The President and The President and the Mediathe Media

President Media President Media RelationshipsRelationships

The relation between the president The relation between the president and media can best be evaluated in and media can best be evaluated in terms of a game between the terms of a game between the president and media. In order to president and media. In order to understand this game we need to understand this game we need to understand the interests of each actor understand the interests of each actor in engaging in interactions.in engaging in interactions.

The president has both short and long The president has both short and long term goals. He wants: 1) Favorable term goals. He wants: 1) Favorable approval. 2) Policy favorability. 3) To approval. 2) Policy favorability. 3) To establish his historical legacy.establish his historical legacy.

The media wants: 1) Information on The media wants: 1) Information on the conduct of the presidency that the conduct of the presidency that satisfies a highly elastic demand satisfies a highly elastic demand function. That is, the media is usually function. That is, the media is usually unwilling to pay a high price (in terms unwilling to pay a high price (in terms of effort or time spent) for the news. of effort or time spent) for the news. As the price goes up, their demand As the price goes up, their demand goes sharply down. 2) Favorable goes sharply down. 2) Favorable ratings by their editors and more ratings by their editors and more generally by the public.generally by the public.

Demand for readers and editors Demand for readers and editors tends them to focus on the tends them to focus on the negative, rather than the positive.negative, rather than the positive.

The president tends to be highly The president tends to be highly informed (or at least his staff does) informed (or at least his staff does) about the types of information it is about the types of information it is willing to let the media have. The willing to let the media have. The presidency is generally, but not fully presidency is generally, but not fully in control, of what the media wants, in control, of what the media wants, information.information.

The media has something the The media has something the president wants, namely, control president wants, namely, control over an instrument which can over an instrument which can facilitate approval, policy goals of facilitate approval, policy goals of the president, as well as the the president, as well as the presidentpresident’’s historical legacy.s historical legacy.

The relation is, therefore, a strategic The relation is, therefore, a strategic one in which both actors have one in which both actors have something the other wants. something the other wants. Bargaining of a sort occurs to Bargaining of a sort occurs to produce resultants.produce resultants.

The president wants:The president wants: A sense from the media of what is A sense from the media of what is

going on in the world. The pulse of going on in the world. The pulse of the public and a feeler for the public and a feeler for important topics.important topics.

The media to convey the The media to convey the presidentpresident’’s messages to other s messages to other political leaders both at home and political leaders both at home and abroad.abroad.

The media to help in The media to help in communication with the mass communication with the mass public.public.

Visibility above and beyond that of Visibility above and beyond that of other political leaders.other political leaders.

The media provide the public with The media provide the public with most of what they know about the most of what they know about the president and presidency. The media president and presidency. The media is the principal intermediary between is the principal intermediary between the president and the public. the president and the public.

Many recent presidents read newspapers Many recent presidents read newspapers and listened to the media in order to and listened to the media in order to know what was being said from and know what was being said from and about them. The New York Times, about them. The New York Times, Washington Post, Wall Street Journal. Washington Post, Wall Street Journal. Kennedy, Johnson, and Reagan were avid Kennedy, Johnson, and Reagan were avid TV watchers. Johnson was almost TV watchers. Johnson was almost paranoid about the news and reputedly paranoid about the news and reputedly had a three tv cabinet so he could watch had a three tv cabinet so he could watch all three network news at once. Johnson all three network news at once. Johnson also had teletypes in the White House so also had teletypes in the White House so he could catch wire service releases.he could catch wire service releases.

Reagan liked westerns, caring less about Reagan liked westerns, caring less about newsnews

Relations with the press are an Relations with the press are an important part of the presidentimportant part of the president’’s effort to s effort to ““leadlead”” public approval. Because of the public approval. Because of the great importance of the press to the great importance of the press to the president, the White House goes to great president, the White House goes to great lengths to encourage the media to lengths to encourage the media to project a positive image of the president project a positive image of the president and his policies. Coordinating the news, and his policies. Coordinating the news, holding press conferences, formal holding press conferences, formal briefings, interviews, photo-ops, briefings, interviews, photo-ops, background sessions, providing travel background sessions, providing travel accommodations, and daily press accommodations, and daily press handouts. The presidency is highly handouts. The presidency is highly strategic in manipulating information for strategic in manipulating information for release to the media.release to the media.

