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The population dynamics and movements of

the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) in

Mohlabetsi South Nature Reserve

Anique Willems February - June 2013

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What are the population dynamics and movements of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) in

Mohlabetsi South Nature Reserve?

An identification and habitat database from the African elephant.

Internship African Dream Horse Safari

Anique Willems

7 July 2013 Hoedspruit, Limpopo Province, South Africa

HAS University of Applied Science, Applied Biology, 2012-2013 By order of: Jejane Private Nature Reserve & African Dream Horse Safari Supervisor: G. (Glen) Thomson Tutor: L. (Liesbeth) Dingboom

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Acknowledgements I would like to thank Glen Thomson for the guidance and support during my internship. It was a big research to set up and we both learned a lot about elephants along the way. Thanks for making important information available and bringing me in contact with people that played an important part in this research. Further I would like to thank you for all the amazing game drives and bushwalks, helping me to collect the data from the elephants, teaching me about the bush, animals, tracks, managing a reserve and how to read the stars and moon to find North and South. It has been an amazing experience that I will never forget! I would also like to thank Dr Michelle Henley from Save the Elephants - South Africa, for having me at your house at Balule Private Game Reserve, for training me for 3 days to better understand the elephants, giving me access to the Master Elephant ID-set to identify my elephants and giving me working sheets and information that I needed for my research. Thanks for letting Mohlabetsi South Nature Reserve, Glen, the following students and me be a part of your research which has already been going on for years. And thanks for giving me a great opportunity for my future. I would also like to thank Hannah Malin who's volunteering at Save the Elephants - SA, for helping me going through all the files to compare the elephants I found with the Master dataset, helping me scanning in all the drawings and all the rest where I needed help with. Thanks to Craig Spencer from Balule Private Game Reserve, for meeting Glen and me to give more information about the project, bringing us in contact with Dr Michelle Henley and giving me a place to sleep when I was in training with Michelle at the Elephant Research Camp. A great thanks to Traci, Glen, Shannon and Rachel Thomson, Alex Jvv, Anna Mussi and all the other amazing people at African Dream Horse Safari and Hoedspruit. Because of them I felt very welcome and like I was at home. You gave me an amazing place to live, were there in fun and good times and supported me in bad times. I would also like to thank all the people and students that spent time with me at Sindyane Bushcamp, the stables, in the bush and during excursions. Especially thanks to the ones that were here for a longer time with me: Linda Jutta Nowak, Marlou van de Klundert, Marsha Lowenthal, Kelsey de Bruin and Dani Anderson. I would like to thank HAS University of Applied Science, for giving me this great opportunity to go abroad for my internship. And a great thanks for my supervisor, Liesbeth Dingboom, for your guidance and support through mail and Skype during my stay in Hoedspruit, South Africa. I would like to thank my parents, sister, family and friends for supporting me during my African adventure. Mom, dad and Manou, it has always been my dream and you helped me establishing it. My parents even were a part of my adventure, by having a three week holiday with me, which was amazing! Also the people that stayed in the cold Netherlands, thanks for supporting me and sending me all kind of messages. And last, I would like to show my gratitude toward the elephants. They were amazing to observe, giving me beautiful and joyful times, but sometimes also frightening times. It's great to get to know them as individuals with each their own character, we've had some amazing times in the bush.

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Table of contents

Summary ............................................................................................................................................. - 4 -

1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... - 5 -

2. Material & Method .......................................................................................................................... - 8 -

2.1. Research area ........................................................................................................................... - 8 -

2.2. Data collection ........................................................................................................................ - 11 -

2.3. Data processing ...................................................................................................................... - 12 -

3. Results ........................................................................................................................................... - 14 -

3.1. Elephant population ............................................................................................................... - 14 -

3.2. Elephant bulls (re-)sightings ................................................................................................... - 15 -

3.3. Migration patterns ................................................................................................................. - 17 -

3.4. Tameness index ...................................................................................................................... - 18 -

3.5. Bulls musth ............................................................................................................................. - 19 -

4. Discussion ...................................................................................................................................... - 20 -

5. Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................... - 22 -

References ......................................................................................................................................... - 23 -

Appendix 1 – African elephant identity: Characteristics ................................................................... - 26 -

Appendix 2 – African elephant identity: Example pictures ............................................................... - 27 -

Appendix 3 – Transfer Google Earth to Quantum GIS....................................................................... - 28 -

Appendix 4 – African elephant identity: Behaviour and Comments ................................................. - 33 -

Appendix 5 – Aging criteria (by Save The Elephants - SA) ................................................................. - 34 -

Appendix 6 – African elephant identity: Map of research area ........................................................ - 38 -

Appendix 7 – African elephant identity: Field data ........................................................................... - 39 -

Appendix 8 – Information water points MSNR ................................................................................. - 40 -

Appendix 9 – Example Excel spreadsheet Bulls................................................................................. - 41 -

Appendix 10 - Map MSNR migration elephants ................................................................................ - 42 -

Appendix 11 - Time schedule ............................................................................................................ - 43 -

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Summary Mohlabetsi South Nature Reserve (MSNR) is a nature reserve consisting of Jejane, Mohlabetsi Nyala and Inkonkoni and has always been fenced off for the elephant population. In January 2012 cyclone Dando caused damage at the Northern boundary fence. Since then the elephants started to occupy the reserve. In March 2013 the fences came down, making the reserve open to Greater Kruger National Park (GKNP). To study demographic processes of the elephant, it's necessary to study the population and movements for a long time. The most common marking system is establishing elephant identification photo kits, using the mark-recapture method ('marking' is identifying elephant, 'recapture' is identifying same elephant in resighting). In a research period from February up to June 2013, 90 individual bulls and 11 breeding herds (125 cows and youngsters) are identified. For 20 weeks, there were 2 afternoons and 1 morning fieldwork to search the elephants in the reserve and to collect the data. For a complete ID file, pictures from each individual elephant are necessary. Looking at characteristics, like ears (marks, holes), tusks (non, single, broken, strongly curved), scars on the body, trunk or tail and other injuries, will provide a good identification method. After collecting the pictures, drawings are made about the characteristics to identify them again on a later stage. Further information that has been collected in the file is the number of elephants, social structure, sex, size, musth, tameness (reaction) index, age and extra notes of behaviour or other outstanding characteristics are made. Movements of the elephants are recorded by dotting a map, writing down the name of the road and GPS coordinates. The data are transferred in an Excel file for bulls and breeding herds. With statistic descriptions the population growth is represented. Sightings per research week are worked out in a graph for bulls and breeding herds, with most sightings occurring in May 2013. The different tameness indexes are worked out in graphs and migration maps. Tameness index 1 and 2 are most common (Elephant doesn't noticed you or notice you by either interrupting its activity or trying to see you better). One bull has been seen in the beginning cycle of musth, one has been seen in full musth. Further there were only bulls with temporal secretion, what is probably caused by stress. The cumulative population growth is worked out, itemize new sightings and resightings, with a logarithmic trend line model. The resightings are getting more along the research and there are still new sightings. If both stabilize, the amount of elephants in the MSNR will become visible. For the migration patterns, the collected coordinates are transferred from Excel into Quantum GIS. Each elephant has its own migration pattern. This can be linked to the waterholes in the reserve, migration per month related with rainfall and different tameness index linked to particular areas (housing/residential area). The elephants are especially seen around waterholes, while in the dry deason the bigger or pumped waterholes are preferred. The tameness index is higher around Sindyane Bushcamp, probably because it is the entrance of the reserve with a higher density of humans in that area. No statement can be made yet about the population size of the elephants in the MSNR. Elephants are still migrating between the different reserves and exploring the new area, now the fences came down. But in time particular elephants will form their territory in the MSNR and particular elephants will always come back into the reserve. After years of monitoring these animals, this will become visible. A start has been made now with the elephant identification study, concerning to understand population dynamics and migration. It will be a long term project, in which data will be collected throughout the year on an on-going basis.

