THE POPULATION OF GREECE - CICREDcicred.org/Eng/Publications/pdf/c-c19.pdf · 2006-05-23 · lived...
Transcript of THE POPULATION OF GREECE - CICREDcicred.org/Eng/Publications/pdf/c-c19.pdf · 2006-05-23 · lived...
World Population Year
THE POPULATIONOF
GREECE
CI.CR.E.D. Series
1974 WORLD POPULATION YEAR
THE POPULATION OF GREECE
CICRED Series
THE POPULATION OF GREECEA Monograph for the World Population Year 1974
prepared by
DIMITRIOS TRICHOPOULOS GEORGE PAPAEVANGELOUProfessor of Hygiene Epidemiology Associate Professor of Hygiene
and Medical Statistics and Epidemiology
with the collaboration of
JOHN DANEZIS VICTORIA KALAPOTHAK.I
Assistant Professor of Obstetrics Lecturer in Hygieneand Cynecology and Epidemiology
members of the Department of Hygiene and Epidemiology
of the University of Athens Medical School
CICRED Series
PREFACE
The United Nations declared 1974 as the World Population
Year and in the same year the World Population Conference was
convened. On the occasion of these events the United Nations
have suggested the publication of monographs presenting, ac-
cording to a common plan, past population development, pre-
sent situation and future trends in the various countries. The
Committee for International Coordination of National Research
in Demography (CICRED), under the Chairmanship of Jean tíour-
geois-Pichat has assumed the responsibility of coordinating
these national population monographs.
The country monograph for Greece was prepared at the re-
quest of CICRED at the Center of Demographic Research of the
Department of Hygiene and Epidemiology of the University of
Athens Medical School. The monograph is based mainly on ma-
terials already published in official demographic issues and
scientific journals, and its content structure and length fol-
low the pattern prescribed uniformly on international scale by
CICRED.
Athens, December 1974
Dimitrios Trichopoulos
- 7 -
CONTENTS
Page
CIÍAPTER 1
HISTORICAL ASPECTS OF POPULATION GROWTH 9
CHAPTER I I
COMPONENTS OF GROWTH 16
2.1 Quality and general pattern of vital statistics 16
2.2 Foetal mortality 17
2.3 Infant mortality 20
2.4 General mortality • 25
2.5 Fertility 32
2.6 International migration . . . 39
CHAPTER III
POPULATION COMPOSITION 44
3.1 Sources and quality of data 44
3.2 The growth of the Greelr. population, and its eth-nical, racial and religious homogeneity . . . . 45
3.3 Population composition by age and sex . . . . 45
3.4 Population composition by marital status . . . 50
3.5 Education 53
3.6 Household atid family 56
CHAPTER IV
POPULATION DISTRIBUTION AND INTERNAL MIGRATION . . . 64
4.1 Definitions and sources of data 64
4.2-Population distribution by departments . . . 66
4.3 Population distribution in urban-rural areas andin major cities 67
4.4 Internal migration 70
CHAPTER V
THE LA30UR FORCE 79
5.1 Sources of data and definitions 79
5.2 Economically active population by age, sex andemployment status 80
-8-
Page5.3 Economically active population by occupation, branch
of economic activity, and level of education . . . 84
5.4 Economically active population by occupational status 91
5.5 Economically non-active population 93
CHAPTER VI
POPULATION PROJECTIONS 96
6.1 Total population by age 96
6.2 Labour force 102
CHAPTER VII
POPULATION POLICY 104
7.1 Position of the Church 104
7.2 Contraception, contraceptives, and abortion laws . . 106
7.3 The development of population policy 108
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . ; 115
-9-
CHAPTER I
HISTORICAL ASPECTS OF POPULATION GROWTH
It is difficult to trace the origin and the growth of the
Greek population whose history goes back to more than 4000 years.
It is believed that Greek speaking tribes have lived in the Balkan
penninsula since the beginning of the second millenium B.C. The
first information about the population of Greece concern the Mi-
noan era. It is estimated that around 1500 B.C., 1.5 million people
lived in Greece. After the collapse of the Minoan civilization,
Greece was inhabited by Dorian tribes. During the Golden age of
Pericles, Athens grew as a city of more than 250,000 inhabitants.
Furthermore, many colonies were soon created all over Greece, Mi-
nor Asia and other Mediterranean areas, so that there existed pro-
bably more than five million Greeks during the 4th century B.C.
The demographic as well as the political history of Greece is cha-,
racterised by repeated and sometimes abrupt changes. The enormous
expansion of the Greek territory during the period of Alexander the
Great was followed by its collapse during the period of the Roman
Empire and later by the creation of the Byzantine Empire, which is
considered as the continuation of the Greek nation.
No historical demographic data exist for the entire Byzantine
period. The conquest of Constantinople by the Turks and the 370
years of Turkish occupation suppressed the Greek population, but
not its national identity. Thus a war of Independence started in
1821 and a new State was born in 1828.
-10-
The demographic history of modern Greece starts in 1828, when
the first official census revealed that the new Nation occupied an
area.of 47,516 square Km., sparsely inhabited by 753,400 Greeks.
Thereafter several population censuses were conducted at irregular
intervals (Table 1.1), but the first real census which included some
population characteristics was taken in 1861. The following cen-
suses improved in their quality. However their data continued to
be quantitatively and qualitatively imperfect and their analysis
reveals underenumeration of the infant population and females, as
well as poor reporting of the age of old people.
The registration of vital events was very early instituted:
It started in 1860 on a country-wide basis and continued there-
after with repeated interruptions in times of national and inter-
national crises. No registration data exist for the period bet-
ween 1886 and 1921. The registration system collapsed again in
1941 and it resumed only in 1950. Thus in certain periods of ma-
jor demographic disturbances there are no data to illustrate the
demographic evolution of the Greek population. Furthermore,at the
beginning these data were even worse than census data. An under-
estimation of vital events and especially of infant deaths re-
sulted in low rates.
In spite of the obvious omissions and the general poor quality,
the existing population statistics provide the only way for studying
the evolution, the structure and the dynamics of Greek population
(Valaoras,1943, Alivizatos,1953, Valaoras,1967). Table 1.1 summarizes
-11-
Table .1.1
The growth of the area and of the population of Greece.Censuses 1828-1971
Year
182818391845186118701879188918961907192019281940195119611971
Population(in thousands)
753.4823.7960.21096.81457.91679.52187.22433.82631.95016.96204.77344.97632.88388.68768.6
Table
Area 2
(in km )
475164751647516475165021150211636066360663211150176129281129-281131944131944131944
1.2
Populationper km
15.917.320.223.129.033.534.438.341.637.148.457.358.364.166.5
Live births, deaths and natural increase in Greece (per1000 population per year)
Period
1860-641865-691870-741875-791880-841885-89
1920-241925-291930-341935-39
1950-541955-591960-641965-691970-72
Birth
rate
28.729.028.327.623.134.7
20.229.330.026.5
19.419.318.118.016.1
Death
rate
20.621.321.719.016.824.3
15.616.316.614.4
7.27.37.88.18.5
Naturalincrease
8.18.76.68.66.39.6
4.613.013.412.1
12.212.010.39.97.6
-12-
the census data and Table 1.2 the vital statistics of modern
Greece. Their study provides the following information on the
growth of the Greek population during the last 150 years (Vala-
oras,1960).
The size of the population increased irregularly from 753
thousands in 1828 to 8,769 thousands in 1971. The greatest part
of this increase resulted from the gradual integration within the
newly created Nation of adjacent provinces, previously under fo-
reign domination. The addition of the Ionian Islands in 1864 in-
creased the initial area by about 3,000 square Km. and the popu-
lation by 17%. In 1881 Thessaly and Arta were annexed increasing
the territory by about 13,000 square Km. and the population by.
14%. The devastating wars that foilowed in 1897 and 1912 and the
intense emigration during the first fifteen years of the twentieth
century kept the population almost stationary.
In 1912 the Balkan Wars started, and Greece experienced up to
1925 extensive demographic changes. New territories were annexed
which doubled its geographical area. The population increased con-
siderably, to a large extent by the influx of refugees, after a
disastrous war and an exchange of population between Greece and
Turkey. The influx of refugees brought about a revitalization of
the Greek population, which was expressed by a vigorous growth.
Second World War left its marks on the Greek population. In
addition to considerable losses caused by direct action, the occu-
pation of Greece, the general famine as well as the civil war that
followed resulted in heavy population losses, mainly through cur-
-13-
tailed fertility and excessive mortality. These disasters were
largely encountered by the tenacity of the Greek people so that
now the Greek population, after the integration of the Dodeca-
nesus in 1947, lives in an area of 131,944 square Km. and nvm-
bers 8,769 thousands inhabitants.
In addition to the anomalous political history of Greece,
the components of natural increase and the international migra-
tion have both markedly affected the rate of growth and the evo-
lution of the Greek population.
Up to the end of the 19th century reported birth rates flu-
ctuated around 30-35 /oo and reported death rates around 20-25 />o.
Taking into account the reffered underregistration of vital events
and using sofisticated methods Valaoras (1974b) estimated the act-
ual fluctuating levels at about 40°/oo and 25°/oo respectively.
Both rates started to decline thereafter. The decline of morta-
lity was more swift although the intervening wars disturbed its
natural course. However, the effects of wars and of the intense
emigration, obscured more strongly the course of the birth rates.
It appears, nevertheless, that the decline of fertility was smal-
ler and started later than that of mortality.
After 1950 mortality fluctuated around the present level of
8 /oo, whereas fertility declined slowly from about 20°/oo to
about 16 /oo. These changes have caused a decline in the natural
increase rate of the population. Table 1.2 shows that this rate
declined from 13.0°/oo in 1925-29 to the present level of 7.6°/oo
(Papaevangelou,1972).
-14-
Table 1.3
Emigration from Greece in absolute numbers since 1900
Period. Emigrants
1901-1905 514791906-1910 120341911-1915 1285211916-1920 675981921-1925 505311926-1930 408381931-1935 147971936-1940 157031941-194511946-1950J 2 0 1 7 6
1951-1955 680631956-1960 1617501961-1965 4656991966-1970 364725
1971 and 1972 105142
-15-
The growth of the.population of Greece was always greatly
curtailed by emigration. Table 1.3 shows the officially re-
ported emigration for the period since 1900. It is obvious that
two main peales of emigration occurred; the first between 1910
and 1915 and the second after 1960. Limitations in international
migration statistics do not permit the estimation of the net mi-
gration. It is also impossible to study the exact effects of thet
various components of population growth because of the anomalous
demographic history of Greece and the long periods during which
registration data are missing. Furthermore, it is difficult to
make adjustments for differential errors in population enumeration,
underregistration of births and deaths and errors in migration sta-
tistics. However the existing data from 1950 to 1972 show, that mi-
gration heavily curtailed the population growth. Thus in the pe-
riod 1950-54 the annual net growth was reduced to 10.2°/oo (natu-
ral increase 12..2 /oo); in 1955-59 it was 9.3 /oo (natural in-
crease 12.0 /oo); in 1960-64 5.1 /oo (natural increase 10.3°/oo);
in 1965-69 6.5%>o (natural increase 9.9°/<JO); and in 1970-72
4.1 /oo (natural increase 7.6 /oo).
Emigration patterns changed considerably during the last two
decades. Earlier in the century emigrants were mainly settled in
U.S.A., Canada and Australia. Recently, however, the economic de-
velopment of Western Europe directed most of them to European
countries (mainly to Western Germany).
- 1 6 -
CHAPTER H
COMPONENTS OF GROWTH
2.1. Quality and general pattern of vital statistics
The- purpose of this chapter is to summarize the existing in-
formation on the magnitude, nature, distribution and trends of mor-
tality in Greece and on the patterns of growth of the Greek popula-
tion. The analysis was based mainly on the most recent medico-de-
mographic data concerning the Greek population and published an-
nually in the "Statistical Yearbook of Greece" and in the "Vital
Statistics of the Population of Greece" and on similar data con-
cerning other European populations and published annually in the
"World Health Statistics Annual" of the World Health Organization
and in the "United Nations Demographic Yearbook". The results of
a number of relevant studies were also taken into consideration.