However, the presidency cannot be However, the presidency cannot be fully in control of information, or in the fully in control of information, or in the mediamedia’’s interpretation of information. s interpretation of information. Leaks. Yellow journalism.Leaks. Yellow journalism.

The media filters what is written and The media filters what is written and said about the president and said about the president and administration based on journalistic administration based on journalistic values and demand. The media is not values and demand. The media is not simply a parrot of presidential simply a parrot of presidential rhetoric, but an important and rhetoric, but an important and independent actor in its own right.independent actor in its own right.

First Amendment: Congress shall First Amendment: Congress shall make no law respecting an make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people of the press; or the right of the people to peaceably assemble, and to to peaceably assemble, and to petition the Government for redress of petition the Government for redress of grievances.grievances.

Yet, from the beginning, government has Yet, from the beginning, government has attempted to place restrictions on the press.attempted to place restrictions on the press.

Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798- The Adams Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798- The Adams administration jailed many Democratic-administration jailed many Democratic-Republican partisan news editors and others for Republican partisan news editors and others for public opposition to the Quasi-War with Francepublic opposition to the Quasi-War with France

Espionage Act of 1917- The Wilson Espionage Act of 1917- The Wilson administration prosecuted and emprisoned administration prosecuted and emprisoned Socialist Party leader Eugene Debs for making Socialist Party leader Eugene Debs for making statements considered disloyal to the World statements considered disloyal to the World War I effort. Snowden indicted under this law.War I effort. Snowden indicted under this law.

Congress passes the Sedition Act of 1918, Congress passes the Sedition Act of 1918, which forbids spoken or printed criticism of the which forbids spoken or printed criticism of the U.S. government, the Constitution or the flag.U.S. government, the Constitution or the flag.

1941- Roosevelt pardons those convicted 1941- Roosevelt pardons those convicted earlier under the Espionage and Sedition Acts. earlier under the Espionage and Sedition Acts. However, Congress also authorizes Roosevelt However, Congress also authorizes Roosevelt to create the Office of Censorship.to create the Office of Censorship.

A plethora of court cases dealing with free A plethora of court cases dealing with free press. See press. See http://www.firstamendmentcenter.org/first-amendment-timeline

Evolution of Media Evolution of Media CoverageCoverage

In the Founding Era most media In the Founding Era most media coverage occurred through the print coverage occurred through the print media. Between 1790 and 1808, the media. Between 1790 and 1808, the number of newspapers in the United number of newspapers in the United States grew from 92 to 329. All but 56 States grew from 92 to 329. All but 56 were identified with a political party. were identified with a political party. Printed pamphlets were also an Printed pamphlets were also an important means of communications.important means of communications.

Technical innovations between 1860 Technical innovations between 1860 and 1920 permanently altered the and 1920 permanently altered the press in the U.S.. Electronic printing press in the U.S.. Electronic printing press, telegraph, typewriter, telephone, press, telegraph, typewriter, telephone, linotype, woodpulp paper. Newspapers linotype, woodpulp paper. Newspapers grew in importance, and electronic grew in importance, and electronic media increased the rate at which media increased the rate at which information could be transmitted. The information could be transmitted. The public became increasingly literate. public became increasingly literate. With these developments the With these developments the presidency was no longer an isolated presidency was no longer an isolated institution. institution.

Innovations in the media accelerated in Innovations in the media accelerated in the 1950s with television.the 1950s with television.

In the 1980s with cable news networks.In the 1980s with cable news networks.

