The Positive Side of Emotional Labor: Its Effect on Work ...burnout literature have started to shift...

The Positive Side of Emotional Labor: Its Effect on Work Engagement and Job

Performance

CHAN, How Weng Wynne

A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Philosophy in

Industrial-Organizational Psychology

The Chinese University of Hong Kong

August 2009

Thesis/ Assessment Committee

Professor Darius K wan-shing Chan (Chair)

Professor Winton Wing-tung Au (Thesis Supervisor)

Professor Wai Chan (Committee Member)

Professor Tahira M Probst (External Examiner)

Abstract of thesis entitled:

The Positive Side of Emotional Labor: Its effect on Work Engagement and Job

Performance

Submitted by Chan How Weng Wynne

for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Industrial-Organizational Psychology

at The Chinese University of Hong Kong in June 2009

Abstract

Emotionallabor, the management of emotions in the workplace, has captured huge

attention from researchers as well as organizations. The study in emotional labor

addresses the effect from display rule on emotional regulation strategies and its

outcomes. Surface acting and deep acting were the two widely researched emotional

labor strategies used by employees to manipulate their emotions in order to show the

prescribed emotions by organizations. Besides surface acting and deep acting, this

current study included the expression of naturally felt emotions, which is an

automatic process, as a third strategy. Following the upcoming trend of positive

psychology, this study extended the knowledge of emotionallabor to examining

work engagement and job performance as the consequences. Another feature of this

study is the inclusion of third person ratings on the outcome variables which helped

to reduce common method variances. Customer service representatives in a hotel in

China participated in this study. Results showed that surface acting, deep acting, and

the expression of naturally felt emotions were three distinct emotionallabor

strategies that are available for employees. Moreover, deep acting and the expression

of naturally felt emotions, which were predicted by empathy, were positively related

to work engagement which in turn led to better performance. Implications on

employee selection and training, and future directions were also discussed.

11

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摘要

一直以來學術研究人員以及機構組織都看力研究情緒勞動(ernotional

labor) 。情緒勞動是在工作中需要到的情緒調節。情緒勞動研究著重於研究情

緒表現規例 (display rules) 對情緒勞動策略 (ernotionallabor strategies) 及其後果

的影響。過往研究著重於探討員工怎樣利用表面演繹 (surface acting) 和深層演

繹 (deep acting) 來幫助他們造出公司所要求的情緒。本研究除了表面演繹和深

層演繹之外還有調查員工自然感受的情緒表達 (the expression of naturally felt

ernotions) 。跟據近年來正向心理學(positive psychology) 的熱潮，本研究把情

緒勞動跟工作投入 (work engagernent) 和工作表現聯繫起來。另一特點是包括

其他人的評分來量度後果的變數以減低共同方法偏差的影響。本研究的參與者

由中國一所酒店的前線員工所組成。結果顯示表面演繹、深層演繹和自然感受

的情緒表達是三個獨立的情緒勞動策略。同理心 (ernpathy) 是可以帶動員工表

達自然感受的情緒而深層演繹及自然感受的情緒表達是可以提升員工的工作投

入，從而提升工作表現。最後，本文亦提及本研究對機構組織和員工培訓及選

拔的意義和未來研究方向。

iv

Table of Content

Abstract .................................................................................. .

~~ ...................................................................................... 111

Table of Content .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. IV

List of Tables .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v1

List of Figures .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1

Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Display rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Emotional labor strategies .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Empathy......................................................................... 7

Work engagement............................................................. 8

CHAPTER 2. METHOD.............................................................. 13

Participants and procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3

Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Data analysis . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

CHAPTER 3. RESULTS............................................................. . 18

V

Descriptive Analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Structural Equation Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 21

CHAPTER 4. DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . 23

Imp] ications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 28

CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 30

Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 8

vi

List of Tables

Table 1. Departments of participants .. ...... .......... ...... .. .......... ...... .. .. .. ...... ...... .... 14

Table 2. The means, SDs, and bivariate correlations among the indicators .... 19

Table 3. The correlations among measured variables....................................... 21

vii

List of Figures

Figure 1. Conceptual model summarizing the relations among constructs.......... 12

Figure 2. Proposed model .... ... ... ... ....... ..... ... ... ... ... . ..... ...... ...... ... ... ... . .. ... ... ... ... ...... .. 22

Emotional labor and work engagement 1

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Background

Researchers and practitioners in organizational behavior and human resources

management has become interested in the management of emotions in the workplace

(Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993; Grandey, 2000; Wilk & Moynihan, 2005). Emotional

labor is becoming one of the most important topics in the literature as people nowadays

start to pay more attention to employees ' physical and psychological well-being which

in turn affects organizational efficacy and effectiveness (Spector, 2006). Emotional labor

is the process in which employees display certain emotions, that might be different from

what they are actually experiencing, in response to their job expectations of showing the

appropriate emotions at work especially at customer encounters in order to provide

better services (Hochschi Id, 1983). The quality of service delivery leads to customer

loyalty and retention as well as positive impact on profit and organizational

effectiveness (Rust & Zahorik, 1993; Storbacka, Strandvik, & Gronroos, 1994 ). These

are the reasons organizations are concerned with their employees ' emotion displays

when interacting with customers.