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1. Introduction Mohlabetsi South Nature Reserve (MSNR) is a reserve consisting of three Private Nature Reserves (PNR), namely Jejane, Mohlabetsi Nyala and Inkonkoni. (Thomson pers.comm., 2013) In March 2013 the fences came down and the reserve is now open to Greater Kruger National Park where animals can roam freely, including the Big Five (Leopard, Lion, Rhino, Buffalo and Elephant). (Thomson pers.comm., 2013) For this study, only the largest land mammal on earth, the African Elephant (Loxodonta africana), has been examined. Females maximum body mass goes over 3000 kg and males over 6000 kg.(Smithers, 1983; Alwis et al. 1991) See figure 1.1. for a picture of an elephant bull. See figure 1.2. for a picture of a breeding herd. As 'mega herbivores', they are known as ecosystem engineers in Africa and have a great impact on ecosystems. (Haynes, 2011; Parker, 2008)

Figure 1.1. - Elephant Bull (name: Speckles) Figure 1.2. - Breeding herd

The reserve has always been completely fenced off and has excluded elephant for decades. Occasionally one or two bulls broke in through the perimeter fences. Elephants only moved onto the reserve in substantial numbers since the floods, caused by cyclone Dando. The cyclone destroyed parts of the northern boundary fence in January 2012. (Thomson pers.comm., 2013) Since the elephants first occupied the reserve, there has been far higher impact to the vegetation, according to research performed in 2012. This research, which monitors 5 transect sites to determine the impact that the elephants have on the woody component, will be repeated annually. (Pijnenburg, 2012) Elephants dominate other herbivores by changing the structure and function of landscapes with debarking, uprooting and breaking branches from trees (making them more vulnerable for insects and fires), see figure 1.3 . But without them the bush will become very thick, which can disadvantage herbivores that feed on sun-loving grasses. The difference in impact on the ecosystem changes in every nature reserve, depending on the area that is available for the elephants and the amount of waterholes. In the dry season, bulls travel more than 10 km from water, while breeding herds stay within a 3,5 km range. In the wet season (when there is more water available), elephants are around 5 km from water. (Stokke & Du Toit, 2002) Elephants don't go far from a water point, causing more impact around these areas. Further, if they don't get the chance to travel to another area (because of fences), they will always impact the same area, which leads to limited or even absent of natural recovery of the ecosystem. (Aarde et al. 2009)

Figure 1.3. – Pictures of damage on trees caused by elephants Left: Branch damaged and stripped of bark

Middle: Elephants stripping of the bark from a tree Right: Tree pushed over and uprooted.

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In the dry season (winter) elephants travel approximately 6 km a day, in the wet season (summer) 3 km a day. (Holland et al., 2008; Aarde et al., 2009) Their migration pattern is linked to the season and water availability. (Aarde et al., 2009, Pienaar et al. 2011) The home range size where they search for food and water is about 2.925 km

2 for bulls and 1.228 km

2 for breeding herds. (Save the Elephants, 2013) To preserve their habitat

quality, it's important to examine the elephant population dynamics and migrations to monitor how they occupy a nature reserve. Since MSNR is a new reserve for the elephants with dense bush, it can be expected that lots of impact will be visible during the first years. (Thomson pers. comm., 2013) The relationship between humans and the elephant population, often causing conflict between the two species, is an important aspect of the conservation biology. (Andreassen et al. 2007) But before that, research is necessary to understand the population. To study demographic processes of the elephant, it's necessary to study the population and movements for a long time. The most common marking system is establishing elephant identification photo kits. (Ardovini et al., 2007) In 2003 a research has been started by Dr Michelle Henley from Save the Elephants – South Africa to examine the elephant population dynamics and movements within the Association of Private Nature Reserves (APNR) and Kruger National Park (KNP). (Henley pers.comm., 2013) An individual ID file has been established of the elephants at the APNR and KNP. (Henley pers.comm., 2013) Research is necessary ‘to secure a future for the elephants and to sustain the beauty and ecological integrity of the places they live; to promote man’s delight in their intelligence and the diversity of their world, and to develop a tolerant relationship between the two species’ (Save the Elephants – South Africa, Henley pers.comm., 2013). Elephants will be identified individually to understand their social benefits, to avoid risks with humans and to preserve their habitat quality. (Henley pers.comm., 2013) MSNR has currently taken down its fences, thereby forming a connection with the APNR. (Thomson pers.comm., 2013). Because elephants have only truly occupied MSNR for over a year now, the same individual ID file will be established for MSNR in cooperation with Dr Michelle Henley, too identify the individual elephant. From February to June 2013 the research has occurred and will be a long term project, in which data will be collected throughout the year on an on-going basis. (Thomson, 2013; Spencer, 2013; Pienaar et al. 2011) During the research, more data about the elephant population at MSNR are gathered. An elephant identification dataset are made digital and for fieldwork. This includes an photo library of all the identified elephants, using the mark-recapture model. 'Marking' is identifying the individual, 'recapture' is identifying the same elephant by resighting. (Arzoumanian et al. 2005) Further, data are collected in the field (number of elephants, social structure, sex, size, musth, tameness (reaction) index and age) and extra notes of behaviour or other outstanding characteristics are made. Movements of the elephants are recorded by dotting a map and GPS coordinates. Number of elephants, social structure, sex and size are significant to understand the elephants demographics. For the interaction between humans and African elephants, it's important to look at the musth cycle from the bulls, because their levels of testosterone can reach the highest level. Musth starts at an age of about 24 years, but it takes ten more years before bulls come into full musth. The temporal gland is swollen (between eye and ear), the temporal secretions are below the mouth line and between the back legs urine is dribbling. During musth, which can last up to a few months and which often occurs during the raining season (see figure 1.4.), bulls are aggressive and less predictable. However, temporal secretion doesn't always mean that a bull is in musth. Young bulls, cows and youngsters can also have temporal secretion which can be related to a rise in adrenalin. Mostly, these individuals are nervous, stressed, excited or angry. (IRAS; Moss, Poole, 1981; Poole, 1986; Peel, 2011) This is suggesting that the temporal gland is under autonomic control. (Adams, 2008) Figure 1.4.- Musth cycle related with rainfall(Save the Elephants - SA)

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The tameness (or reaction) index is also important to estimate the elephants reaction on people. By this a judge can be made if the elephants are comfortable in the reserve. For safety matters it's important to know how the elephants will react on humans. (Henley, 2013) Aging the elephants is major for the trophy hunting. Tusk size is related to the age, see figure 1.5. Hunters focus on the individuals with the bigger tusks, as well bulls and cows. Selection must be specific, because hunting particular individual elephants can have a major impact on the population. Older matriarchs have more experience en knowledge to survive. Also protection of the bulls that are (potential) big tuskers is important, because it's getting rare.(Andreassen et al., 2007; Durant et al., 2011; Henley, 2013)

Figure 1.5.– Relationship age and tusk size (IRAS)

With the mark-recapture model demographics in the elephant population will become visible. Expected will be that the population will grow in the first years and there will be more resightings along the research, forming a stable elephant population in the MSNR. There will be more young bulls than prima bulls, because it is an new area where they can search for territory. Most of the older bulls already have a territory in the other reserves that are already longer open for elephants. Their won't be much musth in the first years the elephants occupy the MSNR. Because there is the expectation that most of the bulls are young, they won't get into their full musth cycle yet. Further, an higher tameness index will be expected around the residential area because of the fences and people that live there.