And in the 1990s with the internet. Now And in the 1990s with the internet. Now it is very easy to get news on the it is very easy to get news on the presidency and coverage is sometimes presidency and coverage is sometimes around the clock for important issues.around the clock for important issues.

The press has always subjected the The press has always subjected the president to criticism, from Washington president to criticism, from Washington onwards. Washington said, that the onwards. Washington said, that the ““calumniescalumnies”” against his administration against his administration were were ““outrages of commmon decencyoutrages of commmon decency”” motivated by the desire to destroy motivated by the desire to destroy confidence in the new government. confidence in the new government.

Adams was so upset with the press that Adams was so upset with the press that he supported the Alien and Sedition he supported the Alien and Sedition Acts. He actually jailed many journalists Acts. He actually jailed many journalists under its authority. Abigail Adams was under its authority. Abigail Adams was very upset at the personal attacks on very upset at the personal attacks on her husband, including references to her husband, including references to “his rotundity” and bald head. “his rotundity” and bald head.

One could argue that the press One could argue that the press ““brought brought downdown”” the Johnson presidency with the Johnson presidency with reporting on Vietnam, as well as the reporting on Vietnam, as well as the Nixon presidency through the relentless Nixon presidency through the relentless journalism of Woodward and Bernstein, journalism of Woodward and Bernstein, and deep throat. and deep throat.

The Reagan presidency was treated, The Reagan presidency was treated, relatively speaking, with kid gloves by relatively speaking, with kid gloves by the press until the Iran-Contra scandal the press until the Iran-Contra scandal broke. Some have argued that this was broke. Some have argued that this was because Reagan was a former member because Reagan was a former member of the press elite. However, his of the press elite. However, his vulnerability showed through with Iran-vulnerability showed through with Iran-Contra. Contra.

George H. W. Bush was unhappy with George H. W. Bush was unhappy with the mediathe media’’s portrayal of Bush as an s portrayal of Bush as an elitist and a bumbler. elitist and a bumbler.

The Clinton administration was The Clinton administration was unhappy with initial press treatment unhappy with initial press treatment during his campaign and after during his campaign and after (personal allegations of corruption with (personal allegations of corruption with no basis; did not deal with the issues no basis; did not deal with the issues in the campaign). Initially, Clinton did in the campaign). Initially, Clinton did not have not have ““insidersinsiders”” dealing with his dealing with his press coverage, but rather brought on press coverage, but rather brought on board campaign advocates. When board campaign advocates. When hired David Gergen he did better. hired David Gergen he did better.

Relatively speaking, George W. Bush Relatively speaking, George W. Bush received a prolonged holiday from the received a prolonged holiday from the press, especially after 9/11. Very little press, especially after 9/11. Very little negative coverage during the 2000 negative coverage during the 2000 election campaign and up until the Iraq election campaign and up until the Iraq invasion. invasion.

However, during the 2004 election However, during the 2004 election year and after, that changed year and after, that changed considerably as the news media picked considerably as the news media picked up on problems with the incumbency up on problems with the incumbency and war skepticism.and war skepticism.

The non-partisan Center for Media The non-partisan Center for Media and Politics conducts and/or reports and Politics conducts and/or reports studies of how presidents and studies of how presidents and candidates fare with the mainstream candidates fare with the mainstream media. media. http://cmpa.com

For example, to see how various For example, to see how various candidates in prior elections fared candidates in prior elections fared with the press you might look at this with the press you might look at this study of the 2000 election. study of the 2000 election. http://www.cmpa.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/prev_pres_elections/2000/00novdec.pdf

Or, to see how Obama has fared with Or, to see how Obama has fared with the press since the 2008 election the press since the 2008 election you might check out this link. you might check out this link. http://www.cmpa.com/obamas-media-image-compared-to-what/ Or, this one gives a comparative perspective. http://www.cmpa.com/study-obamas-media-coverage-sours/

