Archaeological evidence is limited by the survival of objects from the past.

This survival depends on many factors including:

the material from which it was made the environmental conditions that it is

subjected to the actions of humans

Objects that are made of stone, brick, gold, bronze, clay and other dense material will survive fairly well.

Organic material such as charcoal, human remains and vegetable matter will decay rapidly.

The preservation and destruction of evidence is very important to the study of archaeology and history, because the destruction of evidence leaves large gaps in the evidence, making it difficult to complete a picture of the past.

1. Climate

Very dry climates in desert regions, absence of moisture.Example: Wooden ships buried near the pyramids of Egypt

Water logged areas such as Peat Bogs. Acid in the soil helps preserve organic material.Example: Tollund Man & Lindow man in Danish Peat bogs.

Very cold climates. Act like a refrigerator.Example: Iceman, 5000 year old body in Austrian Alps.

Naturally mummified body of “Ginger”: Egypt 3200BC

Wooden ship buried besides the pyramid of Khufu in Egypt

Tomb of Tutankhamun: Egypt 14th Century BC

Tollund Man, Denmark approx. 2000 years old

Windeby “girl” first century AD

The Iceman, Austria: 5000 years old

2. Geological Conditions

Composition of the soil which objects are buried. Chemicals of object may react with chemicals in soil preventing decay.Example: Woolly Rhino in South East Poland. Calcium in soil turned bones into hard soil.

Natural disaster such as volcanic eruption, sand storm or mud slide burying and preserving objects.Example: Pompeii and Herculaneum buried by volcanic ash and mud by eruption Mt Vesuvius 79AD

Woolly Rhinoceros, Poland

Preserved baby Woolly Mammoth, 20,000 years old, Northern Russia

Pompeii, buried by volcanic eruption of Mt Vesuvius 79AD

3. Actions of People

Burial customs have preserved bodies and objects. Example: Egyptian mummification

Building up of debris by people – “dumping” Example: A Tell in the city of Ur in the Near-East. Build up of human debris.

Fire – can sometimes preserve objects by carbonising them.Example: Clay tablets at Knossos and Pylos carbonised by fire

Hoarding – in times of trouble such as war, people sometimes bury their belongings to secure them. Example: Roman treasure found in England, hidden at time of Anglo-Saxon invasion

Tell at Ur, Mesopotamia approx 3000 BC

Clay Tablet of “Linear B”: Knossos, Crete approx 1500 BC

Object Damp Climate Dry Climate

Stone Several million years Several million years

Greek Pot 2000 years 9000 years

Gold Several thousand years

Several thousand years

Glass 3000 years 3500 years

Wood A few hundred years Several thousand years

Fabric A few hundred years 4000 years

Papyrus 300-400 years 4000 years

Human flesh A few weeks A few years

Human Bones A few months A few hundred years

The natural process of decay has destroyed a vast amount of evidence from the past.

Other factors that have contributed to the destruction of evidence include: Natural disasters Human actions Plants and Animals

1. Human Agents

Warfare Whole cities and towns have been destroyed by war. Eg. Babylon in Mesopotamia damaged from wars in Iraq.

ProgressOld buildings torn down for newer ones.

Tomb Robbers Robing / looting of tombs. Lost contents. Eg. Tombs in Valley of the Kings

PollutionOf the 20th Century is destroying archaeological sources. Eg.smog in Athens destroying stonework of Parthenon.

Tourism Crowds of people to see ancient sites. Touching items. Eg. Tutankhamun’s Tomb

Athens: The Acropolis – Pollution is destroying the stonework.

Baalbek, Lebanon. Damaged in warfare 2007

2) Plants and Animals

Overgrown plants can crack and destroy stonework.

Rats and mice eat through durable material

Fungi and bacterial growth destroy ancient objects.

Angkor, Cambodia: attacked by vegetation.

Cats at the Colosseum are damaging the

monument.

What strategies can you think of to help solve the problem of evidence being destroyed?

What could you do in to help reduce the destruction of archaeological evidence in the following situations:

1. Millions of tourists each year visit Tutankhamun’s tomb. Touching the walls, breathing out carbon dioxide all slowly deteriorate the wall paintings in his burial chamber.

2. Plants are growing through the temples at Angkor Watt in Cambodia. If not contained they will eventually destroy the buildings.

3. A shopping centre is being built in Thessaloniki in Greece. When digging starts for the footings, ancient Greek ruins are found buried under the ground. If the Shopping centre is built the archaeological evidence will be destroyed.