To have employees to show the appropriate emotions, organizations usually have

norms for the appropriate emotional displays; these are called display rules (Ekman &

Friesen, 1975). Most organizations have their employees display positive emotions

especially for customer service industries. Employees ' reactions to display rules are

different from each other. Display rules were said to cause inauthenticity and burnout to

some employees but at the same time it is also related to self efficacy and job

satisfaction in other employees (Brotheridge & Grandey, 2002; Brotheridge & Lee,


2002; Diefendorff & Gosserand, 2003). These mix findings were due to the employment

of different emotional regulation strategies (Grandey, 2000; Johnson & Spector, 2007).

In order to conform to display rules, employees will involve in regulating their emotions

by employing various strategies. Surface acting, the action that one simply put a smile

on the face without changing the emotion inside, and deep acting, the action that one

tries to change the deeply felt emotion, are the two emotional regulation strategies that

had captured most of the research attention in the past while the expression of naturally

felt emotions as a third regulation strategy has been neglected (Ashforth & Humphrey,

1993; Diefendorff & Gosserand, 2003).

Surface acting is always found to be positively related to stress (Grandey, 2000)

and negatively associated with well-being while deep acting is found to be positively

related to well-being (Gross & John, 2003). Other research had found that surface acting

was positively related to burnout while deep acting was negatively related to burnout

and positively related to service performance (Brotheridge & Grandey, 2002; Grandey,

2003; Tottedell & Holman, 2003). It is obvious that the different choices of emotional

regulation strategies lead to different outcomes. However, these previous studies focused

only on surface acting and deep acting. The first purpose of this study is to confirm the

existence of a third strategy and to examine the relationship between display rule

perceptions and the emotional regulation strategies after including the expression of

naturally felt emotions as this third neglected strategy.

If this third strategy really exists, what is the precursor of the employment of this

strategy? Individual who are capable of expressing their naturally felt emotions are

expected to be able to understand and be sensitive to others ' emotions. Empathy is


defined by Salovey and Mayer (1990) as the "ability to comprehend another' s feelings

and to re-experience them oneself' . Do empathetic individuals have a higher ability and

inclination to express their naturally felt emotions when they are asked to express the

appropriate emotions in front of their customers? Another purpose of this study is to

understand the reasons of making a choice to expressing naturally felt emotions over

surface acting and deep acting.

Previous research in the emotionallabor literature has focused more on negative

outcomes such as emotional dissonance, emotional exhaustion and burnout (e.g.

Grandey, 2003; Wilk & Moynihan, 2005 ; Cheung & Tang, 2007). Following the recent

trend of positive psychology which focuses on human strength and well-being, the

burnout literature have started to shift its attention to its opposite side to examining work

engagement (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi , 2000; Schaufeli , Martinez-Pinto, Salanova,

& Bakker, 2002). Despite a large number of studies addressing the relationship between

emotionallabor and job satisfaction (e.g. Morris & Feldman, 1997; Grandey, Fisk, &

Steiner, 2005), how emotional labor is related to other positive outcomes such as work

engagement and employee job performance is still largely unclear. This study extended

the knowledge of emotionallabor literature to work engagement and job performance as

the consequences. Consistent with recent research on emotional labor (e.g. Brotheridge

& Grandy, 2002; Diefendorff & Richard, 2003; Grandey, 2003), the present study also

had individuals in the "people work" industry as the participants (Hochschild , 1983). In

addition, while most of the previous emotional labor research was done in the United

States, this present study extended our knowledge in understanding emotionallabor in

the Chinese context by hiring a Chinese sample. Emotional labor could be manifested


differently in the Chinese society due to cultural differences in the western and eastern

countries (Bond, 1996)

Display Rule

Display rules are the rules set by the organization that employees have to comply

with showing the kind of emotion expected and required to display when interacting

with customers and at business encounters (Ekman, 1992; Rafaeli & Sutton, 1987). For

most occupations, display rules involve expressing positive and suppressing negative

emotions (Brotheridge & Grandey, 2002). It is conceptualized as role requirements as

well as interpersonal job demands which help to attain other work outcomes (Rafaeli &

Sutton, 1987; Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993; Diefendorff & Richard, 2003). Positive

displays are usually considered as a part of the job duty especially in the service

occupations (Brotheridge & Grandey, 2002, Diefendorff, Richard, & Croyle, 2006). For

a car salesperson, in order to sell a certain number of cars in a month , being friendly and

cheerful might be considered part of the job. Important customer outcomes such as

intention to return, intention to advertise the company or a store to others and the

impression of overall service quality are positively correlated with positive affective

displays in service interactions (Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry, 1985 ; Pugh, 2001).