White House To Media White House To Media RelationsRelations

Who regularly covers the White House? Who regularly covers the White House? Newspapers such as the Washington Newspapers such as the Washington Post, New York Times, Wall Street Post, New York Times, Wall Street Journal, weekly news magazines like Journal, weekly news magazines like Time, Newsweek, U.S. News and World Time, Newsweek, U.S. News and World Report; wire services like Associated Report; wire services like Associated Press, United Press International, Press, United Press International, Reuters; newspaper chains like Hearst, Reuters; newspaper chains like Hearst, Scripps-Howard, Newhouse, Knight-Scripps-Howard, Newhouse, Knight-Ridder; television and news networks Ridder; television and news networks like ABC, CBS, NBC, CNN.like ABC, CBS, NBC, CNN.

More than 1700 persons have White More than 1700 persons have White House press credentials. However, House press credentials. However, fewer than 70 reporters and 15 fewer than 70 reporters and 15 photographers regularly cover the photographers regularly cover the White House. Most newpapers have no White House. Most newpapers have no regular Washington correspondent. regular Washington correspondent.

A few political scientists are also A few political scientists are also allowed in the press room (e.g., Martha allowed in the press room (e.g., Martha Joynt Kumar, Towson University).Joynt Kumar, Towson University).

The presidential press operation. The presidential press operation. About 1/3 of the high-level White About 1/3 of the high-level White House staff is directly involved in House staff is directly involved in media relations and policy of one media relations and policy of one type or another. Most staff type or another. Most staff members are involved at one time members are involved at one time or another in cultivating the mediaor another in cultivating the media’’s s portrayal of the president.portrayal of the president.

White House Press Secretary is the White House Press Secretary is the person most often dealt with. These person most often dealt with. These individuals are responsible for two individuals are responsible for two way interactions. From the way interactions. From the president to the media, and from president to the media, and from the media to the president. the media to the president. Conduits of information from the Conduits of information from the White House to the press. Public White House to the press. Public policy statements; White House policy statements; White House press releases; Responsible for press releases; Responsible for making sure that policy and position making sure that policy and position is clear (or unclear) under some is clear (or unclear) under some circumstances. The hold private circumstances. The hold private meetings with reporters.meetings with reporters.

The credibility of the Press Secretary The credibility of the Press Secretary rests on two important factors: 1) truth rests on two important factors: 1) truth and 2) access to the president. For and 2) access to the president. For example, Clintonexample, Clinton’’s first press secretary, s first press secretary, Dee Dee Myers was perceived as not Dee Dee Myers was perceived as not being close to the inner circle. As a being close to the inner circle. As a result she didnresult she didn’’t last very long.t last very long.

Who is President ObamaWho is President Obama’’s current Press s current Press Secretary?Secretary?

Jay Carney. Formerly, communications Jay Carney. Formerly, communications chief for Joe Biden. He is Obamachief for Joe Biden. He is Obama’’s s second Press Secretary and took over second Press Secretary and took over from Robert Gibbs who left in January from Robert Gibbs who left in January 2011 to work on the Obama reelection.2011 to work on the Obama reelection.

Press secretaries also serve as conduits Press secretaries also serve as conduits from the press to the president. They from the press to the president. They transmit needs from the press.transmit needs from the press.

Press secretaries are not typically Press secretaries are not typically involved in substantive involved in substantive decisionmaking, but they are decisionmaking, but they are sometimes asked for advice on what sometimes asked for advice on what information should be released, by information should be released, by whom, in what form, and to what whom, in what form, and to what audience.audience.

Office of Communications Office of Communications coordinates the flow of news from coordinates the flow of news from

the entire executive branch. the entire executive branch. targets local non-Washington targets local non-Washington

news outlets. news outlets. develops a long-term news develops a long-term news

management plan for the management plan for the president.president.

Through their press secretaries, Through their press secretaries, presidents communicate through presidents communicate through daily press briefings. You can see daily press briefings. You can see these daily press briefings at these daily press briefings at http://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-http://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/press-briefings .room/press-briefings .