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2. Material & Method

2.1. Research area The reserve started in 1987 when Vienna Game Farm (15 km

2) was developed as a Share Block with 32 shares.

Vienna Game Farm dropped fences in 1999 with Umhlametsi Nature Reserve (42 km2, owned by Steinmuller

Engineering) and Inkonkoni (3,3 km2). Together they form the UVI Conservancy (60 km

2). Steinmuller decided

to sell Umhlametsi Nature Reserve as separate title deeds in 2003. Vienna Game Farm purchased one of these properties and began trading as Jejane PNR which is 21 km

2 in extent. Other title deeds were bought by other

individuals and the new Umhlametsi Conservancy was created in 2003. In 2005 the portion of the Conservancy known as Boston and Mossco were unable to reach an agreement with the rest of the landowners. They were subsequently fenced out and the Mohlabetsi Association of Landowners (MAoL) was formed by Jejane, Mohlabetsi Nyala, Nthaba and Inkonkoni (42 km

2).

Nthaba split from MAoL in 2013 and joined up with a neighbouring property to form the Mohlabetsi River Nature Reserve (MRNR). At the same time Jejane, Mohlabetsi Nyala and Inkonkoni formed the Mohlabetsi South Nature Reserve (MSNR, ± 28 km

2). Both reserves were accepted to join the Balule Private Game Reserve

and Klaserie Private Game Reserve as individual regions, about 15 kilometres of fence is removed in March 2013 (see dashed line in figure 2.1.). The Balule and Klaserie together with the Timbavati and Umbabat Nature Reserves, make up the Association of Private Nature Reserves (APNR), which is open to the Kruger National Park (KNP) and the Mozambique and Zimbabwean Transfrontier Parks (GLTFP). (Thomson, 2013)

Figure 2.1. - Map of MSNR, the dashed line is the 15 km fence that is removed in March 2013

Figure 2.2. shows the map from Mohlabetsi South Nature Reserve with the (private) roads, residential area (houses) and waterpoints. The waterholes are labelled, see appendix 8 for more information about the waterholes.

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Figure 2.2. - Map Mohlabetsi South Nature Reserve

2.1.1. The World's Greatest Animal Kingdom

The GKNP (Greater Kruger National Park) is an unfenced area of 33.948 km2 where wildlife can roam freely.

(Kukummi Safaris, 2009) It's consisting of:

Kruger National Park - 19.485 km2 (Kukummi Safaris,

2009)

APNR (Association of Private Nature Reserves) - ±1.800 km

2 (SA-Venues, 1999-2013)

o Balule Private Game Reserve - 450 km2

(Thomson, 2013; Where To Stay, 1998-2013) o Klaserie Private Game Reserve- 600 km

2 (Klaserie

PNR, 2012) o Umbabat Private Game Reserve - 200.92 km

2

(European Union, 2010) o Timbavati Private Game Reserve - 533.92 km

2

(Simbavati River Lodge, 2013)

Makuya Game Reserve - 180 km2

(Knott, 2003)

Letaba - 224.83 km2 (European Union, 2010)

Manyeleti - 230 km2 (Manyeleti, 2011-2013)

Sabi Sand Game Reserve - 650 km2 (SA-Venues, 1999-

2013)

Limpopo Transfrontier Park in Mozambique - 11.233 km2

With the 5.053 km2

Gonarezhou National Park in Zimbabwe, the area is around 39.000 km

2 (about the size of Switzerland) and

forms the Greater Limpopo Transfrontier Park (GLTFP), see figure 2.3. This is the first step to establish the world's greatest animal kingdom of 100.000 km

2. (Kukummi Safaris, 2009)

Figure 2.3. - Map of GLTFP (Greater Limpopo Transfrontier Park). (Kukummi Safaris, 2009)

Legenda Waterpoints: Jejane PNR roads Pumped Nyala PNR roads Natural (ability to pump) Inkonkoni PNR roads Natural (doesn't dry out) --- Private roads Natural (dries out) Residential area Houses Mohlabetsi River

Scale 1:36000

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The research area, Mohlabetsi South Nature Reserve, is situated on the map in figure 2.4. inside the red circle.

Figure 2.4. - Map of GLTFP (Greater Limpopo Transfrontier Park) and APNR (Association of Private Nature Reserves).

Red circle is the location of MSNR. (Henley pers.comm., 2013)

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2.2. Data collection

An elephant identification dataset are made digital and for fieldwork. Movements of the elephants are recorded and data about the individual elephants are noted. Data are collected during field sessions either in a vehicle or on foot at least , three times a week, see appendix 11.

2.2.1. Characteristics

When elephants are located, a series of photographs are taken of them. The following photos are needed for a complete identification photokit:

Left ear

Right ear

Frontal photograph (with ears spread)

Photograph of the size of the tusks

Body (left & right)

Picture of entire elephant with environment See appendix 2 for examples of pictures that need to be taken. With the help of the pictures, characteristics of the elephants are drawn. Looking at specific characteristics like ears (marks, holes), tusks (non, single, broken, strongly curved), scars on the body, trunk or tail and other injuries, will provide a good identification method. See appendix 1 for the elephant schematics where the identifying characteristics can be added to the drawings. (Henley, 2012)

2.2.2. Field data sheet

See appendix 7 for an example of the sheet, used to collect the field data. The date, time and location are noted of the sighting. For the location, the road or dam/pan of the sighting and GPS coordinates (d:m) are noted. The social structure is noted as following:

M – Mixed group (cows and calves with adult bull(s))

B – Bulls (2 or more bulls)

CC – Cows & Calves (family group, sub-adult bulls can be present, no adult bulls)

LF – Lone Female (cow on her own)

LB – Lone Bull (bull on his own) The number of animals in the group are counted indicated whether this was a ‘Total count’ (T), ‘Best Guess’ (BG) or ‘Accurate count of the Cows’ (AC). After filling in this information on the field data sheet, data of the individual elephant are collected (* explained below):

Sex (bull/cow)

Size (small/medium/large)

*Musth/Non-musth

*Tameness index (1/2/3/4)

*Age estimate

Sequence of animals (in which order were the elephants seen)

Photo number

Number of photos taken Musth/Non-musth When looking at a bull’s musth status, the following is noted and recorded:

Temporal secretion o None o Wet o Above mouth line o Below mouth line

Temporal gland o None o Opening swollen o Swollen – cheek bone visible

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o Swollen – cheek bone not visible

Urine o None o Sheath opening wet o Sheath open and hind legs wet, no dribbling o Dribbling urine o Pungent smell

Looking at bulls, cows and youngsters for temporal secretions: For bulls at least 2 of the 3 characteristics of musth must be present. If there is only temporal secretion, it's a sign of stress, not musth. For cows and youngsters, secretions are linked to their emotional status (stress, nervous, excited, etc.). (Henley, 2013) Tameness index Every individual elephant is evaluated and an indication of its reaction is given with the following index: 1 - Elephant totally relaxed and does not take notice of your presence 2 - Elephant notices you by interrupting its activity (stops chewing or feeding; listens while swivelling trunk which hangs limply; opens its eye; lifts trunk to smell; moves forward in a relaxed manner to try to see you better and may hesitantly touch the vehicle; sways; foot-swings; touches temporal glands etc.) 3 - Elephant shows signs of agitation and aggression (flaps ears; dips head and stands tall; kicks up dust; trumpets; attacks a tree or bush; tusks the ground; musth bulls will gush or dribble urine more profusely when agitated) 4 - Strong positive (charges) or negative (runs away as quickly as possible). Please state which as +4 or -4. Age estimate The following aging criteria are used for the bulls:

0-5 years

5-10 years

10-15 years

15-20 years

20-15 years

25-30 years

30-35 years

>35 years

>50 years

See appendix 5 for a description and more explanation about aging elephants. (Henley, 2012) In the breeding herds, adult cows are noted as 'adult'. Only the youngsters are aged, see appendix 5. Because almost all of the trophy hunting is focussed on bulls, the aging of cows isn't necessary. (Henley, 2013)

2.2.3. Behaviour identification and comments

During the data collection, the elephants are observed for a short time. Outstanding behaviour are noted, like social interaction with other elephants, nervous behaviour, etc. Further comments like elephants swimming at a dam or pushing over a tree are noted. See appendix 4 for an example sheet. (Henly, 2012)

2.2.4. Migration patterns

On the field data sheet, the name of the road/dam/pan and GPS coordinates are noted. On the research map, dots will indicate where the elephants were located (note the date with the dots). Every elephant has its own map: Due to this, it will be clear which areas the elephant prefers. See appendix 6 for an example of the research map for the field. (Thomson, 2013)

2.3. Data processing

Every elephant gets its own digital folder with: 1. Photographs distinguishing their characteristics (pictures) 2. The drawings/schematics 3. Excel file with the collected field data, behavioural identification and comments. 4. Quantum GIS migration map

Every folder has its own number, which presents an individual elephant bull of breeding herd. In the folder from the breeding herd the individual cows (and youngsters) are numbered. The drawings are scanned in and made digital.

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2.3.1. Excel

The data from the elephant field data spreadsheets are entered in one Excel file, bulls and breeding herds on different working sheets, see appendix 9 for an example. Also, Excel files of each individual elephant has been established with only the information about that specific elephant. No statistical calculations are done, because it is a starting research and there is not enough data available at the moment. With statistical descriptions the data is exemplified with Excel. A graph about population growth since data is collected has been made. Furthermore, sightings per research week (February-June2013) are worked out in a graph for bulls and breeding herds. Ratio from the different tameness index and elephant bulls in musth are also elaborated. The percentage of resightings are calculated and worked out in a table. The cumulative population growth is worked out, itemize new sightings and resightings, with a logarithmic trend line model. This trend is chosen because of expected grow of the population that after more research will show that the new sightings and resightings are stabilizing. (Office Tuts Excel, 2011)

2.3.2. Google Earth & Quantum GIS

In Google Earth all the roads, waterholes and houses are redrawn, because the map that was used in the field wasn't up to date, see figure 2.5. After plotting entire MSNR, the dataset is transferred to Quantum GIS (QGIS), see appendix 3 how to transfer Google Earth to QGIS, see figure 2.2. for the QGIS map. In QGIS, the migration pattern from the elephants can be added with the coordinates in the established Excel file, see appendix 3 how to transfer Excel file to QGIS. (Ghandi, 2010) By this way, migration patterns are made visible in the map from MSNR. This can be linked to the waterholes in the reserve, migration per month related with rainfall and different tameness index linked to particular areas (housing area).

Figure 2.5. - Google Earth map MSNR with roads, waterholes, housing (residential) area, etc.

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0

10

20

30

40

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Total sightings ID elephants

Bulls

Breeding Herds

3. Results

3.1. Elephant population In the period from February to June 2013, 90 bulls are individually identified. A total of 11 breeding herds are identified (125 elephants). For 27 cows and 13 youngsters an identification kit has been established. In figure 3.1. and table 3.1. the total number of sightings of bulls and breeding herds is defined per research week. Total sightings of bulls are bulls with complete identification kits (pictures of both ear patterns) and incomplete identification (one ear pattern). Total sightings of breeding herds is the number of elephants that has been seen in the herd(s) in that particular week. At least 1 identification kit was collected from an adult cow in the herd.

Figure 3.1. - Total sightings of Elephants with ID kit per research week (February till June 2013).

Table 3.1. - Total sightings of bulls and breeding herds per research week (total 20 weeks).

Time Total sightings ID elephants

Date Week Bulls Breeding Herds

11-17 February 1 18 4

18-24 February 2 2 12

25 February-03 March 3 6 4

04-10 March 4 2 6

11-17 March 5 3 0

18-24 March 6 3 0

25-31 March 7 5 0

01-07 April 8 0 0

08-14 April 9 5 0

15-21 April 10 2 0

22-28 April 11 0 0

29 April-05 May 12 6 6

06-12 May 13 22 13

13-19 May 14 9 2

20-26 May 15 7 38

27 May-02 June 16 5 18

03-09 June 17 13 17

10-16 June 18 0 0

17-23 June 19 1 13

24-30 June 20 14 0

Total 123 133

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0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

July

Au

gust

Sep

tem

ber

Oct

ob

er

No

vem

ber

Dec

emb

er

Jan

uar

y

Feb

ruar

y

Mar

ch

Ap

ril

May

Jun

e

1994-2006

2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Total sightings Elephants

Lone bull Bulls Breeding herds (#animals in herd)

The population growth is represented in figure 3.2. From 1994 till 2006 and 2009 till 2011 there are data available per year (animal counting in September). (Thomson pers.comm., 2013). From July till November 2012 monthly counting has been done. From December 2012 and January 2013, no data are available. From February until June 2013 the elephants have been counted per month. These include the bulls with complete and incomplete identification kits, bull associations without identification kits and total count of the breeding herds, with and without identification kits.

Figure 3.2. - Total sightings of Elephants at Mohlabetsi South Nature Reserve: from 1994 till 2011 per year (2007-2008 no data available), from July 2012 till June 2013 per month (December 2012 and January 2013 no data available).

3.2. Elephant bulls (re)sightings In table 3.2, the identified bulls are categorized in age category. This includes bulls with complete identification kits (pictures of both ear patterns), as well as incomplete identification (one ear pattern). The table shows per age category resightings of the same bulls within a week. Adults have the most multiple sightings (43%) and in total 25% of the bulls were resighted. Table 3.2. - Sub-adult, young adult, adult and prime bull sightings, with weekly resightings calculated as a percentage of the total number of

bulls that are identified.

Age category IDs collected Bulls sighted only once Bulls resighted Resighting percentage

Sub-adult(5-<15) 16 14 2 14%

Young adult (15-<25) 65 48 17 26%

Adult(25-35) 7 4 3 43%

Prime(>35) 1 1 0 0%

Total 89 67 22 25%

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68

12

5

2

2

0

1

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

1 time

2 times

3 times

4 times

5 times

6 times

7 times

Times re-sighting individual Elephant bull

Some bulls were resighted more than once, see figure 3.3. About 68 elephant bulls were seen once, 12 bulls twice, 5 bulls three times, 2 bulls four times, 2 bulls five times, no bulls six times and one bull has been seen seven times.

Figure 3.3. - Times that identified bulls are resighted.

In figure 3.4, the relationship between cumulative number of individual sightings and resightings is presented. A logarithmic line shows the trend in the population growth. As can be seen in the graph, new sightings and resightings are still growing. In time, they will stabilize and the resightings will show the elephant population size in the MSNR.

Figure 3.4. - Cumulative population growth of the bulls with identification kits from February till June 2013.

-20

0

20

40

60

80

100

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Cu

mu

lati

ve s

igh

tin

g b

ulls

Week

Cumulative population growth bulls

Cum. New sightings

Cum. Resightings

Log. (Cum. New sightings)

Log. (Cum. Resightings)

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3.3. Migration patterns

In figure 3.5, the migration patterns for the bulls and breeding herds are visible. Some dots represent multiple elephants that were seen together, see appendix 10 for a map with labelled dots. Almost all the elephants have been seen in Jejane PNR. Mohlabetsi Nyala and Inkonkoni are fenced off for elephants, but there are still elephants in those reserves.

