thosewhich

arerelatedofMesserBernabodaMilano,who,whenhehadtheopportunity,byanyoneincivillifedoing some extraordinary thing, either good or bad, would take some method of rewarding orpunishing him,whichwould bemuch spoken about.And a prince ought, above all things, alwaysendeavourineveryactiontogainforhimselfthereputationofbeingagreatandremarkableman.Aprinceisalsorespectedwhenheiseitheratruefriendoradownrightenemy,thatistosay,when,

withoutanyreservation,hedeclareshimself infavourofonepartyagainst theother;whichcoursewillalwaysbemoreadvantageousthanstandingneutral;becauseiftwoofyourpowerfulneighbourscometoblows,theyareofsuchacharacterthat,ifoneofthemconquers,youhaveeithertofearhimornot. Ineithercase itwillalwaysbemoreadvantageousforyou todeclareyourselfand tomakewarstrenuously;because,inthefirstcase,ifyoudonotdeclareyourself,youwillinvariablyfallapreytotheconqueror,tothepleasureandsatisfactionofhimwhohasbeenconquered,andyouwillhavenoreasonstooffer,noranythingtoprotectortoshelteryou.Becausehewhoconquersdoesnotwantdoubtfulfriendswhowillnotaidhiminthetimeoftrial;andhewholoseswillnotharbouryoubecauseyoudidnotwillingly,swordinhand,courthisfate.Antiochus went into Greece, being sent for by the Aetolians to drive out the Romans. He sent

envoystotheAchaeans,whowerefriendsoftheRomans,exhortingthemtoremainneutral;andontheother hand theRomansurged them to takeup arms.This question came to bediscussed in thecouncil of the Achaeans, where the legate of Antiochus urged them to stand neutral. To this theRomanlegateanswered:"Asforthatwhichhasbeensaid,thatitisbetterandmoreadvantageousforyourstatenottointerfereinourwar,nothingcanbemoreerroneous;becausebynotinterferingyouwill be left, without favour or consideration, the guerdon of the conqueror." Thus it will alwayshappenthathewhoisnotyourfriendwilldemandyourneutrality,whilsthewhoisyourfriendwillentreatyoutodeclareyourselfwitharms.Andirresoluteprinces,toavoidpresentdangers,generally

follow the neutral path, and are generally ruined. Butwhen a prince declares himself gallantly infavourofone side, if thepartywithwhomhe allieshimself conquers, although thevictormaybepowerfulandmayhavehimathismercy,yetheisindebtedtohim,andthereisestablishedabondofamity;andmenareneversoshamelessastobecomeamonumentofingratitudebyoppressingyou.Victories after all are never so complete that the victormust not show some regard, especially tojustice.Butifhewithwhomyouallyyourself loses,youmaybeshelteredbyhim,andwhilstheisablehemayaidyou,andyoubecomecompanionsonafortunethatmayriseagain.Inthesecondcase,whenthosewhofightareofsuchacharacterthatyouhavenoanxietyastowho

may conquer, so much the more is it greater prudence to be allied, because you assist at thedestruction of one by the aid of another who, if he had been wise, would have saved him; andconquering, as it is impossible that he should not do with your assistance, he remains at yourdiscretion.Andhereitistobenotedthataprinceoughttotakecarenevertomakeanalliancewithonemorepowerfulthanhimselfforthepurposesofattackingothers,unlessnecessitycompelshim,asissaidabove;becauseifheconquersyouareathisdiscretion,andprincesoughttoavoidasmuchaspossiblebeingatthediscretionofanyone.TheVenetiansjoinedwithFranceagainsttheDukeofMilan, and this alliance, which caused their ruin, could have been avoided. Butwhen it cannot beavoided,ashappenedtotheFlorentineswhenthePopeandSpainsentarmiestoattackLombardy,theninsuchacase,fortheabovereasons,theprinceoughttofavouroneoftheparties.NeverletanyGovernmentimaginethatitcanchooseperfectlysafecourses;ratherletitexpectto

havetotakeverydoubtfulones,becauseitisfoundinordinaryaffairsthatoneneverseekstoavoidone troublewithout running into another;butprudenceconsists inknowinghow todistinguish thecharacteroftroubles,andforchoicetotakethelesserevil.Aprinceoughtalsotoshowhimselfapatronofability,andtohonourtheproficientineveryart.At

thesametimeheshouldencouragehiscitizenstopractisetheircallingspeaceably,bothincommerceandagriculture,andineveryotherfollowing,sothattheoneshouldnotbedeterredfromimprovinghispossessionsforfearlesttheybetakenawayfromhimoranotherfromopeninguptradeforfearoftaxes;but theprinceoughttoofferrewardstowhoeverwishestodothesethingsanddesignsinanywaytohonourhiscityorstate.Further,heoughttoentertainthepeoplewithfestivalsandspectaclesatconvenientseasonsofthe

year; and as every city is divided into guilds or into societies,(*) he ought to hold such bodies inesteem,andassociatewiththemsometimes,andshowhimselfanexampleofcourtesyandliberality;nevertheless,alwaysmaintainingthemajestyofhisrank,for thishemustneverconsent toabate inanything.

(*)"Guildsorsocieties,""inartiointribu.""Arti"were

craftortradeguilds,cf.Florio:"Arte...awhole

companyofanytradeinanycityorcorporationtown."The

guildsofFlorencearemostadmirablydescribedbyMr

EdgcumbeStaleyinhisworkonthesubject(Methuen,1906).

Institutionsofasomewhatsimilarcharacter,called

"artel,"existinRussiato-day,cf.SirMackenzieWallace's

"Russia,"ed.1905:"Thesons...werealwaysduringthe

workingseasonmembersofanartel.Insomeofthelarger

townsthereareartelsofamuchmorecomplexkind—

permanentassociations,possessinglargecapital,and

pecuniarilyresponsiblefortheactsoftheindividual

members."Theword"artel,"despiteitsapparentsimilarity,

has,MrAylmerMaudeassuresme,noconnectionwith"ars"or

"arte."Itsrootisthatoftheverb"rotisya,"tobind

oneselfbyanoath;anditisgenerallyadmittedtobeonly

anotherformof"rota,"whichnowsignifiesa"regimental

company."Inbothwordstheunderlyingideaisthatofa

bodyofmenunitedbyanoath."Tribu"werepossiblygentile

groups,unitedbycommondescent,andincludedindividuals

connectedbymarriage.Perhapsourwords"sects"or"clans"

wouldbemostappropriate.

CHAPTERXXII—CONCERNINGTHESECRETARIESOFPRINCES

Thechoiceofservantsisofnolittleimportancetoaprince,andtheyaregoodornotaccordingtothe discrimination of the prince. And the first opinion which one forms of a prince, and of hisunderstanding,isbyobservingthemenhehasaroundhim;andwhentheyarecapableandfaithfulhemayalwaysbeconsideredwise,becausehehasknownhowtorecognizethecapableandtokeepthemfaithful.Butwhen theyareotherwiseonecannot formagoodopinionofhim, for theprimeerrorwhichhemadewasinchoosingthem.TherewerenonewhoknewMesserAntoniodaVenafroastheservantofPandolfoPetrucci,Prince

ofSiena,whowouldnotconsiderPandolfotobeaveryclevermaninhavingVenafroforhisservant.Because there are three classes of intellects: one which comprehends by itself; another whichappreciateswhatotherscomprehended;anda thirdwhichneithercomprehendsby itselfnorby theshowingofothers;thefirstisthemostexcellent,thesecondisgood,thethirdisuseless.Therefore,itfollowsnecessarilythat,ifPandolfowasnotinthefirstrank,hewasinthesecond,forwheneveronehasjudgmenttoknowgoodandbadwhenitissaidanddone,althoughhehimselfmaynothavetheinitiative,yethecanrecognizethegoodandthebadinhisservant,andtheonehecanpraiseandtheothercorrect;thustheservantcannothopetodeceivehim,andiskepthonest.Buttoenableaprincetoformanopinionofhisservantthereisonetestwhichneverfails;when

youseetheservantthinkingmoreofhisownintereststhanofyours,andseekinginwardlyhisownprofit ineverything,suchamanwillnevermakeagoodservant,norwillyoueverbeabletotrusthim;becausehewhohasthestateofanotherinhishandsoughtnevertothinkofhimself,butalwaysofhisprince,andneverpayanyattentiontomattersinwhichtheprinceisnotconcerned.On the other hand, to keep his servant honest the prince ought to study him, honouring him,

enrichinghim,doinghimkindnesses,sharingwithhimthehonoursandcares;andatthesametimelethimseethathecannotstandalone,sothatmanyhonoursmaynotmakehimdesiremore,manyrichesmakehimwishformore,andthatmanycaresmaymakehimdreadchances.When,therefore,servants, and princes towards servants, are thus disposed, they can trust each other, butwhen it isotherwise,theendwillalwaysbedisastrousforeitheroneortheother.

CHAPTERXXIII—HOWFLATTERERSSHOULDBEAVOIDED

Idonotwishtoleaveoutanimportantbranchofthissubject,foritisadangerfromwhichprincesarewithdifficultypreserved,unlesstheyareverycarefulanddiscriminating.Itisthatofflatterers,ofwhom courts are full, because men are so self-complacent in their own affairs, and in a way sodeceived in them, that they are preservedwith difficulty from this pest, and if theywish to defendthemselvestheyrunthedangeroffallingintocontempt.Becausethereisnootherwayofguardingoneselffromflatterersexceptlettingmenunderstandthattotellyouthetruthdoesnotoffendyou;butwheneveryonemaytellyouthetruth,respectforyouabates.Thereforeawiseprinceought toholda thirdcoursebychoosing thewisemen inhis state,and

givingtothemonlythelibertyofspeakingthetruthtohim,andthenonlyofthosethingsofwhichheinquires, and of none others; but he ought to question them upon everything, and listen to theiropinions, and afterwards form his own conclusions. With these councillors, separately andcollectively,heought tocarryhimself insuchaway thateachof themshouldknowthat, themorefreely he shall speak, themore he shall be preferred; outside of these, he should listen to noone,pursue the thing resolved on, and be steadfast in his resolutions.Hewho does otherwise is eitheroverthrownbyflatterers,orissooftenchangedbyvaryingopinionsthathefallsintocontempt.Iwishonthissubjecttoadduceamodernexample.FraLuca,themanofaffairstoMaximilian,(*)

thepresentemperor,speakingofhismajesty,said:Heconsultedwithnoone,yetnevergothisownway in anything.This arose because of his following a practice the opposite to the above; for theemperor isasecretiveman—hedoesnotcommunicatehisdesignstoanyone,nordoeshereceiveopinionson them.Butas incarrying themintoeffect theybecomerevealedandknown, theyareatonceobstructedbythosemenwhomhehasaroundhim,andhe,beingpliant,isdivertedfromthem.Henceitfollowsthatthosethingshedoesonedayheundoesthenext,andnooneeverunderstandswhathewishesorintendstodo,andnoonecanrelyonhisresolutions.(*)MaximilianI,bornin1459,died1519,Emperorofthe

HolyRomanEmpire.Hemarried,first,Mary,daughterof

CharlestheBold;afterherdeath,BiancaSforza;andthus

becameinvolvedinItalianpolitics.

Aprince, therefore,ought always to takecounsel,butonlywhenhewishesandnotwhenotherswish;heoughtrathertodiscourageeveryonefromofferingadviceunlessheasksit;but,however,heoughttobeaconstantinquirer,andafterwardsapatientlistenerconcerningthethingsofwhichheinquired;also,onlearningthatanyone,onanyconsideration,hasnottoldhimthetruth,heshouldlethisangerbefelt.Andiftherearesomewhothinkthataprincewhoconveysanimpressionofhiswisdomisnotso

throughhisownability,butthroughthegoodadvisersthathehasaroundhim,beyonddoubttheyaredeceived,becausethisisanaxiomwhichneverfails:thataprincewhoisnotwisehimselfwillnevertakegoodadvice,unlessbychancehehasyieldedhisaffairsentirelytoonepersonwhohappenstobea very prudent man. In this case indeed he may be well governed, but it would not be for long,becausesuchagovernorwouldinashorttimetakeawayhisstatefromhim.Butifaprincewhoisnotinexperiencedshouldtakecounselfrommorethanonehewillneverget

unitedcounsels,norwillheknowhowtounitethem.Eachofthecounsellorswill thinkofhisowninterests,andtheprincewillnotknowhowtocontrolthemortoseethroughthem.Andtheyarenotto found otherwise, because men will always prove untrue to you unless they are kept honest by

constraint.Thereforeitmustbeinferredthatgoodcounsels,whencesoevertheycome,arebornofthewisdomoftheprince,andnotthewisdomoftheprincefromgoodcounsels.