In order to comply to display rules, employees are often engaged in emotional

regulation strategies to produce the affective displays needed for the job (Hochschild,

1983). According to Diefendorff and Gosserand (2003), employees are involved in

comparing one's emotional display with display rules constantly throughout the work

day. When there is a discrepancy between the two, the employees engage in emotional


regulation strategies to bring present or future emotional displays in line with the display

rules set by the organizations. The more important the employees perceive the display

rules to be, the higher level of acting and emotional regulation will take place (Grandey,

2003).

Emotional Labor Strategies

It is often the case that employees are not feeling as positive as that is required

by the organizations (Parkinson, 1991 ). They would then engage in acting to produce the

needed affective display (Hochschild , 1983). There are different ways that individuals

could manage or act their emotions to match with the ones required by the organizations.

Surface acting and deep acting are the two most commonly discussed strategies for

regulating emotions at work (e.g. Totterdell & Holman, 2003 ; Johnson & Spector,

2007). Both surface acting and deep acting attempt to manage the displayed emotions,

but they have different motives and intentions (Grandey, 2003). In surface acting,

individuals try to hide or fake their felt emotions in response to display rules to fulfill

job requirement, whereas in deep acting, individuals cognitively change their feeling in

order to seem authentic. Surface acting usually involve faking positive emotions and

suppressing negative emotions without changing their inner feelings while deep acting

involves modifying feelings to match the required displays (Gosserand & Diefendorff,

2005). Surface acting is called "faking in bad faith" and deep acting is called "faking in

good faith" as the former involves pretending the fake emotion and the latter involves

trying to experience the emotion authentically (Rafaeli & Sutton, 1987).

Emotional tabor and work engagement 6

Ash forth and Humphrey ( 1993) and Diefendorff and Gosserand (2003) suggested

that there is yet another emotional regulation strategy that is overlooked in the emotional

labor literature. There are individuals who can naturally feel and experience the emotion

required at work thus positive displays follow automatically. At first it seems it is similar

to deep acting while both involve genuinely experiencing the required emotions.

However, deep acting can be considered as minimizing negative emotions to bring one' s

feeling in line with the display rules, whereas the expression of naturally felt emotions is

to maximize positive emotions by automatically feeling the positive emotions at

customer encounters. Employee who expresses their felt emotions naturally experiences

the positive emotion that is required by the organizations without any conscious efforts.

Diefendorff, Croyle, and Gosserand (2005) provided the first published research

studying this third strategy. They confirmed a three-factor model structure indicating

deep acting, surface acting and the expression of naturally felt emotions were three

distinct constructs. The expression of naturally felt emotions was uniquely predicted by

extraversion and agreeableness. They further suggested that expressing felt emotions

was actually the most often used strategy by individuals in displaying emotions at work,

thus this third strategy is worth paying attention to and it should not be overlooked.

However, Austin, Dore, and O'Donovan (2008) suggested that surface acting and the

expression of naturally felt emotions are only on the opposite side of the same

continuum rather than two different independent emotional labor strategies available to

employees. This study is going to clarify these contradictory findings by further testing

the existence of this third emotional tabor strategy and the relationships between display

rule perception and the three strategies.


HI: Surface acting, deep acting and the expression of naturally felt emotions are

three distinct emotional regulation strategies.

H2: Display rule perception is positively related to (a) surface acting, (b) deep

acting as well as (c) the expression of naturally felt emotions.

Empathy

Empathy is broadly defined as the ability to understand and relate to the

cognitive as well as the affective experiences of another person (Worthington & Wade,

1999). Berger and Thompson (2000) conceptualized it as an ability to examine another

person ' s perception, feelings, and experience, and to communicate one' s understanding

precisely to the other person. Empathy is considered as one of the important factors

contributing to the success of emotional management, interpersonal popularity, as well

as prosocial behavior (Eisenberg, Miller, Shell, McNalley, & Shea, 1991). Goldman,

Boyatzis, and McKee (2002) further argued that empathy is "the sine qua non of all

social effectiveness in working life" . Empathy helps to create the "effective resonance"

and the "empathetic bond" between the customer service representatives and the

customers (Kohut, 1987). When a customer service representative is high in the empathy

domain, he or she is expected to be able to identify with the customers ' emotions and be

able to feel and express the needed emotional display. For example, when a customer is

enquiring sightseeing information, a customer service representative with high empathy

is expected to be able to step in the shoe of the customer and understand what the

customer is going through cognitively and affectively. As a result, the service

representative should know what the customer needs and better services could then be


provided. During the service encounter, the service agent's felt emotion is expected to be

similar to the emotion that is needed to be displayed since both parties are expected to be

experiencing the same emotions under the same context of enquiring sightseeing

information. The ability to feel the customer's mood and express true emotions naturally

may make it easier for the service agent to perform emotional labor.

Humphrey (2006) suggested that empathy may be a personal characteristic that

influences the way individuals react to the performance of emotional labor. His review

paper called for the need to research on the influences empathy has on performing

emotional labor. He proposed that individual who are high on empathy may be less

likely to need to employ surface acting, as oppose to deep acting, in response to their

work duty. Moreover, because these individuals are good at expressing empathy and

recognizing customers' moods, they are more likely to be able to create a positive

service atmospheres and interactions with customers. As a result, these individuals are

more likely to simply express their naturally felt emotions.