Presidents also communicate Presidents also communicate through Major Speeches and various through Major Speeches and various media events, usually staged. You media events, usually staged. You can read these off the White House can read these off the White House web site at the links for major web site at the links for major speeches. speeches. http://www.whitehouse.gov/ http://www.whitehouse.gov/

Recent presidents have used a weekly Recent presidents have used a weekly address, usually on Saturday. This address, usually on Saturday. This originated during the F. D. Roosevelt originated during the F. D. Roosevelt administration, was used by presidents administration, was used by presidents sporadically after that, but has been used sporadically after that, but has been used by all presidents since Reagan regularly. by all presidents since Reagan regularly. Reagan through Bush II, radio; Bush II, Reagan through Bush II, radio; Bush II, podcasts; Obama video and podcasts. You podcasts; Obama video and podcasts. You can listen (sometimes) or read the text of can listen (sometimes) or read the text of the presidentthe president’’s weekly address by going to s weekly address by going to the link at the link at http://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-http://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/weekly-address room/weekly-address

Presidential press conferences- Direct Presidential press conferences- Direct interaction between the president and the interaction between the president and the mediamedia’’s representatives. With the advent s representatives. With the advent of television, these were also direct of television, these were also direct interactions between the president and the interactions between the president and the public. public.

Truman through Reagan generally Truman through Reagan generally employed a large room. In 1982 Reagan employed a large room. In 1982 Reagan began holding full scale mock news began holding full scale mock news conferences. Presidents have frequently conferences. Presidents have frequently begun their news conferences with a begun their news conferences with a carefully prepared opening statement. An carefully prepared opening statement. An attempt to control the agenda and also to attempt to control the agenda and also to use the media for their own purposes. use the media for their own purposes.

Clinton had a practice of granting Clinton had a practice of granting time to time to ““locallocal”” media, in effect media, in effect bypassing the national media.bypassing the national media.

Presidents, through these opening Presidents, through these opening statements, attempted to jump over statements, attempted to jump over the reporters going directly to the the reporters going directly to the people. people.

Recently the television networks Recently the television networks have diminished coverage of news have diminished coverage of news conferences because of their conferences because of their inability to control the agenda. inability to control the agenda. They were seen as political tools of They were seen as political tools of the president, rather than the the president, rather than the advantage fo the media.advantage fo the media.

Recent presidents have used fewer Recent presidents have used fewer formal news conferences. Frequency formal news conferences. Frequency has varied through time from about has varied through time from about seven a month during Roosevelt to seven a month during Roosevelt to about one every two months during about one every two months during Nixon and Reagan. Nixon and Reagan.

Bush I broke with tradition and held Bush I broke with tradition and held instead brief informal sessions with instead brief informal sessions with reporters, often called on short notice. reporters, often called on short notice.

Clinton had an antagonistic view of the Clinton had an antagonistic view of the press and did not hold his first for 2 press and did not hold his first for 2 months, and until 5 months before he months, and until 5 months before he held done in prime time viewing hours. held done in prime time viewing hours. Hired David Gergen. Hired David Gergen.

In your text you get a sense of how often In your text you get a sense of how often different presidents have used news different presidents have used news conferences.conferences.

Bush II rarely held a news conference.Bush II rarely held a news conference.

Obama gives interviews and speeches, Obama gives interviews and speeches, but seldom holds a news conference.but seldom holds a news conference.

Other services for the press. Other services for the press.