CHAPTERXXIV—WHYTHEPRINCESOFITALYHAVELOSTTHEIRSTATES

Theprevioussuggestions,carefullyobserved,willenableanewprincetoappearwellestablished,andrenderhimatoncemoresecureandfixedinthestatethanifhehadbeenlongseatedthere.Fortheactionsofanewprincearemorenarrowlyobservedthanthoseofanhereditaryone,andwhentheyareseentobeabletheygainmoremenandbindfartighterthanancientblood;becausemenareattractedmorebythepresentthanbythepast,andwhentheyfindthepresentgoodtheyenjoyitandseeknofurther;theywillalsomaketheutmostdefenceofaprinceifhefailsthemnotinotherthings.Thus it will be a double glory for him to have established a new principality, and adorned andstrengthened itwith good laws, good arms, good allies, andwith a good example; sowill it be adoubledisgracetohimwho,bornaprince,shalllosehisstatebywantofwisdom.Andif thoseseigniorsareconsideredwhohavelost theirstates inItaly inour times,suchas the

King ofNaples, theDuke ofMilan, and others, therewill be found in them, firstly, one commondefectinregardtoarmsfromthecauseswhichhavebeendiscussedatlength;inthenextplace,someoneofthemwillbeseen,eithertohavehadthepeoplehostile,orifhehashadthepeoplefriendly,hehasnotknownhowtosecurethenobles.Intheabsenceofthesedefectsstatesthathavepowerenoughtokeepanarmyinthefieldcannotbelost.Philip ofMacedon, not the father of Alexander the Great, but he who was conquered by Titus

Quintius, had not much territory compared to the greatness of the Romans and of Greece whoattackedhim,yetbeingawarlikemanwhoknewhowtoattractthepeopleandsecurethenobles,hesustainedthewaragainsthisenemiesformanyyears,andifintheendhelostthedominionofsomecities,neverthelessheretainedthekingdom.Therefore,donotletourprincesaccusefortuneforthelossoftheirprincipalitiesaftersomany

years'possession,butrathertheirownsloth,becauseinquiettimestheyneverthoughttherecouldbeachange(itisacommondefectinmannottomakeanyprovisioninthecalmagainstthetempest),andwhenafterwardsthebadtimescametheythoughtofflightandnotofdefendingthemselves,andtheyhoped that thepeople,disgustedwith the insolenceof theconquerors,wouldrecall them.Thiscourse,whenothersfail,maybegood,but it isverybadtohaveneglectedallotherexpedientsforthat, sinceyouwouldneverwish to fallbecauseyou trusted tobeable to findsomeone lateron torestoreyou.Thisagaineitherdoesnothappen,or,ifitdoes,itwillnotbeforyoursecurity,becausethatdeliveranceisofnoavailwhichdoesnotdependuponyourself;thoseonlyarereliable,certain,anddurablethatdependonyourselfandyourvalour.

CHAPTERXXV—WHATFORTUNECANEFFECTINHUMANAFFAIRSANDHOWTOWITHSTANDHER

Itisnotunknowntomehowmanymenhavehad,andstillhave,theopinionthattheaffairsoftheworldare in suchwisegovernedby fortuneandbyGod thatmenwith theirwisdomcannotdirectthemandthatnoonecanevenhelpthem;andbecauseofthistheywouldhaveusbelievethatitisnotnecessary to labour much in affairs, but to let chance govern them. This opinion has been morecreditedinourtimesbecauseofthegreatchangesinaffairswhichhavebeenseen,andmaystillbeseen,everyday,beyondallhumanconjecture.Sometimesponderingoverthis,Iaminsomedegreeinclinedtotheiropinion.Nevertheless,nottoextinguishourfreewill,IholdittobetruethatFortuneis the arbiter of one-half of our actions,(*) but that she still leaves us to direct the other half, orperhapsalittleless.(*)FredericktheGreatwasaccustomedtosay:"Theolder

onegetsthemoreconvincedonebecomesthathisMajesty

KingChancedoesthree-quartersofthebusinessofthis

miserableuniverse."Sorel's"EasternQuestion."

Icomparehertooneofthoseragingrivers,whichwheninfloodoverflowstheplains,sweepingaway trees andbuildings, bearing away the soil fromplace toplace; everything fliesbefore it, allyieldtoitsviolence,withoutbeingableinanywaytowithstandit;andyet,thoughitsnaturebesuch,itdoesnotfollowthereforethatmen,whentheweatherbecomesfair,shallnotmakeprovision,bothwithdefencesandbarriers, insuchamanner that, risingagain, thewatersmaypassawaybycanal,andtheirforcebeneithersounrestrainednorsodangerous.Soithappenswithfortune,whoshowsher powerwhere valour has not prepared to resist her, and thither she turns her forceswhere sheknowsthatbarriersanddefenceshavenotbeenraisedtoconstrainher.AndifyouwillconsiderItaly,whichistheseatofthesechanges,andwhichhasgiventothemtheir

impulse,youwillseeittobeanopencountrywithoutbarriersandwithoutanydefence.Forifithadbeendefendedbypropervalour,asareGermany,Spain,andFrance,either this invasionwouldnothavemadethegreatchangesithasmadeoritwouldnothavecomeatall.AndthisIconsiderenoughtosayconcerningresistancetofortuneingeneral.But confiningmyself more to the particular, I say that a princemay be seen happy to-day and

ruined to-morrow without having shown any change of disposition or character. This, I believe,arises firstly from causes that have already been discussed at length, namely, that the prince whoreliesentirelyonfortuneislostwhenitchanges.Ibelievealsothathewillbesuccessfulwhodirectshisactionsaccordingtothespiritofthetimes,andthathewhoseactionsdonotaccordwiththetimeswill not be successful. Becausemen are seen, in affairs that lead to the endwhich everyman hasbeforehim,namely,gloryandriches,togettherebyvariousmethods;onewithcaution,anotherwithhaste;onebyforce,anotherbyskill;onebypatience,anotherbyitsopposite;andeachonesucceedsinreachingthegoalbyadifferentmethod.Onecanalsoseeoftwocautiousmentheoneattainhisend, theother fail;andsimilarly, twomenbydifferentobservancesareequallysuccessful, theonebeing cautious, the other impetuous; all this arises from nothing else than whether or not theyconformintheirmethodstothespiritofthetimes.ThisfollowsfromwhatIhavesaid,thattwomenworkingdifferentlybringaboutthesameeffect,andoftwoworkingsimilarly,oneattainshisobjectandtheotherdoesnot.Changes in estate also issue from this, for if, to one who governs himself with caution and

patience,timesandaffairsconvergeinsuchawaythathisadministrationissuccessful,hisfortuneis

made;butiftimesandaffairschange,heisruinedifhedoesnotchangehiscourseofaction.Butamanisnotoftenfoundsufficientlycircumspecttoknowhowtoaccommodatehimselftothechange,bothbecausehecannotdeviatefromwhatnatureinclineshimtodo,andalsobecause,havingalwaysprosperedbyactinginoneway,hecannotbepersuadedthatitiswelltoleaveit;and,therefore,thecautiousman,whenitistimetoturnadventurous,doesnotknowhowtodoit,henceheisruined;buthadhechangedhisconductwiththetimesfortunewouldnothavechanged.Pope Julius the Second went to work impetuously in all his affairs, and found the times and

circumstancesconformsowell to that lineof action thathealwaysmetwith success.ConsiderhisfirstenterpriseagainstBologna,MesserGiovanniBentivoglibeingstillalive.TheVenetianswerenotagreeable to it,norwas theKingofSpain,andhehadtheenterprisestillunderdiscussionwith theKingofFrance;neverthelesshepersonallyenteredupontheexpeditionwithhisaccustomedboldnessandenergy,amovewhichmadeSpainandtheVenetiansstandirresoluteandpassive,thelatterfromfear,theformerfromdesiretorecoverthekingdomofNaples;ontheotherhand,hedrewafterhimtheKingofFrance,becausethatking,havingobservedthemovement,anddesiringtomakethePopehisfriendsoastohumbletheVenetians,founditimpossibletorefusehim.ThereforeJuliuswithhisimpetuousactionaccomplishedwhatnootherpontiffwithsimplehumanwisdomcouldhavedone;forifhehadwaitedinRomeuntilhecouldgetaway,withhisplansarrangedandeverythingfixed,asany other pontiff would have done, he would never have succeeded. Because the King of Francewouldhavemadeathousandexcuses,andtheotherswouldhaveraisedathousandfears.Iwillleavehisotheractionsalone,astheywereallalike,andtheyallsucceeded,fortheshortness

ofhislifedidnotlethimexperiencethecontrary;butifcircumstanceshadarisenwhichrequiredhimtogo cautiously, his ruinwouldhave followed, because hewouldnever havedeviated from thosewaystowhichnatureinclinedhim.Iconclude,thereforethat,fortunebeingchangefulandmankindsteadfastintheirways,solongas

the two are in agreement men are successful, but unsuccessful when they fall out. For my part Iconsiderthatitisbettertobeadventurousthancautious,becausefortuneisawoman,andifyouwishtokeepherunder it isnecessary tobeatand ill-useher;and it is seen thatsheallowsherself tobemastered by the adventurous rather than by thosewho go toworkmore coldly. She is, therefore,always,woman-like, a loverofyoungmen,because they are less cautious,moreviolent, andwithmoreaudacitycommandher.

CHAPTERXXVI—ANEXHORTATIONTOLIBERATEITALYFROMTHEBARBARIANS

Having carefully considered the subject of the above discourses, and wondering within myselfwhether the present times were propitious to a new prince, and whether there were elements thatwouldgiveanopportunitytoawiseandvirtuousonetointroduceaneworderofthingswhichwoulddohonourtohimandgoodtothepeopleofthiscountry,itappearstomethatsomanythingsconcurtofavouranewprincethatIneverknewatimemorefitthanthepresent.Andif,asIsaid,itwasnecessarythatthepeopleofIsraelshouldbecaptivesoastomakemanifest

the ability of Moses; that the Persians should be oppressed by the Medes so as to discover thegreatnessofthesoulofCyrus;andthattheAtheniansshouldbedispersedtoillustratethecapabilitiesofTheseus:thenatthepresenttime,inordertodiscoverthevirtueofanItalianspirit,itwasnecessarythatItalyshouldbereducedtotheextremitythatsheisnowin,thatsheshouldbemoreenslavedthanthe Hebrews, more oppressed than the Persians, more scattered than the Athenians; without head,withoutorder,beaten,despoiled,torn,overrun;andtohaveenduredeverykindofdesolation.Althoughlatelysomesparkmayhavebeenshownbyone,whichmadeusthinkhewasordainedby

Godforourredemption,neverthelessitwasafterwardsseen,intheheightofhiscareer,thatfortunerejectedhim;sothatItaly,leftaswithoutlife,waitsforhimwhoshallyethealherwoundsandputanendtotheravagingandplunderingofLombardy,totheswindlingandtaxingofthekingdomandofTuscany,andcleansethosesoresthatforlonghavefestered.ItisseenhowsheentreatsGodtosendsomeonewhoshalldeliverherfromthesewrongsandbarbarousinsolencies.Itisseenalsothatsheisreadyandwillingtofollowabannerifonlysomeonewillraiseit.Nor is there tobeseenatpresentone inwhomshecanplacemorehope than inyour illustrious

house,(*)withitsvalourandfortune,favouredbyGodandbytheChurchofwhichitisnowthechief,andwhichcouldbemadetheheadofthisredemption.ThiswillnotbedifficultifyouwillrecalltoyourselftheactionsandlivesofthemenIhavenamed.Andalthoughtheyweregreatandwonderfulmen,yettheyweremen,andeachoneofthemhadnomoreopportunitythanthepresentoffers,fortheirenterpriseswereneithermorejustnoreasierthanthis,norwasGodmoretheirfriendthanHeisyours.(*)GiulianodeMedici.Hehadjustbeencreatedacardinal

byLeoX.In1523GiulianowaselectedPope,andtookthe

titleofClementVII.