H3a: Empathy is negatively related to surface acting.

H3b: Empathy is positively related to deep acting.

H3c: Empathy is positively related to the expression of naturally felt emotions

and the relationship is expected to be stronger than that of deep acting.

Work engagement

Beginning the year of 2000, the concept of positive psychology; the study of

positive emotion, positive character, and positive institutions, has captured a lot of

research attention (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Work engagement is


considered a positive experience in itself. It facilitates employee benefits from stressful

work and more importantly, it is found to be positively related to employee physical

well-being and positive work affect (Britt, Adler & Bartone, 2001; Rothbard, 2001;

Schaufeli , Salanova, Gonzales-Roma & Bakker, 2002). It is expected that when

employees are engaged, they are more likely to experience a positive perception about

their work (Salanova, Agut, & Peir6, 2005). Work engagement, defined as a "persistent,

positive affective motivational state of fulfillment", is considered as a relatively new

area of research (Maslach, Schaufeli , & Leiter, 2001 ). Although this concept emerged

from the burnout 1 iterature, and given the strong I ink between emotional labor and

burnout, no one has examined the relationship between emotional tabor and work

engagement. Work engagement is said to be characterized by three dimensions: vigor,

dedication and absorption (Schaufeli , Salanova et al. , 2002). Vigor is described as the

high level of energy and mental resilience at work, the individual with high vigor will be

willing to invest effort in work even when facing difficult situations. Dedication refers

to a sense of significance, enthusiasm, inspiration, pride and challenge. Absorption is

characterized by being fully concentrated, happy and deeply engrossed in one ' s work,

time passes quickly and there are difficulties when trying to detach from work.

According to the conservation of resources model , people strive to maintain and

build resources while stress is experienced when there is potential threat to their current

resources (Hobfoll & Freedy, 1993). The energy and effort used to regulate one ' s

emotions, either by surface acting or deep acting, to achieve work goal is considered as

valuable resources to employees (Hobfoll , 1989; Wilk & Moynihan, 2005). Both

organizational resources and personal resources were found to be the predictors of work


engagement (Demerouti , Bakker, Nachreiner, & Schaufeli , 2001 ; Llorens, Schaufeli ,

Bakker, & Salanova, 2007). In performing surface acting, high level of effort is needed

to suppress the negative emotions, fake an unfelt emotion, and compare the expressed

emotions with the true feelings constantly (Brotheridge & Lee, 2003). It is also effortful

when one has to cope with the dissonance from the true emotions and the displayed

emotions. The job demands-resources model also predicts that when there is a lack of

resources, employees are less likely to meet job demands and as a result this leads to

disengagement from work (Demerouti et al. , 2001 ). Although deep acting itself is also

an effortful process, because a huge amount of energy is needed to involve in deeply

changing one' s felt emotions, it is expected to be less detrimental than surface acting.

Once the emotion is in line with the required emotion, no more energy or resources are

needed in monitoring emotion or to cope with the emotional dissonance. Moreover,

employees who engage in deep acting have the advantage of frequently experiencing

good mood at work which in turn could enhance well-being, feelings of accomplishment

and identification with work role (Rafaeli & Sutton, 1987; Brotheridge & Grandey,

2002). It was found that deep acting is related to positive experiences and feelings which

then lead to high level of job satisfaction (Kruml & Geddes, 2000). Employees who

perform deep acting are expected to have a higher level of work engagement then those

who choose to use surface acting.

Employees who can naturally express their felt emotions have both the

advantages. They automatically regulate their emotions in alignment with the prescribed

emotions. This is considered an effortless process and at the same time they have the

benefit of truly experiencing the positive emotions at work. It is predicted that the


expression of naturally felt emotions would lead to work engagement. The impact would

be higher and stronger than that from deep acting.

Previous research had continuously shown that with a high level of work

engagement, employees are more satisfied with their jobs, less likely to have

absenteeism and turnover will be low, at the same time they will have higher

organizational commitment and employee performance (Schaufeli , Martinez, et al. , 2002;

Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). However, little is known about the consequences of work

engagement in the customer service context (Salanova, Agut, & Peir6, 2005). In this

study, employee job performance was also measured to test the relationship between

work engagement and job performance in the customer service context. Moreover,

because coworkers are believed to have high degree of contact with the focal employees

and they always have the chance to make observations of the employees' typical

behavior (Murphy & Cleveland, 1995), work engagement and employee performance

were both rated by the employees themselves as well as by their coworkers in order to

provide more objective measurements on top of self-report ratings.

H4a: Surface acting is negatively related to work engagement.

H4b: Deep acting is positively related to work engagement.

H4c: The expression of naturally felt emotions is positively related to work

engagement and the relationship is expected to be stronger than that of deep

acting and work engagement.

H5: Work engagement is positively related to employee job performance.

Figure 1 shows the conceptual model and the hypothesized relationships between

the constructs.