Figure 3.5. - Map MSNR: migration patterns bulls and breeding herds

As can be seen in figure 3.6, the elephants prefer the following waterpoints: Snare Dam, Steves Pan, Hanshews Dam, Jejane Dam and Sindyane bushcamp.

Figure 3.6. - Map MSNR: migration pattern bulls and breeding herds linked to waterpoints

Legenda Jejane PNR roads Residential area Nyala PNR roads Mohlabetsi River Inkonkoni PNR roads Migration bulls --- Private roads Migration breeding herds

Legenda Mohlabetsi River Jejane PNR roads Seasonal migration: Nyala PNR roads February Inkonkoni PNR roads March --- Private roads April Waterpoint May Residential area June

Scale 1:36000

Scale 1:36000

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During the research period, the average rainfall per month was monitored. Figure 3.7. shows the result of this monitoring in the MSNR. The last rain was in April. May is the start of the dry season. (Brand South Africa) As can be seen on the map figure 3.6, the elephants typically group around the waterholes that provide water for a longer time (pumped or big dams) during the dry season.

Figure 3.7. - Rainfall in mm at MSNR from February to June 2013

3.4. Tameness index

Figure 3.8. reflects in which ratio the different tameness indexes occur with bulls and breeding herds. Each animal got its own tameness index, also in a breeding herd. Index 1 is highest (elephant totally relaxed and does not take notice of your presence), followed by tameness index 2 when the elephants notices you and reacts. The 4+ (elephant charges) is a total of 14 animals, of which 13 animals were in the same breeding herd.

Figure 3.8. - Ratio of tameness index

In figure 3.9, the tameness index is linked to the elephants migration pattern. A 4+ was scored two times: One time a bull charged while he was in full musth. The other one was a breeding herd, reason for charge is unknown. The tameness index is higher around bushcamp compared to the rest of the reserve.

128

108

9 14

0 0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

1 2 3 4+ 4-

Tameness Index

0

50

100

150

Rai

nfa

ll in

mm

Months

Rainfall Febr-June 2013

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Figure 3.9. - Map MSNR: tameness index linked on migration pattern

3.5. Bulls musth For musth, at least 2 of the 3 characteristics should be visible (temporal secretion, temporal gland, dribbling). If there is only temporal secretion, it's probably a sign for stress (Henley pers. comm., 2013) One bull has been seen in the beginning of his musth cycle with temporal secretion below the mouth line and the temporal gland swollen. One bull has been seen in full musth with temporal secretion below mouth line and urine dribbling between the legs. Further there were no sightings of elephant bulls in musth. There were 6 sightings with bulls having temporal secretion above the mouth line and 6 bulls below the mouth line.

Legenda Residential area Jejane PNR roads Mohlabetsi River Nyala PNR roads Tameness index: Inkonkoni PNR roads 1 3 --- Private roads 2 4+

Scale 1:36000

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4. Discussion During the research period, a lot of data are collected about the individual elephant. But why is research about the African elephant important? As said, research is necessary ‘to secure a future for the elephants and to sustain the beauty and ecological integrity of the places they live; to promote man’s delight in their intelligence and the diversity of their world, and to develop a tolerant relationship between the two species’ (Save the Elephants – South Africa, Henley pers.comm., 2013). Save the Elephants is restoring the elephant migration paths now the fences are going down and a bigger area can be covered. (Save the Elephants - SA, 2012) As keystone herbivores, they are known to change an entire ecosystem. In the wet season, elephants prefer open woodlands, scrublands and grasslands. In the dry season they prefer well-wooded areas and closed woodlands. Elephants prefer greener vegetation and debark, uproot and breaking branches from trees. Each animal has its own impact on the bush, but with elephants as 'megaherbivores' the impact is greater than with the smaller herbivores. (Aarde et al., 2009) The impact that elephants have on vegetation is important for managers and landowners, who want to protect the ecosystem. Higher density of elephants has a negative impact on woody vegetation, but rainfall and fences affect these densities by influencing their migration. (Aarde & Guldemond, 2008) For conservation, research and monitoring is necessary to evaluate the impact they have. (Catton et al., 2006) For the conservation management of elephant populations in a fenced off reserve, it's also important to look at behaviour of the animal. Decisions in management can influence behaviour (Kerley et al., 2002). Behaviour is also important if it comes to interaction with humans. Many people don't understand behaviour from the elephants, what might make them react wrong triggering a negative reaction from the elephant. Further, there is a lot of negativity between humans and elephants. Elephants have impact on crops, vegetation and human infrastructure. Both populations are growing, causing increased competition, especially in the dry season. (Catton et al., 2006) Elephants have bad experiences with culling (to control the population) and poaching. (Kerley et al., 2002) Shooting an elephant nearby other elephants increases the stress hormone levels. (Burke et al., 2008) While controlling the populations in this way, it is of vital importance to know which elephant to shoot. The older elephants are often the key individuals that control the rest of the population. Older matriarchs have a greater knowledge how to survive, older bulls control the young bulls. (Andreassen et al., 2007; Durant et al., 2011) Research about exclusion of elephants in particular areas is also a subject within the human-elephant conflict. Current research is showing that the African elephants react on African honey bees and chilli peppers. These findings may lead to future solutions to keep elephants out of a particular area.(Hanks, 2006; King, 2010) Research from Save the Elephants - South Africa is important to improve the relationship between elephants and humans and to secure a continued existence of both species and nature. (Save the Elephants - SA, 2012) But before that, research is necessary to understand the population. In order to get an idea of demographic processes of the elephant, it is important to collect long-term data regarding populations and migratory patterns. The most common marking system is establishing elephant identification photo kits. (Ardovini et al., 2007) This research has been done from February up to June 2013. During the research period, one morning and two afternoons in the week the data are collected. More elephants have been seen than identified. This has particular reasons. During the drives, elephants where often seen in dense bush. Because of other people sitting in the vehicle, the desired time with the elephants could not always be established. If possible, approaching by foot was tried to establish an ID photokit. But often this couldn't happen because of safety matters. Furthermore, during the afternoon drives some elephants were seen when it was dark. No photographs could been made then. The roads only cover around 5% of the MSNR (Thomson pers. comm., 2013). During the drives the elephants must be around the roads or dams, else they won't be visible. On foot, areas between the roads are explored. But when on foot, less area is being covered. The elephants that are identified, are seen around the roads or dams. Sometimes they had associations, but because of the dense bush they weren't always visible . If there is at least 1 picture of an elephant in the group, the others that aren't seen are noted as 'unknown'. If that particular elephant is seen again in an association, the pictures of the other elephants are been taken. If there