Withus there isgreat justice,because thatwar is justwhich isnecessary,andarmsarehallowedwhen there is no other hope but in them. Here there is the greatest willingness, and where thewillingnessisgreatthedifficultiescannotbegreatifyouwillonlyfollowthosementowhomIhavedirectedyourattention.Furtherthanthis,howextraordinarilythewaysofGodhavebeenmanifestedbeyondexample: theseaisdivided,acloudhasledtheway, therockhaspouredforthwater, ithasrainedmanna, everything has contributed to your greatness; you ought to do the rest. God is notwillingtodoeverything,andthustakeawayourfreewillandthatshareofglorywhichbelongstous.Anditisnottobewonderedatifnoneoftheabove-namedItalianshavebeenabletoaccomplishall

that isexpectedfromyourillustrioushouse;andif insomanyrevolutionsinItaly,andinsomanycampaigns,ithasalwaysappearedasifmilitaryvirtuewereexhausted,thishashappenedbecausetheoldorderofthingswasnotgood,andnoneofushaveknownhowtofindanewone.Andnothinghonoursamanmorethantoestablishnewlawsandnewordinanceswhenhehimselfwasnewlyrisen.Such thingswhen they arewell founded anddignifiedwillmakehim revered and admired, and in

Italytherearenotwantingopportunitiestobringsuchintouseineveryform.Herethereisgreatvalourinthelimbswhilstitfailsinthehead.Lookattentivelyattheduelsand

thehand-to-handcombats,howsuperiortheItaliansareinstrength,dexterity,andsubtlety.Butwhenitcomestoarmiestheydonotbearcomparison,andthisspringsentirelyfromtheinsufficiencyoftheleaders,sincethosewhoarecapablearenotobedient,andeachoneseemstohimselftoknow,therehavingneverbeenanyone sodistinguishedabove the rest, eitherbyvalouror fortune, thatotherswouldyieldtohim.Henceitisthatforsolongatime,andduringsomuchfightinginthepasttwentyyears,whenevertherehasbeenanarmywhollyItalian,ithasalwaysgivenapooraccountofitself;thefirstwitnesstothisisIlTaro,afterwardsAllesandria,Capua,Genoa,Vaila,Bologna,Mestri.(*)(*)ThebattlesofIlTaro,1495;Alessandria,1499;Capua,

1501;Genoa,1507;Vaila,1509;Bologna,1511;Mestri,1513.

If, therefore, your illustrioushousewishes to follow these remarkablemenwhohave redeemedtheir country, it is necessary before all things, as a true foundation for every enterprise, to beprovidedwithyourownforces,becausetherecanbenomorefaithful,truer,orbettersoldiers.Andalthough singly they are good, altogether they will be much better when they find themselvescommanded by their prince, honoured by him, and maintained at his expense. Therefore it isnecessary tobepreparedwithsucharms, so thatyoucanbedefendedagainst foreignersby Italianvalour.AndalthoughSwissandSpanishinfantrymaybeconsideredveryformidable,neverthelessthereis

adefectinboth,byreasonofwhichathirdorderwouldnotonlybeabletoopposethem,butmightbereliedupontooverthrowthem.FortheSpaniardscannotresistcavalry,andtheSwitzersareafraidofinfantrywhenevertheyencountertheminclosecombat.Owingtothis,ashasbeenandmayagainbeseen,theSpaniardsareunabletoresistFrenchcavalry,andtheSwitzersareoverthrownbySpanishinfantry.Andalthoughacompleteproofofthislattercannotbeshown,neverthelesstherewassomeevidence of it at the battle of Ravenna, when the Spanish infantry were confronted by Germanbattalions,whofollowthesametacticsastheSwiss;whentheSpaniards,byagilityofbodyandwiththeaidoftheirshields,gotinunderthepikesoftheGermansandstoodoutofdanger,abletoattack,while theGermansstoodhelpless,and, if thecavalryhadnotdashedup,allwouldhavebeenoverwiththem.Itispossible,therefore,knowingthedefectsofboththeseinfantries,toinventanewone,whichwillresistcavalryandnotbeafraidofinfantry;thisneednotcreateaneworderofarms,butavariationupontheold.Andthesearethekindof improvementswhichconferreputationandpoweruponanewprince.Thisopportunity,therefore,oughtnottobeallowedtopassforlettingItalyatlastseeherliberator

appear.Norcanoneexpressthelovewithwhichhewouldbereceivedinallthoseprovinceswhichhavesufferedsomuchfromtheseforeignscourings,withwhatthirstforrevenge,withwhatstubbornfaith,withwhat devotion,withwhat tears.What doorwould be closed to him?Whowould refuseobediencetohim?Whatenvywouldhinderhim?WhatItalianwouldrefusehimhomage?Toallofusthis barbarous dominion stinks.Let, therefore, your illustrious house take up this chargewith thatcourageandhopewithwhichalljustenterprisesareundertaken,sothatunderitsstandardournativecountrymaybeennobled,andunderitsauspicesmaybeverifiedthatsayingofPetrarch:VirtucontroalFurore

Prenderal'arme,efiailcombattercorto:

Chel'anticovalore

Negliitalicicuornoneancormorto.

Virtueagainstfuryshalladvancethefight,

Anditi'th'combatsoonshallputtoflight:

FortheoldRomanvalourisnotdead,

Norinth'Italians'brestsextinguished.

EdwardDacre,1640.

DESCRIPTIONOFTHEMETHODSADOPTEDBYTHEDUKEVALENTINOWHENMURDERINGVITELLOZZOVITELLI,OLIVEROTTODAFERMO,THESIGNORPAGOLO,ANDTHE

DUKEDIGRAVINAORSINI

BY

NICOLOMACHIAVELLI

TheDukeValentino had returned fromLombardy,where he had been to clear himselfwith theKingofFrancefromthecalumnieswhichhadbeenraisedagainsthimbytheFlorentinesconcerningthe rebellionofArezzoandother towns in theValdiChiana,andhadarrivedat Imola,whenceheintended with his army to enter upon the campaign against Giovanni Bentivogli, the tyrant ofBologna: for he intended to bring that city under his domination, and to make it the head of hisRomagnianduchy.ThesematterscomingtotheknowledgeoftheVitelliandOrsiniandtheirfollowing,itappearedto

them that the dukewould become too powerful, and itwas feared that, having seizedBologna, hewouldseektodestroytheminorderthathemightbecomesupremeinItaly.Uponthisameetingwascalled atMagione in the district of Perugia, towhich came the cardinal, Pagolo, and theDuke diGravinaOrsini,VitellozzoVitelli,OliverottodaFermo,GianpagoloBaglioni,thetyrantofPerugia,andMesserAntoniodaVenafro,sentbyPandolfoPetrucci,thePrinceofSiena.Herewerediscussedthepowerandcourageofthedukeandthenecessityofcurbinghisambitions,whichmightotherwisebringdangertotherestofbeingruined.AndtheydecidednottoabandontheBentivogli,buttostrivetowinovertheFlorentines;andtheysendtheirmentooneplaceandanother,promisingtoonepartyassistanceandtoanotherencouragementtounitewiththemagainstthecommonenemy.Thismeetingwasatonce reported throughoutall Italy, and thosewhowerediscontentedunder theduke, amongwhomwerethepeopleofUrbino,tookhopeofeffectingarevolution.Thus it arose that,men'smindsbeing thusunsettled, itwasdecidedbycertainmenofUrbino to

seizethefortressofSanLeo,whichwasheldfortheduke,andwhichtheycapturedbythefollowingmeans.Thecastellanwasfortifyingtherockandcausingtimbertobetakenthere;sotheconspiratorswatched,andwhencertainbeamswhichwerebeingcarriedtotherockwereuponthebridge,sothatitwasprevented frombeingdrawnupby those inside, they took theopportunityof leapingupon thebridge and thence into the fortress. Upon this capture being effected, thewhole state rebelled andrecalledtheoldduke,beingencouragedinthis,notsomuchbythecaptureofthefort,asbytheDietatMagione,fromwhomtheyexpectedtogetassistance.Thosewhoheardof the rebellion atUrbino thought theywouldnot lose theopportunity, and at

onceassembledtheirmensoastotakeanytown,shouldanyremaininthehandsofthedukeinthatstate;andtheysentagaintoFlorencetobegthatrepublictojoinwiththemindestroyingthecommonfirebrand,showingthattheriskwaslessenedandthattheyoughtnottowaitforanotheropportunity.ButtheFlorentines,fromhatred,forsundryreasons,oftheVitelliandOrsini,notonlywouldnot

allythemselves,butsentNicoloMachiavelli,theirsecretary,tooffershelterandassistancetothedukeagainst his enemies. The duke was found full of fear at Imola, because, against everybody'sexpectation,hissoldiershadatoncegoneovertotheenemyandhefoundhimselfdisarmedandwarat his door. But recovering courage from the offers of the Florentines, he decided to temporizebeforefightingwiththefewsoldiersthatremainedtohim,andtonegotiateforareconciliation,andalsotogetassistance.Thislatterheobtainedintwoways,bysendingtotheKingofFranceformenandbyenlistingmen-at-armsandotherswhomheturnedintocavalryofasort:toallhegavemoney.Notwithstanding this, his enemies drew near to him, and approached Fossombrone, where they

encounteredsomemenofthedukeand,withtheaidoftheOrsiniandVitelli,routedthem.Whenthishappened, the duke resolved at once to see if he could not close the trouble with offers of

reconciliation, and being a most perfect dissembler he did not fail in any practices to make theinsurgents understand that he wished every man who had acquired anything to keep it, as it wasenoughforhimtohavethetitleofprince,whilstothersmighthavetheprincipality.And the duke succeeded so well in this that they sent Signor Pagolo to him to negotiate for a

reconciliation,andtheybroughttheirarmytoastandstill.Butthedukedidnotstophispreparations,andtookeverycaretoprovidehimselfwithcavalryandinfantry,andthatsuchpreparationsmightnotbeapparenttotheothers,hesenthistroopsinseparatepartiestoeverypartoftheRomagna.Inthemeanwhile there came also to him five hundred French lancers, and although he found himselfsufficientlystrongtotakevengeanceonhisenemiesinopenwar,heconsideredthatitwouldbesaferandmoreadvantageoustooutwitthem,andforthisreasonhedidnotstoptheworkofreconciliation.Andthatthismightbeeffectedthedukeconcludedapeacewiththeminwhichheconfirmedtheir

former covenants; he gave them four thousand ducats at once; he promised not to injure theBentivogli;andheformedanalliancewithGiovanni;andmoreoverhewouldnotforcethemtocomepersonally into his presence unless it pleased them to do so.On the other hand, they promised torestore to him the duchy of Urbino and other places seized by them, to serve him in all hisexpeditions,andnottomakewaragainstorallythemselveswithanyonewithouthispermission.This reconciliation being completed, Guido Ubaldo, the Duke of Urbino, again fled to Venice,

havingfirstdestroyedall thefortresses inhisstate;because, trusting in thepeople,hedidnotwishthatthefortresses,whichhedidnotthinkhecoulddefend,shouldbeheldbytheenemy,sincebythesemeans a check would be kept upon his friends. But the Duke Valentino, having completed thisconvention,anddispersedhismenthroughouttheRomagna,setoutforImolaattheendofNovembertogether with his French men-at-arms: thence he went to Cesena, where he stayed some time tonegotiatewiththeenvoysoftheVitelliandOrsini,whohadassembledwiththeirmenintheduchyofUrbino, as to the enterprise in which they should now take part; but nothing being concluded,OliverottodaFermowassent toproposethat if thedukewishedtoundertakeanexpeditionagainstTuscany theywere ready; ifhedidnotwish it, then theywouldbesiegeSinigalia.To this thedukerepliedthathedidnotwishtoenterintowarwithTuscany,andthusbecomehostiletotheFlorentines,butthathewasverywillingtoproceedagainstSinigalia.Ithappenedthatnotlongafterwardsthetownsurrendered,butthefortresswouldnotyieldtothem

becausethecastellanwouldnotgiveituptoanyonebutthedukeinperson;thereforetheyexhortedhimtocomethere.Thisappearedagoodopportunitytotheduke,as,beinginvitedbythem,andnotgoingofhisownwill,hewouldawakennosuspicions.Andthemoretoreassurethem,heallowedalltheFrenchmen-at-armswhowerewithhiminLombardytodepart,exceptthehundredlancersunderMons. di Candales, his brother-in-law.He left Cesena about themiddle ofDecember, andwent toFano,andwiththeutmostcunningandclevernesshepersuadedtheVitelliandOrsinitowaitforhimatSinigalia,pointingouttothemthatanylackofcompliancewouldcastadoubtuponthesincerityandpermanencyofthereconciliation,andthathewasamanwhowishedtomakeuseofthearmsandcouncilsofhisfriends.ButVitellozzoremainedverystubborn,for thedeathofhisbrotherwarnedhimthatheshouldnotoffendaprinceandafterwardstrusthim;nevertheless,persuadedbyPagoloOrsini,whomthedukehadcorruptedwithgiftsandpromises,heagreedtowait.Upon this the duke, before his departure from Fano, whichwas to be on 30thDecember 1502,

communicatedhisdesigns toeightofhismost trusted followers, amongwhomwereDonMicheleandtheMonsignord'Euna,whowasafterwardscardinal;andheorderedthat,assoonasVitellozzo,PagoloOrsini,theDukediGravina,andOliverottoshouldarrive,hisfollowersinpairsshouldtakethemonebyone,entrustingcertainmentocertainpairs,whoshouldentertainthemuntiltheyreachedSinigalia; nor should theybe permitted to leave until they came to the duke's quarters,where they