Figure 1. Conceptual model summarizing the relations among constructs.

In sum, this present study extends the current knowledge in emotionallabor to

including a third emotional labor strategy apart from the two widely researched

strategies and examines the antecedent of this third strategy. In addition, this study also

relates emotional labor, which was always linked with negative outcomes such as

burnout and emotional exhaustion, to positive outcomes including work engagement and

employee performance.

. Emotional labor and work engagement 13

CHAPTER 2. METHOD

Participants and procedures

The sample consisted of 280 employees from one of the five star hotels located

in the Guangdong Province in China. They are from 12 departments including restaurant

waiters and waitresses, front desk service representatives, public relations etc. as

summarized in Table 1. All of them have direct contact with customers every day when

they are at work. Among the participants, 4 7 .5o/o were female and 52.5% were male.

Those who aged below 20 consisted 23.1 o/o of the sample, 64.9% aged between 21 and

30, 11.2% of them aged between 31 and 40 and 0.8% aged between 41 and 50. Most of

them, 72.9%, had worked in the hotel for less than five years, 10.1% had worked for 5 to

10 years, 5 .9o/o of them had worked for 16-20 years, 2. 1% of them had worked over 16

years. Around 12% of the participants had finished middle school education, 46.3% had

high school education, while 28.9% had a university degree. All participants participated

in a half-day workshop on customer service and positive psychology. Participants

completed the questionnaires before the workshop started. The trainers carefully

explained the procedures and made sure participants understand and sign the consent

form prior to filling out the questionnaires. Each employee filled out two sets of

questionnaires; a 120~item self-report questionnaire and a 33-item questionnaire which

needed them to rate on a peer colleague from the same department. All questionnaires

were written in Simplified Chinese. The paring arrangement was randomly drawn and

then checked by the human resources department to make sure the rater knows the ratee

good enough to make fair ratings. Anonymity was achieved by using a pre-assigned

research code instead of the name of the employees. Confidentiality was also ensured by

Emotionallabor and work engagement 14

stressing that the questionnaires would be handled by the research team only and no

personal identifiable information was collected. It was also emphasized that every

employee who filled out a questionnaire would be eligible to enter a lucky draw as an

incentive for filling out the questionnaires seriously. There were six winners receiving a

cash prize ofRMB300 each. Excluding the 37 incomplete questionnaires there were in

total 243 pairs of questionnaire in the final sample.

Table 1. Departments of participants

Department %age

Public Relation and Sales 4.60

Front Desk 14.49

Room Service 12.73

Chinese Restaurant 10.95

Western Restaurant 13.07

Chef in Western Restaurant 12.02

Banquet Service 1.06

Medical Center 1.41

Entertainment and Spa 11.65

Security 12.72

Shuttle and Transportation Service 5.30

Total 100.00

Measures

Display rule perception. Positive display rules and negative display rules were

measured separately. Three items from Brotheridge and Grandey (2002) and one item


from Schaubroeck and Jones (2000) were used to measure positive display rules. A

sample item is "Part of my job is to make the customer feel goocf'. One item from

Brotheridge and Grandey (2002) and two items from Schaubroeck and Jones (2000)

were used to measure negative display rules. A sample item is "I am expected to

suppress my bad moods or negative reactions to customers". Participants answered on a

6-point Likert scale ranging from I (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree). The

internal consistency reliability for the seven items was a= .70.

Empathy. The 7-item Perspective-Taking (PT) sub-scale of the Interpersonal

Reactivity Index (IRI) developed by Davis (1980) was used. Participants answered on a

6-point Likert scale ranging from I (never) to 6 (always). A sample item is "J sometimes

find it difficult to see things from the "other guy's" point of view". The internal

consistency reliability for the seven items was a= .70.

Emotional Labor. The 14-item scale used by Diefendorff, Croyle et al .. (2005)

was employed. Participants answered on a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never) to

6 (always). For surface acting, a sample item is "!just pretend to have the emotions I

need to display for my job ". For deep acting, a sample item is "J try to actually

experience the emotions that I must show to customers". For the expression of naturally

felt emotions, a sample item is "The emotions I express to customers are genuine ". The

internal consistency reliability for the items were a= .82, a= .82, and a= .70 for surface

acting, deep acting and naturally felt emotions respectively.

Work engagement. The Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) developed by

Schaufeli, Salanova et al. (2002) was used. This scale has three subscales. A sample

item of the 6-item Vigor subscale is "I feel strong and vigorous in my work". A sample


item of the 5-item Dedication subscale is "Jam enthusiastic about my job ". A sample

item of the 6-item Absorption subscale is "J get carried away by my work ". Participants

answered on a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never) to 7 (always). The internal

consistency reliability for both self-reported rating and others-reported rating of the 17

items were a = .92.