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are no pictures of any of the elephants because of dense bush, data weren't collected because they couldn't be linked to an elephant. Because it is a starting research, no statement can be made about the elephant population size at the MSNR. Expected was that the population in the MSNR will grow. During the research the amount of observations increased. Also the resightings were increasing at the end of this research. In the graphs about the cumulative population growth, both new sightings and resightings are growing. The population size will be visible when the resightings are getting stable, these are the elephants that formed their territory in the MSNR. Because there are many young bulls and a couple of older bulls, their aren't much signs of (full) musth. Only adult bulls can get into their full musth cycle (Henley, 2013). Because of that, the younger bulls won't get in their musth cycle yet. According to Du Toit & Stokke (2002) and Rasmussen & Schulte (1998), non-musth bulls avoid bulls in musth, because an elephant in musth is aggressive and dominant. Because the MSNR is a new reserve for the elephants, no adult bulls had their territory yet. Consequently, this undiscovered area was an attractive place for younger bulls to migrate to. According to Dyk et al. (2000), the fact that there are some older bulls in the MSNR, is keeping the young bulls under control. The average tameness (reaction) index is 1 (Elephant totally relaxed and does not take notice of your presence ) and 2 (Elephant notices you by interrupting its activity (stops chewing or feeding; listens while swivelling trunk which hangs limply; opens its eye; lifts trunk to smell; moves forward in a relaxed manner to try to see you better and may hesitantly touch the vehicle; sways; foot-swings; touches temporal glands etc.)) The elephants are relaxed in the new reserve, but in some areas the tameness index is higher. As can be seen in figure 3.9., index 2 is especially around Sindyane bushcamp. This is probably because this is the entrance of the reserve with an associated higher density of humans in this area. On the maps it's visible that the elephants prefer the areas around the waterholes, especially Snare Dam, Steves Pan, Jejane Dam, Henshaws Dam and Sindyane Bushcamp waterhole. These are the bigger or pumped waterholes where there is (almost) always water. Furthermore, there is a bias towards the Sindyane Bushcamp waterhole since more time has been spent here during the stay at bushcamp. As said in the 'Introduction', bulls travel in the dry season more than 10 km from water, while breeding herds stay within a 3,5 km range. In the wet season (when there is more water available), elephants are around 5 km from water. (Stokke & Du Toit, 2002). The African Elephant is a water-dependent species, so it's obvious to find more elephants around waterpoints. (Chamaillé-Jammer et al., 2007)

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5. Conclusion Since January 2012, elephants started to move into the MSNR because of destroyed fences caused by cyclone Dando. (Thomson pers.comm., 2013) In March 2013 the fences came down, thereby forming a connection with the Greater Limpopo Transfrontier Park (39.000 km

2). (Kukummi Safaris, 2009) Elephants are known as

'ecosystem engineers' and have a major impact on nature. (Haynes, 2011; Parker, 2008) To understand more about the population, demographic processes and conservation, it's necessary to study the population and movements for a long time. (Ardovini et al., 2007) In 2003 a research has been started by Dr Michelle Henley from Save the Elephants – South Africa to examine the elephant population dynamics and movements within the Association of Private Nature Reserves (APNR) and Kruger National Park (KNP). (Henley pers.comm., 2013) Elephants will be identified individually to understand their social benefits, to avoid risks with humans and to preserve their habitat quality. (Henley pers.comm., 2013) Because the MSNR is now a part of the APNR and KNP and elephants occupy the MSNR for over a year now, the same individual ID file is established for MSNR in cooperation with Dr Michelle Henley, to identify the individual elephant. In the period from February to June 2013, 90 individual bulls and 11 breeding herds (total of 125 cows and youngsters) are identified. For 27 cows and 13 youngsters an identification kit is established. An elephant identification dataset is made digital and for fieldwork, including photo library, field data, behaviour characteristics and migration patterns. The elephant population size in the MSNR is still unknown, but as visible at the cumulative population growth the new sightings and resightings are still increasing. As the new sightings and resightings are stable, an estimation about the elephant population size in the MSNR can be made. Especially young adults at the age of 15-25 and adults at the age of 25-35 are re-sighted. On the migration map is visible that the elephants prefer the areas around the waterholes. During the dry season, a shift can be observed to the bigger or pumped dams/pans. The tameness index is higher around Sindyane bushcamp, probably because it is the entrance of the reserve with an associated higher density of humans in this area. And only one bull has been seen in his full musth cycle, further there were not much signs for musth. No statement can be made yet about the population size of the elephants in the MSNR. Elephants are still migrating between the different reserves and exploring the new area, now the fences came down. But in time particular elephants will form their territory in the MSNR and particular elephants will always come back into the reserve. After years of monitoring these animals, this patterns will become visible. A start has been made now with the elephant identification study, aiming at understanding population dynamics and migration. It will be a long term project, in which data will be collected throughout the year on an on-going basis.

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References Aarde, van R.J. "Elephants Facts & Fables". IFAW & University of Pretoria, South Africa (2009). Aarde, van R.J., R. Guldemond (2008). "A meta-Analysis of the Impact of African Elephants on Savanna Vegetation". The Journal of Wildlife Management, Volume 72, Issue 2, p. 892-899 Aarde, van R.J., S.R. Loarie, S.L. Pimm(2009). "Fences and artificial water affect African savannah elephant movement patterns" < http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/ S0006320709003759 > Biological Conservation, Volume 142, Issue 12, p. 3086-3098. Aarde, van R.J., S.R. Loarie, S.L. Pimm(2009). "Elephant seasonal vegetation preferences across dry and wet savannas"< http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320709003760> Biological Conservation, Volume 142, Issue 12, p. 2099-3107 Adams, R. (2008). "Social Behaviour and Communication in Elephants" < http://www.wildlife-pictures- online.com/elephant-communication-3.html >University of Dundee, Scotland. Alwis, de L., J. Barnett, D.K. Lahari-Choudhury, P.C. Lee, R.A. Luxmoore, J. Shoshani, R. Sukumar. "The illustrated Encyclopedia of Elephants From Their Origins and Evolution to Their Ceremonial and Working Relationship with Man". Salamander Books, London, United Kingdom (1991). Andreassen, H.P., J.M. Milner, E.B. Nilsen (2007) "Demographic Side Effects of Selective Hunting in Ungulates and Carnivores" Conservation Biology, Volume 21, No. 1, p. 36-47 Ardovini, A., L. Cinque, E. Sangineto (2007). "Identifying elephant photos by multi-curve matching" Cumputer Science Department, University of Rome ''La Sapienza", Rome Italy. Arzoumanian, Z., H. Holmberg, B. Norman (2005) "An astronomical pattern-matching algorithm for cumputer- aided identification of whale sharks Rhincodon typus" Journal of Applied Ecologie, 42, pp. 999-1011 Brand South Africa "South Africa's Weather and Climate". <http://www.southafrica.info/travel/advice/climate .htm#.Udaz5PfCTIU> Burke, T., G. van Dyk, J. Millspaugh, B. Page, R. Slotow (2008). "Risk and Ethical Concerns of Hunting Male Elephant: Behavioural and Physiological Assays of the Remaining Elephants" <http://www.plosone. org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0002417> Catton, D.G., M.D. Henley, S.R. Henley, T.W. Naude (2006). "Alleviating human-elephant-conflict as naturally as possible" Chamaillé-Jammer, S., H. Fritz, M. Valeix (2007). "Managing heterogeneity in elephant distribution: interaction between elephant population density and surface-water availability" Journal of Applied Ecology, Volume 44, Issue 3, p. 625-633 Durant, S.M., K. McComb, C.Moss, J.Poole, K.Sayialel, G.Shannon, R.Slotow (2011) "Leadership in elephants: the adaptive value of age" < http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/278/1722/3270.short> Du Toit, J.T., S. Stokke (2002). "Sexual segregation in habitat use by elephants in Chobe National Park, Botswana" African Journal of Ecology, Volume 40, Issue 4, p.360-371 Dyk, G., A. Klocke, B. Page, J. Poole, R. Slotow (2000). "Older bull elephants control young males" Nature 408, p. 425-426 European Union (2010). "Overview of Umbabat"<http://bioval.jrc.ec.europa.eu/APAAT/pa/300446/>