As it was already stated, in Greece, comparatively reliable
data on vital statistics exist for the years 1930-1938 and after
1956. Even for these periods, however, the analysis reveals a
number of systematic errors, mainly uhder-registration of peri-
natal deaths and misstatements in the reported cause of death
(NSSG, 1966). Furthermore, data are not classified by educa-
tional level, professional class, economic status etc. and
therefore, differentials in fertility and mortality can only be
studied between urban and rural population. However, inspite
of these limitations, population statistics provide a fairly
clear picture of the trends of mortality and fertility as well
as of the health of the population in Greece to-day.
-17-
Table 2.1 provides a summary of vital statistics in
Greece since 1930.
2.2. Foetal mortality
The registration of late foetal deaths (i.e. of still-
born after the 28th week of pregnancy) is compulsory in
Greece. However, inspite of the legal obligation, registra-
tion is incomplete, particularly in the rural areas of the
country. This incompleteness accounts for the peculiar time-
trends of still-birth ratio in urban(io,000+)» semi-urban
(2,000-9,999) and rural (-1,999) areas of the country(Figure 2.1).
It seems likely that in urban areas there is an actual decline
of late foetal mortality, whereas for the semi-urban and ru-
ral areas the actual trends are obscured by the improvement
in the completeness of registration. This improvement, how-
ever, is not due to an amelioration of the registration sy-
stem in the rural areas but to the mere fact that an increas-
ing proportion of pregnant women from these areas have their
deliveries in the cities (where the registration system has
always been better). Thus, when the events are classified by
place of occurence (rather than by place of mother's residence),
no sign of improvement is noted in the rural areas (Figure 2.1).
Population statistics allow an evaluation of the effects
of the inadequate prenatal care in most rural areas of Greece
on late foetal (and neonatal) mortality when conditions of de-
livery and completeness of registration are not different from
those in the urban areas. This is possible because, as already
-18-
Table 2.1
Summary of vital statistics in Greece since 1930
PeriodPopulation
(in thousands)
Live birthsper 1000population
Deathsper 1000
population
Infant deathsper 1000live-born
1930-341935-39
1950-541955-591960-641965-691970-72
65457029
77318105843487048852
30.026.6
19.519.318.118.016.1
16.714.4
7.27.37.88.18.5
128114
4141393428
Table 2.2
Reported infant mortality in Greece during the periods 1931-1939and ]949-1972
YearInfant deaths
per 1000 live-born Year Infant deathsper 1000 live-born
193119321933193419351936193719381939
• •
194919501951195219531954
133.8128.7122.7111.7112.8114.2122.299.4
118.2
• •
41.935.543.640.542.542.4
195519561957195819591960196119621963196419651966196719681969197019711972
43.538.744.239.040.640.139.940.439.335.834.334.034.334.431.829.626.927.3
STILL-BIRTHRATIO
26 -
24-
2 2 -
20 -
18-
16-
14-
12-
10-
8 -
6 -
4 -
2 -
URBAN AREASby place of residence)
SEMI-URBAN AREASby place of residence)
RURAL AREAS(by place of residence)
' RURAL AREAS(by place of occurence)
T71—1—1—1—1—1—1—m—rn—1—1—11956 57 58 '59'60 '61 '62 '63 '64 '65'66 "67'68 '69 '70 YEAR
Figure 2.1 Still-born per 1000 live-born in urban and semi-urban areas (by place of residence of mother) andin rural areas (by place of residence of motherand place of occurence) in Greece, during the pe-riod 1956-1970
-20-
stated, a large proportion of the pregnant women living in
rural areas come at a late stage of pregnancy to have their
delivery in a hospital of an urban area (more than 82% of
all births in 1970 took place in a maternity hospital). It
can be estimated, that among this group of women, the still-
birth ratio is about 20% higher than among women with perma-
nent urban residence. Although factors of selection may be
partly responsible for this difference, it seems likely that
a substantial part is attributable to the inferior prenatal
care in rural areas.
2.3. Infant mortality
Reported infant mortality has fallen significantly du-
ring the last 40 years from about 130 per 1,000 live-born
to about 27 per 1,000 live-born (Table 2.2). Since under-
registration of neonatal deaths is still evident particularly
in rural areas the actual infant mortality rate may be closer
to (or slightly higher than) 30 per 1,000 live-births (Tri-
chopoulos,1964, NSSG,1966, Valaoras,1974b). Inspite of this
remarkable improvement, the Greek rate is still among the
highest in Europe, being more than twice that of the Scandi-
navian countries (Table 2.3). Approximately 2/3 of all in-
fant deaths in this country occur within the first four weeks
of life (neonatal mortality). Nevertheless, in proportional
terms, the easily preventable late infant mortality is parti-
cularly high in Greece, being almost four times that of the
Scandinavian countries. The study of infant mortality rates
-21-
Table 2.3
Infant mortality (total), neonatal mortality (0-27 days), and late infantmortality (28-365 days), in European countries (1970)
CountryInfant deaths Infant deaths Infant deaths
(total) (10-27 days) (28-365 days)per 1OOO live-born per 1000 live-born per 1000 live-born
AlbaniaAustriaBelgiumBulgariaCzechoslovakiaDenmarkFinlandFranceGermany EasternGermany WesternGreeceHungaryIcelandIrelandItalyLuxembourgMaltaNetherlandsNorwayPolandPortugalRomaniaSpainSwedenSwitzerlandUnited Kingdom
England-WalesN. IrelandScotland
Yugoslavia
25.920.527.322.114.213.218.218.523.629.635.911.719.529.624.927.912.712.733.258.049.428.011.015.1
18.222.919.655.5
19.014.413.215.711.010.512.613.018.419.628.48.3
12.820.416.8¿2.09.59.5
19.625.418.2
9.110.8
12.315.812.823.4
6.96.1
14.16.43.22.75.65.55.2
10.07.53.46.79.28.15.93.23.2
13.632.631.2
1.94.3
5.97.16.8
32.1
-22-
by regions (nomos) of Greece shows a remarkable variability
which is accounted for by differences in hygienic conditions
and to some extent by differences in completeness of regi-
stration.
Table 2.4 shows infant mortality rates by cause in
Greece, England and Wales, and Norway. The excessive in-
fant mortality in Greece, is mainly attributable to infecti-
ous diseases (including pneumonia etc), to immaturity and
to various ill-defined diseases of early infancy and, to a
lesser degree, to various anoxic and hypoxic conditions (ate-
lectasia etc). It is worthwhile to note that infant morta-
lity from birth injuries is lower in Greece than in England
and Wales, Norway and many other highly developed European
countries. This may be either a reflection of the skill of
Greek obstetricians or of their unwillingness to report
"birth injuries" as the cause of an infant's death.
The postwar trends of neonatal and late infant mortality
in urban, semi-urban and rural areas of Greece by place of re-
sidence are shown in Figure 2.2. The main conclusions that
can be drawn from the study of these rather peculiar time-
trends are the following: (a) Neonatal mortality in urban
areas is high, whereas the actual level of this mortality in
rural areas is unknown because of the apparent incompleteness
of registration of neonatal deaths. Under-registration is also
responsible for the unreliability of the shown trends of neo-
natal mortality, (b) Late infant mortality declines clearly
and steadily in the urban and semi-urban areas; by contrast
-23-
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-25-
in rural areas the decline of this rate is relatively slower
and rather irregular, (c) Since 1964 reported infant mortality
has been higher in urban areas than in rural ones- a pattern
reminiscent of the pre-war experience. One of the factors res-
ponsible for this change seems to be the apparent increase of
neonatal mortality in urban areas, probably due to an amelio-
ration of the registration system.
2.4. General mortality
Table 2.5 shows age-specific mortality rates for Greece
and their rank among the corresponding rates of all 27 Euro-
pean countries for which data are available (rank 1 indicates
the lowest, and rank 27 the highest rate). It is of particular
significance that infant and childhood mortality of Greece are
still relatively high, whereas the mortality of adults of this
country is among the lowest in Europe and indeed in the whole
world. This situation is also reflected in- the life-tables of
European populations. It can be seen in Table 2.6 that expe-
ctation of life for Greeks at the age of 35 ia among the longest
in Europe. This holds true for both men and women although it
is more pronounced for men.
Age-specific death rates for all ages below 60 have been
declining in Greece during the period 1952-1970. The decline
was most evident among the younger age-groups. By contrast,
age-specific death rates for ages above 60 have been constant
or slightly increasing during the same period. The fact that
almost 2/3 of the deaths among persons over 60 years old are
—26-
Table 2.6
Expectation of life at birth and at the ages of 35 and 55 yearsby sex in European countries in 1970
Country
AustriaBulgariaCzechoslovakiaDenmarkFranceGermany WesternGreece*HungaryIrelandItalyLuxembourgMaltaNetherlands
NorwayRomaniaSpainSwedenUnited Kingdom
England-V/alesN.IrelandScotland
Yugoslavia
Birth
Mai -
66.469.166.371.069.167.371.666.368.668.566.468.070.971.065.769.072.3
68.867.767.0,65.1
Fern
73.473.573.276.176.773.676.072.273.274.673.172.976.677.570.474.477.4
75.273.673.369.9
Age in years
35
Mai -
35.538.335.138.737.236.240.636.136.637.535.636.438.538.837.137.639.8
36.635.935.136.4
Fein
41.241.540.742.943.941.344.140.640.642.741.240.343.544.140.542.144.0
42.240.940.540.6
55
Mai -
18.520.618.121.120.218.922.619.019.120.018.618.720.621.119.720.221.9
18.918.518.019.3
Fern
23.023.122.524.825.723.125.422.422.624.323.121.625.025.422.423.725.6
24.122.922.822.4
In a well documented study Valaoras (1974b) claims that theexpectation of life in Greece in 1970 is for males 70.1 atbirth, 39.9 at 35, and 21.7 at 55 and for females 73.8 atbirth, 42.9 at 35, and 24.3 at 55
-27-
due to either cardiovascular diseases or malignant neoplasms
explains the stagnation of the mortality in the older ages. In-
spite of the improvement of most age-spec ific mortality rates,
in Greece, the crude death rate has recently shown an upward
trend which is accounted for by the ageing of the Greek popu-
lation.
Table 2.7 shows death rates from the 14 internationally
most important causes of death, in Greece, in 1961 and in 1970.
The ranks occupied by the Greek rates among the corresponding
rates of 26 European countries for which data are available are
also shown (rank 1 indicates the lowest and rank 26 the highest
rate). It should be noted that international comparisons by
cause of death are hindered by the existing differences among
countries with respect to the classification of some diseases
and to the proportion of deaths attributed to "ill-defined or
unknown" causes. Furthermore the figures .on Table 2.7 are ba-
sed on data, given by the World Health Organization, which are
not age-adjusted. It is clear, nevertheless, that the compa-
ratively low mortality of adults in Greece is mainly due to the
apparently low incidence of cardiovascular diseases, malignant
neoplasms, and accidents. On the other hand, the excessive pre-
mature mortality in Greece is attributable mainly to infective
diseases and to a lesser extent, to diseases of the nervous sy-
stem and to ill-defined conditions of early infancy (including
immaturity). Table 2.7 illustrates also the gradual assimila-
tion of the nosological spectrum of the Greek population to that
-28-
Table 2.7
Death rates (per 100000 population) from 14 important causes, in Greece, in1961 and in Í970, and their rank among the corresponding rates of 26 Euro-pean countries for which comparable data are available (rank 1 indicates thelowest and rank 26 the highest rate)
Cause of deathRate
18.01.2
41.415.116.510.325.712.231.079.6105.738.283.6124.8
Rank
15201223816241713204351
Rate
9.51.2
48.313.140.222.018.315.824.628.3131.444.4117.3171.5
Rank
161013241421251812156282
TuberculosisAcute respiratory infectionsInfluenza and pneumoniaOther infective and parasitic diseasesOther diseases of respiratory systemDiabetes melitusDiseases of nervous system and sense organsCirrhosis of liverOther diseases of digestive systemComplications of pregnancy (per 100000 live-born)Malignant neoplasms including lymphoraasAccidents and violenceCerebrovascular diseaseIschaemic heart and other diseases of circulation
-29-
of the more developed European populations. Thus «îortality-
rates from infective diseases and complications of pregnancy-
are declining whereas mortality rates from cardiovascular di-
seases, malignant neoplasms, chronic diseases of the respirato-
ry system, and diabetes melitus are gradually increasing.