shouldbeseized.Theduke afterwards ordered all his horsemen and infantry, ofwhich thereweremore than two

thousand cavalry and ten thousand footmen, to assemble by daybreak at theMetauro, a river fivemiles distant from Fano, and await him there. He found himself, therefore, on the last day ofDecemberattheMetaurowithhismen,andhavingsentacavalcadeofabouttwohundredhorsemenbeforehim,hethenmovedforwardtheinfantry,whomheaccompaniedwiththerestofthemen-at-arms.FanoandSinigaliaaretwocitiesofLaMarcasituateontheshoreoftheAdriaticSea,fifteenmiles

distantfromeachother,sothathewhogoestowardsSinigaliahasthemountainsonhisrighthand,thebasesofwhicharetouchedbytheseainsomeplaces.ThecityofSinigaliaisdistantfromthefootofthemountainsalittlemorethanabow-shotandfromtheshoreaboutamile.OnthesideoppositetothecityrunsalittleriverwhichbathesthatpartofthewallslookingtowardsFano,facingthehighroad.ThushewhodrawsneartoSinigaliacomesforagoodspacebyroadalongthemountains,andreachestheriverwhichpassesbySinigalia.Ifheturnstohislefthandalongthebankofit,andgoesforthedistanceofabow-shot,hearrivesatabridgewhichcrossestheriver;heisthenalmostabreastof the gate that leads into Sinigalia, not by a straight line, but transversely. Before this gate therestandsacollectionofhouseswithasquaretowhichthebankoftheriverformsoneside.TheVitelliandOrsinihavingreceivedorderstowaitfortheduke,andtohonourhiminperson,

sentawaytheirmentoseveralcastlesdistantfromSinigaliaaboutsixmiles,sothatroomcouldbemadeforthemenoftheduke;andtheyleftinSinigaliaonlyOliverottoandhisband,whichconsistedof one thousand infantry and one hundred and fifty horsemen, who were quartered in the suburbmentionedabove.Mattershavingbeenthusarranged,theDukeValentinoleftforSinigalia,andwhentheleadersofthecavalryreachedthebridgetheydidnotpassover,buthavingopenedit,oneportionwheeledtowardstheriverandtheothertowardsthecountry,andawaywasleftinthemiddlethroughwhichtheinfantrypassed,withoutstopping,intothetown.Vitellozzo, Pagolo, and the Duke di Gravina onmules, accompanied by a few horsemen, went

towardstheduke;Vitellozo,unarmedandwearingacapelinedwithgreen,appearedverydejected,asifconsciousofhisapproachingdeath—acircumstancewhich,inviewoftheabilityofthemanandhisformerfortune,causedsomeamazement.Anditissaidthatwhenhepartedfromhismenbeforesetting out for Sinigalia to meet the duke he acted as if it were his last parting from them. Herecommendedhishouseanditsfortunestohiscaptains,andadvisedhisnephewsthatitwasnotthefortune of their house, but the virtues of their fathers that should be kept in mind. These three,therefore, came before the duke and saluted him respectfully, and were received by him withgoodwill;theywereatonceplacedbetweenthosewhowerecommissionedtolookafterthem.ButthedukenoticingthatOliverotto,whohadremainedwithhisbandinSinigalia,wasmissing—

forOliverottowaswaitinginthesquarebeforehisquartersneartheriver,keepinghismeninorderanddrillingthem—signalledwithhiseyetoDonMichelle,towhomthecareofOliverottohadbeencommitted, thatheshould takemeasures thatOliverottoshouldnotescape.ThereforeDonMichelerodeoffandjoinedOliverotto,tellinghimthatitwasnotrighttokeephismenoutoftheirquarters,becausethesemightbetakenupbythemenoftheduke;andheadvisedhimtosendthematoncetotheirquartersandtocomehimselftomeettheduke.AndOliverotto,havingtakenthisadvice,camebefore theduke,who,whenhesawhim,called tohim;andOliverotto,havingmadehisobeisance,joinedtheothers.SothewholepartyenteredSinigalia,dismountedat theduke'squarters,andwentwithhimintoa

secret chamber, where the duke made them prisoners; he then mounted on horseback, and issuedorders that the men of Oliverotto and the Orsini should be stripped of their arms. Those of

Oliverotto,beingathand,werequicklysettled,butthoseoftheOrsiniandVitelli,beingatadistance,andhaving apresentiment of thedestructionof theirmasters, had time toprepare themselves, andbearing inmind thevalouranddisciplineof theOrsinianandVitellianhouses, theystood togetheragainstthehostileforcesofthecountryandsavedthemselves.Buttheduke'ssoldiers,notbeingcontentwithhavingpillagedthemenofOliverotto,begantosack

Sinigalia, and if thedukehadnot repressed thisoutragebykilling someof them theywouldhavecompletely sacked it. Night having come and the tumult being silenced, the duke prepared to killVitellozzoandOliverotto;heledthemintoaroomandcausedthemtobestrangled.Neitherofthemused words in keeping with their past lives: Vitellozzo prayed that he might ask of the pope fullpardon for his sins; Oliverotto cringed and laid the blame for all injuries against the duke onVitellozzo.PagoloandtheDukediGravinaOrsiniwerekeptaliveuntilthedukeheardfromRomethatthepopehadtakentheCardinalOrsino,theArchbishopofFlorence,andMesserJacopodaSantaCroce.Afterwhichnews,on18thJanuary1502,inthecastleofPieve,theyalsowerestrangledinthesameway.

THELIFEOFCASTRUCCIOCASTRACANIOFLUCCA

WRITTENBYNICOLOMACHIAVELLI

AndsenttohisfriendsZANOBIBUONDELMONTIAndLUIGIALAMANNI

CASTRUCCIOCASTRACANI1284-1328

Itappears,dearestZanobiandLuigi,awonderful thing to thosewhohaveconsidered thematter,that all men, or the larger number of them, who have performed great deeds in the world, andexcelledallothersintheirday,havehadtheirbirthandbeginninginbasenessandobscurity;orhavebeenaggrievedbyFortuneinsomeoutrageousway.Theyhaveeitherbeenexposedtothemercyofwildbeasts,ortheyhavehadsomeanaparentagethatinshametheyhavegiventhemselvesouttobesonsof Joveorof someotherdeity. Itwouldbewearisome to relatewho thesepersonsmayhavebeenbecausetheyarewellknowntoeverybody,and,assuchtaleswouldnotbeparticularlyedifyingto thosewhoread them, theyareomitted. Ibelieve that these lowlybeginningsofgreatmenoccurbecause Fortune is desirous of showing to theworld that suchmen owemuch to her and little towisdom,becauseshebeginstoshowherhandwhenwisdomcanreallytakenopart intheircareer:thusallsuccessmustbeattributedtoher.CastruccioCastracaniofLuccawasoneofthosemenwhodidgreatdeeds,ifheismeasuredbythetimesinwhichhelivedandthecityinwhichhewasborn;but, likemanyothers, hewasneither fortunate nor distinguished in his birth, as the course of thishistorywillshow.Itappearedtobedesirabletorecallhismemory,becauseIhavediscernedinhimsuchindicationsofvalourandfortuneasshouldmakehimagreatexemplartomen.IthinkalsothatIoughttocallyourattentiontohisactions,becauseyouofallmenIknowdelightmostinnobledeeds.The familyofCastracaniwas formerlynumberedamong thenoble familiesofLucca,but in the

days ofwhich I speak it had somewhat fallen in estate, as so often happens in thisworld. To thisfamilywasbornasonAntonio,whobecameapriestoftheorderofSanMicheleofLucca,andforthis reason was honoured with the title ofMesser Antonio. He had an only sister, who had beenmarried toBuonaccorsoCenami,butBuonaccorsodying shebecameawidow, andnotwishing tomarryagainwenttolivewithherbrother.MesserAntoniohadavineyardbehindthehousewhereheresided, andas itwasboundedonall sidesbygardens, anypersoncouldhaveaccess to itwithoutdifficulty.Onemorning,shortlyaftersunrise,MadonnaDianora,asthesisterofMesserAntoniowascalled,hadoccasion togo into thevineyardasusual togatherherbs for seasoning thedinner, andhearingaslightrustlingamongtheleavesofavinesheturnedhereyesinthatdirection,andheardsomething resembling thecryofan infant.Whereuponshewent towards it, and saw thehandsandfaceofababywhowas lyingenvelopedin the leavesandwhoseemedtobecryingfor itsmother.Partly wondering and partly fearing, yet full of compassion, she lifted it up and carried it to thehouse,whereshewasheditandclotheditwithcleanlinenasiscustomary,andshowedittoMesserAntoniowhenhereturnedhome.Whenheheardwhathadhappenedandsawthechildhewasnotlesssurprisedorcompassionatethanhissister.Theydiscussedbetweenthemselveswhatshouldbedone,andseeingthathewaspriestandthatshehadnochildren,theyfinallydeterminedtobringitup.Theyhadanurseforit,anditwasrearedandlovedasifitweretheirownchild.Theybaptizedit,andgaveitthenameofCastruccioaftertheirfather.AstheyearspassedCastrucciogrewveryhandsome,andgaveevidenceofwitanddiscretion,andlearntwithaquicknessbeyondhisyearsthoselessonswhichMesserAntonioimpartedtohim.MesserAntoniointendedtomakeapriestofhim,andintimewouldhave inductedhim intohis canonryandotherbenefices, andallhis instructionwasgivenwith thisobject;butAntoniodiscoveredthatthecharacterofCastrucciowasquiteunfittedforthepriesthood.As soon as Castruccio reached the age of fourteen he began to take less notice of the chiding ofMesserAntonioandMadonnaDianoraandnolongertofearthem;heleftoffreadingecclesiasticalbooks,andturnedtoplayingwitharms,delightinginnothingsomuchasinlearningtheiruses,andinrunning,leaping,andwrestlingwithotherboys.Inallexerciseshefarexcelledhiscompanionsin

courageandbodilystrength,andifatanytimehedid turn tobooks,only thosepleasedhimwhichtoldofwarsandthemightydeedsofmen.MesserAntoniobeheldallthiswithvexationandsorrow.There lived in the city of Lucca a gentleman of the Guinigi family, namedMesser Francesco,

whoseprofessionwasarmsandwhoinriches,bodilystrength,andvalourexcelledallothermeninLucca.HehadoftenfoughtunderthecommandoftheViscontiofMilan,andasaGhibellinewasthevalued leader of that party in Lucca. This gentleman resided in Lucca and was accustomed toassemblewithothersmostmorningsandeveningsunderthebalconyofthePodesta,whichisatthetopofthesquareofSanMichele,thefinestsquareinLucca,andhehadoftenseenCastrucciotakingpartwithotherchildrenofthestreetinthosegamesofwhichIhavespoken.NoticingthatCastrucciofarexcelledtheotherboys,andthatheappearedtoexercisearoyalauthorityoverthem,andthattheyloved and obeyed him,Messer Francesco becamegreatly desirous of learningwho hewas.BeinginformedofthecircumstancesofthebringingupofCastrucciohefeltagreaterdesiretohavehimneartohim.Thereforehecalledhimonedayandaskedhimwhetherhewouldmorewillinglyliveinthehouseof agentleman,wherehewould learn to ridehorsesandusearms,or in thehouseof apriest,wherehewould learnnothingbutmassesand the servicesof theChurch.MesserFrancescocouldseethatitpleasedCastrucciogreatlytohearhorsesandarmsspokenof,eventhoughhestoodsilent,blushingmodestly;butbeingencouragedbyMesserFrancescotospeak,heansweredthat, ifhismasterwereagreeable,nothingwouldpleasehimmore than togiveuphispriestlystudiesandtakeupthoseofasoldier.ThisreplydelightedMesserFrancesco,andinaveryshorttimeheobtainedtheconsentofMesserAntonio,whowasdriventoyieldbyhisknowledgeofthenatureofthelad,andthefearthathewouldnotbeabletoholdhimmuchlonger.Thus Castruccio passed from the house of Messer Antonio the priest to the house of Messer