Job performance. The 6-item scale used by Salanova, Agut, and Peir6 (2005)

was used. This scale has two subscales. A sample item of the 3-item empathy subscale

based on the SERVQUAL Empathy Scale (Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry, 1998) was

"Employees understand specific needs of customers". A sample item of the 3-item

excellent job performance scale based on the Service Provider Performance Scale (Price,

Arnould, & Tiemey, 1995) was "Employees "surprise " customers with their excellent

service ". Participants answered on a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly

disagree) to 6 (strongly agree). The internal consistency reliability for the self-reported

rating of the 17 items was a = .81 and a = .81 for others-reported rating.

All scales, except for the UWES which was already available in Chinese, were

translated into Chinese. Back translation method was used to ensure the consistency of

the item meanings and it was done by a researcher who was not involved in this study.

Data Analyses

Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted using EQS6.1 to test the

degree of fit of the measurement model and the existence of the three emotional

regulation strategies. The CFA consisted of seven latent constructs including display

rule perception, empathy, surface acting, deep acting, the expression of naturally felt


emotions, work engagement, as well as employee performance. Item parceling technique

was used to improve the sample size to variables ratio (Bandalos & Finney, 2001 ). This

technique was used to form the latent structure for empathy, surface acting, deep acting,

work engagement, and performance. For work engagement and performance, the

indicators were created by averaging the corresponding self-report and other-reported

scores. Exploratory factor analyses were conducted to assure the unidimensional ity of

these scales. Item-level indicators were used to form the latent structure for the

expression of naturally felt emotions because the scale has three items only. For display

rule perceptions, the first four items were grouped under positive display rules and the

other three items were grouped under negative display rules. Next, structural equation

modeling (SEM) was used to examine the proposed model. Finally, Lagrange Multiplier

test was used to test whether the positive relationship between empathy and the

expression of naturally felt emotions is stronger than that of deep acting, and whether the

positive relationship between the expression of naturally felt emotions and work

engagement is stronger than that of deep acting.


CHAPTER 3. RESULTS

Descriptive Analyses

The means, standard deviations, and bivariate correlations of the indicators are

presented in Table 2 and they ranged from .00 to .84.

Em

otio

nal

labo

r an

d w

ork

enga

gem

ent

19

Tabl

e 2.

The

mea

ns,

SDs,

and

biva

riat

e co

rrel

atio

ns a

mon

g th

e in

dica

tors

Me

an

S

D

1 2

3 4

5 6

7 8

9 10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

1.

SA

1

3.44

1.

22

1.00

2.

SA

2

2.78

1.

36

.58

** 1

.00

3.

SA

3

3.09

1.

19

.59

**

.60

**

1.00

4.

DA

1

4.01

1.

38

.25

**

.16

* .1

1 1.

00

5.

DA

2

4.35

1.

43

.23

**

.14

* . 2

1 **

.5

9**

1.

00

6.

DA

3

4.24

1.

45

.22

**

.21

**

.28

**

.50

**

. 59

**

1.00

7.

NFE

1

5.15

1.

06

-.13

* -.

20**

-.

32**

.2

1 **

.0

9 .0

1 1.

00

8.

NFE

2

4.96

1.

17

-.06

-.

10

-.24

**

.05

.06

-.05

.4

8**

1.

00

9.

NFE

3

4.31

1.

25

-.09

-.

16*

-.32

**

.13

* .0

0 -.

05

.39

**

.46

**

1.00

10.

WE

_AB

3.

73

.62

.05

.09

-.02

.3

4**

.1

5*

. 16

* .2

5**

. 1

5*

. 15

* 1.

00

11.

WE

_DE

3.

88

.73

-.01

.02

-.18

**

.39

**

.16

* . 1

4*

.36

**

.21

**

. 18

**

.78

**

1.00

12.

WE

_VI

3.68

. 6

2 .0

4 .0

8 -.

05

.36

**

. 14

* . 1

6*

.28

**

. 15

* .1

3*

.84

**

.80

**

1.00

13

.DR

_P

4.

59

.75

.07

.02

.02

.21

**

.17

**

. 15

* .2

4 .1

3*

.01

.19

**

.20

**

.20

**

1.00

14.

DR

_N

3.8

7 .9

4 .2

7**

.2

0**

.3

3**

.0

9 .1

4*

.13

* -.

15*

-.03

-.

08

.05

-.0

6

.05

.35

**

1.0

0

15.

EP 1

3.

99

.54

.11

.16

* .0

2 .2

6**

.2

4**

.1

7**

. 1

6*

. 12

.04

.48

**

.52

**

.53

**

.34

**

.17

**

1.00

16.

EP 2

3.

80

.55

.07

.13

* -.

02

.26

**

. 13

* .1

5*

. 12

.09

.06

.53

**

.53

**

.52

**

.24

**

.02

.54

**

1.00

17.

EM

1

4.69

.9

5 .1

5*

.14

* .0

8 .2

7**

.2

6**

.2

2**

.2

2**

.2

0**

. 1

5*

.26

**

.26

**

.25

**

.22

**

.15

* .2

7**

.2

1 **

1.

00

18.

EM

2

4.33

.9

4 . 1

1 .0

7 -.