Table 2.8 gives the chances per 1,000 live-born, of event-
ually dying from specified causes, by sex, in Greece and se-
lected European countries in 1970. It can be seen that 1 out
of 7 Greeks is expected to die from cancer, 1 out of 6 from
cerebrovascular disease, and 1 out of 4 from another disease
of the circulatory system (including ischaemic heart disease).
The probability of eventually dying from a motor vehicle acci-
dent is still rather small in Greece (1% as compared to 2?/a in
Italy and 1.9J6 in Sweden).
A comparison of age specific death rates in the urban
(10,000+) and in the rural (-1, 999) population of Greece reveals
that up to the age of 45 years mortality is higher in rural a-
reas, while the opposite is true for the older ages (Figure
2.3). The excess premature mortality in rural areas is main-
ly due to infective diseases; on the other hand, the higher
mortality of adults in urban areas is accounted for by the
correspondingly higher death rates from cardio-vascular di-
seases and malignant neoplasms. Age and cause specific morta-
lity rates of semi-urban population hold usually intermediate
positions between the corresponding rates of the urban and ru-
ral population.
-30-
Table 2.8
Chances per 1000 live-born, of eventually dying from specified causes, by sex,in Greece and selected European countries (1970)
Country
Bulgaria
(5.0P,0*
Greece
(12.0»/) +
Italy
(3.390*
Netherlands
(3.5°/.) +
Norway
(5.050*
Spain
Sweden
England-Wales
Infectionsand otherdiseases ofrespiratorysystem
M
F
M
F
MF
M
F
M
F
M
F
M
F
MF
142
116
108
10790
85
66
91
114
128
109
65
66
170138
Otherinfectiveand parasitic
19
10
26
16
1811
6
7
7
7
26
13
10
8
7
4
Malignantneoplasms
lymphomas
148
109
165
108
190
151
235
199
178
1G7
151
124
189
185
208
175
Cerebro-vasculardisease
192
258
128
181
133
161
103
154
143
201
125
166
95
132
111
178
Ischaemicheartdisease andother diseas.of circula-tory system
293
340
211
218
312
378
364
351
375
330
293
348
450
441
381
369
Motorvehicleaccidents
15
4
14
5
29
8
28
10
17
6
IS
5
18
9
14
7
Ill-defined and unknown causes of death as percentage to all deaths inthe country
AGE SPECIFICDEATH RATES
0.10 10 20 30 40 80 90 AGE
Figure 2.3 Annual death rates specific for age per 1OOO popu-
lation in urban ( ) and rural ( ) areas of
Greece around 1968. (Infant deaths per 1000 live-
born; infant mortality rectified)
-32-
2.5. Fertility
The birth-rate in Greece declined during the last forty
years from about 30°/oo to about 16°/oo (Table 2.9) (Katsou-
yiannopoulos,1970). The reduction of fertility has occurred
especially in mothers over the age of 35, and in birth orders
beyond the third child (Tables 2.10 and 2.11).
The new attitude of the Greek population towards repro-
duction was brought about by the deep socio-economic changes
that took place in Greece during this period. However, the
ways and means by which the reduction in fertility was brought
about were not evident.
In order to clarify the ways and means by which the re-
duction in fertility came about, a field survey was conducted
in 1962-1963 by the Department of Hygiene and Epidemiology of
the University of Athens (Valaoras, Polychronopoulou, and Tri-
chopoulos,1965). It was found that the average desired family
size was 2.6 children in urban and 2.9 children in rural areas.
Of the urban and rural married women interviewed, 87 percent
and 79 percent, respectively, reported practicing some method
of birth control (Table 2.12) primarily coitus interruptus
(withdrawal) or the condom (Table 2.13). The contraceptive
pill and the intrauterine device were almost unknown to the
sample interviewed.
In view of the rather low effectiveness of the reported
birth control methods, these findings could not fully explain
the drastic curtailment in the number of live births in Greece.
-33-
Table 2.9
Live-born per 1000 population in Greece during theperiods 1925-1940 and 1949-1972
Year
192519261927L9281929
19301931193219331934
19351936193719381939
1940• •• •* •* •
• •• •
1949
Live-born
26.330.028.830.528.9
31.330.828.428.631.1
28.227.926.225.924.8
24.5• •
• •
• •
• •
• •
* •
18.6
Year
19501951195219531954
19551956195719581959
1960196 L196219631964
19651966196719681969
197019711972
Live-born
20.020.319.318.419.2
19.419.719,319.019.4
18.917.918.017.518.0
17.718.018.718.217.4
16.515.915.7
-34-
Table 2.10
Fertility rates (per 1000 women at specified ages) in Greece
Age of mother Gross Netrepro- repro-
Period auction auction15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 r & t e p a t e
1933-37 18.2 129.4 205.5 178.5 141.1 51.6 12.6 1.79 1.26
1956-59 15.5 100.6 154.2 110.4 54.6 16.6 3.0 1.10 1.01
1960-64 17.9 109.1 145.4 103.9 46.4 12.6 1.6 1.06 0.98
1965-69 30.4 128.2 154.5 98.7 44.1 10.2 1.2 1.13 1.05
1970-71 36.7 143.6 150.8 91.8 41.8 9.4 1.0 1.16 1.09
Table 2.11
Fertility rates by birth order (per 1000 women aged 15-49)in Greece
Period
1936
1956-59
1960-64
1965-69
1
26.3
28.8
28.6
29.4
2
22.5
21.4
22.8
25.8
Birth
3
19.210.19.3
9.0
order
4
16.04.9
3.9
3.1
5
11.72.7
1.9
1.2
6 +
15.7
3.2
2.3
1.3
-35-
Table 2.12
Percent of urban and rural married womenpracticing birth control, by age, inGreece, 1962-1963
Age
-2020-2425-2930-3435-3940-4445*
Percent
Urban
74.432.584.892.095.190.575.0
practicing
Rural
53.880.681.285.586.074.469.6
Total 87.1 78.7
Table 2.13
Birth control methods per 100users in Greece, 1962-1963
Method Urban Rural
WithdrawalCondom
Other
41.33.
25.
72
1
67.19.
13.
43
3
Total 100.0 100.0
-36-
Tiiu.s a new field survey was undertaken in 1966-1967 in order
to evaluate the frequency and reveal the epidemiologic background
of induced abortions, which are illegal in Greece but thought to
have been the factor responsible for the reduction in live births •
The study was carried out by the Department of Hygiene and Epi-
demiology of the University of Athens (Valaoras, Polychronopou-
lou and Trichopoulos,1969). Approximately one third of the mar-
ried women interviewed reported one or more induced illegal a-
bortions. On the average, there was a correspondence of 75 in-
duced abortions per 100 married women of reproductive age, or of
34 induced abortions per 100 live-born. The findings of the a-
bortion survey by age of mother, duration of marriage, schooling
of the mother, urban or rural population, as well as by order of
pregnancy, are given in Tables 2.14, 2.15, 2.16, 2.17 and 2.18
respectively. With the use of the available data Polychronopou-
lou and Trichopoulos (1969) later estimated that induced illegal
abortions were responsible for about 40 percent of the recent re-
duction of the fertility of the Greek population.
The decline of fertility has caused strong concern, parti-
cularly around 1963 when the net reproduction rate fell below the
value of 1.0, and again after 1969 when most age-specific ferti-
lity indices after showing short-term anodic trends between 1963-
1967 started again to decline (Valaoras,1973, 1974a). Although
the prospects of the future growth of the Greek population are
certainly not entirely satisfactory, they are nevertheless not
so alarming as they are sometimes thought of. In this regard,
-37-
Table 2.14
Live-born and induced abortions, by age of mother
-2525-2930-3435-3940-4445+
Numberinterviewed
4851044153314461070924
Per
Live-born
113174205234245308
100 interviewed
Admittingabortion
152834404238
Totalabortions
2050699310186
Total 6502 221 35 75
Table 2.15
Live-born and induced abortions by duration ofmarriage
„ _ •• . Per 100 interviewedYears of Numbermarriage interviewed Live- Admitting Total
born abortion abortions
0-4 1281 113 14 185-9 1806 195 31 5310-14 1478 235 43 8915-19 1041 271 45 11520+ 882 346 49 134
Total 6488 221 35 75
Table 2.16
Induced abortions by years of school attendance ofmother
Schoolyears
01-34-78-1213+
Numberinterviewed
54522422639943113
Abortionsper 100
interviewed
9491656038
Total 6482 75
-38-
Table 2.17
The frequency of abortion in two metropolitan populationsof Greece, in other urban areas, and in other areas of thecountry
Number P e r 1 0° interviewedPopulation . , . ,
interviewedAdmitters Abortion«
Athens andSalonicit
Other urban
Qoooo*)
Other areas(semi-urban and rural)
5 1 4
2 3 8 2
3 6 Q 6
3 7 7 7
Total 6502 35 75
Table 2.18
Outcome of pregnancies, by order
Order ofpregnancy
123456 +
Number ofpregnancies
625252273460215313251644
Per
Livebirths
88.880.160.550.542.232.6
cent outcorr.e of pregnancy
Stillbirths
1.81 .31.83 .51.01.0
Spontaneousabortions
6.67.79.09.09.09.1
Inducedabortions
2.810.928.739.047.857.3
Total 20041 69.9 1.5 7.9 20.7
-39-
it should be noted that: (a) the net reproduction rate varies
now above the limit of 1.0, thus suggesting a continuation of
future population growth, (b) among the younger age groups
(15-19 and 20-24) birth rates show clear anodic trends (Table
2.10 and Figure 2.4), as a consequence of which there is a
tendency for younger mothers and shorter intervals between
successive generations, and (c) the fertility rate among Greek
women of reproductive age (10-49 years old) occupies the 16th
rank among the corresponding rates of 26 European countries
for which data are available (rank 1 indicates the highest ra-
te). Therefore, the situation in Greece is not exceptional,
with European fertility standards (Table 2.19).
2.6. International migration
Since 1922, when an exchange of population minorities bet-
ween Greece and Turkey took place, the population of Greece is
practically homogeneous. Thus, no ethnic or religious diffe-
rentials are of importance, since about 97% of the population
are Greek speaking and belong to the Greek orthodox Church.
International emigration has always been a potent factor
shaping the profile of the Greek population. Since 1960, how-
ever, the wave of emigration, mainly toward Western Germany,
reached unprecedented dimensions. The excess of emigrants over
repatriated during the periods 1962-1966 and 1969-1970 became
almost as large as the excess of births over deaths, thus caus-
ing a virtual stagnation in the rate of population growth (Table
2.20) Recently, however, the trend has shown signs of change,
LIVE-BORNPER 1000
WOMEN
150-
100-
8 0 -
6 0 -
4 0 -
2 0 -
10-1
25-2920-24
30-34
1956357 '58 '59 '60 '61 '62 '63 '64 '65 '66 '67 '68 '69 '70 YEAR
Figure 2.4 Ldve-born :in Greece per 1000 women at the speci-
fied age-groups during the period 1956-1970
-41-
Table 2.19
Live-born per 3 000 population (1970) and per 1000 women at thereproductive age (1968) in European countries (latest availablecomparable data)
„ , Live-born Live-born_° r y Eer_i°°9 population per. 1000 women age 10-49
64.757.456.452.867.356.561.956.665.861.250.380.681.062.251.453.466.667.052.673.387.3• •
58.363.3
64.5• •
68.363.3
AlbaniaAustriaBelgiumBulgariaCzechoslovakiaDenmarkFinlandFranceGermany EasternGermany WesternGreeceHungaryIcelandIrelandItalyLuxembourgMaltaNetherlandsNorwayPolandPortugalRomaniaSpainSwedenSwitzerlandUnited Kingdom
England-WalesN.IrelandScotland-
Yugoslavia
35.315.214.716.315.914.414.016.813.913.216.514.719.721.916.813.016.318.316.616.819.321.119.613.715.8
16.021.116.817.8
-42-
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H H r - l r - l r - I H H H H H H i H H H i - I H r - (
-43-
due to some extent "to changes of policies or economic condi-
tions in the countries of destination.
Emigration rate has always been higher from rural areas
and it has been partly responsible for the more pronounced de-
cline of fertility in the rural population. Most emigrants
are males (about 55 per cent) and between 15 and 44 years of
age (Table 2.20), thus depleting seriously the labour force
of the country. The majority of emigrants are unskilled work-
ers without occupation, followed by agricultural workers and
by production technicians and workers (in 1972 the correspond-
ing proportions were 51.6%, 23.8% and 15.5%). On the other
hand, among the repatriated Greeks, production technicians and
workers form a substantially larger part (in 1972 38.9%). The
wave of emigration is stronger towards Western Germany, but it
is also strong towards U.S.A., Australia and Canada (in 1972
61.5%, 15.2%, 8.4% and 5.3% respectively).