FrancescoGuinigithesoldier,anditwasastonishingtofindthatinaveryshorttimehemanifestedallthatvirtueandbearingwhichweareaccustomedtoassociatewithatruegentleman.Inthefirstplacehebecameanaccomplishedhorseman,andcouldmanagewitheasethemostfierycharger,andinalljoustsandtournaments,althoughstillayouth,hewasobservedbeyondallothers,andheexcelledinall exercises of strength and dexterity. But what enhanced so much the charm of theseaccomplishments,was the delightfulmodestywhich enabled him to avoid offence in either act orwordtoothers,forhewasdeferentialtothegreatmen,modestwithhisequals,andcourteoustohisinferiors.Thesegiftsmadehimbeloved,notonlybyalltheGuinigifamily,butbyallLucca.WhenCastrucciohadreachedhiseighteenthyear,theGhibellinesweredrivenfromPaviabytheGuelphs,and Messer Francesco was sent by the Visconti to assist the Ghibellines, and with him wentCastruccio,inchargeofhisforces.Castrucciogaveampleproofofhisprudenceandcourageinthisexpedition,acquiringgreaterreputationthananyothercaptain,andhisnameandfamewereknown,notonlyinPavia,butthroughoutallLombardy.Castruccio,havingreturnedtoLuccainfarhigherestimationthatheleftit,didnotomittouseall

themeansinhispowertogainasmanyfriendsashecould,neglectingnoneofthoseartswhicharenecessaryforthatpurpose.AboutthistimeMesserFrancescodied,leavingasonthirteenyearsofagenamedPagolo,andhavingappointedCastrucciotobehisson'stutorandadministratorofhisestate.BeforehediedFrancesco calledCastruccio tohim, andprayedhim to showPagolo that goodwillwhichhe(Francesco)hadalwaysshowntoHIM,andtorendertothesonthegratitudewhichhehadnotbeenabletorepaytothefather.UponthedeathofFrancesco,CastrucciobecamethegovernorandtutorofPagolo,whichincreasedenormouslyhispowerandposition,andcreatedacertainamountofenvyagainsthiminLuccainplaceoftheformeruniversalgoodwill,formanymensuspectedhimofharbouringtyrannicalintentions.AmongthesetheleadingmanwasGiorgiodegliOpizi,theheadoftheGuelphparty.Thismanhopedafter thedeathofMesserFrancesco tobecome thechiefman in

Lucca, but it seemed to him thatCastruccio,with the great abilitieswhich he already showed, andholdingthepositionofgovernor,deprivedhimofhisopportunity;thereforehebegantosowthoseseedswhich should robCastruccio of his eminence.Castruccio at first treated thiswith scorn, butafterwardshegrewalarmed,thinkingthatMesserGiorgiomightbeabletobringhimintodisgracewiththedeputyofKingRubertoofNaplesandhavehimdrivenoutofLucca.TheLordofPisaat that timewasUguccioneof theFaggiuolaofArezzo,whobeing in the first

place elected their captain afterwards became their lord. There resided in Paris some exiledGhibellines from Lucca, with whomCastruccio held communications with the object of effectingtheirrestorationbythehelpofUguccione.CastruccioalsobroughtintohisplansfriendsfromLuccawhowouldnotenduretheauthorityoftheOpizi.Havingfixeduponaplantobefollowed,CastrucciocautiouslyfortifiedthetoweroftheOnesti,fillingitwithsuppliesandmunitionsofwar,inorderthatitmightstandasiege fora fewdays incaseofneed.When thenightcamewhichhadbeenagreeduponwithUguccione,whohadoccupiedtheplainbetweenthemountainsandPisawithmanymen,thesignalwasgiven,andwithoutbeingobservedUguccioneapproached thegateofSanPieroandsetfiretotheportcullis.Castruccioraisedagreatuproarwithinthecity,callingthepeopletoarmsandforcingopenthegatefromhisside.Uguccioneenteredwithhismen,pouredthroughthetown,andkilledMesserGiorgiowithallhisfamilyandmanyofhisfriendsandsupporters.Thegovernorwasdrivenout,andthegovernmentreformedaccordingtothewishesofUguccione,tothedetrimentofthecity,becauseitwasfoundthatmorethanonehundredfamilieswereexiledatthattime.Ofthosewho fled, partwent toFlorence andpart toPistoia,which citywas theheadquartersof theGuelphparty,andforthisreasonitbecamemosthostiletoUguccioneandtheLucchese.AsitnowappearedtotheFlorentinesandothersoftheGuelphpartythattheGhibellinesabsorbed

toomuchpowerinTuscany,theydeterminedtorestoretheexiledGuelphstoLucca.TheyassembledalargearmyintheValdiNievole,andseizedMontecatini;fromthencetheymarchedtoMontecarlo,in order to secure the free passage into Lucca. Upon this Uguccione assembled his Pisan andLuccheseforces,andwithanumberofGermancavalrywhichhedrewoutofLombardy,hemovedagainst the quarters of the Florentines, who upon the appearance of the enemy withdrew fromMontecarlo, and posted themselves between Montecatini and Pescia. Uguccione now took up apositionneartoMontecarlo,andwithinabouttwomilesoftheenemy,andslightskirmishesbetweenthehorseofbothpartieswereofdailyoccurrence.OwingtotheillnessofUguccione,thePisansandLucchesedelayedcomingtobattlewiththeenemy.Uguccione,findinghimselfgrowingworse,wenttoMontecarlotobecured,andleftthecommandofthearmyinthehandsofCastruccio.ThischangebroughtabouttheruinoftheGuelphs,who,thinkingthatthehostilearmyhavinglostitscaptainhadlostitshead,grewover-confident.Castruccioobservedthis,andallowedsomedaystopassinordertoencouragethisbelief;healsoshowedsignsoffear,anddidnotallowanyofthemunitionsofthecamp to be used. On the other side, the Guelphs grew more insolent the more they saw theseevidences of fear, and every day they drew out in the order of battle in front of the army ofCastruccio.Presently,deemingthattheenemywassufficientlyemboldened,andhavingmasteredtheirtactics, he decided to join battle with them. First he spoke a few words of encouragement to hissoldiers, and pointed out to them the certainty of victory if they would but obey his commands.Castrucciohadnoticedhowtheenemyhadplacedallhisbesttroopsinthecentreofthelineofbattle,andhislessreliablemenonthewingsofthearmy;whereuponhedidexactlytheopposite,puttinghismostvaliantmenontheflanks,whilethoseonwhomhecouldnotsostronglyrelyhemovedtothecentre.Observingthisorderofbattle,hedrewoutofhislinesandquicklycameinsightofthehostilearmy, who, as usual, had come in their insolence to defy him. He then commanded his centresquadrons tomarch slowly,whilst hemoved rapidly forward thoseon thewings.Thus,when they

cameintocontactwiththeenemy,onlythewingsofthetwoarmiesbecameengaged,whilstthecenterbattalions remainedout of action, for these twoportions of the line of battlewere separated fromeachotherbyalongintervalandthusunabletoreacheachother.Bythisexpedientthemorevaliantpart of Castruccio's men were opposed to the weaker part of the enemy's troops, and the mostefficientmenoftheenemyweredisengaged;andthustheFlorentineswereunabletofightwiththosewhowerearrayedoppositetothem,ortogiveanyassistancetotheirownflanks.So,withoutmuchdifficulty,Castruccioput theenemytoflightonbothflanks,and thecentrebattalions took to flightwhen they found themselves exposed to attack,without having a chanceof displaying their valour.Thedefeatwascomplete,and the loss inmenveryheavy, therebeingmore than ten thousandmenkilledwithmanyofficersandknightsoftheGuelphpartyinTuscany,andalsomanyprinceswhohadcometohelp them,amongwhomwerePiero, thebrotherofKingRuberto,andCarlo,hisnephew,andFilippo,thelordofTaranto.OnthepartofCastrucciothelossdidnotamounttomorethanthreehundredmen,amongwhomwasFrancesco,thesonofUguccione,who,beingyoungandrash,waskilledinthefirstonset.This victory so greatly increased the reputation of Castruccio that Uguccione conceived some

jealousyandsuspicionofhim,becauseitappearedtoUguccionethatthisvictoryhadgivenhimnoincreaseofpower,butratherthandiminishedit.Beingofthismind,heonlywaitedforanopportunitytogive effect to it.Thisoccurredon thedeathofPierAgnoloMicheli, amanofgreat repute andabilitiesinLucca,themurdererofwhomfledtothehouseofCastruccioforrefuge.Onthesergeantsof the captain going to arrest themurderer, theywere driven off byCastruccio, and themurdererescaped.ThisaffaircomingtotheknowledgeofUguccione,whowasthanatPisa,itappearedtohimaproperopportunitytopunishCastruccio.HethereforesentforhissonNeri,whowasthegovernorof Lucca, and commissioned him to take Castruccio prisoner at a banquet and put him to death.Castruccio,fearingnoevil,wenttothegovernorinafriendlyway,wasentertainedatsupper,andthenthrownintoprison.ButNeri,fearingtoputhimtodeathlestthepeopleshouldbeincensed,kepthimalive, in order to hear further from his father concerning his intentions. Ugucionne cursed thehesitation and cowardice of his son, and at once set out from Pisa to Lucca with four hundredhorsementofinishthebusinessinhisownway;buthehadnotyetreachedthebathswhenthePisansrebelledandputhisdeputy todeathandcreatedCountGaddodellaGherardesca their lord.BeforeUguccionereachedLuccaheheardoftheoccurrencesatPisa,butitdidnotappearwisetohimtoturnback,lesttheLucchesewiththeexampleofPisabeforethemshouldclosetheirgatesagainsthim.ButtheLucchese,havingheardofwhathadhappenedatPisa,availed themselvesof thisopportunity todemand the liberationofCastruccio,notwithstanding thatUguccionehadarrived in theircity.Theyfirst began to speak of it in private circles, afterwards openly in the squares and streets; then theyraisedatumult,andwitharmsintheirhandswenttoUguccioneanddemandedthatCastruccioshouldbesetatliberty.Uguccione,fearingthatworsemighthappen,releasedhimfromprison.WhereuponCastrucciogatheredhisfriendsaroundhim,andwiththehelpofthepeopleattackedUguccione;who,finding he had no resource but in flight, rode awaywith his friends toLombardy, to the lords ofScale,wherehediedinpoverty.ButCastrucciofrombeingaprisonerbecamealmostaprinceinLucca,andhecarriedhimselfso

discreetlywithhisfriendsandthepeoplethattheyappointedhimcaptainoftheirarmyforoneyear.Havingobtainedthis,andwishingtogainrenowninwar,heplannedtherecoveryofthemanytownswhichhadrebelledafterthedepartureofUguccione,andwiththehelpofthePisans,withwhomhehadconcludedatreaty,hemarchedtoSerezzana.Tocapturethisplaceheconstructedafortagainstit,whichiscalledto-dayZerezzanello;inthecourseoftwomonthsCastrucciocapturedthetown.Withthereputationgainedatthatsiege,herapidlyseizedMassa,Carrara,andLavenza,andinashorttime

had overrun the whole of Lunigiana. In order to close the pass which leads from Lombardy toLunigiana, he besieged Pontremoli andwrested it from the hands ofMesserAnastagio Palavicini,who was the lord of it. After this victory he returned to Lucca, and was welcomed by the wholepeople.AndnowCastruccio,deemingitimprudentanylongertodefermakinghimselfaprince,gothimself created the lord of Lucca by the help of Pazzino del Poggio, Puccinello dal Portico,FrancescoBoccansacchi,andCeccoGuinigi,allofwhomhehadcorrupted;andhewasafterwardssolemnlyanddeliberatelyelectedprincebythepeople.AtthistimeFrederickofBavaria,theKingoftheRomans, came into Italy to assume the Imperial crown, andCastruccio, in order that hemightmake friendswith him,met him at the head of five hundred horsemen. Castruccio had left as hisdeputyinLucca,PagoloGuinigi,whowasheldinhighestimation,becauseofthepeople'sloveforthememoryofhisfather.CastrucciowasreceivedingreathonourbyFrederick,andmanyprivilegeswereconferreduponhim,andhewasappointedtheemperor'slieutenantinTuscany.AtthistimethePisanswere ingreat fearofGaddodellaGherardesca,whomtheyhaddrivenoutofPisa,and theyhadrecourseforassistancetoFrederick.FrederickcreatedCastrucciothelordofPisa,andthePisans,indreadof theGuelphparty,andparticularlyof theFlorentines,wereconstrainedtoaccepthimastheirlord.Frederick,havingappointedagovernorinRometowatchhisItalianaffairs,returnedtoGermany.