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European Union (2010). "Overview of Groot-Letaba Wildreservaat" <http://bioval.jrc.ec.europa.eu/APAAT/pa/ 300436/> Ghandi, U. (2010). "Tutorial: Importing Spreadshets or CSV files to QGIS" <http://qgis.spatialthoughts.com/ 2012/01/importing-spreadsheets-or-csv-files-to.html> Hanks, J. (2006). "Mitigation of human-elephant conflict in the Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area through Cummunity Based Problem Animal Control, with particular reference to the use of chilli peppers" . Conservation International. Haynes, G. (2011). "Elephants (and extinct relatices) as earth movers and ecosystem engineers". < http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169555X1100314X> Geomorphology, Volumes 157-158, p. 99-107. Henly, M. (2012). "Aging elephants – a pratical guide" Save The Elephants. Henly, M. (2012). "Getting to know individual elephants, ID kit" Save The Elephants. Henley, M. (April & June 2013) Pers. comm. Save the Elephants - SA Holland, J.D., E.O. Minot, B. Thomas (2008). "Elephant (Loxodonta africana) Home Ranges in Sabi Sand Reserve and Kruger National Park: A Five-Year Satellite Tracking Study" <http://www.plosone.org/article/info %3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0003902 > IRAS Information System for Rare Species Management. "Elephant" < http://www.nnf.org.na/ RARESPECIES/InfoSys/elephant/smp.htm> Klaserie PNR (2012)."About the Klaserie Private Game Reserve" <http://www.klaseriereserve.co.za/about.php> Kerley, G., A. Massey, S. Wilson (2002). "Elephant Conservation and Management in the Eastern Cape" Terrestrial Ecologie Research Unit, University of Port Elizabeth, South Africa. King, L.E. (2010). "The interaction between the African elephant (Loxodonta africana africana) and the African honey bee (Apis mellifera scutellata) and its potential application as an elephant deterrent". University of Oxford Knott, H., P. Knott, J. Kruger, C. van der Waal (2003). "Private Game Reserves and State Reserves"<http://www. soutpansberg.com/workshop/synthesis/game_reserves.htm> Kukummi Safaris (2009). "Greater Kruger National Park"<http://www.africawalkingsafaris.co.za/Greater%20 Kruger%20National%20Park.html> Manyeleti (2011-2013). "About Manyeleti Game Reserve"<http://www.manyeleti.com/information- manyeleti.html> Moss, C.J. & J.H. Poole (1981). "Musth in the African elephant, Loxodonta Africana" < http://www. nature.com/nature/journal/v292/n5826/pdf/292830a0.pdf > Office Tuts Excel (2011). "Trendline" <http://excel.officetuts.net/training/charts/trendline.php> Parker, D.M. (2008). "The Effects of Elephants at Low Densities and After Short Occupation Time on the Ecosystems of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa" Rhodes University. Peel, D. (2011). "Conservation in Southern Africa, musth in Elephant" < http://danielpeel.wordpress.com /2011/09/19/musth-in-elephants/ >

http://www.nnf.org.na/%20RARESPECIES/InfoSys/elephant/smp.htm

http://www.nnf.org.na/%20RARESPECIES/InfoSys/elephant/smp.htm

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Pienaar, D. et al. (2011). "Elephant Management Plan Kruger National Park 2011-2020." Scientific Services, SANParks. Pijnenburg, C. (2012). "Elephant influence on the woody vegetation in Jejane PNR" Has University of Applied Science, Jejane Private Nature Reserve. Poole, J.H. (1986). "Rutting behaviour in African elephants: the phenomenon of musth" < http://www.jstor.org/ discover/10.2307/4534627?uid=3739368&uid=2&uid=4&sid=21101717193793 > Rasmussen, L.E.L., B.A. Schulte (1998). "Chemical signals in the reproduction of Asian (Elephas maximus) and African (Loxodonta africana) elephants". Animal Reproduction Science, Volume 53, Issue 1, p. 19-34 SA-Venues (1999-2013). "Limpopo Game Reserves, Umbabat Game Reserve, Limpopo" <http://www.sa- venues.com/game-reserves/np_umbabat.htm> SA-Venues (1999-2013). "Mpumalanga Game Reserves, Sabi Sands Game Reserve, Mpumalanga" <http://www.sa-venues.com/game-reserves/mpl_sabisands.htm> Save the Elephants - SA (2012). "Our story"<http://www.savetheelephants.org/south-africa-our_story.html> Simbavati River Lodge (2013). "Timbavati Private Nature Reserve (TPNR)" <http://www.simbavati.com/ timbavati-private-nature-reserve.html> Smithers, R.H.N. "The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion" Pretoria, South Africa (1983), pp.534-540. Spencer, C. (February 2013) Pers. comm. Balule Private Game Reserve Thomson, G. (February-June 2013)Pers. comm. PNR Jejane Where To Stay (1998-2013) "Balule Private Game Reserve"<http://www.wheretostay.co.za/information/ topic/649/>

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Appendix 1 – African elephant identity: Characteristics

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Appendix 2 – African elephant identity: Example pictures

Left ear Right ear

Frontal photograph (with ears spread) Photograph of the size of the tusks

Body left Body right

Picture of entire elephant with environment

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Appendix 3 – Transfer Google Earth to Quantum GIS Draw a road To draw a road in Google Earth, select 'Ruler'

Select 'Path' and select by Length 'Kilometers'. Following, draw the road by going with the mouse to the road and click on the left button to form a line that goes over the road. If finished, click 'Save'.

Give the 'New Path' a name. Description, style, colour, etc. can be added. If finished, click 'OK'. On the left under 'Temporal Places', the new track is visible. To save this track after closing Google Earth, drag it under 'My Places' (else it will disappear after closing the program).

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Save Google Earth Map as 'Kml' After finishing the entire map in Google Earth (put everything that is drawn under 'My Places'), save the folder by clicking the right mouse button and select 'Save Place As...'

Give the map a name (in this case 'Mohlabetsi South Nature Reserve') and save it as a 'Kml (*.kml)'

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Transfer Google Earth to Quantum GIS Open Quantum GIS Desktop (1.8.0). To open the Kml Google Earth map, click on 'Add Vector Layer'

Source Type must be selected on 'File' and click on 'Browse'. Go to the folder where the Google Earth map is saved. Select 'Keyhole Markup Language [KML] [OGR] (*.kml.*KML)' and the map will become visible in the folder. Click two times 'Open'.

At 'Select vector layers to add...', select all of the layers to add them to the map and click 'OK'. The map that has been made in Google Earth will become visible in Quantum GIS.

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With a double click on a layer, chances can be made in the 'Layer Properties' like the Style (colour, making categories). To make categories, change 'Single Symbol' to 'Categorized'. At 'Column' select 'Name' and press 'Classify'. Than each individual point can be classified (for example Waterpoint: are they pumped or natural)

To label the waterpoints or houses with their name, select 'Labeling (ABC)'. Select 'Label this layer with' and click on 'Name'. Click 'OK' and the labels will be visible on the map.

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Add Excel file to Quantum GIS GPS coordinates are gathered during the research from each identified elephant and collected in an Excel File. To use this file in QGIS, save this file as a 'different format' and select 'Tab Delimited File'. If opened in Notepad (or other text editor), the data becomes text that is separated by a Tab. To open this file in Quantum GIS, click on 'Add Delimited Text Layer'. A new screen will open: at 'File Name' click on browse and select 'Text files (*.txt *.csv) ' and the Excelsheet saved as text will become visible in the folder. Select the file and open it. Give the layer a name and select 'Selected delimiters' and click on 'Tab' (because the text is separated by tabs). Select at the X field 'East(d:m)' and Y field 'South (d:m)'. Click on 'OK''. A new screen will open with 'Coordinate Reference System Selector'. Select 'WGS 84' and click on 'OK'. A new layer with the GPS coordinates will become visible on the map.