00

.18

**

.13

* .0

7 .1

5*

.16

* .1

4*

.25

**

.24

**

.22

**

.19*

* .1

4*

.25

**

.20

**

.46

**

1.00

No

te.*

p<

.05;

**p

<.O

l. S

A=

sur

face

act

ing

; DA

=de

ep a

ctin

g; N

FE

=na

tura

lly

felt

em

otio

ns; W

E_

AB

=w

ork

enga

gem

ent,

abso

rpti

on;

WE

_D

E =

wo

rk

enga

gem

ent,

ded

icat

ion

; WE

_ V

I=

wor

k en

gage

men

t, v

igor

; DR

_P

=po

siti

ve d

ispl

ay r

ule;

DR

-N =

nega

tive

dis

play

rul

e; E

P =

empl

oyee

per

form

ance

; EM

=

empa

thy


CFA results indicated that model fits the data satisfactorily. The chi-square value

for the model was 210.24 (df=II4 ,p


Table 3. The correlations among measured variables

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

l. The expression of 1.00 naturally felt emotions

2. Surface acting -.38* 1.00

3. Deep acting .10* .35* 1.00

4. Empathy .39* .15* .39* 1.00

5. Work engagement .34* -.01 * .31 * .40* 1.00 (averaged self and other)

6. Display rule perceptions .04* .20* .34* .41* .24* 1.00

7. Employee performance .22* .13* .36* .48* .77* .49* 1.00

(averaged self and other)

Structural Equation Modeling

The proposed model was then tested by structural equation modeling (Figure 2).

The chi-square value for the model was 237.06 (d.f=l2l , p


also found that empathy undermined surface acting (/J=-.54, p


CHAPTER 4: DISCUSSION

This present study showed that the relationship between display rule perceptions

and the three emotionallabor strategies could also be applied in the Chinese context.

Gosserand and Diefendorff (2005) showed that the more committed employees are to

display rules and the higher the level of perceived display rules are, the more the

employees are to use more of surface and deep acting. The present study confirmed this

relationship between display rule perception and the two emotional regulation strategies.

In addition, this study linked display rule to a third , usually neglected strategy- the

expression of naturally felt emotions. Specifically, the stronger display rule perceptions

the employees have, the less they are able to express their naturally felt emotions. These

findings further supported that surface acting, deep acting, and the expression of

naturally felt emotions are three distinct independent emotional regulation strategies

available to employees. This three factor structure of emotional labor strategies is

consistent with what was found in Diefendorff, Croyle, and Gosserand ' s (2005) study in

which they showed that dispositional variables such as extraversion and agreeableness

could uniquely and strongly predict employees ' display of naturally felt emotions. This

current study added to the findings that empathy is yet another predictor of the

employees displaying naturally felt emotions at work. The higher level of empathy the

employees have, the more they are to express their naturally felt emotions at work and

more importantly, they are less 1 ikely to employ surface acting.

Emotional labor had always been 1 inked up with negative outcomes such as work

stress and emotional exhaustion in previous studies (e.g. Hochschild , 1983, Grandy,

2003; Cheung & Tang, 2007). The present study extended our knowledge in


understanding the positive side of emotional labor and showed us that emotional labor

could also relate to positive outcomes such as work engagement and higher employee

performance. Employees performing deep acting and expressing their naturally felt

emotions at work indeed were more engaged in work which in turn could lead to better

performance. In line with previous finding that surface acting was always found to be

related to emotional exhaustion (e.g. Grandey, 2003), this study found that, among the

three strategies, only surface acting was not related to work engagement. Although the

expression of naturally felt emotions was not proven to be a stronger predictor of work

engagement when compared to deep acting, both strategies correlated significantly with

work engagement. According to Totterdell and Holman (2003), deep acting was more

positively related to service performance than surface acting. This present study was not

able to replicate the result and indeed found that the three emotional strategies were not

directly related to performance. Work engagement mediated the effect of deep acting

and the expression of naturally felt emotions to employee performance. The paths

between the three emotional strategies and employee performance were also tested but

none of them were found to predict performance directly. This further confirmed that the

positive effect of deep acting and the expression of naturally felt emotions on

performance were fully mediated by work engagement. More research effort is needed

to better understand this inconsistency on the relationship between emotional labor

strategies and service performance.

Another feature ofthis study is the inclusion of third person ratings on the

outcome variables (i.e. , work engagement and performance) thus minimizing the

problem brought about by common method variance. Cheung and Tang (2007) found


that after controlling for common method variance on examining the effect of emotional

dissonance on burnout, the relationship became insignificant. Thus, this study had taken

one step further to also measure ratings on the outcome variables from the focal

employees ' coworkers. By including a secondary source of information on the outcome

variables, we are more confident in interpreting the results found in this study. That is

the positive effect of deep acting and the expression of naturally felt emotions on

employee work engagement which in turn led to better performance.

Given the closely link between emotional intelligence and emotionallabor, this

study had originally included emotional intelligence as one of the variables in the model.