-44 -
CHAPTER III
POPULATION COMPOSITION
3.1. Sources and quality of dala
The National Statistical Service of Greece carried out,
on March 14, 1971, the general population census, and during the
preceding week (7-13 March) the census of dwellings. The analy-
sis that follows is based mainly on data derived fro« a 3S sample
elaboration of the census returns, which was undertaken by the
National Statistical Service of Greece (NSSG,1973a, 1973b, 1973c).
Data from other censuses and particularly from that of 1961 were
also used for comparative purposes.
The first population census took place in 1828. Since then,
14 more population censuses were carried out (Table 1.1). However,
data of all censuses before 1920 and to a lesser extent of those
of 1928, 1940 and 1951 are inaccurate because of extensive under-
reporting and frequent misstaternents. Thus, in all censuses be-
fore 1920 more nales were registered than females, -an improbable
finding which may reflect the relative importance attributed to
the two sexes by the Greek society of that time. Furthermore, in
these censuses males were always fewer than expected in the age
groups 15-24 presumably because several young men were not regi-
stered in order to avoid the draft. These and other apparent
weaknesses have created serious doubts about the reliability of
the earlier population statistics. Although corrections have been
attempted by eminent Greek demographers in order to improve the
-45-
quality of the earlier statistics (Valaoras,1960, NSSG,1966),
confidence should be placed mainly on conclusions based on da-
ta derived from the last turo censuses.
3.2. The growth of the Greek population, and its ethnical, racial andreligious homogeneity
Within 150 years the population of Greece has increased
from 753 thousands in 1828 to 8,769 thousands in 1971 (Table
1.1). This growth was accomplished not only by the natural
increase of the population but also by the annexation of new
areas (mainly in 1913) and by the influx of more than 1 million
Greek refugees from Asia Minor, after a disastrous war with Tur-
key (in 1922). Since 1922, when the exchange of population mi-
norities between Greece and Turkey took place, the population
of Greece is practically homegeneous (about 97 per cent are
Greek-speaking and belong to the Greek Orthodox Church).
3.3. Population composition by age and sex
The population distribution by sex and age groups at the
census of 1971 is shown in Table 3.1, and is illustrated by
means of a population pyramid in Figure 3.1. The overall sha-
pe of the pyramid indicates that the population of Greece has
already exceeded the stage of maturity with respect to age
structure. Three otlier demographic features may be noted in
the population pyramid; the demographic "scars" which are evi-
dent in tlie age groups 25-29 and 45-54 of both sexes, and cor-
respond to the periods of war, destruction and famine 1941-1943
-46-
Table 3.1
Population of Greece by sex and age groups. Census of 1971
Age groups
0-45-9
10-1415-1920-2425-2930-3435-3940-4445-4950-5455-5960-6465-6970-7475-7980-8485-8990-9495+
Males
38970035920036776033596032730024384028568031416032096024398020410024132021816017290011946066460412601900068002060
Females
378380338800346380322520305320257600318760337240341620268000238420254560231220193300160820860206624027120114404820
Total
7680806 9800071414065848063262050144060444065140066258051198044252049588044938056620028028015248010750046120182406880
Total 4280060 4488580 8768640
3opulation in thousands
DO 300 200 100
Population in thousands
100 200 300 400
Age
Figure 3.1 Population pyramid (by sex and five-years age-
groups) of Greece at the census of 1971
-48-
and 1916-1922; and the underrepresentation of males in the
older age-groups (mainly 75-79), which is accounted for not
only by the differential mortality but also by the massive
emigration during the decade around 1910 of young males to-
ward, the United States of America.
The percentage distribution of the population of Greece
by major age-groups in all censuses since 1907 is shown in
Table 3.2. The progressive demographic maturation of the po-
pulation is evident in the relatively rapid changes of the
age structure, which were brought about by the almost simul-
taneous rapid decline of birth rate and remarkable prolonga-
tion of life expectancy. Within a period of less than three
generations, the proportion of children and adolescent de-
clined by more than one third and the proportion of old per-
sons almost tripled. Several Greek demographers consider
these changes as too rapid and too extensive for a country with
the geopolitical position and the socio-economic development
of Greece, and believe that our population has already shown
symptoms and signs of ageing (Valaoras,1973, 1974a). Never-
theless the increase of the biologically and economically more
active part of the population aged 15-64 years, from 57.6 per
cent in 1907 to 65.3 per cent in 1961 and the marked proportio-
nal decrease of the economically dependent population of child-
ren, were certainly responsible to a considerable extent for the
rapid economic development of the country in the last decades.
-49-
Table 3.2
Percentage distribution of census population of Greece (1907-1971) by age groups
1907192019281940195119611971
0-14
38.334.332.233.028.326.424.9
Percentage by age
15-24
18.318.920.116.819.916.114.7
25-44
25.925.025.928.227.728.627.6
groups
45-64
13.416.116.015.717.220.621.7
65+
4.15.75.86.36.98.311.1
100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0
Table 3.4
Percent literates in the census populationof Greece (1879-1971) by sex (population of10 years of age and over)
Census
Year
18791907192019281940195119611971
Total
19.339.550.458.2. ,
76.482.385.2
Literates
Males
30.859.666.176.2
89.092.593.6
percent
Females
7.019.539.340.6* •
64.772.777.2
-50-
3.4. Population composition by marital status
The percentage distribution of the Greek population ac-
cording to marital status within groups of persons of the same
sex and age (5-years groups) at the censuses of 1951, 1961 and
1971 is shown in Table 3.3. The data of the Table reveal a
number of interesting facts.
(a) The proportion of those who stay single throughout
life is small and approximately the same among males and fe-
males. The percentages shown may be partly distorted by the
differential mortality by marital status, but even so it ap-
pears that only about 5 per cent remain unmarried.
(b) In all age-groups below 40 the proportion of married
is higher among women than among men, due to the usually earlier
marriage of women. After that age the proportion of widows ri-
ses sharply among women but only moderately among men, because
of the higher mortality rates of males, their higher average
age at marriage and their higher frequency of re-marriage after
widowhood or divorce. As a result, the percentage of married
men exceeds that of married women in all ages above 40.
(c) In both sexes and in all age-groups the proportion of
married is higher in 1971 than in 1961, and the difference is
more evident among the younger age-groups. The phenomenon is
accounted for by the slight increase of crude nuptiality rates
(from below 6.0 in 1940-1949, to 7.9 in 1950-1959, and 8.4 in
1960-1969) and mainly by the marked recent trend for earlier
marriage of both men and women. Thus in 1958-1962 13.1 per-
-51 -
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-52-
cent of the brades (first marriage) were younger than 20 and
their median age at marriage was 24.4 years, while in 1970-
1971 the corresponding figures were 26.2 per cent and 23.1
years. Similarly in 1958-1962 21.1 per cent of the grooms
(first marriage) were younger than 25 and their median age
at marriage was 28.6 years, while in 1970-1971 the correspond-
ing figures were 28.6 per cent and 28.3 years. The lessening
of the age at marriage' was the main factor responsible for
the recent rise of the fertility rates among the younger age-
groups, since in Greece almost 99 per cent of all live-born
are legitimate.
(d) The percentage of single persons is smallest in 1971
and highest in 1951 for the age-groups below 50, while the op-
posite is true for the older age-groups. This paradoxical phe-
nomenon may be accounted for by the fact that the older age-
groups at the 1971 census belong to the cohort that had expe-
rienced the relatively low nuptiality rates of the period
1940-1949 (crude average probably below 6.0) while the cor-
responding age-groups at the 1961 and 1951 censuses had expe-
rienced the slightly higher nuptiality rates of the periods
1930-1939 (crude average 6.6) and 1920-1929 (crude average
7.1) respectively.
* • •
In the pre-war period (1933-1937) the median age of brides(23.3) was slightly higher but the median age of grooms(27.3) substantially lower than the corresponding valuesin 1970-1971
-53-
(e.) The proportion of widows is lower in 1971 than in 1961
and 1951 among both sexes and in all age-groups. The prolonga-
tion of the expectation of life even among middle-aged persons
and the higher re-marriage rates (particularly of males) are
partly responsible for this change.
(f) The divorced represent a small but increasing group of
the population. More women than men were counted as "divorced"
because of the higher re-marriage rate of the divorced males.
3.5. Education
Data from the census of 1971 and from previous censuses,
concerning the level of education of the population of Greece
are summarized in Tables 3.4, 3.5 and 3.6. Table 3.4 illustra-
tes the growth of literacy in Greece during the last 100 years;
Table 3.5 shows the distribution of the population by educatio-
nal level in the various age and sex groups; and Table 3.6 de-
monstrates the educational differences between the population
of urban, semi-urban and rural areas.
Males are on average more educated than females, but the
gap is narrowing and tend ta disappear among the younger age-
groups. The educational achievements of the younger generation
are of course higher than those of the older generation and the
contrast is more marked among women. Examination of the age-
groups 15-29 years (Table 3.5) reveals that to-day about 95%
of population complete primary school, about 30% secondary
school and about 6% receive a higher degree. As it might be
expected, the educational level is higher in urban areas and
-54-
Table 3.5
Percent distribution of population of Greece according to educational levelby age and ses: (census 1971)
Sex and
Malestt
it
it
it
ti
ii
ti
age
10-1415-1920-2425-2930-4445-6465+total(10+)
Male population(10+) (in thousands)
Femalesti
ti
it
ti
M
II
ti
10-1415-1920-2425-2930-4445-6465+total(10+)
Female population(10+)(in thousands)
Withhighereducation
0.12.36.97.15.43.94.4
152420
...0.12.24.42.31.50.81.6
•"38100
Withsecondaryeducation
]1.827.320.514.49.36.912.1
419700
•12.827.419.612.07.03.410.4
370500
Withprimaryeducation
56.282.764.763.852.352.442.656.5
1956860
58.080.861.559.344.237.520.046.3
1656860
Literatebut notprimary
42.33.74.06.421.024.128.620.6
715000
40.74.46.411.726.420.46.818.9
676160
Illiterate
1.51.71.72.45.28.818.06.4
222700
1.31.92.55.015.133.669.022.8
817300
Total
100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0
3466680
100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0
3578920
* Excluding 64480 males and 192480 females with unknown educational level
-55-
Table 3.6
Percent distribution of population of urban, semi-urban, and ruralareas of Greece according to educational level (census 1971)
Educational level
Illiterate
Literate butnot primary school
With primaryeducation
With secondaryeducation*
With highereducation
Urban
Males
4.3
15.0
54.9
19.0
6.8
areas
Females
14.1
17.4
49.0
17.1
2.4
Semi-urban areas
Males
7.7
23.4
59.5
6.8
2.6
Females
25.4
21.6
47.2
4.7
1.1
Rural
Males
9.3
28.6
57.9
3.0
1.2
areas
Females
35.9
20.5
41.6
1.4
0.6
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Population (10+)(thousands) 1899.1 2032.5 417.0 424.1 1215.0 1314.8
-56-
lower in rural areas, where even to-day more than one third of
the female population 10 years old or more is illiterate.
One of the peculiar characteristics of higher education
in Greece is the plenitude of medical students and medical do-
ctors. At the 1971 census 17,200 of the 210,520 College and
University graduates were medical doctors (8.2 per cent) and
among the 11,482 new graduates of the academic year 1971-1972,
1,355 (11.8 per cent) were medical doctors. Indeed the ratio
of physicians to population in Greece is among the highest,and
the rate of increase of this ratio the highest in the world
(World Health Organization, World Health Statistics Annual,Vo-
lume III). An interesting relevant observation made by Greek
authors (Center of Planning and Economic Research,1972a) and
later by other investigators (Ward Hinds,1974) is that beyond
a certain limit the ratio of physicians to population is nega-
tively correlated with a number of health indices (notably in-
fant survival). This finding contrasts sharply with the positive
correlation which exists between the same indices and the rela-
tive number of para-medical personnel and seems to imply that
too many physicians may exercise a detrimental effect on the
quality of medical care.