All the Tuscan and Lombardian Ghibellines, who followed the imperial lead, had recourse toCastruccioforhelpandcounsel,andallpromisedhimthegovernorshipofhiscountry,ifenabledtorecover itwithhis assistance.Among theseexileswereMatteoGuidi,NardoScolari,LapoUberti,GerozzoNardi, and PieroBuonaccorsi, all exiled Florentines andGhibellines. Castruccio had thesecretintentionofbecomingthemasterofallTuscanybytheaidofthesemenandofhisownforces;andinordertogaingreaterweightinaffairs,heenteredintoaleaguewithMesserMatteoVisconti,thePrinceofMilan,andorganizedforhimtheforcesofhiscityandthecountrydistricts.AsLuccahadfivegates,hedividedhisowncountrydistrictsintofiveparts,whichhesuppliedwitharms,andenrolled themen under captains and ensigns, so that he could quickly bring into the field twentythousand soldiers, without those whom he could summon to his assistance from Pisa. While hesurroundedhimselfwiththeseforcesandallies,ithappenedatMesserMatteoViscontiwasattackedby theGuelphsofPiacenza,whohaddrivenout theGhibellineswith theassistanceofaFlorentinearmyandtheKingRuberto.MesserMatteocalleduponCastrucciotoinvadetheFlorentinesintheirownterritories,sothat,beingattackedathome,theyshouldbecompelledtodrawtheirarmyoutofLombardyinordertodefendthemselves.CastruccioinvadedtheValdarno,andseizedFucecchioandSanMiniato,inflictingimmensedamageuponthecountry.WhereupontheFlorentinesrecalledtheirarmy,whichhadscarcelyreachedTuscany,whenCastrucciowasforcedbyothernecessitiestoreturntoLucca.There resided in thecityofLucca thePoggio family,whowere sopowerful that theycouldnot

onlyelevateCastruccio,butevenadvancehimtothedignityofprince;anditappearingtothemtheyhadnotreceivedsuchrewardsfortheirservicesastheydeserved,theyincitedotherfamiliestorebeland to drive Castruccio out of Lucca. They found their opportunity one morning, and armingthemselves, theysetuponthelieutenantwhomCastrucciohadleft tomaintainorderandkilledhim.Theyendeavouredtoraisethepeopleinrevolt,butStefanodiPoggio,apeaceableoldmanwhohadtaken no hand in the rebellion, intervened and compelled them by his authority to lay down theirarms; and he offered to be their mediator with Castruccio to obtain from himwhat they desired.Therefore they laid down their arms with no greater intelligence than they had taken them up.Castruccio, having heard the news ofwhat had happened at Lucca, at once put PagoloGuinigi incommandofthearmy,andwithatroopofcavalrysetoutforhome.Contrarytohisexpectations,he

foundtherebellionatanend,yethepostedhismeninthemostadvantageousplacesthroughoutthecity.AsitappearedtoStefanothatCastrucciooughttobeverymuchobligedtohim,hesoughthimout,andwithoutsayinganythingonhisownbehalf,forhedidnotrecognizeanyneedfordoingso,he begged Castruccio to pardon the other members of his family by reason of their youth, theirformerfriendships,andtheobligationswhichCastrucciowasundertotheirhouse.TothisCastrucciograciously responded, and begged Stefano to reassure himself, declaring that it gave him morepleasuretofindthetumultatanendthanithadevercausedhimanxietytohearofitsinception.HeencouragedStefanotobringhisfamilytohim,sayingthathethankedGodforhavinggivenhimtheopportunityof showinghisclemencyand liberality.Upon thewordofStefanoandCastruccio theysurrendered,andwithStefanowereimmediatelythrownintoprisonandputtodeath.MeanwhiletheFlorentineshadrecoveredSanMiniato,whereuponitseemedadvisabletoCastrucciotomakepeace,asitdidnotappeartohimthathewassufficientlysecureatLuccatoleavehim.HeapproachedtheFlorentineswith theproposalofa truce,whichtheyreadilyentertained,for theywerewearyof thewar,anddesirousofgettingridoftheexpensesofit.Atreatywasconcludedwiththemfortwoyears,bywhichbothpartiesagreedtokeeptheconqueststheyhadmade.Castrucciothusreleasedfromthistrouble,turnedhisattentiontoaffairsinLucca,andinorderthatheshouldnotagainbesubjecttotheperils fromwhichhehad justescaped,he,undervariouspretencesand reasons, firstwipedoutallthosewhobytheirambitionmightaspiretotheprincipality;notsparingoneofthem,butdeprivingthemofcountryandproperty, and thosewhomhehad inhishandsof lifealso, stating thathehadfoundbyexperience thatnoneof themwere tobe trusted.Thenforhis furthersecurityheraisedafortressinLuccawiththestonesofthetowersofthosewhomhehadkilledorhuntedoutofthestate.Whilst Castruccio made peace with the Florentines, and strengthened his position in Lucca, he

neglectednoopportunity,shortofopenwar,ofincreasinghisimportanceelsewhere.Itappearedtohim that if he couldget possessionofPistoia, hewouldhaveone foot inFlorence,whichwashisgreatdesire.He,therefore,invariouswaysmadefriendswiththemountaineers,andworkedmatterssoinPistoiathatbothpartiesconfidedtheirsecretstohim.Pistoiawasdivided,asitalwayshadbeen,intotheBianchiandNeriparties;theheadoftheBianchiwasBastianodiPossente,andoftheNeri,JacopodaGia.Eachof thesemenheldsecretcommunicationswithCastruccio,andeachdesiredtodrive the other out of the city; and, aftermany threatenings, they came to blows. Jacopo fortifiedhimselfattheFlorentinegate,BastianoatthatoftheLucchesesideofthecity;bothtrustedmoreinCastruccio than in the Florentines, because they believed that Castruccio was far more ready andwilling to fight than theFlorentines,and theybothsent tohimforassistance.Hegavepromises toboth,sayingtoBastianothathewouldcomeinperson,andtoJacopothathewouldsendhispupil,PagoloGuinigi.AttheappointedtimehesentforwardPagolobywayofPisa,andwenthimselfdirecttoPistoia;atmidnightbothofthemmetoutsidethecity,andbothwereadmittedasfriends.Thusthetwo leaders entered, and at a signal given byCastruccio, one killed Jacopo daGia, and the otherBastianodiPossente,andbothtookprisonersorkilledthepartisansofeitherfaction.WithoutfurtheroppositionPistoiapassedintothehandsofCastruccio,who,havingforcedtheSignoriatoleavethepalace,compelledthepeopletoyieldobediencetohim,makingthemmanypromisesandremittingtheirolddebts.Thecountrysideflockedtothecitytoseethenewprince,andallwerefilledwithhopeandquicklysettleddown,influencedinagreatmeasurebyhisgreatvalour.About this time great disturbances arose in Rome, owing to the dearness of living which was

causedbytheabsenceofthepontiffatAvignon.TheGermangovernor,Enrico,wasmuchblamedforwhathappened—murdersandtumultsfollowingeachotherdaily,withouthisbeingabletoputanendtothem.ThiscausedEnricomuchanxietylesttheRomansshouldcallinRuberto,theKingofNaples,whowoulddrive theGermansoutof thecity,andbringback thePope.Havingnonearer friend to

whomhe could apply for help thanCastruccio, he sent to him, begginghimnot only to give himassistance,butalsotocomeinpersontoRome.Castruccioconsideredthatheoughtnottohesitatetorendertheemperorthisservice,becausehebelievedthathehimselfwouldnotbesafeifatanytimetheemperorceasedtoholdRome.LeavingPagoloGuinigiincommandatLucca,CastrucciosetoutforRomewithsixhundredhorsemen,wherehewasreceivedbyEnricowiththegreatestdistinction.In a short time the presence of Castruccio obtained such respect for the emperor that, withoutbloodshedorviolence,goodorderwasrestored,chieflybyreasonofCastrucciohavingsentbyseafrom the country roundPisa large quantities of corn, and thus removed the source of the trouble.WhenhehadchastisedsomeoftheRomanleaders,andadmonishedothers,voluntaryobediencewasrenderedtoEnrico.Castruccioreceivedmanyhonours,andwasmadeaRomansenator.Thisdignitywas assumedwith the greatest pomp, Castruccio being clothed in a brocaded toga, which had thefollowingwordsembroideredonitsfront:"IamwhatGodwills."Whilstonthebackwas:"WhatGoddesiresshallbe."During this time the Florentines, who were much enraged that Castruccio should have seized

Pistoiaduringthetruce,consideredhowtheycouldtemptthecitytorebel,todowhichtheythoughtwouldnotbedifficultinhisabsence.AmongtheexiledPistoiansinFlorencewereBaldoCecchiandJacopoBaldini,bothmenof leadingandreadytofacedanger.Thesemenkeptupcommunicationswith their friends inPistoia, andwith theaidof theFlorentines entered thecitybynight, andafterdrivingoutsomeofCastruccio'sofficialsandpartisans,andkillingothers,theyrestoredthecitytoitsfreedom.ThenewsofthisgreatlyangeredCastruccio,andtakingleaveofEnrico,hepressedoningreathastetoPistoia.WhentheFlorentinesheardofhisreturn,knowingthathewouldlosenotime,theydecidedtointercepthimwiththeirforcesintheValdiNievole,underthebeliefthatbydoingsotheywouldcutoffhisroadtoPistoia.AssemblingagreatarmyofthesupportersoftheGuelphcause,the Florentines entered the Pistoian territories. On the other hand, Castruccio reachedMontecarlowithhisarmy;andhavingheardwheretheFlorentines'lay,hedecidednottoencounteritintheplainsofPistoia,nortoawaititintheplainsofPescia,but,asfarashepossiblycould,toattackitboldlyinthePassofSerravalle.Hebelievedthatifhesucceededinthisdesign,victorywasassured,althoughhewas informed that theFlorentines had thirty thousandmen,whilst he hadonly twelve thousand.Althoughhehadeveryconfidenceinhisownabilitiesandthevalourofhistroops,yethehesitatedtoattack his enemy in the open lest he should be overwhelmed by numbers. Serravalle is a castlebetweenPesciaandPistoia,situatedonahillwhichblockstheValdiNievole,notintheexactpass,butabout a bowshot beyond; the pass itself is in places narrow and steep,whilst in general it ascendsgently,butisstillnarrow,especiallyatthesummitwherethewatersdivide,sothattwentymensidebysidecouldhold it.The lordofSerravallewasManfred,aGerman,who,beforeCastrucciobecamelord of Pistoia, had been allowed to remain in possession of the castle, it being common to theLuccheseandthePistoians,andunclaimedbyeither—neitherofthemwishingtodisplaceManfredaslongashekepthispromiseofneutrality,andcameunderobligationstonoone.Forthesereasons,andalsobecausethecastlewaswellfortified,hehadalwaysbeenabletomaintainhisposition.Itwashere thatCastruccio had determined to fall upon his enemy, for here his fewmenwould have theadvantage,andtherewasnofearlest,seeingthelargemassesofthehostileforcebeforetheybecameengaged, they should not stand. As soon as this trouble with Florence arose, Castruccio saw theimmenseadvantagewhichpossessionofthiscastlewouldgivehim,andhavinganintimatefriendshipwitharesidentinthecastle,hemanagedmatterssowithhimthatfourhundredofhismenweretobeadmittedintothecastlethenightbeforetheattackontheFlorentines,andthecastellanputtodeath.Castruccio,havingpreparedeverything,hadnow toencourage theFlorentines topersist in their

desiretocarrytheseatofwarawayfromPistoiaintotheValdiNievole,thereforehedidnotmove