Austin et al. (2008) have shown that personalities and the level of emotional intelligence

of an individual would affect his or her choice of emotional regulation strategies.

Emotional intelligence is the ability to manage or control emotions thus it is obvious that

emotional labor and emotional intelligence is highly relevant. Despite the importance of

such construct .in emotional labor, little research has examined its effect in the emotional

labor context (Grandey, 2000). Emotionallabor was included in the model as a

moderator moderating the relationships among the antecedents, the consequences, as

well as the three emotional strategies. However, no moderation effect was found and this

is why emotional intelligence has been taken out from the above analysis and discussion.

Future research should find out where emotional labor stands or how it could be fitted

into the emotional labor context.

Implications

Organizations should be careful on implementing display rules on their

employees. Display rule perceptions were much closely related to surface acting than to

deep acting, and it was negatively related to the expression of naturally felt emotions.


Due to the positive relationship of deep acting and the expression of naturally felt

emotions on work engagement, when display rules are needed, organizations should

encourage their employees to perform deep acting. Training workshops on how to

manipulate one's inner feelings more effectively could be used to help employees to

better manage their emotions from the inside. Other techniques such as reframing and

re-appraisal could also be introduced to employees. Through these various workshops,

employees will be more able to experience the positive emotions needed for their job

and as a result employees will be more able to employ deep acting or the expression of

naturally felt emotions. In addition, organizations could also consider building a happy,

cheerful and enjoyable environment for their employees so the employees are able to

show their genuine emotions while working comfortably and happily. In this case,

employees will be able to display the appropriate emotions at work even without the

implementation of display rules. The advantage of employees expressing their naturally

felt emotions calls for further research on finding out other antecedents of this third

strategy so as to maximize the chance that employees could show true emotions at work

instead of acting or faking an emotion.

Apart from display rule, organizations could also pay attention on employees '

level of empathy. Empathy is not only found to be a strong precursor of expressing

naturally felt emotion, which could lead to higher level of work engagement, it also

decreases the performance of surface acting, which is widely accepted to be detrimental

to the employees ' well-being both emotionally and physically (e.g. Morris & Feldman,

1997; Abraham, 1998). According to Duan and Hill (1996) and Worthington & Wade

( 1999), empathy could be seen as a dispositional factor as well as an ability which could


be learned and trained. It is worth for organizations to invest in training their employees

on how to be more empathetic. In addition, other personality variables such as

extraversions were also found to predict the expression of naturally felt emotions

(Diefendorff, Croyle, and Gosserand, 2005). A personality test measuring these

personalities or the potential to be empathetic could be added to the recruitment

screening process in order to identify the suitable employees who are better at

expressing their natural emotions at work. Given that empathy is strongly related to the

expression of naturally felt emotions, which is considered to be the best emotional labor

strategies among the three, future study could also look at what other direct

consequences empathy could bring in the "people work" industry such as whether

individuals with high level of empathy are better at handling customers.

The expression of naturally felt emotions and deep acting could lead to higher

level of work engagement and work engagement was found to be a mediator between

the two strategies and employee performance. In order to have employees better perform

at work, increasing their work engagement level is essential. Work engagement is

positively related to a wide range of positive consequences at both the individual and

organizational level. Previous studies have found that work engagement is positively

related to teachers ' organizational commitment (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004; Hakanen,

Bakker, & Schaufeli, 2006), employee performance (Kahn, 1990), and customer

satisfaction and loyalty, productivities, and profitability etc. (Harter, Schmidt, & Hayes,

2002). Thus, it is very important to encourage employees to express their naturally felt

emotions. If not possible, deep acting is a better solution over surface acting.


Limitations

This study, like most of the previous studies, has a number of limitations. First,

although supervisors also filled out a part of the questionnaires, the emotional regulation

strategies and some other variables were still measured by self-report. Self report

measure might be subject to social desirability bias thus exaggerating some of the

results. Although measures were taken to ensure anonymity, the questionnaires were still

filled out during a training workshop which was organized by the hotel and with the

presence of other peer colleagues or supervisors, participants might have answered in a

way that they did not disappoint their supervisors. Future research could consider also

collecting other objective data such as absenteeism or sales volume as the measurements

of work engagement and performance. Second, with cross sectional design causality

could not be inferred. Interpretations should be made with caution and longitudinal

studies could be carried out to investigate the relationship between the variables over

time. Third, this study was done with people from one single organization;

generalization to other area can be achieved only if this study is replicated in some other

occupations.


CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSION

The present study examined the existence of the three factor structure of

emotional labor strategies as well as relating positive outcomes with emotional labor in

the Chinese service representative context. It was found that the three emotional labor

strategies were three distinctive strategies that are available for employees to respond to

display rules and job duties. Deep acting and the expression of naturally felt emotions

were found to be able to lead to work engagement, while work engagement was not

predicted by surface acting. Moreover, empathy was found to be a strong predictor of

expressing naturally felt emotions. Given the possible effect of this third strategy on

positive work outcomes, more research effort should be paid to examining the

antecedents as well as other consequences that are related to this third strategy.


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