Background discussion with Background discussion with reporters for policy initiatives. Most reporters for policy initiatives. Most common is called a common is called a ““briefingbriefing””. . Briefings provide information on Briefings provide information on anything current, from policy anything current, from policy initiatives to family pets to the initiatives to family pets to the presidentpresident’’s health. Gives the press s health. Gives the press lines on the presidentlines on the president’’s mood and s mood and ideas. See the press briefings at ideas. See the press briefings at http://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-http://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/press-briefings room/press-briefings

Interviews with the president or top Interviews with the president or top White House officials are a valued White House officials are a valued commodity. Sometimes the White commodity. Sometimes the White House uses these for its own House uses these for its own purposes. A strategic game. purposes. A strategic game. Presidents have regularly Presidents have regularly ““cultivatecultivatedd”” elite reporters and columnists, elite reporters and columnists, trying to turn them to their own trying to turn them to their own purposes.purposes.

Transcripts of briefings.Transcripts of briefings. Presidential speechesPresidential speeches Daily handouts including myriad Daily handouts including myriad

information about the president and information about the president and policiespolicies

Advance notice of travel plansAdvance notice of travel plans Upcoming stories Upcoming stories Major announcementsMajor announcements Arranging transportation and lodging for Arranging transportation and lodging for

the press on tripsthe press on trips Technical support including installing Technical support including installing

equipment permanently, obtaining equipment permanently, obtaining telephones for reporters, platforms for telephones for reporters, platforms for photographers.photographers.

Reporters tend to view mid-level aides as Reporters tend to view mid-level aides as the best source of information. Have in the best source of information. Have in depth knowledge and free from constraints depth knowledge and free from constraints of high visibility.of high visibility.

The press is The press is ““veryvery”” dependent on the dependent on the support of the White House in support of the White House in several ways. 1) Information, 2) several ways. 1) Information, 2) Technical support. The press NEEDS Technical support. The press NEEDS information and the best place to information and the best place to get it is the White House. The press get it is the White House. The press operate in very much a controlled operate in very much a controlled environment.environment.

White House manipulates White House manipulates ““subject subject mattermatter””, timing of releases, wording , timing of releases, wording of releases, and tries to manipulate of releases, and tries to manipulate the media to its own advantages.the media to its own advantages.

Media Coverage of Media Coverage of the Presidencythe Presidency

As noted earlier, the media is an As noted earlier, the media is an independent actor in the American independent actor in the American system. This is guaranteed by the system. This is guaranteed by the first amendment and norms of the first amendment and norms of the profession.profession.

One important norm of the media One important norm of the media profession is objectivity. Reporters profession is objectivity. Reporters who are biased in their coverage who are biased in their coverage rarely achieve prominence.rarely achieve prominence.

Another important norm is to verify Another important norm is to verify sources for stories. A single source is sources for stories. A single source is not enough. It must be verified by not enough. It must be verified by multiple sources.multiple sources.

Yet another norm is confidentiality of Yet another norm is confidentiality of sources.sources.

Reporters tend to view mid-level Reporters tend to view mid-level aides as the best source of aides as the best source of information on the presidency. Have information on the presidency. Have in depth knowledge and are free from in depth knowledge and are free from constraints of visibility.constraints of visibility.

Leaks are an important phenomenon Leaks are an important phenomenon in media coverage of the presidency.in media coverage of the presidency.

The White House would like to control The White House would like to control the flow of information, but usually the flow of information, but usually cancan’’t fully.t fully.

Reporters vigorously protect the Reporters vigorously protect the identity of identity of ““spokes-persons.spokes-persons.”” Witness Witness for example the melee over who for example the melee over who leaked the identity of an undercover leaked the identity of an undercover CIA agent in retaliation for exposing CIA agent in retaliation for exposing intelligence on transfer of nuclear intelligence on transfer of nuclear technology to Iraq. This was technology to Iraq. This was associated with President Bushassociated with President Bush’’s s State of the Union address who cited State of the Union address who cited the intelligence.the intelligence.

The easy solution for the The easy solution for the investigation would have been to investigation would have been to simply ask the six reporters. simply ask the six reporters. However, they would not give up the However, they would not give up the name claiming first amendment name claiming first amendment privilege without extreme coercion.privilege without extreme coercion.