3.6. Household and family
In the 1961 and 1971 population and housing censuses the
following definitions, pertaining to household and dwelling,
were used:
H o u s e h o l d : (a) A group of two or more per-sons who live together, jointly provide themselves with
-57-
food or other essentials for living and usually sharemeals (multi-person household). The group may be com-posed of related persons only, or of unrelated persons,or of a combination of both, including boarders, but ex-cluding lodgers, (b) A person who lives alone in a sepa-rate housing unit, or who shares the housing unit withother persons, but does not join with them -i.e..he doesnot share meals - to form a member of their household(one-person household).
H o u s i n g u n i t : A separate and independentspace which, by the way it has been built, rebuilt or con-verted, is intended for habitation, or one not intendedfor habitation but occupied as living quarters at the timeof the census.
R e g u l a r ( c o n v e n t i o n a l ) d w e l -l i n g : A permanent and independent structure constitutedby one regular room at least and intended for the purposesof habitation by a private household.
R e g u l a r r o o m : A space within a buildingreaching at least to a height of 2 metres, of a size largeenough to hold a bed for an adult (that is 4-square metresat least), with direct day-light from a window or a glass-door.
Tables 3.7-3.11 summarize the information derived from data
collected in the last two censuses (1961 and 1971) and concerning
the distribution of private households according to the size, to
the number of persons per room, to the facilities available and
to the type of water supply and sewerage. Institutional house-
holds (hospitals etc) were not included in the present analysis.
Of the total population (8,769 thousands) 8,455 thousands were
members of private households and 314 thousands of institutional
households.
The number of households has increased from 2,143 to 2,556
thousands between 1961 and 1971. This increase reflects both
the increase of the population and the decline of the average
household size. Thus, in 1961 31.5 per cent of the households
-58-
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-59-
had 5 or more members while in 1971 the proportion dropped to
20.3 per cent (Table 3.7). The decline of the household size
is accounted for by the decline of family size and by the pro-
gressive abandonment of the traditional cohabitation of parents
with their children even after their marriage. As expected,the
average household size is smaller in urban than in semi-urban
and rural areas, since the responsible demographic and social
changes are more extensive in the urban population.
The number of private households has increased considerably
in urban areas but has remained relatively stable in semi-urban
and rural areas. Nearly all households (99.5 per cent) are now
living in regular dwellings and in most of them (88.7 per cent)
there are less than 2 persons per room (Table 3.8). This con-
trasts sharply with the situation in 1961 when in more than one
third of the households there were 2 or more persons per room.
Significant improvement has been achieved in the type of water
supply, whereas the waste disposal system and particularly the
type of sewerage is far from satisfactory in many regions of the
country and particularly the rural areas (Tables 3.9 and 3.10).
Nevertheless, the improvement in the type of water supply and in
some regions of the type of sewerage have contributed signifi-
cantly in the marked decline of the incidence of most water-trans-
mitted diseases.
Tables 3.10 and 3.11 demonstrate the rapid change of the qua-
lity of everyday1s life in Greece. Within a decade the percenta-
ge of regular dwellings with bath or shower increased from 13.8
-60-
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-63-
to 35.6 per cent, of those with electric light fron 54.8 to
88.3 per cent, of those with toilet with VÏ.C. from 14.2 to
45.2 per cent, and of those with water supply through plumb-
ing system within the dwelling from 27.8 to 65.0 per cent.
However, in spite of the general improveinent, the situation
is not yet satisfactory, particularly in the rural areas of
the country.
-64 -
CHAPTER IV
POPULATION DISTRIBUTION AND INTERNAL MIGRATION
4.1. Definitions and sources of data
Greece is divided into 9 geographical Departments, and
these Departments are further divided into 52 administrative
regions (nomos). When the State of modern Greece was esta-
blished in 1828 it comprised only Central Greece, Peloponne-
sos and the Cyclades islands, but other parts of the country
were liberated soon afterwards (mainly in 1881 and 1913). The
evolution of the population of these Departments since their
annexation is evident through the subsequent population censu-
ses (Table 4.1).
Since 1928 the communes and municipalities of the country
are classified into urban, semi-urban and rural areas. Ac-
cording to this classification urban is the population of ci-
ties of more than 10,000 inhabitants, semi-urban is the popu-
lation of towns of 2,000-9,999 inhabitants and rural is the popu-
lation of villages of less than 2,000 inhabitants. Urban po-
pulation naturally comprises the population of Greater Athens,
Greater Salónica, and Greater Patras (the three larger cities
of Greece, in 1971) as well as that of all other urban agglo-
merations. It should be noted that definition of urban-rural
population differs for the censuses prior to 1920.
All the classifications in this chapter by urban, semi-
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-65-
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-66-
urban, and rural areas, or by departments of the country, re-
fer to de facto population, that is to those present in the
area on 14 March 1971, and not to those usually (regularly)
residing there.
Data concerning Internal Migration were collected orily
during the last population census (1971), and they refer only
to the five years preceding the census. In order to measure
the expansion and the form of the internal migration during
that period, all persons born before January 1966 were asked
as to the place of their regular residence, namely in which
municipality or commune they usually resided, in December 1965.
This information, combined with the place of usual residence
during the census conduct, yielded the data on internal migra-
tion. A migrant (i.e. out-migrant and in-migrant) is any per-
son which, in the year 1971, was living in a municipality or
commune other than the one of December 1965. Data concerning
internal migration refer to households members and therefore
the figures given for various groups are not identical with
those presented in other tabulations.
4.2. Population distribution by departments
Table 4.1 shows the evolution of the population of Greece
by geographical departments during the period 1839-1971. The
growth of the population is continuous, uninterrupted and rapid
only in the department of Central Greece, due to the intense in-
ternal migration towards Athens, which belongs to this depart-
ment. In the other departments the stagnation of the rate of
-67-
population growth became evident after the Second World War,
and since 1961 has given place to actual decline. The de-
cline was more marked in the departments with large segments
of rural population.
4.3. Population distribution in urt -n - rural areas and in major cities
In the census of 1971 more than half of the population
were residents of cities of more than 10,000 inhabitants, and
almost 30 per cent were living in Greater Athens, the capital
of the country. The same census has also demonstrated the ho-
peless shrinkage of the rural population. In 1971 only 3 per-
cent of the population were living in villages of less than 200
inhabitants, whereas the remaining rural population was almost
equally distributed in villages of 200-499, 500-999 and 1,000-
1,999 inhabitants (Table 4.2).
Table 4.3 shows the precentage distribution of population
of Greece in urban, semi-urban and rural areas of the country,
in the six population censuses since 1920. During the last
fifty years the augmentation of urban and the shrinkage of rural
population have been continuous, but they were accelerated bet-
ween 1961 and 1971. The decrease of the absolute and relative
size of the rural population has been accompanied by a marked
distortion of its age structure (Table 4.4), which reflects, in
a negative way the age structure of the population of migrants.
Thus, in rural areas only 36.6 per cent are 15-44 years old (of
which 47.9 per cent males), as compared to 41.3 per cent in
œtov-m
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-69-
Table 4.3
Percentage distribution of population of Greecein urban (cities of more than 10000 inhabitants),semi-urban (towns of 2000-9999 inhabitants), andrural (villages of less than 2000 inhabitants)areas of the country. Censuses 1920-1971
Census ofYear
192019281940195119611971
Percentage
Urban
26.631.132.837.743.353.2
distribution
Semi-urban
9.714.514.814.812.911.6
in areas
Rural
63.754.452.447.543.835.2
Table 4.4
Percentage distribution of population of Greece (census1971) in urban, semi-urban and rural areas, by sex andage groups
Urban
Semi-urban
Rural
0-14
23.0
26.7
27.2
Percent
15-24
16.6
14.3
12.0
by age
25-44
29.7
27.0
24.6
groups
45-64
2] .2
20.6
22.6
65+
9.
11.
13.
5
4
6
Percent
males
48.7
49.8
48.6
Tot¿il 24.9 14.7 27.6 2.1 .7 1] .1 48.8
-70-
semi-urban areas (of which 49.8 per cent males), and 46.3 per
cent in urban areas (of which 49.7 per cent males). On.the
other hand the percentages of children and old persons are
markedly higher in the rural than in the urban population,
whereas the corresponding figures for the semi-urban population
hold intermediate positions (Table 4.4). These differences are
due less to fertility and mortality differentials than to the
decrease of the active population of adults in the rural (and
semi-urban) areas of Greece.
4.4. Internal migration
Table 4.5 shows the distribution of households members
born before 1966 by sex and residence in 1971. The Table shows
also the distribution of households members belonging to these
groups according to their residence in 1965 (a) in the same mu-
nicipality or commune, or (b) elsewhere in Greece, or (c) a-
broad. Thus, the Table allows an evaluation of the extent of
internal migration in Greece in the last 5 years before the
1971 census.
About 88 per cent of households members were living in
1971 in the same municipality or commune as in 1965, whereas
10 per cent have moved to their new residence from elsewhere
in Greece and 2 per cent have moved there from abroad. The
proportion of in-migrants was highest in urban areas and par-
ticularly in Greater Salónica (20 per cent of the resident po-
pulation of 1971) and lowest in rural areas (6 per cent of the
resident population of 1971). The population of males was only
-71-
Table 4.3
Households members born before 1966, by sex, residence in 1971 and residence in1965. Numbers in thousands
Residence in 1965Residence at the Households
1Q71 <-on a members In the same Elsewherei a census (total) municipality in Abroad
or commune Greece
Number % Number % Number % Number %
Greater Athens total 2233.2 100.0 1915.7 85.8 256.1 11.5 61.4 2.7males 1068.5 100.0 913.6 85.5 122.4 11.5 32.5 3.0females 1164.7 100.0 1002.1 86.0 133.7 11.5 28.9 2.5
Greater Salónica
Greater Patras
Other urban areas
Semi-urban ai'eas
Rural areas
Greece,
totalmalesfemales
totalmalesfemales
totalmalesfemales
totalmalesfemales
totalmalesfemales
totalmalesfemales
487.4237.0250.4
104.950.654.3
1226.5591.9634.6
891.7432.0459.7
2771.51326.01445.5
7715.13705.94009.2
100.0100.0100.0
100.0100.0100.0
100.0100.0100.0
100.0100.0100.0
100.0100.0100.0
100.0100.0100.0
389.2186.3202.9
90.943.347.6
1041.5499.1542.4
783.2378.1405.1
2600.11242.51357.6
6820.73262.93557.8
79.978.681.0
86.785.687.7
84.984.385.5
87.987.688.1
93.893.893.9
88.488.188.8
85.043.341.7
12.76.66.1
168.183.484.7
98.348.150.2
144.367.177.2
764.5370.9393.6
17.418.316.6
12.113.011.2
13.714.113.3
11.011.110.9
5.25.05.4
9.910.09.8
13.27.35.9
1.30.70.6
16.99.47.5
10.25.84.4
27.016.410.6
130.072.257.8
2.73.12.4
1.21.41.1
1.41.61.2
1.11.31.0
1.01.20.7
1.71.91.4
-72-
slightly more mobile.
Table 4.6 shows the distribution of in-migrants in the ma-
jor urban agglomerations and the other areas of the country from
elsewhere in Greece according to their residence in 1965. Of
in-migrants in Greater Athens and Greater Salónica about 45 per
cent arrive from rural areas, about 20 per cent from semi-urban
areas and about 35 per cent from other urban areas of the count-
ry. On the other hand, of in-migrants in other urban, or semi-
urban, or rural areas, about 55 per cent arrive from rural areas,
about 12 per cent from semi-urban areas, about 19 per cent from
Greater Athens or Greater Salónica, and about 14 per cent from
other urban areas. It should be added that of the 764.5 thou-
sands households members who resided in 1965 in a municipality
or commune other than that in which they were enumerated in 1971,
.340.8 resided in 1965 within the same geographical department as
in 1971.