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Appendix 4 – African elephant identity: Behaviour and Comments

Behaviour as an aid to identification:

Comments:

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Appendix 5 – Aging criteria (by Save The Elephants - SA) According to Henley & Henley (2005), elephants can be ordered by following behavioural age classes: Juvenile Still dependent on mother for nutrition

Neonate < 1yr

Yearling 1-2yr

Juvenile ≤4yr Sub-Adult Sexually immature; physiologically independent but still with strong bond to natal herd Adult Independent, mature individual

Young adult

Adult

Senior adult

Senescing adult

Bulls: functional age classes

Juvenile: <4 years old still dependent on mother for nutrition

Sub-adult: 5-<15 years old still bonded to natal herd

Young adult: 15-<25 years old independent of family group; no musth

Adult: 25-35 years old short and erratic musth periods

Prime/senior adult:>35-55 years old regular and protracted musth cycle

Senescing adult: >55 years old last set of molars worn and in physical decay

Characteristics of senescing bull (Dr. Johan Marais)

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Illustration and guide to aging animals within a family unit (Henly 2006)

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Appendix 6 – African elephant identity: Map of research area

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Appendix 7 – African elephant identity: Field data Elephant Field Data Observer

Lodge/property

Date

Time

Location

Social structure Mixed group Bulls Cows & Calves Lone Female Lone Bull

Number in group Total count Best Guess Accurate count of the Cows

Individual elephant info Elephant ID 1 Elephant ID 2 Elephant ID 3 Elephant ID 4 Elephant ID 5 Elephant ID 6 Elephant ID 7 Elephant ID 8

Sex (bull/cow)

Size (small/medium/large)

Musth/Non-musth*

Tameness index (1/2/3/4)

Age estimate

Sequence of animals

Photo number

Number of photos taken

* Musth status

Temporal secretions

None

Wet

Above mouth line

Below mouth line

Temporal glands

None

Opening swollen

Swollen – cheek bone visible

Swollen – cheek bone not visible

Urine

None

Sheath opening wet

Sheath open/hind legs wet/no dribbling

Dribbling urine

Pungent smell

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Appendix 8 – Information water points MSNR

Common name Latitude Longtitude Farm Name Size (Sq/m) Depth Shape Type

Sindyane Bushcamp S24°307982 E030°961562 Vienna 207 KT Ptn 1 5 0.5 Round Concrete trough

Warthog Dam S24°305477 E030°96922 Vienna 207 KT Ptn 1 1.500 1 Triangular Earth Dam

Snare Dam S24°279527 E030°974284 Vienna 207 KT Ptn 1 5.000 1.5 Triangular Earth Dam

Demoina Dam S24°299494 E030°987986 Vienna 207 KT Ptn 1 800 3 Triangular Earth Dam

Steve's Pan S24°281001 E030°990417 Vienna 207 KT Ptn 1 1.200 0.5 U-shaped Artificial Pan

Henshaw's Dam S24°283231 E031°015762 Antwerpen 60KU Ptn 1 1.800 1 Triangular Earth Dam

Jejane Dam S24°289671 E031°010829 Antwerpen 60KU Ptn 1 6.000 1.5 Triangular Earth Dam

Giraffe Pan S24°303771 E030°982602 Vienna 207 KT Ptn 1

Pixie Pans S24°289687 E030°987572 Vienna 207 KT Ptn 1

Rhino Hide S24°284097 E031°033286 Antwerpen 60KU Ptn 2 100 0.2 Round Natural Pan

Tortillis Dam S24°273453 E031°047211 Antwerpen 60KU Ptn 2 2.000 1 Round Earth Dam

Crocodile Dam S24°263961 E031°055856 Antwerpen 60KU Ptn 2 12.500 2 Triangular Earth Dam

Sabblebill Dam S24°280736 E031°038937 Antwerpen 60KU Ptn 2 9.000 2 Other Earth Dam

Windmill S24°263102 E031°04818 Antwerpen 60KU Ptn 3 25 0.2 Round Natural Pan

Cheetah Dam S24°279488 E031°043022 Antwerpen 60KU Ptn 2

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Appendix 9 – Example Excel spreadsheet Bulls

Name Year Month Day Date Time Observer Location South(d:m) East(d:m) Age

category Checking age Glen Sex

Group type

Group size total Accuracy

Tameness index

[1] 2013 2 14 14-feb-

2013 10h25 A.Willems Jejane Dam -24.28965 031.01077 20-25 Bull Lone bull 1 T 2

[1] 2013 5 18 18-mei-

2013 16h10 A.Willems Sindyane Bushcamp -24.30888 030.96142 20-25 Bull Bulls 7 BG 1

[2]=Porto-Nova 2013 2 14

14-feb-2013 10h36 A.Willems Jejane Dam -24.28965 031.01077 20-25 Bull

Lone bull 1 T 1

[3] 2013 2 14 14-feb-

2013 17h38 A.Willems Jejane Dam -24.28965 031.01077 20-25 Bull Lone bull 1 T 2

[3] 2013 2 28 28-feb-

2013 16h35 A.Willems Snare Dam -24.27954 030.97427 20-25 Bull Lone bull 1 T 2

Temporal secretion Temporal gland Dribbling

Associat 1

Associat 2

Associat 3

Associat 4

Associat 5

Associat 6 Notes

Check age 1

Check age 2

Below mouthline

Swollen -c/bone not visible none [4]

no photos Meets 2 bulls at Pixie Pans

none none none [46] [57] no photos

no photos

no photos

no photos

Above mouthline none none [15]

Seen 2 times, second time with bull [15] social interaction, swimming, playing

none none none

none none none [21] [22] [1m] Joined [21],[22] and [1m] at Snare for social interaction and swimming

- 42 -

Appendix 10 - Map MSNR migration elephants

- 43 -

Appendix 11 - Time schedule Working out data = identify elephants, make drawings, digitalize fielddata in Excel and Quantum GIS

Internship week

Calendar week

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday

Normal schedule Stables Morning stables

Afternoon gamedrive Morning stables

Afternoon gamedrive Morning gamedrive Afternoon stables

Morning stables Afternoon off

Excursions Day-off

1 7 Leaving from

Frankfurt

Arrival Hoedspruit First gamedrive, start

research Research Research Working out data

Search out literature

Start writing Plan of Action (PoA)

2

8 Working out data

Writing PoA Research

Working out data Research


Working out data Working out data

Writing PoA Working out data


Writing PoA

3

9 Working out data







Writing PoA

4

10 Working out data







Writing PoA

5

11 Working out data Research



Working out data Working out data Working out data

Working out data

6





Working out data

7





Working out data

8

14 Working out data

Research




Working out data Hand in Plan of Action

(Glen)

- 44 -

9

15 Working out data

Research Working out data

Hand in Plan of Action Hand in Reflection

(Liesbeth)




Working out data

10

16 Working out data


Research Working out data Contact Liesbeth

Skype



Working out data Hand in report

Coaching conversation (Liesbeth)

11

17

Working out data Contact Liesbeth

Skype

Training Balule PNR Dr. Michelle Henley




12

18

Working out data




Working out data Writing report



13

19 Working out data







14

20 Working out data







15

21








16

22








17

23








18

24






Working in Balule PNR with dr.

Michelle Henley

Working in Balule PNR with dr. Michelle

Henley

19 25 Working out data

Writing report


Writing report


Writing report


Writing report




- 45 -

20 26 Writing report

Fill in all forms for school




Writing report Working out data Fill in all forms for

school (Glen)


school (Glen)


school (Glen)

21 27 Final conversation,

Finish internship Leave Hoedspruit

Arrival home Finish concept report Finish concept report Hand in concept

report (Glen)

Hand in final reflection,

evaluation etc. (Liesbeth)

Finish definitive report

22 28 Hand in definitive

report (Glen & Liesbeth)

Final conversation

Liesbeth 13h00

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