Who leaks information? Everyone. Who leaks information? Everyone. David Stockman released information David Stockman released information on Reaganon Reagan’’s willingness to s willingness to compromise on the 81 tax bill. Oliver compromise on the 81 tax bill. Oliver North leaked information on the North leaked information on the Achille Lauro highjackers.Achille Lauro highjackers.

ClintonClinton’’s image of dishonesty flowed s image of dishonesty flowed out of the continual leaks from Ken out of the continual leaks from Ken StarrStarr’’s Office of Special Whitewater s Office of Special Whitewater Prosecutor. These were leaks that Prosecutor. These were leaks that were virtually all unsubstantiated. No were virtually all unsubstantiated. No one ever knew the source of the leaks one ever knew the source of the leaks because of the norm of confidentiality.because of the norm of confidentiality.

Likewise, someone in the Bush White Likewise, someone in the Bush White House/administration leaked the House/administration leaked the identity of an undercover CIA identity of an undercover CIA operative to at least six reporters, operative to at least six reporters, apparently in retaliation for exposing apparently in retaliation for exposing weak intelligence relating to the weak intelligence relating to the presidentpresident’’s State of the Union s State of the Union message.message.

Scooter Libby, press secretary for Dick Scooter Libby, press secretary for Dick Cheney went to jail over this leak. It is Cheney went to jail over this leak. It is a violation of U.S. law to “out” a a violation of U.S. law to “out” a security operative.security operative.

Sometimes leaks are inadvertent. Sometimes leaks are inadvertent. Other times they are deliberate to Other times they are deliberate to bolster or damage the administration bolster or damage the administration on particular policy matters. Not all on particular policy matters. Not all favor the presidentfavor the president’’s position. Other s position. Other times they are deliberate to gain times they are deliberate to gain strategic policy advantage or to mis-strategic policy advantage or to mis-inform.inform.

Leaks can have many purposes Leaks can have many purposes depending on who is doing the depending on who is doing the leaking, friends or enemies. leaking, friends or enemies. Trial balloonsTrial balloons Effort to get favorable reporting on Effort to get favorable reporting on

particular policyparticular policy Send signals to foreign nationsSend signals to foreign nations Disavow publicly after a leakDisavow publicly after a leak Personnel matters to get a Personnel matters to get a

resignationresignation Force the presidentForce the president’’s hand on s hand on

foreign policy matters.foreign policy matters.

Depending on the media type, there may Depending on the media type, there may be an air of superficiality to media be an air of superficiality to media coverage of the president. Newspapers coverage of the president. Newspapers tend to be more in-depth and less tend to be more in-depth and less superficial than visual media.superficial than visual media.

Organizational imperatives from the Organizational imperatives from the media are to get information, any media are to get information, any information on the president. This is information on the president. This is driven by organizatonal imperatives.driven by organizatonal imperatives.

Most media coverage on the presidency Most media coverage on the presidency is therefore superficial, characterized by is therefore superficial, characterized by brevity and simplicity. brevity and simplicity.

In particular since the 30 minute news In particular since the 30 minute news cast is the source of most peoplecast is the source of most people’’s news, s news, about a 3 minute spot is the most about a 3 minute spot is the most allowable. This severely limits allowable. This severely limits information transmission.information transmission.

Another reason for the superficiality is Another reason for the superficiality is that that ““there is little new under the sun.there is little new under the sun.”” The presidency is still the presidency, The presidency is still the presidency, and once the uniqueness of a new and once the uniqueness of a new presidency has worn off there is little presidency has worn off there is little new to report.new to report.

Yet another reason for the Yet another reason for the superficiality is the limited training and superficiality is the limited training and lack of specialization of the White lack of specialization of the White House press corps. They often donHouse press corps. They often don’’t t know much about politics, the know much about politics, the constitution, or the issues in constitution, or the issues in democracy. Therefore, they focus on democracy. Therefore, they focus on ““politicspolitics”” in the infighting sense, as well in the infighting sense, as well as personalities, rather than issues and as personalities, rather than issues and matters of substantive policy concern.matters of substantive policy concern.