Table 4.7 shows the distribution of households members born
before 1966, and who resided in 1965 in a municipality or commune
other than that in which they were enumerated in 1971, by sex and
area of residence in 1965. The Table also shows the distribution
of out-migrants by area of residence in 1971. When the popula-
tion of each area is taken into account, it appears that internal
migration from Greater Athens towards other areas of the country
is relatively unimportant, whereas that fron other urban areas is
at least 3 times higher, that from semi-urban areas at least 4
times higher, and that from rural areas at least 5 times higher
than the corresponding rate from Greater Athens. During the five
-73-
Table 4.6
Households members born before 1966 and who resided elsewhere in Greece in 1965by residence in 1971. Percentage distribution by residence in 1965 within groupsof migrants with the same residence in 1971
Residing Percentage distribution by residence in 1965Residence at the elsewhere in
]971 census " f ^ w ^ u " 1 9 6 j ! . Greater Greater Greater O t h e r Semi-urban Ruraltotal(thousands) urban
Athens Salónica Patras a r e a s areas areas
Greater Athens 256.1 3.5 2.3 30.9 17.7 45.6Greater Salónica 85.0 6.3 0.1 26.3 22.7 44.6Greater Patras 12.7 14.2 1.3 14.1 14.1 56.3Other urban areas 168.1 14.5 3.4 0.6 13.5 12.3 55.7Semi-urban areas 98.3 15.2 3.9 0.8 14.6 13.3 54.2Rural areas 144.3 13.0 3.4 0.7 14.3 10.6 58.0
Greece: total 764.5 8.5 3.1 1.1 21.0 14.8 51.5
-74-
Table 4.7
Households members (census 1971) born before 1966 and who resided elsewherein Greece in 1965 by sex and residence in 1965. Percentage distribution by-residence in 1971 within groups of migrants with the same sex and residencein 1965
Percentage distributionResidence Residing elsewhere^ b y r e s i d e n C e in_1971
in 1965 in Greece in 1971:Greater Other urban Semi-urban Rural
total (thousands) A t n e n s „eae areas areas
Greater Athens
Other urban areas
Semi-urban areas
Rural areas
Greece : total
Both sexesMalesFemales
Both sexesMalesFemales
Both sexesMalesFemales
Both sexesMalesFemales
Both sexesMalesFemales
65.235.629.6
193.098.594.5
113.454.758.7
392.9182.1210.8
764.5370.9393.6
48.746.051.3
40.040.439.6
29.830.229.4
33.533.034.0
48.448.548.1
27.828.727.0
36.836.836.8
35.337.133.8
34.735.933.6
22.922.223.8
9.810.59.1
9.89.310.2
13.613.613.5
12.913.012.8
28.729.328.1
13.714.812.6
13.513.513.4
21.319.123.3
18.918.119.6
-75-
years preceding the last census the rate of (internal) migration
from urban areas was higher among males, whereas migration from
semi-urban and rural areas was higher among females. Internal
migration was directed mainly towards Greater Athens (33 per
cent) ana other urban areas (35 per cent) and to a lesser ex-
tent towards semi-urban (13 per cent) and rural areas (19 per
cent) (in the last case, mainly towards non-mountainous villa-
ges).
Table 4.8 shows in-migrants to and out-migrants from com-
munes belonging to the main areas (urban, semi-urban, rural) as
well as to the geographical departments of the country. The
Table allows an evaluation of the effect of internal migration
on the growth of the corresponding segments of the population
of Greece. When the actual population of every area and depart-
ment is taken into account, it appears that the net effect of in-
ternal migration is strongly positive only for Greater Athens and
Greater Salónica, slightly positive for the remaining urban areas,
and strongly negative for the rural areas. As a result, in all
departments except of those of Central Greece and Macedonia, where
Athens and Salónica belong, the net effect of internal migration
was a reduction of the population size by up to 1 per cent per
year during the five-year period under consideration (1966-1970).
Table 4.9 shows the age structure of the population in urban,
semi-urban and rural areas and of in-migrants to and out-migrants
from communes belonging to these areas. The high proportion of
persons aged 15-24 and 25-44 among the migrants, and the direction
-76-
Table 4.8
In-migrants to and out-migrants from communes belonging (a) to main agglo-merations, or to other urban, or semi-urban, or rural areas of the country,(b) to the ten Departments of the country. (Internal migration deduced for764480 households members born before 1966, from their place of residencein 1965 and in 1971). Numbers in thousands
AreasIn- Out-migrants migrants Departments
In- Out-migrants migrants
Greater Athens 256.1Greater Salónica 85.0Greater Patras 12.7Other urban 168.1Semi-urban 98.3Rural 144.3
65.2 Greater Athens 256.2 65.223.6 Central Greece(rest) 89.1 116.48.6 Peloponnesos 73.3 119.7
160.8 Ionian Islands 12.2 22.0113.4 Epirus 26.8 47.0392.9 Thessaly 52.1 80.9
Macedonia . 173.0 176.6Thrace 17.4 33.7Aegean Islands 25.2 45.2Crete 39.2 57.8
Greece(total) 764.5 764.5 Greece(total) 764.5 764.5
- 7 7 -
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-78-
of the wave of migration from the villages towards the cities,
help to explain the augmentation of these age-groups in the
urban population and their underrepresentation in the rural
population.
-79-
CHAI'TER V
THE LABOUR FORCE
5.1. Sources of data and clef initions
The following analysis, as well as that presented in chap-
ters III and IV, is based mainly on data derived from the sample
elaboration of the returns of the 1971 census (NSSG, 1973a, 1973b,
1973c). The definitions and criteria used for the analysis are
summarized below.
Persons aged 10 and over (excluding those making their mili-
tary service and those serving prison terms) were classified as
economically active and economically non-active. A person was
considered as "working" when by his work he earned his own or
his household's living. Two different criteria were used for
this classification.
According to the first criterion, as economically active
were considered those who replied that they usually work, no mat-
ter whether during the census period were working or not. Thus
as economically active were considered (a) those who had lost
their job, but they were looking for one (unemployed), (b) those
who happened to abstain from their job, because of illness or
leave of absence, (c) those who took a job a few days before the
census day, (d) those periodically working in seasonal jobs, and.
(e) the unpaid family members, if they systematically work daily
and at least for one third of the normal working time, within the
family enterprise. All others were considered as economically
-80-
non-active. Most of the classifications in this chapter are
made according to this criterion.
According to the second criterion, the classification of
a person as economically active or economically non-active was
made by. reference -to his employment situation in the week pre-
ceding the census day. Persons aged 10 and over were considered
as: employed, if during the week preceding the census day had
worked more than 10 hours, or less than 10 hours (or not at all)
because of leave of absence, illness, lack of clients etc; un-
employed, if during the week preceding the census day had worked
less than 10 hours (or not at all) but they had declared that
they were looking for a job; economically non-active, if during
the week preceding the census day, neither had they worked more
than 10 hours, nor were they looking for a job.
Although the two classifications are based on different cri-
teria and do not coincide conceptually, they are nevertheless
highly correlated and therefore their joint use, as in Tables
5.1 and 5.2 does not introduce any serious error.
•5.2. Economically active population by age. sex and employment status
Inspite of the increase, however slow, of the population
of Greece in the last decade, the labour force has decreased
from 3,640 thousands in 1961 to 3,284 thousands in 1971. Seve-
ral factors were responsible for this decline, including the
following: (a) emigration, which has reached unprecedent levels
during the mid 60's, (b) decrease of participation of women in
-81-
Table 5.1
Population of Greece aged 10 and over classified into economically active and non-active by sex and areas (urban, semi-urban, rural). Percentage distribution ofeconomically active by conditions of employment during the week prior to censusday (1971)
Percentage distribution ofeconomically active by condi-tions of employment during theproceeding weekArea Sex
Econo- Econo- Econ-mically mically micallyactive non-active active(thousands) (thousands) (per cent) Employed Employed
Total for 20 for up u n e m P x -hours or to 19 o y e d
more hours
Greece
Urban
Semi-urban
Rural
BothMalesFemales
BothMalesFemales
BothMalesFemales
BothMalesFemales
3283.92369.8914.1
1569.31202.3367.0
369.1279.090.1
1345.4888.4457.0
3886.31029.32857.0
2278.6613.3
1665.3
449.5115.5334.0
1158.2300.5"857.7
45.869.724.2
40.866.218.1
45.170.721.3
53.774.734.8
100.0100.0100.0
100.0100.0100.0
100.0100.0100.0
100.0100.0100.0
76.480.865.0
84.186.078.2
71.776.856.1
68.374.955.0
20.316.230.9
12.010.616.4
24.319.538.9
29.222.842.2
3.33.04.1
3.93.45.4
4.03.75.0
2.52.32.8
-82-
Table 5.2
Population of Greece aged 10 and over classified into economically active and non-active by age and sex. Percentage distribution of economically active by conditionsof employment during the week prior to census day (1971)
Percentage distribution of eco-Econo- Econo- Econo- comically active by conditions
Sex and age mically mically mically "eedin^îTk* ^ " ^ *""active non-active active n£_ï-Ë(thousands) (thousands) (per cent) _, , . Employed Employed
for 20 for up 'hours or to 19 Oy
_ _ _ more hours
Male 10-14 41.7 325.8 11.3 100.0 66.6 17.2 16.2" 15-19 156.2 164.7 48.7 100.0 78.0 14.5 7.511 20-24 165.6 56.4 74.6 100.0 82.7 11.1 6.2" 25-29 220.2 16.7 92.9 100.0 85.7 11.0 3.3ii 30-44 886.1 32.0 96.5 100.0 85.6 12.1 2.3" 45-64 757.8 148.7 83.6 100.0 80.0 18.1 1.9" 65* 142.3 284.9 33.3 100.0 56.9 42.5 0.6
" 10 or more 2369.7 1029.3 69.7 100.0 80.8 16.2 3.0
Female 10-1415-1920-2425-2930-4445-6465+
10 or more
24.288.7
112.485.2
319.9244.838.9
914.1
322.2233.7192.8172.3677.7747.4510.8
2857.0
7 . 027.536.833.132.124.7
7 . 1
24.2
100.0100.0100.010O.0100.0100.0100.0
100.0
49.665.576.276.370.062.328.2
65.0
30.624.617.319.727.135.871.4
30.9
19.89 . 96 . 54 . 02 . 91.90 . 4
4 . 1
-83-
economic life, due to progressive urbanization of the popula-
tion, (c) prolongation of the average time spent in education
and (d) improvement of the social security services, including
the granting of pensions to large segments of the rural popu-
lation (Center of Planning and Economic Research,1972b).
Tables 5.1 and 5.2 show the population of Greece (census
1971) aged 10 and over, classified into economically active and
non-active, by sex and area class (Table 5.1) and by sex and
age-group (Table 5.2). In addition, these Tables show the per-
centage distribution of economically active by conditions of
employment during the week preceding the census day in the va-
rious areas of the country (Table 5.1) and in every sex and age-
group (Table 5.2).
About 70 per cent of the male and 24 per cent of the fe-
male population of Greece are economically active. Among both
men and women the percentage of economically active is highest
in rural and lowest in urban areas,- and the differences remained
unchanged when age-standardization was performed to account for
the existing differences in the age structure of the populations
compared. On the other hand, about 29 per cent in the rural,but
only 12 per cent in the urban areas, of the corresponding econo-
mically active population, were employed for less than 20 hours
weekly.
With respect to employment status by age and sex, it is
noteworthy that the proportion of unemployed declines steadily
with advancing age among both men and women. More than 80 per
-84-
cent of economically active men (86 per cent in the age-groups
25-44) but only 65 per cent of economically active women (76
per cent in the age-groups 20-29) were employed for more than
20 hours a week.
TaBle 5.3 shows the median value of hours of work during
the week preceding the census day, among those employed during
that week by sex, age, marital status and agricultural or non-
agricultural occupation. It appears that men are working more
than women, the young more than the old, single persons more
than those ever married, and those engaged in non-agricultural
occupations more than those engaged in agricultural ones (pos-
sibly because of the seasonal nature of agricultural work, or
because of the high proportion of employees among the non-agri-
cultural workers).
In general, of the economically active population of Greece
(3,284 thousands) 72 per cent are males and 62 per cent are 15-44
years old. These facts emphasize the importance of the emigra-
tion wave since most of the emigrants are economically active and
the large majority are 15-44 years old (Table 2.20).
5.3. Economically active population by occupation, branch of economicactivity, and level of education
The distribution of the economically active population by
branch of economic activity (NSSG,1971a) is shown in Table 5.4.
It is evident that in rural areas the large majority of the eco-
nomically active population is concentrated in Agriculture, where-
as in the cities the distribution is more even, since Manufactu-
-85-
to
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-87-
ring occupies 27 per cent, Services 20 per cent, Trade 17 per
cent and Construction and Transport 10 per cent each, of the
economically active population. There are more men than women
in every major branch of economic activity, but the "males to
females" ratio varies considerably being highest in Mining and
Construction and lowest in Services and Agriculture.