his army fromMontecarlo. Thus the Florentines hurried on until they reached their encampmentunderSerravalle, intendingtocrossthehillonthefollowingmorning.Inthemeantime,Castrucciohadseizedthecastleatnight,hadalsomovedhisarmyfromMontecarlo,andmarchingfromthenceat midnight in dead silence, had reached the foot of Serravalle: thus he and the Florentinescommencedtheascentofthehillatthesametimeinthemorning.Castrucciosentforwardhisinfantrybythemainroad,andatroopoffourhundredhorsemenbyapathonthelefttowardsthecastle.TheFlorentines sent forward four hundred cavalry ahead of their army which was following, neverexpectingtofindCastruccioinpossessionofthehill,norweretheyawareofhishavingseizedthecastle. Thus it happened that the Florentine horsemenmounting the hill were completely taken bysurprisewhen they discovered the infantry ofCastruccio, and so closewere they upon it they hadscarcelytimetopulldowntheirvisors.Itwasacaseofunreadysoldiersbeingattackedbyready,andtheywereassailedwithsuchvigourthatwithdifficultytheycouldholdtheirown,althoughsomefewofthemgotthrough.WhenthenoiseofthefightingreachedtheFlorentinecampbelow,itwasfilledwithconfusion.Thecavalryandinfantrybecameinextricablymixed:thecaptainswereunabletogettheirmeneitherbackwardorforward,owingtothenarrownessofthepass,andamidallthistumultno one knewwhat ought to be done orwhat could be done. In a short time the cavalrywhowereengagedwiththeenemy'sinfantrywerescatteredorkilledwithouthavingmadeanyeffectivedefencebecause of their unfortunate position, although in sheer desperation they had offered a stoutresistance.Retreathadbeenimpossible,withthemountainsonbothflanks,whilstinfrontweretheirenemies, and in the rear their friends.When Castruccio saw that his men were unable to strike adecisive blow at the enemy andput them to flight, he sent one thousand infantrymen roundby thecastle, with orders to join the four hundred horsemen he had previously dispatched there, andcommandedthewholeforcetofallupontheflankoftheenemy.TheseorderstheycarriedoutwithsuchfurythattheFlorentinescouldnotsustaintheattack,butgaveway,andweresooninfullretreat—conqueredmorebytheirunfortunatepositionthanbythevalouroftheirenemy.Thoseintherearturned towards Pistoia, and spread through the plains, eachman seeking only his own safety. Thedefeatwascomplete andvery sanguinary.Manycaptainswere takenprisoners, amongwhomwereBandinideiRossi,FrancescoBrunelleschi,andGiovannidellaTosa,allFlorentinenoblemen,withmanyTuscansandNeapolitanswhofoughtontheFlorentineside,havingbeensentbyKingRubertotoassisttheGuelphs.ImmediatelythePistoiansheardofthisdefeattheydroveoutthefriendsoftheGuelphs,andsurrenderedtoCastruccio.HewasnotcontentwithoccupyingPratoandallthecastlesontheplainsonbothsidesoftheArno,butmarchedhisarmyintotheplainofPeretola,abouttwomiles fromFlorence.Hereheremainedmanydays,dividing thespoils,andcelebratinghisvictorywithfeastsandgames,holdinghorseraces,andfootracesformenandwomen.HealsostruckmedalsincommemorationofthedefeatoftheFlorentines.HeendeavouredtocorruptsomeofthecitizensofFlorence, who were to open the city gates at night; but the conspiracy was discovered, and theparticipators in it taken and beheaded, among whom were Tommaso Lupacci and LambertuccioFrescobaldi. This defeat caused the Florentines great anxiety, and despairing of preserving theirliberty,theysentenvoystoKingRubertoofNaples,offeringhimthedominionoftheircity;andhe,knowingofwhatimmenseimportancethemaintenanceoftheGuelphcausewastohim,acceptedit.HeagreedwiththeFlorentinestoreceivefromthemayearlytributeoftwohundredthousandflorins,andhesendhissonCarlotoFlorencewithfourthousandhorsemen.

Shortly after this the Florentines were relieved in some degree of the pressure of Castruccio'sarmy, owing to his being compelled to leave his positions before Florence andmarch onPisa, inordertosuppressaconspiracythathadbeenraisedagainsthimbyBenedettoLanfranchi,oneofthefirst men in Pisa, who could not endure that his fatherland should be under the dominion of theLucchese. He had formed this conspiracy, intending to seize the citadel, kill the partisans ofCastruccio,anddriveoutthegarrison.As,however,inaconspiracypaucityofnumbersisessentialtosecrecy,soforitsexecutionafewarenotsufficient,andinseekingmoreadherentstohisconspiracyLanfranchi encountered a person who revealed the design to Castruccio. This betrayal cannot bepassed bywithout severe reproach toBonifacioCerchi andGiovanniGuidi, twoFlorentine exileswhoweresufferingtheirbanishmentinPisa.ThereuponCastruccioseizedBenedettoandputhimtodeath,andbeheadedmanyothernoblecitizens,anddrovetheirfamiliesintoexile.ItnowappearedtoCastruccio that both Pisa and Pistoiawere thoroughly disaffected; he employedmuch thought andenergyuponsecuringhispositionthere,andthisgavetheFlorentinestheiropportunitytoreorganizetheirarmy,andtoawaitthecomingofCarlo,thesonoftheKingofNaples.WhenCarloarrivedtheydecidedtolosenomoretime,andassembledagreatarmyofmorethanthirtythousandinfantryandten thousand cavalry—having called to their aid every Guelph there was in Italy. They consultedwhether theyshouldattackPistoiaorPisa first,anddecided that itwouldbebetter tomarchon thelatter—acourse,owing to therecentconspiracy,more likely tosucceed,andofmoreadvantage tothem,becausetheybelievedthatthesurrenderofPistoiawouldfollowtheacquisitionofPisa.IntheearlypartofMay1328,theFlorentinesputinmotionthisarmyandquicklyoccupiedLastra,

Signa,Montelupo,andEmpoli,passingfromthenceontoSanMiniato.WhenCastruccioheardoftheenormous army which the Florentines were sending against him, he was in no degree alarmed,believingthatthetimehadnowarrivedwhenFortunewoulddelivertheempireofTuscanyintohishands,forhehadnoreasontothinkthathisenemywouldmakeabetterfight,orhadbetterprospectsofsuccess,thanatPisaorSerravalle.Heassembledtwentythousandfootsoldiersandfourthousandhorsemen, andwith this armywent to Fucecchio, whilst he sent PagoloGuinigi to Pisa with fivethousandinfantry.FucecchiohasastrongerpositionthananyothertowninthePisandistrict,owingtoitssituationbetweentheriversArnoandGuscianaanditsslightelevationabovethesurroundingplain.Moreover,theenemycouldnothinderitsbeingvictualledunlesstheydividedtheirforces,norcouldtheyapproachiteitherfromthedirectionofLuccaorPisa,norcouldtheygetthroughtoPisa,orattackCastruccio'sforcesexceptatadisadvantage.Inonecasetheywouldfindthemselvesplacedbetweenhistwoarmies,theoneunderhisowncommandandtheotherunderPagolo,andintheothercase theywouldhave to cross theArno toget to closequarterswith theenemy, anundertakingofgreathazard.InordertotempttheFlorentinestotakethislattercourse,CastrucciowithdrewhismenfromthebanksoftheriverandplacedthemunderthewallsofFucecchio,leavingawideexpanseoflandbetweenthemandtheriver.TheFlorentines,havingoccupiedSanMiniato,heldacouncilofwartodecidewhethertheyshould

attack Pisa or the army of Castruccio, and, having weighed the difficulties of both courses, theydecided upon the latter. The riverArnowas at that time low enough to be fordable, yet thewaterreachedtotheshouldersoftheinfantrymenandtothesaddlesofthehorsemen.Onthemorningof10June1328, theFlorentinescommenced thebattlebyordering forwardanumberofcavalryand tenthousandinfantry.Castruccio,whoseplanofactionwasfixed,andwhowellknewwhattodo,atonceattackedtheFlorentineswithfivethousandinfantryandthreethousandhorsemen,notallowingthemtoissuefromtheriverbeforehechargedthem;healsosentonethousandlightinfantryuptheriverbank,andthesamenumberdowntheArno.TheinfantryoftheFlorentinesweresomuchimpededbytheirarmsandthewaterthattheywerenotabletomountthebanksoftheriver,whilstthecavalryhad

made thepassageof the rivermoredifficult for theothers,by reasonof the fewwhohadcrossedhavingbrokenupthebedoftheriver,andthisbeingdeepwithmud,manyofthehorsesrolledoverwiththeirridersandmanyofthemhadstucksofast thattheycouldnotmove.WhentheFlorentinecaptains saw thedifficulties theirmenweremeeting, theywithdrew themandmovedhigherup theriver,hoping to find the riverbed less treacherousand thebanksmoreadapted for landing.ThesemenweremetatthebankbytheforceswhichCastrucciohadalreadysentforward,who,beinglightarmedwith bucklers and javelins in their hands, let flywith tremendous shouts into the faces andbodiesofthecavalry.Thehorses,alarmedbythenoiseandthewounds,wouldnotmoveforward,andtrampled each other in great confusion.The fight between themen ofCastruccio and those of theenemy who succeeded in crossing was sharp and terrible; both sides fought with the utmostdesperationandneitherwouldyield.ThesoldiersofCastrucciofoughttodrivetheothersbackintotheriver,whilsttheFlorentinesstrovetogetafootingonlandinordertomakeroomfortheotherspressing forward, who if they could but get out of the water would be able to fight, and in thisobstinateconflicttheywereurgedonbytheircaptains.CastruccioshoutedtohismenthatthesewerethesameenemieswhomtheyhadbeforeconqueredatSerravalle,whilsttheFlorentinesreproachedeachotherthatthemanyshouldbeovercomebythefew.AtlengthCastruccio,seeinghowlongthebattlehadlasted,andthatbothhismenandtheenemywereutterlyexhausted,andthatbothsideshadmanykilledandwounded,pushedforwardanotherbodyofinfantrytotakeupapositionattherearofthosewhowere fighting;he thencommanded these latter toopen their ranksas if they intended toretreat,andonepartofthemtoturntotherightandanothertotheleft.ThisclearedaspaceofwhichtheFlorentinesatoncetookadvantage,andthusgainedpossessionofaportionofthebattlefield.ButwhenthesetiredsoldiersfoundthemselvesatclosequarterswithCastruccio'sreservestheycouldnotstandagainstthemandatoncefellbackintotheriver.Thecavalryofeithersidehadnotasyetgainedanydecisiveadvantageover theother,becauseCastruccio,knowinghis inferiority in thisarm,hadcommandedhisleadersonlytostandonthedefensiveagainsttheattacksoftheiradversaries,ashehopedthatwhenhehadovercometheinfantryhewouldbeabletomakeshortworkofthecavalry.Thisfelloutashehadhoped,forwhenhesawtheFlorentinearmydrivenbackacrosstheriverheorderedtheremainderofhisinfantrytoattackthecavalryoftheenemy.Thistheydidwithlanceandjavelin,and,joinedbytheirowncavalry,fellupontheenemywiththegreatestfuryandsoonputhimtoflight.TheFlorentinecaptains,havingseenthedifficultytheircavalryhadmetwithincrossingtheriver,hadattemptedtomaketheirinfantrycrosslowerdowntheriver,inordertoattacktheflanksofCastruccio'sarmy.Buthere,also, thebanksweresteepandalreadylinedbythemenofCastruccio,andthismovementwasquiteuseless.ThustheFlorentinesweresocompletelydefeatedatallpointsthat scarcelya thirdof themescaped, andCastrucciowasagaincoveredwithglory.Manycaptainswere takenprisoners, andCarlo, the sonofKingRuberto,withMichelagnoloFalconi andTaddeodegliAlbizzi, theFlorentine commissioners, fled toEmpoli. If the spoilsweregreat, the slaughterwas infinitely greater, as might be expected in such a battle. Of the Florentines there fell twentythousand two hundred and thirty-one men, whilst Castruccio lost one thousand five hundred andseventymen.ButFortunegrowingenviousofthegloryofCastrucciotookawayhislifejustatthetimewhenshe

shouldhavepreservedit,andthusruinedallthoseplanswhichforsolongatimehehadworkedtocarry into effect, and in the successful prosecution ofwhich nothing but death could have stoppedhim. Castrucciowas in the thick of the battle thewhole of the day; andwhen the end of it came,although fatigued and overheated, he stood at the gate of Fucecchio towelcome hismen on theirreturnfromvictoryandpersonallythankthem.Hewasalsoonthewatchforanyattemptoftheenemytoretrievethefortunesoftheday;hebeingoftheopinionthatitwasthedutyofagoodgeneraltobethefirstmaninthesaddleandthelastoutofit.HereCastrucciostoodexposedtoawindwhichoften

risesatmiddayonthebanksoftheArno,andwhichisoftenveryunhealthy;fromthishetookachill,ofwhichhethoughtnothing,ashewasaccustomedtosuchtroubles;butitwasthecauseofhisdeath.Onthefollowingnighthewasattackedwithhighfever,whichincreasedsorapidlythat thedoctorssaw itmustprove fatal.Castruccio, therefore, calledPagoloGuinigi tohim,andaddressedhimasfollows:"IfIcouldhavebelievedthatFortunewouldhavecutmeoffinthemidstofthecareerwhichwas