With the print media, despite the With the print media, despite the glamour of investigative reporting such glamour of investigative reporting such as with Woodward and Bernstein, the as with Woodward and Bernstein, the Washington Post, and Watergate, Washington Post, and Watergate, precious little is done. It takes too precious little is done. It takes too much time, and is too uncertain of a much time, and is too uncertain of a payoff to the reporter. Occasionally payoff to the reporter. Occasionally one sees a story with some potential one sees a story with some potential payoff, but the risks are great for payoff, but the risks are great for devoting substantial resources to a devoting substantial resources to a story such as the leak on the story such as the leak on the undercover CIA operative.undercover CIA operative.

Emphasis on short run in coverage of Emphasis on short run in coverage of the presidency. Emphasis on trivia, the presidency. Emphasis on trivia, rather than important substantive rather than important substantive policy matters.policy matters.

Does the press show a systematic bias Does the press show a systematic bias for or against particular presidents? for or against particular presidents? Not generally according to most Not generally according to most political science quantitative empirical political science quantitative empirical research.research.

Why no bias? Why no bias? Norm of objectivity. Norm of objectivity. Reporters tend not to be from one Reporters tend not to be from one

political party, so that while one political party, so that while one reporter may be biased, there may reporter may be biased, there may be others in the other direction. be others in the other direction.

Rotating assignments produces Rotating assignments produces more objective news coverage.more objective news coverage.

Basically both Democrats and Basically both Democrats and Republicans fall under the critical Republicans fall under the critical eye of the press. eye of the press.

The press prefers to frame the news in The press prefers to frame the news in themes. Once a theme is established, themes. Once a theme is established, it is hard to shed. Ford depicted as a it is hard to shed. Ford depicted as a bumbler, Carter as a weak, indecisive bumbler, Carter as a weak, indecisive leader, Dan Quayle as an leader, Dan Quayle as an ““ignoramusignoramus””, , which he was not, Reagan as a great which he was not, Reagan as a great symbolic leader, Bush I as a waffler on symbolic leader, Bush I as a waffler on ““no new taxesno new taxes””, Clinton as caring about , Clinton as caring about people, but also dishonest and a people, but also dishonest and a womanizer, and the current Bush womanizer, and the current Bush as ???. as ???.

Is the media effective in influencing Is the media effective in influencing approval of the president?approval of the president?

Most studies have found little or no Most studies have found little or no relation between media coverage of relation between media coverage of the president and public approval. the president and public approval.

Why not? The media affect Why not? The media affect perceptions, rather than attitudes. perceptions, rather than attitudes. The publicThe public’’s familiarity with political s familiarity with political matters is closely related to the matters is closely related to the amount of time they are exposed to amount of time they are exposed to media coverage. The media is an media coverage. The media is an agenda setter. People readily adopt agenda setter. People readily adopt the mediathe media’’s perception of what s perception of what issues are important. While the issues are important. While the question of what issues are question of what issues are important is determined by the important is determined by the media, the question of how to feel media, the question of how to feel about those issues is determined about those issues is determined more by partisanship and political more by partisanship and political values.values.

There is growing evidence that There is growing evidence that network news helps to provide a network news helps to provide a frame of reference for issues and frame of reference for issues and that this affects evaluations of the that this affects evaluations of the president. Iran-Contra coverage president. Iran-Contra coverage coincided with a dip in Reagancoincided with a dip in Reagan’’s s approval. Experiments found that approval. Experiments found that President CarterPresident Carter’’s overall reputation s overall reputation and competency were affected by and competency were affected by network news coverage. network news coverage.

The press is good at producing The press is good at producing images. For example, Carterimages. For example, Carter’’s s image as indecisive flowed out of image as indecisive flowed out of press coverage of the Iran Hostage press coverage of the Iran Hostage crisis. crisis.