Table 5.5 shows the distribution of the economically acti-
ve population by major occupational groups (NSSG,1971b). As
expected, in rural areas the large majority of the economically
active population are Farmers (80 per cent), followed by Crafts-
men and non-agricultural labourers (11 per cent), whereas in ur-
ban areas the majority are Craftsmen and labourers (45 per cent),
followed by Clerical workers (14 per cent), Merchants and sales
workers (11 per cent) and Service workers (11 per cent). In ur-
ban areas 10 per cent of the economically active population hold
Professional or Administrative occupations, while in semi-urban
and rural areas the corresponding figures are 4 per cent and 2
per cent respectively.
Tables 5.6 and 5.7 show the proportions of illiterate and
those with secondary or higher education in every branch of eco-
nomic activity and in every major occupational group. It is in-
teresting, that the level of education of the economically active
males is not very different from that of the economically non-
active, whereas among females the educational level is higher
among the economically active. The difference is not wholly
attributable to the existing difference in the age structure of
-88-
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-91-
the two groups. It is also interesting that in several branches
of economic activity female workers are frequently more educated
than males. As expected the level of education is relatively
high in Professional, Administrative, and Clerical occupations
and relatively low among Farmers, Craftsmen and labourers, and
Service workers.
5.4. Economically active population by occupational status
Table 5.8 gives the distribution of economically active po-
pulation according to occupational status in urban, semi-urban,
and rural areas of the country, in males and females, in broad
age-groups, and in the major occupational groups.
Employers represent a mere 4 per cent of the economically
active population. They are proportionally more in urban areas
and among males. Salary and wage earners form the largest part
of the economically active population in urban areas (68 per
cent), whereas in rural areas the proportion of own account work-
ers (mainly males) and unpaid family members (mainly females)
reaches 84 per cent.
Age is an important determinant of the distribution by oc-
cupational status. Before the age of 30 the majority of the eco-
nomically active population are salary and wage earners, followed
by the group of unpaid family members. With increasing age both
these groups becone less important in proportional terms, while
the percentage of own account workers (and to some extent of em-
ployers) rises sharply. Thus in the age-group 45-64 the proport-
ions of salary and wage earners and unpaid family members are
-92-
Table 5.8
Economically active by (a) urban, semi-urban and rural areas, (b) sex, (c) agegroups and (d) major groups of occupations. Percentage distribution by occupa-tional status. Greece, census 1S71
Econo- Percentage distributionmi callv ^ v occupational status
Classification „ ^ . .f t " — } Employers Recount Unpaid S a l a r y a n d
workers lamily w a g e e a r n e r smembers
Greece 3283.9 4.4 35.7 17.7 42.2
UrbanSemi-urbanRural
MaleFemale
10-2930-4445-6465+
Professional,technical,etcAdministrative,executive,etcClerical,etcMerchants and salesServiceFarmers,loggers,etcCraftsmen and labourers*Not determined/not declared
1569.3369.2
1345.4
2369.7914.2
894.11206.01002.6181.2
186.222.4
249.4231.7228.0
1330.5966.269.5
7 . 13 . 41 . 5
5 . 51 . 5
2 . 15 . 25 . 45 . 3
4.-321.0
0 . 316.0
4 . 41.66 . 23 . 5
22.244.249.1
42.916.7
13.934.749.671.2
20.34 . 32 . 5
51.521.254.022.431.7
2 . 918.334.9
7 . 644.1
26.215.313.714.3
1 .60 . 40 . 85 . 73 . 8
39.62 . 65 . 2
67.834.114.5
44.037.7
57.844.831.3
9 . 2
73.874.396.426.870.6
4 . 868.859.6
(not in agriculture)
-93-
about half the corresponding proportions in the age-group
10-29. By contrast the percentages of own account workers
and employers in the age-group 45-64 are 3.5 and 2.5 times
higher than the corresponding figures in the earlier age-
group.
The distribution according to occupational status in
the major groups of occupations is rather predictable. Among
Merchants and sales workers 52 per cent are own account work-
ers and 16 per cent are employers, while among Farmers, log-
gers etc,54 per cent are own account workers and 40 per cent
are unpaid family members. In all other major occupational
groups the large majority are salary and wage earners.
5.5. Economically non-active population
The economically non-active population comprises 30.3
per cent of the male population and 75.8 per cent of the fe-
male population, aged 10 and over. Proportionally, it is
larger i-n urban than in semi-urban or rural areas and it varies
considerably by age and sex (Tables 5.1 and 5.2).
In Table 5.9 data concerning the distribution of the eco-
nomically non-active population according (a) to reason for
not working and (b) to main source of sustenance, are summari-
zed. With respect to "reason for not working", comparisons
are hindered by the high and variable between sub-groups pro-
portion of persons not working for reasons "other or not decla-
red". Nevertheless it appears that in the total economically
non-active population of Greece of both sexes, slightly more
- 9 4 -
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-95-
than one half are occupied with the housework and slightly-
more than one quarter are pupils or students, while the act-
ual proportion of invalids may be slightly higher than 6 per
cent. On the other hand, the main source of sustenance for
the economically non-active is Household for 77 per cent, Pen-
sion for 16 per cent, Property income for 3 per cent, and Al-
lowances and benefits for 2 per cent. The lack of reliable
comparable data for the past make it difficult to attribute
the proper significance to these figures.
-96-
CHAPTER VI
POPULATION PROJECTIONS
6.1. Total population by age
This chapter- presents a series of population projections
prepared by the Center of Planning and Economic Research (1972b).
Population projections for Greece have also been prepared by the
National Statistical Service of Greece (1966) and Siampos (1969)
and another series ,is now in preparation by Professor Valaoras
(1974b) and the National Statistical Service. The projections
presented in this chapter were based on the population of Greece
as of 1.1.1970, estimated by the National Statistical Service
and extended to the year 1985 and in less detail up to the year
2000. Population was projected from 1970 onward at five-years
intervals. The evolution of the forces of mortality, fertility
and migration in the period 1960-1969 were extrapolated into the
future. Three different assumptions regarding fertility (opti-
mistic, median and pessimistic) and one concerning the evolution
of mortality and migration were used. The assumptions on which
the population projections were based are given in Table 6.1.
Assumptions on fertility
(a) Optimistic assumption
According to this assumption the slight increase of the
number of children per woman from 2.19 in 1960-1964 to 2.34 in
1965-1969 will continue its upward movement up to 2.79 in 1980-
1984.
-97-
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-98-
(b) Median assumption
In view of the great uncertainty of long-term trends, it
is assumed that fertility will continue its upward trend, but
in a shighter degree, so that the number of children per woman
will be only 2.43 in 1980-1984 and 2.52 in 1995-1999.
(c) Pessimistic assumption
According to this assumption the recently noted upward mo-
vement of the fertility levels is temporary and it is believed
that fertility will resume its downward course reaching a low
level of 2.10 in 1980-1984.
Assumptions on mortality
It is believed that the downward course of mortality will
continue in the future. The increase of the expectation of li-
fe at birth will be slightly higher for females than for males.
It is also assumed that the rate of increase will be higher up
to 1985 than thereafter up to 2000. Thus it is assumed that the
expectation of life for the first period will increase by 0.7
years for males and 1.0 years for females for each five-years
interval. For the second period the increase will be 0.4 years
for males and 0.5 years for females. According to these assum-
ptions the expectation of life will be 70.9 years for males and
75.2 years for females in 1980-1984 and 72.0 and 76.6. in 1995-
1999.
It is of particular interest that the expectation of life
at birth in 1970 was recently estimated to exceed clearly the
corresponding figure of the adopted assumptions for the period
-99-
1970-1974 (section 2.4 page 26). Furthermore additional improve-
ment In life expectancy at birth may be readily achieved in
Greece, since infant mortality, which responds easily to so-
cial and hygienic measures, is still relatively high.
Assumptions on migration
The data on migration are incomplete since data on repa-
triation exist only from 1968 onward. Furthermore the most
unpredictable component of population projections is usually
migration. The present .series of projections were based on
the assumption that net migration will follow a downward trend.
Thus it was assumed that the annual net migration will be 20,000
for the period 1970-1974, 15,000 for the period 1975-1979, 5,000
for the period 1980-1984 and zero net migration from 1985 to 2,000.
It is rather unrealistic to assume that the notoriously through-
out its history mobile Greek population will eventually stop mi-
grating. However, these assumptions were based on the steady
decrease in Greece's net migration losses during the last few
years.
The three sets of population projections according to the
three assumptions on fertility are given in Tables 6.2, 6.3 and
6.4. The following conclusion may be drawn from the study of
these projections.
(a) The computed total population of Greece around 1985
will range from 9.9 to 9.7 and 9.5 millions, under the optimi-
stic, median and pessimistic assumptions respectively. It will
be around 10.7 millions in 2000 under the median assumption.
-100-
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-102-
(b) The net growth rate will vary around 0.8%, 0.6% and
0.5% for the period between 1970-1985 under the above three
assumptions.
(c) The crude death rate will follow an upward trend under
all adopted assumptions.
(d) The crude birth rate will increase only under the op-
timistic assumption.
(e) All used assumptions imply a progressive ageing of the
Greek population.
The computed figures may vary within large margins because
they are the final products of lengthy elaborations based on in-
herently weak data. However they roughly illustrate the alterna-
tive patterns of evolution of the main demographic characteristics
of the population of Greece.
6.2. Labour force
According to the optimistic assumption (section 6.1) which
was considered as realistic by the Center of Planning and Econo-
mic Research (1972b) the labour force will increase annually by
1.10 per cent until 1985 and by 1.25 per cent afterwards and un-
til 2000. These desired changes are expected to be accomplished
through higher fertility and repatriation rates, as well as by
the increasing participation in economic life of a few special
population groups (married women, students etc) due to introductior
and wider acceptance of flexible patterns of part-time employment.
The increasing participation of women in the' labour force,
the prolongation of the average period devoted to education, and
-103-
the voluntary earlier retirement age, will cause important
changes in the age and sex structure of the economically active
population. Thus the proportion of women in labour force will
increase from 28 per cent in 1971, to 31 per cent around 1985,
and to 33 per cent in 2000. The age group 10-24 will decrease
from 17 per cent in 1971, to 8 per cent in 1985 and to 7 per
cent in 2000. The age-group 25-64 will increase from 77 per
cent in 1971, to 88 per cent in 1985 and to 90 per cent in 2000.
Finally the age-group 65 or more will decrease from 6 per cent
in 1971, to 4 per cent in 1985 and to 3 per cent in 2000.
Although the labour force will expand annually by 1.10 per
cent until 1985 and by 1.25 per cent afterwards the total labour
supply (in working hours) will increase by only 0.80 per cent
until 1985 and by only 0.90 per cent afterwards. The discrepan-
cy will reflect the progressively increasing proportion of part-
time workers. Nevertheless, the total amount of working hours
is expected to increase from 7 billions hours annually in 1971,
to about 8 billions hours in 1985 and 9 billions hours in 2OOO.
-104-
CHAPTER VII
POPULATION POLICY
7.1. Position of the Church
The Greek Orthodox Church, which is the official Church
of the country, prohibits, condemns, and punishes not only the
practice of abortion but also the avoidance of procreation.
(Old Testament, Chapter 38, Genesis, lines 8 etc). The Church
does not allow abortion even under medical grounds.
According to the &Y' Rule of the Elvira's Synod the woman
who induces abortion is punished with prohibition from the holy
communion for a lifetime-that is until her last moments before
death, when she is allowed to receive it. The punishment of a
10-year prohibition from the holy communion is imposed by 3asil
the Great and others, while, according to Fasting John, 5-year
and 3-year penalties are imposed on married and unmarried women,
respectively. The penalty not only condemns the pregnant woman
but includes also the physician who performs the abortion and
all those who participate in any aspect of it.
The Greek Orthodox Church believes that every human being,
including the fetus, is entitled to life. Only God can give
life, and therefore nobody has the right to take life away, not
even from the fetus. According to the moral rules, in very ex-
ceptional cases when the life of the pregnant woman is in danger
and the physician faces the so-called confrontation of duties is
he permitted to save the life of the mother by sacrificing the
life of the fetus.