leadingtothatglorywhichallmysuccessespromised,Ishouldhavelabouredless,andIshouldhaveleftthee,ifasmallerstate,atleastwithfewerenemiesandperils,becauseIshouldhavebeencontentwith the governorships of Lucca and Pisa. I should neither have subjugated the Pistoians, noroutragedtheFlorentineswithsomanyinjuries.ButIwouldhavemadeboththesepeoplesmyfriends,and I should have lived, if no longer, at leastmore peacefully, and have left you a statewithout adoubtsmaller,butonemoresecureandestablishedonasurer foundation.ButFortune,whoinsistsupon having the arbitrament of human affairs, did not endow me with sufficient judgment torecognizethisfromthefirst,northetimetosurmountit.Thouhastheard,formanyhavetoldthee,andIhaveneverconcealedit,howIenteredthehouseofthyfatherwhilstyetaboy—astrangertoallthoseambitionswhicheverygeneroussoulshouldfeel—andhowIwasbroughtupbyhim,andlovedasthoughIhadbeenbornofhisblood;howunderhisgovernanceIlearnedtobevaliantandcapableofavailingmyselfofallthatfortune,ofwhichthouhastbeenwitness.Whenthygoodfathercametodie,hecommittedtheeandallhispossessionstomycare,andIhavebroughttheeupwiththatlove,andincreasedthyestatewiththatcare,whichIwasboundtoshow.Andinorderthatthoushouldstnotonlypossesstheestatewhichthyfatherleft,butalsothatwhichmyfortuneandabilitieshavegained,Ihavenevermarried, so that the loveof children shouldneverdeflectmymind from that gratitudewhichIowedtothechildrenofthyfather.ThusIleavetheeavastestate,ofwhichIamwellcontent,but Iamdeeplyconcerned, inasmuchas I leave it theeunsettledand insecure.Thouhast thecityofLucca on thy hands, whichwill never rest contented under they government. Thou hast also Pisa,wherethemenareofnaturechangeableandunreliable,who,althoughtheymaybesometimesheldinsubjection,yet theywilleverdisdaintoserveunderaLucchese.Pistoiaisalsodisloyal tothee,shebeingeatenupwithfactionsanddeeplyincensedagainstthyfamilybyreasonofthewrongsrecentlyinflicteduponthem.ThouhastforneighbourstheoffendedFlorentines,injuredbyusinathousandways,butnotutterlydestroyed,whowillhailthenewsofmydeathwithmoredelightthantheywouldtheacquisitionofallTuscany.IntheEmperorandintheprincesofMilanthoucanstplacenoreliance,fortheyarefardistant,slow,andtheirhelpisverylongincoming.Therefore,thouhastnohopeinanythingbut in thineownabilities,and in thememoryofmyvalour,and in theprestigewhich thislatestvictoryhasbroughtthee;which,asthouknowesthowtouseitwithprudence,willassisttheetocome to terms with the Florentines, who, as they are suffering under this great defeat, should beinclinedtolistentothee.AndwhereasIhavesoughttomakethemmyenemies,becauseIbelievedthatwarwiththemwouldconducetomypowerandglory,thouhasteveryinducementtomakefriendsofthem,becausetheiralliancewillbringtheeadvantagesandsecurity.Itisofthegreatestimportantinthisworldthatamanshouldknowhimself,andthemeasureofhisownstrengthandmeans;andhewhoknowsthathehasnotageniusforfightingmustlearnhowtogovernbytheartsofpeace.Anditwillbewellfortheetoruletheyconductbymycounsel,andtolearninthiswaytoenjoywhatmylife-work and dangers have gained; and in this thou wilt easily succeed when thou hast learnt tobelievethatwhatIhavetoldtheeistrue.Andthouwiltbedoublyindebtedtome,inthatIhavelefttheethisrealmandhavetaughttheehowtokeepit."AfterthistherecametoCastrucciothosecitizensofPisa,Pistoia,andLucca,whohadbeenfighting

athisside,andwhilstrecommendingPagolotothem,andmakingthemswearobediencetohimashis

successor, he died.He left a happymemory to thosewho had knownhim, and no prince of thosetimeswaseverlovedwithsuchdevotionashewas.Hisobsequieswerecelebratedwitheverysignofmourning, and he was buried in San Francesco at Lucca. Fortune was not so friendly to PagoloGuinigi as she had been to Castruccio, for he had not the abilities. Not long after the death ofCastruccio,Pagolo lostPisa,andthenPistoia,andonlywithdifficultyheldontoLucca.This lattercitycontinuedinthefamilyofGuinigiuntilthetimeofthegreat-grandsonofPagolo.FromwhathasbeenrelatedhereitwillbeseenthatCastrucciowasamanofexceptionalabilities,

not onlymeasuredbymenof his own time, but alsoby thoseof an earlier date. In stature hewasabove the ordinary height, and perfectly proportioned. He was of a gracious presence, and hewelcomedmenwithsuchurbanitythatthosewhospokewithhimrarelylefthimdispleased.Hishairwasinclinedtobered,andheworeitcutshortabovetheears,and,whetheritrainedorsnowed,healwayswentwithoutahat.Hewasdelightfulamong friends,but terrible tohisenemies; just tohissubjects; ready to play falsewith the unfaithful, andwilling to overcomeby fraud thosewhomhedesiredtosubdue,becausehewaswonttosaythat itwasthevictorythatbrought theglory,not themethods of achieving it. No one was bolder in facing danger, none more prudent in extricatinghimself.Hewasaccustomedtosaythatmenoughttoattempteverythingandfearnothing;thatGodisaloverofstrongmen,becauseonealwaysseesthattheweakarechastisedbythestrong.Hewasalsowonderfully sharp or biting though courteous in his answers; and as he did not look for anyindulgenceinthiswayofspeakingfromothers,sohewasnotangeredwithothersdidnotshowittohim.Ithasoftenhappenedthathehaslistenedquietlywhenothershavespokensharplytohim,asonthefollowingoccasions.Hehadcausedaducattobegivenforapartridge,andwastakentotaskfordoingsobyafriend,towhomCastrucciohadsaid:"Youwouldnothavegivenmorethanapenny.""Thatistrue,"answeredthefriend.ThensaidCastrucciotohim:"Aducatismuchlesstome."Havingabout him a flatterer onwhomhe had spat to show that he scorned him, the flatterer said to him:"Fishermanarewilling to let thewatersof theseasaturate theminorder that theymaketakeafewlittlefishes,andIallowmyselftobewettedbyspittlethatImaycatchawhale";andthiswasnotonlyheardbyCastrucciowithpatiencebutrewarded.Whentoldbyapriestthatitwaswickedforhimtolivesosumptuously,Castrucciosaid:"Ifthatbeavicethanyoushouldnotfaresosplendidlyatthefeastsofoursaints."PassingthroughastreethesawayoungmanashecameoutofahouseofillfameblushatbeingseenbyCastruccio,andsaidtohim:"Thoushouldstnotbeashamedwhenthoucomestout,butwhen thougoest intosuchplaces."Afriendgavehimaverycuriously tiedknot toundoandwas told: "Fool,doyou think that Iwish tountie a thingwhichgave somuch trouble tofasten."Castrucciosaidtoonewhoprofessedtobeaphilosopher:"Youarelikethedogswhoalwaysrunafterthosewhowillgivethemthebesttoeat,"andwasanswered:"Weareratherlikethedoctorswhogo to the houses of thosewhohave the greatest needof them."Goingbywater fromPisa toLeghorn,Castrucciowasmuchdisturbedbyadangerousstormthatsprangup,andwasreproachedforcowardicebyoneofthosewithhim,whosaidthathedidnotfearanything.Castruccioansweredthathedidnotwonderatthat,sinceeverymanvaluedhissoulforwhatiswasworth.Beingaskedbyonewhatheoughttodotogainestimation,hesaid:"Whenthougoesttoabanquettakecarethatthoudostnotseatonepieceofwooduponanother."Toapersonwhowasboastingthathehadreadmanythings, Castruccio said: "He knows better than to boast of remembering many things." Someonebraggedthathecoulddrinkmuchwithoutbecomingintoxicated.Castruccioreplied:"Anoxdoesthesame."Castrucciowasacquaintedwithagirlwithwhomhehadintimaterelations,andbeingblamedbyafriendwhotoldhimthatitwasundignifiedforhimtobetakeninbyawoman,hesaid:"Shehasnot takenme in, I have taken her." Being also blamed for eating very dainty foods, he answered:"ThoudostnotspendasmuchasIdo?"andbeingtoldthatitwastrue,hecontinued:"ThenthouartmoreavariciousthanIamgluttonous."BeinginvitedbyTaddeoBernardi,averyrichandsplendid

citizenofLuca,tosupper,hewenttothehouseandwasshownbyTaddeointoachamberhungwithsilk and paved with fine stones representing flowers and foliage of the most beautiful colouring.Castruccio gathered some saliva in hismouth and spat it out upon Taddeo, and seeing himmuchdisturbedbythis,saidtohim:"Iknewnotwheretospitinordertooffendtheeless."BeingaskedhowCaesardiedhesaid:"Godwilling Iwilldieashedid."Beingonenight in thehouseofoneofhisgentlemenwheremanyladieswereassembled,hewasreprovedbyoneofhisfriendsfordancingandamusing himself with them more than was usual in one of his station, so he said: "He who isconsideredwisebydaywillnotbeconsideredafoolatnight."ApersoncametodemandafavourofCastruccio,andthinkinghewasnotlisteningtohispleathrewhimselfonhiskneestotheground,andbeingsharplyreprovedbyCastruccio,said:"Thouartthereasonofmyactingthusforthouhastthyearsinthyfeet,"whereuponheobtaineddoublethefavourhehadasked.Castrucciousedtosaythatthe way to hell was an easy one, seeing that it was in a downward direction and you travelledblindfolded.Beingaskedafavourbyonewhousedmanysuperfluouswords,hesaidtohim:"Whenyouhaveanotherrequesttomake,sendsomeoneelsetomakeit."Havingbeenweariedbyasimilarmanwithalongorationwhowoundupbysaying:"PerhapsIhavefatiguedyoubyspeakingsolong,"Castrucciosaid:"Youhavenot,becauseIhavenotlistenedtoawordyousaid."Heusedtosayofonewho had been a beautiful child and who afterwards became a fine man, that he was dangerous,becausehefirsttookthehusbandsfromthewivesandnowhetookthewivesfromtheirhusbands.Toanenviousmanwholaughed,hesaid:"Doyoulaughbecauseyouaresuccessfulorbecauseanotheris unfortunate?" Whilst he was still in the charge of Messer Francesco Guinigi, one of hiscompanions said tohim: "What shall I giveyou if youwill letmegiveyou ablowon thenose?"Castruccioanswered:"Ahelmet."HavingputtodeathacitizenofLuccawhohadbeeninstrumentalinraising him to power, and being told that he had done wrong to kill one of his old friends, heansweredthatpeopledeceivedthemselves;hehadonlykilledanewenemy.Castrucciopraisedgreatlythosemenwhointendedtotakeawifeandthendidnotdoso,sayingthattheywerelikemenwhosaidtheywouldgo to sea, and then refusedwhen the timecame.He said that it always struckhimwithsurprise thatwhilstmen inbuyinganearthenorglassvasewould sound it first to learn if itweregood,yetinchoosingawifetheywerecontentwithonlylookingather.Hewasonceaskedinwhatmannerhewouldwishtobeburiedwhenhedied,andanswered:"Withthefaceturneddownwards,forIknowwhenIamgonethiscountrywillbeturnedupsidedown."Onbeingaskedifithadeveroccurred tohimtobecomeafriar inorder tosavehissoul,heansweredthat ithadnot,because itappearedstrangetohimthatFraLazeroneshouldgotoParadiseandUguccionedellaFaggiuolatotheInferno.Hewasonceaskedwhenshouldamaneattopreservehishealth,andreplied:"Ifthemanberichlethimeatwhenheishungry;ifhebepoor,thenwhenhecan."Seeingonofhisgentlemenmakeamemberofhisfamilylacehimup,hesaidtohim:"IprayGodthatyouwilllethimfeedyoualso."Seeing that someonehadwrittenuponhishouse inLatin thewords:"MayGodpreserve thishousefromthewicked,"hesaid,"Theownermustnevergoin."Passingthroughoneofthestreetshesawasmallhousewithaverylargedoor,andremarked:"Thathousewillflythroughthedoor."HewashavingadiscussionwiththeambassadoroftheKingofNaplesconcerningthepropertyofsomebanishednobles,whenadisputearosebetweenthem,andtheambassadoraskedhimifhehadnofearoftheking."Isthiskingofyoursabadmanoragoodone?"askedCastruccio,andwastoldthathewasagoodone,whereuponhesaid,"WhyshouldyousuggestthatIshouldbeafraidofagoodman?"Icouldrecountmanyotherstoriesofhissayingsbothwittyandweighty,butIthinkthattheabove

willbesufficient testimonytohishighqualities.Helivedforty-fouryears,andwas ineverywayaprince.Andashewassurroundedbymanyevidencesofhisgoodfortune,sohealsodesiredtohavenearhimsomememorialsofhisbadfortune; thereforethemanacleswithwhichhewaschainedinprisonaretobeseentothisdayfixedupinthetowerofhisresidence,wheretheywereplacedbyhim

totestifyforevertohisdaysofadversity.AsinhislifehewasinferiorneithertoPhilipofMacedon,thefatherofAlexander,nortoScipioofRome,sohediedinthesameyearofhisageastheydid,andhewoulddoubtlesshaveexcelledbothof themhadFortunedecreed thathe shouldbeborn,not inLucca,butinMacedoniaorRome.

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