-105-
The Greek Orthodox Church prohibits and condemns the use
of abortifacient drugs as well as the means of controlling con-
ception. The (married) woman who takes measures to prevent con-
ception is punished by a 3-year forced abstention from the holy
communion (21st Rule of Fasting John). The pregnant woman who
uses abortifacient drugs, as well as her physician or anybody
else who provides them, are condemned to a 10-year abstention
from the holy communion (91st Rule of "Penthekti Synod"). Eu-
nuchism is also prohibited and condemned according to the eighth
Rule of the "Protosecond Synod". A legendary example is that of
Origenes who as a teacher of young women castrated himself for
reasons of self-control and was condemned by the Church.
The prohibition and condemnation of all those who avoid
child-bearing is illustrated in Chapter 38 of Genesis of the
Old Testament with the episode of Avnan and his wife Thamar who
was the widow of his brother. Avnan did not want to have a child
with her, and for this reason he let his seed pour on to the
earth. God considered that as an evil deed and punished him
with death.
Despite the general strictures of the Greek Orthodox Church
against contraception, many religious leaders feel that because
of the large number of illegal abortions in Greece they may have
to be more realistic about contraception. Of course abstinence
is openly accepted and the rhythm method is not condemned. Among
enlightened priests there seems also to be a widespread attitude
to advise that "instead of ending with an abortion God gave you
the mind to prevent conception".
-106-
After the publicity given in recent years to the epidemic
nature of illegal abortions in Greece, the Church has been great-
ly concerned with the subject. Through a special committee crea-
ted within the Holy Synod the problem of abortions was reviewed
and examined in detail. An encyclical, which was distributed
among the priests, provided the necessary information and stated
the position of the Church on abortion. The encyclical stressed
mainly that "the murderous trend of inducing abortion is threaten-
ing the nucleus of the family unit and endangering the survival of
our nation". Other points were also considered: the financial pro-
blem, the psychological consequences, and the medical complications.
The encyclical urged the believers against "this destructive trend"
and asked them "to realise that children in a family are a bles-
sing not a curse" (Louros, Danezis and Trichopoulos,1974).
7.2. Contraception, contraceptives, and abortion laws
There is no special legislation concerning the importation
and distribution of contraceptives in Greece. All pharmaceutical
products have to be approved by the "State Laboratory for the Con-
trol of Pharmaceutical Products", acting similarly to the Food and
Drug Administration of the U.S.A. Although many oral contrace-
ptives are available in Greece none is manufactured by Greek phar-
maceutical industries or tested locally by either government or
private organizations.
Condoms are freely sold throughout Greece. Diaphragms and
spermicides have recently been introduced but their circulation
is limited. Only one type of intrauterine device is available.
-107-
Oral contraceptives were introduced in 1963; they are not ad-
vertised as contraceptives but only for their gynecological ef-
fects and can be obtained without a physician's prescription.
Male sterilization is not practiced. Female sterilization is
practiced on a limited number of women on strictly medical grounds.
The modern aspects of control of conception are not formally
included in the medical curriculum. Furthermore legal fertility
control services are not yet provided in governmental programs
of public health. Therefore, knowledge among practicing physi-
cians about family planning and contraception is frequently in-
adequate. As a result, only a small proportion of Greek women
make use of the modern and reliable methods of contraception,
and the effectiveness and side effects of these methods are fre-
quently unknown.
Abortions are illegal in Greece. Their legal status is co-
vered by the following articles of the Criminal Code.
A pregnant woman who purposefully destroys by abortionor otherwise the embryo she is bearing, or who allows some-one else to do so, is punishable by imprisonment of up tothree years.
V/hoever, with the approval of the pregnant woman,bringsabout the embryo's death or provides to her the means fordoing so is punishable by imprisonment of at least 6 months.If, furthermore, he performs abortions on a regular basis heis punishable by imprisonment of ten years maximum.
Whoever, without the knowledge of the pregnant woman oragainst her desires, purposefully brings about the embryo'sdeath, is punishable by imprisonment of a minimum of 5 years.
The act is not unjust and remains unpunished when per-formed by a physician with the purpose of avoiding an other-wise unavoidable threat to the life, or a serious and perma-nent damage to the health of the pregnant woman, providedthat the need for abortion is also certified by a second phy-sician.
-108-
Also unpunishable is an abortion performed by a physi-cian, with the approval of the pregnant woman, when, concept-ion took place subsequent to rape, or to violation of a wo-man unable to resist, or of a girl under 16 years of age,or incest.
Whoever, in public, or by circulating pamphlets, pictu-res, or designs, proclaims or advertises, even if subtly,drugs or other objects, as capable of causing abortion, orsimilarly makes available his own or someone else's servicesfor performing or assisting in an abortion, is punishable byimprisonment of one year maximum.
Inspite of the legal definitions and obligations and the
great number of abortions performed (Valaoras,Polychronopoulou
and Trichopoulos,1970) only about 20 to 30 cases are brought
to court every year, and then only if the woman dies or a dis-
agreement arises among the persons involved (Louros, Danezis
and Trichopoulos,1974). This implies that abortions in Greece
are "legally illegal".
1.3. The development of population policy
The rapid population growth has never been considered a
catastrophic threat in Greece. One reason for this relaxed at-
titude is that during the last 150 years the Greeks have been
obliged to fight several wars for their independence -another
that emigration has always been relatively high. Indeed it was
the recent decline, not increase, of the rate of population
growth that has drawn the attention of officials and the public
to the problems of population. Environmental concerns have al-
so been expressed relatively late in Greece and they are United
to the industrialization of the country, and the concentration
of the population in the cities, rather than to the fairly small
rate of population growth.
-109-
Fertility rates began to decline in the 1930s but it was
not until about 1960 that the extent of the reduction was ful-
ly realized. This delay is accounted for by the fact that du-
ring the period 1940-1954 the registration of vital events was
very incomplete and in many areas of the country nonexistent.
A number of field surveys and scientific studies, undertaken
during the next few years, showed that the low birth rate was
achieved mainly through the wide practice of illegal abortions
and to a lesser extent through the general-but inefficient-
practice of contraception (Valaoras, Polychronopoulou and
Trichopoulos,1965, 1970, Polychronopoulou and Trichopoulos,
1969).
Therefore the major demographic issues in Greece after the
mid-1960s were: low fertility rates, high frequency of abortions,
high emigration rates, and uncontrolled urbanization.
The demographic situation in Greece has been extensively
covered during the following years by the mass media, and the
demographic problems have received sufficient attention from
both government officials and the general public. It is not dif-
ficult to account for this expressed interest in view of the very
large number of abortions performed every year (about 75,000 a-
mong married and about as many among unmarried women) and the
huge waves of emigration and internal migration toward the ci-
ties. Furthermore many Greek experts are apparently convinced
that the present fertility rates are too low for a country with
the geopolitical position of Greece (NSSG,1966, Hellenic Euge-
-110-
nic Society,1967, Valaoras,1967., Katsouyiannopoulos,1970, Cen-
ter of Planning and Economic Research,1972b, Valaoras,1973,
1974a).
The interest of the scientific community in the demogra-
phic problems has been expressed in many ways. Besides the
field surveys already mentioned, several theoretical studies
about the population trends and future projections were under-
taken (NSSG,1966, Siampos,1969, Valaoras,1973, 1974a, 1974b,
Louros, Danezis and Trichopoulos,1974, etc). Furthermore, se-
veral Institutions and University Departments' became involved
in scientific activities in the field of Demography (Pressât,
1971, CICRED,1974).
Governmental concern was expressed in 1968 with the appoint-
ment, by the Minister of Coordination, of an ad hoc Committee on
Demographic Policy, consisted mainly by governmental officials
and a few experts from the medical community. The committee was
asked to study the nature, the dimensions, and the probable cau-
ses of the problems of Greek population and to propose ethically,
socially, and economically acceptable corrective measures. The
following were some of the proposals of the committee:
Population Division of the National Statistical Service ofGreece, Hellenic Eugenic Society, National Center of SocialResearch, Department of Hygiene and Epidemiology of the Uni-versity of Athens Medical School, Department of Hygiene ofthe University of Thessaloniki Medical School, Department ofEpidemiology and Biostatistics of the Athens School of Hygiene,Department of Economics of the Technical University of Athens,and several others.
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(a) Foundation of family planning units throughout thecountry. Each unit should be organized as a consultationcenter for marriage, birth, fertility and sterility, and re-lated family conditions and problems.
(b) Education of the public on basic aspects of humanreproduction.
(c) Decentralization of the health services. Creationof .additional units for protection of maternity and childhealth, in the rural areas of the country.
(d) Prevention of migration through decentralization,creation of new job opportunities, and introduction of va-rious economic measures.
(e) New legislation favoring an increase of the birthrate of the Greek population.
In 1968 there was no legislation with explicit demographic
objectives. Before World War II a number of laws for the pro-
tection of maternal and child health (e.g. maternal leave of
about 4 months) were introduced, but they were based on humani-
tarian rather than demographic grounds. These laws provided
for the unmarried pregnant woman or mother and for the unpro-
tected or illegitimate children. They also guaranteed for the
"large" families (families with 5 or more children): (a) free
education of all children at all levels, (b) free medical care,
(c) special tax exemptions, (d) exemption of the first-born
from the obligatory military service, and (e) housing accommo-
dations. After World War II a variety of new family assistance
measures were introduced in Greece. They include marriage pay-
ments (an allowance between 5 to 10% of the salary), maternity
benefits (between $50 and $200 for each delivery irrespectively
of parity), children allowances (between 3 and 6% of salary) and
various tax benefits.
Two additional official studies, undertaken in 1968 and
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1970 by the Ministry of Coordination, have confirmed the findings
of earlier studies and have reached similar conclusions. These
later studies have stressed particularly, however, the decay of
the rural population, brought about by the huge internal migra-
tion and emigration and by the decreasing fertility of; that
segment of the population.
When the statistical data for the year 1970 were assembled
and evaluated, it became apparent that the birth rate had reached
the lowest point in the demographic history of modern Greece and
the emigration rate one of the highest (Tables 2.9 and 2.20).
Furthermore, the 1971 census had plainly demonstrated the un-
controlled growth of the population of Athens and Salónica and
the hopeless shrinkage of the rural population. It was under
these conditions that population policy was formulated in the
fall of 1971. The objectives of the official population policy
were and continue to be: higher birth rates; higher repatriation
and lower emigration rates; decentralization and redistribution
of the population.
Among the measures taken for the decentralization of the
population and the slowing down of internal migration were the
division of the country into areas with high degree of admini-
strative autonomy and the takinç of measures for the decentrali-
zation of the health services and the higher education. Very
few people have argued against the objectives of these measures,
but many were sceptical about their effectiveness.
In order to combat subfertility, a law was enacted in 1972
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according to which for every child born to a family with at
least two other children a monthly allowance of about $20 is
paid.' Additional tax benefits have been introduced for fa-
milies with three or more children. These decisions have
been well received by most concerned parties, and they have
been favorably editorialized in the mass media. Some people
have argued, however, that the population problem in Greece is
mainly a migration problem and that only a migration-oriented
solution can be effective (Louros, Danezis and Trichopoulos,
1974). It should also be noted that in Greece children of
lar¿e families, and particularly those born in birth orders
beyond the third child, fall behind other children of the sa-
me sex, age and socio-economic class v/ith respect to both phy-
sical development and school performance (Papoutsakis, Pimeni-
dou, Kalapothaki et al,1972, Giokas,1974). Nevertheless, the
opinion of most people in Greece was that it was indeed neces-
sary to take some measures, and that those already taken had
to prove their effectiveness before any change should be con-
sidered.
With respect to the two other major population issues,
i.e., emigration and illegal abortions no official action has
been taken as yet. The short-term and long-term consequences
of emigration are now being intensively studied, with particu-
lar emphasis to the resulting sub-fertility and the lack of
sufficient labour force to meet the demands of the expanding
industry.
The average income per capita per year in Greece in 1972 wasabout $1100
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The problem of induced abortions seems more complicated.
On the one hand legalization does not appear feasible; on the
other enforcement of the existing prohibitive legislation
would have serious and unpredictable consequences. The other
visible alternative, that is the establishment of a state-
supported population planning program, involving a national
network of consultation centers, has to overcome the object-
ions of the Greek Orthodox Church and of many conservative
Greek sociologists and physicians.
-115-
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